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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11TechnologyANALYSIS OF MANGANESE CONCENTRATION IN SOME TREE BACKS AND SOILS FROM YOBE STATE NIGERIA
English0110R.O. AkinsolaEnglish M.I. MohammedEnglish D.I. MalamiEnglishKhaya senegalensis, and Azadirachta indica from Yobe State, north east, Nigeria, and the soils around these trees were analysed for their Manganese concentrations using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The results of the analysis indicate various concentration levels obtained from soil solution through mineral uptake by plants. The mean values of Mn ranges between 4.59 - 33.32μgg-1 in the bark and 4.69 - 28.95μgg-1 in the soil. All the values obtained correlate well with the anthropogenic activities in the study area and are below the recommended safe limits for heavy metals by WHO, FAO, EU, and NESREA guidelines. The statistical comparison of the values between the bark and soil shows correlation at P < 0.01 and significant difference at P < 0.05. The study further demonstrates the suitability of some of the trees as a good bioindicator.
EnglishKhaya senegalensis, Azadirachta indica, Manganese, SoilINTRODUCTION
Manganese is its inorganic species is a ubiquitous essential element in nature. It is hardly present in toxic concentrations. Relatively large dose of manganese can be tolerated without any injury. The concentration of manganese in the earth’s crust is approximately 0.1% (Shacklette et al., 1971). Manganese is not found as a free element in nature. It is produced by the reduction of manganese oxide carbon monoxide, hydrogen or silicon into pure metal (Beppler et al., 1978). Manganese or its compounds are used in the production of alloys (Saager, 1984), depolarized in dry cell batteries and many chemical reactions as catalysts (Boettcher et al., 1985). Manganese ethylene-bis (dithiocarbomate) - C4 H6 MnN2 S4 is used as a fungicide and methyl cyclopentadienyl manganese-tricarbonyl (MMT) – C5 H4 CH3 Mn(CO)3 as anti-knock. Manganese is emitted into the air as MnO2 and Mn3 O4 during mining, crushing, smelting of ores and during steel production. Manganese is also released into the air near workplaces as dust. Emission limits are set for ferro and silico manganese in USA and Federal Republic of Germany. The emission of manganese is limited to 5mg/ mg3 with mass streams of more than 25g/L (Beppler et al., 1978; Mark 1988). Manganese deficiency causes retardation in growth and yellowing of needles of conifer. In animals, it is associated with menstrual cycle disorder, still birth, and low birth weight (Matrone et al., 1977), neonatal mortality, reduced growth and skeletal anomalies. (Keen and Leach, 1988). Excess Mn cause chlorosis in plants, impairments of haemoglobin formation and testicular damage in animals (Barlow and Sullivan, 1984). Acute inhalation of Mn cause manganese pneumonia. Inhalation of manganese at concentration above 100mg/day causes serious neurop. Therefore this research aimed to investigate the uptake from the soil of Mn in an arid environment on the basis of concentration in tree barks in the study area, and to compare the suitability of different tree barks as bioindicators of Manganese and to determine a good choice of tree for planting if contamination with this metal is observed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In the preparation of reagents, chemicals of analytical grade purity and distilled water were used. All glasswares were socked in (1:4)HNO3 solution and were rinsed with tap and distilled water before drying in the oven at 1050 C. All weighings were on Toledo AB54 analytical balance. A pipette filler was used in pipetting all solutions. In the preparation of reagents, chemicals of analytical grade purity and deionized water were used. All glass wares were socked in (1:4) HNO3 solution and were rinsed with tap and deionized water before drying in the oven at 1050 C. All weighings were on Toledo AB54 analytical balance. Pipette filler was used in pipetting all solutions.
Study Site
Yobe State Nigeria is in the Sahel eco-climatic zone and was chosen as the study site. It is within the latitude 13.30 N and longitude of 12.30 E (Fig. 1). It is predominantly an agricultural state (YBSG, 2009). The climate of the region is the Sahel savannah type with low humidity and temperature variation.
Sampling
Samples were collected from seven hundred and fifty (750) sampling sites between October and May 2008 – 2010 during the dry seasons. Representative of these matured samples of Ficus thoningi, and Adansonia digitata, were collected from the wild in the State. Several samples of each plant were collected from these locations. All samples were authenticated by the Department of Biological Sciences, and by comparison with Herbarium samples of Bayero University Botanical garden in Kano. Similarly, surface soil samples were taken from the top to 10cm, at the base of trees used for bark collection with the help of stainless steel trowel to avoid contamination and were transferred to the laboratory in paper bags (Yilmaz et al., 2006).
Sample Treatment
A clean stainless cutlass was used to remove the bark after it was etched with hard brush to remove lichens, mosses and dust (Grodzinska, 1982). The chips of the barks of the samples were collected from different sites during dry season. The number of sites from the sampling area was ten samples with twenty-five of each. The locations were carefully chosen to reflect the entire State. The trees used for sampling were matured and healthy plants. The barks were carefully removed using a cutlass to a depth of approximately 1cm (Tye et al., 2006) at an average height of about1.5m above the ground level along the prevailing direction of the wind (Ayodele et al., 2000). Samples were taken from the rough bark of trees not infected by insects. The knife was further washed after each sampling with 10% HNO3 to avoid cross contamination. The samples were kept in paper envelopes and then placed in polyethylene bags before taken to the laboratory. The samples were then air dried in the laboratory. The dried samples were then pulverised with a laboratory mill (mortar and pestle). The mill was thoroughly cleaned with 10% HNO3 , distilled water and dried after each grinding to avoid cross contamination.
Sample Preparation
Soil Sample. The soil sample was ground and sieved to uniform size through a 2mm mesh and stored in a labelled plastic container. 20cm3 of concentrated Nitric acid was carefully added to 1g of soil sample in a 250cm3 beaker. The mixture was allowed to cool for 1 hour. 15cm3 of concentrated perchloric acid was added. The mixture was digested on a sandbath till the appearance of white fumes. The digest was dissolved in 0.1M Hydrochloric acid, filtered into a 100cm3 volumetric flask and made to mark (Arnold et al., 2005). Bark Sample The bark sample was air dried in the laboratory at room temperature. The dried samples were pulverised to uniform size with a laboratory mill (mortar and pestle), sieved through a 2mm aperture and stored in a labelled plastic container (Mansor and Afif, 2011). 2g of the bark sample was taken into porcelain crucible and ashed at 5000 C in a muffle furnace to constant weight. Upon cooling overnight, the samples were then digested using 10% HNO3 (Odukoya et al., 2000), filtered in to50ml volumetric flask and diluted to volume.
Elemental Analysis The Mn was determined using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer model VGB 210 SYSTEM, Buck Scientific. The result of each sample was the average of three sequential readings. Deionized water used as blank was treated using the same procedure. Statistical treatment All statistical computations were carried out with the aid of Microsoft Excel 2007 version obtained from Microsoft Corporation, USA; and Statistical Package for Social Sciences. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) in randomized complete block design was performed to check the variability of data and validity of the results with SAS software system (SAS, 2002).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The concentrations of the element in the bark and soil vary among trees analyzed in the state thus a number of samples from a population were analysed and the results treated statistically for a meaningful correlation. Yobe was divided into three sampling zones, which were chosen in such a way that samples collected at these sites gave an overview and represent the entire state, based on the abundance of these plant species and activities taking place in the state. The distribution pattern for Mn in the bark of Khaya senegalensis is as shown in (Fig.2). The distribution is multimodal with a mean and standard deviation of 15.12 ± 0.75µgg-1. Mn is a naturally occurring element that is found in rock, soil and water. It is ubiquitous in the environment and occupies about 0.1% of the earth crust. Crustal rock is a major source of manganese found in the atmosphere. Ocean spray, forest fires, vegetation and volcanic activity are other major natural atmospheric sources of manganese. Important sources of dissolved manganese are anaerobic environments where particulate manganese oxides are reduced, the direct reduction of particulate manganese oxides in aerobic environments, the natural weathering of Mn (II)-containing minerals, and acidic environments (IPCS, 2004). The distribution pattern for the Mn in the soil around Khaya senegalensis is as shown in (Fig. 2). The distribution is multimodal and is skewed towards high concentrations of low frequencies with a mean and standard deviation of 14.29 ± 0.37µgg-1. The major pool of manganese in soils originate from crustal sources. Other sources including direct atmospheric deposition, wash-off from plant and other surfaces, leading from plant tissues, and the shedding or excretion of material such as leaves dead plant, animal material and excrement of animals. The major anthropogenic sources of environmental manganese include municipal wastewater discharges, sewage sludge, mining and mineral processing, emissions from alloy, steel and iron production, combustion of fossil fuels and to a much lesser extent, emissions from the combustion of fuel additives (Bankovitch et al; 2003). Comparing the Mn concentrations in the bark and soil, a significant correlation is indicated (P < 0.01) to exist between them (Table 1). Similarly, a significant difference was observed (P < 0.05) in both soil and bark when the mean Mn concentrations in K. senegalensis was compared with its concentration in other trees from the state. The distribution pattern for Mn in the bark of Azadirachta indica is as shown in (Fig. 3). The distribution is multimodal with a mean and standard deviation of 12.15 ± 0.66µgg-1. Mn is released to air as particulate matter. The fate and transport of the particles depend on their size, density, wind speed and direction. Some manganese compounds are readily soluble in water, and exist as Mn2+ and Mn4+. Movement between these two forms occur by oxidation and reduction reactions that may be abiotic or microbially mediated. The environmental chemistry of manganese is governed by pH and redox conditions (Bankovitch et al; 2003). The distribution for Mn in the soil around Azadirachta indica is as shown in (Fig. 3). The distribution is multimodal and is skewed towards low concentrations of high frequencies with a mean and standard deviation of 10.17 ± 0.70µgg-1. Mn in water can be bioconcentrated by aquatic biota at lower trophic levels. Uptake of manganese by aquatic invertebrates and fish increases with temperature, decreases with pH, and increases with decreasing salinity (IPCS, 2004). Comparing the Mn concentrations in the bark and soil, a significant correlation is indicated (P < 0.01) to exist between them (Table 2). Similarly, a significant difference was observed (P < 0.05) in both soil and bark when the mean Mn concentrations in A. indica was compared with its concentration in other trees from trees from the state.
CONCLUSION
The concentrations obtained varied from one sampling area to another. The concentrations of Mn may be in line with the nature of activities (natural and antropogenic) peculiar to the state. The concentrations of Manganese in the bark can be expected to be an indicator of trace metal loading at the time of sampling. The study demonstrated the suitability of the investigated trees to successfully absorb and uptake Managanese from the soil. It also justifies the usefulness of Khaya senegalensis, and Azadirachta indica as an indicator of local soil deposition for this metal, due to variation in its concentrations among the soil and tree barks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books where literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=716http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=716Ayodele, J. T.; Ahmed, A. R. and Nadada, A. B. (2000) Calotropis Procero bark and leaf the bio-indicator of environmental acidity. Nigerian Journal of Technical Education. 42;(7) 16 – 22.
Arnold, E. G., Trussell, R. R., Lenore, S. C. (2005) Primary digestion of metals: In: Standard methods for examination of water and waste water. (16th edition) American Public Health Association Washington D.C. PP. 146 – 150.
Beppler, E. Fichte, R., and Berger, A., (1978) manganese in: Ullmanns Encyklopadie der technischem chemie 4th ed., Verlag Chemic, Weinheirr- New York, 16: 454- 455.
English Translation: Manganese in: Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Technical Chemistry 4th ed, Publisher Chemic Weinheir New York.
Boettcher, J., Wiedemann, B., and Schuster, H. D., (1985) Proceedings Emission Reduction from Diesel Engine. VDI, dussedorf, 65 – 70.
Barlow, A. M. and Sullivan, F. M., (1984) Reproductive Hazards of Industrial Chemicals, Academic Press, London, pp. 370 – 385.
Bankovitch, V; Carrier, G; Gagnon, C; Kennedy, G; Zayed, J; (2003) Total suspended particulate manganese in ambient air in Montreal 1981 – 2000.
Science of the Total Environment, 308 (1-3): 185 – 193. Grodzinka, K.; (1982) Monitoring of air pollutants by mosses and tree bark. In: Stuebing, L; Jager, H.J. (Eds) Monitoring of air pollutants by plants. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, PP. 33 – 42.
IPCS (International Chemical Safety) (2004) Card - Cobalt (II) oxide. Geneva, World Health Organisation, International Programme on Chemical Safety (ICSC 1551).
Keen, D., and Leach, U. V. (1988) Uptake Studies Roots, Stem and leaves. Environ. Pollut. 132:145.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareSTRATEGIC ANALYSIS OF LINKS BETWEEN INCOME AND CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY IN BIST DOAB PART OF PUNJAB, INDIA
English1114Anandvir Kaur SainiEnglishThe aim of this paper is to examine the role of income in determining cardiovascular mortality in rural areas of Bist Doab region of Punjab state. For collecting data, a sample size of 1.5% was selected out of the total 6796 cardiovascular deaths recorded in 2009. A detailed interview schedule was prepared and administered on the family members of the selected 100 deceased persons. The questions pertained to the socio-economic and behavioral aspects of the persons who died from cardiovascular diseases. It has been found that the income has a close association with the cardiovascular health of population under study. The people falling in lower income categories have recorded maximum cardiovascular mortality. Thus it can be concluded that the socio-economic attributes of a region have a direct bearing on the cardiovascular well-being of the concerned population.
EnglishCardiovascular mortality, Income, Poverty, Socio-economic status, Bist DoabINTRODUCTION
Out of all diseases, cardiovascular diseases are world’s largest killers that claim 17.1 million lives every year, representing 29% of all global deaths. There are wide differences in cardiovascular mortality in different parts of India and the highest proportion of cardiovascular deaths out of total deaths (49.2%) is found in the economically prosperous state of Punjab. The aim of this paper is to examine the role of income in determining cardiovascular mortality in rural areas of Bist Doab region of Punjab state (Map 1). The Bist Doab region shares 17.6% (8844 sq. km.) of state’s total geographical area and is one of the three traditional cultural regions of the state, the other two being Majha and Malwa. According to 2001 census, the population of Bist Doab is 4,770,477 which accounts for 19.64% of Punjab’s total population. Out of this 68% people live in rural areas. The literacy rate of the region is nearly 70% and 67.5% of the population is engaged in non-agricultural activities. Administratively, the region consists of four districts namely, Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Kapurthala and S.B.S. Nagar (Nawanshahar), which encompass 30 Community Development Blocks. There are 3,528 villages, 35 towns and 2 cities (Jalandhar and Hoshiarpur) in the region. The present study pertains to the rural areas of the region.
DATA AND METHODS
This paper has been based on primary data. For collecting data, a sample size of 1.5% was selected out of the total 6796 cardiovascular deaths recorded in 2009. A detailed interview schedule was prepared and administered on the family members of the selected 100 deceased persons. The questions pertained to the socio-economic and behavioral aspects of the persons who died from cardiovascular diseases. The sampling design was divided in two stages. At the first stage around 20 villages were sampled from all the major hot spot clusters of villages recording high cardiovascular mortality using proportionate sampling. Bigger the hot spot, higher was the number of villages in sample. At the second stage snowball sampling was used to choose five deaths from each selected village with the help of the concerned village officials. The collected data was processed and analyzed in MS Excel software appropriate statistical diagrams and tables were used for data representation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The average monthly income profile of the sampled persons who died from cardiovascular diseases (Table 1) shows that as many as 34% of the deceased had no income from any economic source. Another 33% of the sampled population earned less than Rs. 5000 per month. The income category of Rs. 5000 to Rs. 10,000 encompassed 13% of the deceased and 14% belonged to the next higher category of Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 15,000. Only 2% of the sampled persons earned an average income between Rs. 15,000 and Rs. 25,000 per month and just 4% had an earning above Rs. 25,000. These figures clearly show that a major chunk of the sampled populations who died from cardiovascular diseases had very low levels of income and the incidence of cardiovascular deaths decreased with an increase in income, pointing towards the comparatively healthier lifestyles of the people having higher economic status.
The general pattern observed in the foregoing paragraph holds true for both males and females in the sample. Nearly 90% of the sampled females earned no income at all. On the other hand around 11% of the males fell in this category and nearly 44% of them had a monthly income of less than Rs. 5000 (Fig 1). Around 17% of the males belonged to the income group of Rs. 5000 to Rs. 10,000 per month and 20% were in the group of Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 15,000. The highest income categories of Rs. 15,000 to Rs. 25,000 and above Rs. 25,000 contained only 3% and 5% of the sampled males respectively. Thus most of the men belonged to the lower income groups and the men with higher income had lower incidence of cardiovascular mortality.
As far as the contribution of the deceased persons to the family income is concerned, it has been observed that more than 35% of the sampled males contributed be tween 50 to 60% of the total monthly household income (Table 2). Around 13% men earned between 60 to 70% and the income of approximately 18% of the sampled men composed more than 70% share of the total household income earned in a month (Fig 2). On the other hand, only 22% of the males had income contribution of less than 50% and just 11% of the men made no financial contribution of the monthly household income. Since most of the females were non-working, therefore a major chunk of them (nearly 90%) had no contribution to the household income before their death. Thus it can inferred that 2/3rd of the males in the sample were responsible for earning more than half of their respective household incomes before their death. It points towards the economic burden incurred by deaths caused due to cardiovascular diseases on the family of the deceased.
The association between income and cardiovascular diseases has been explored by various scholars. Stelmach et al. (2004) found that younger males with a lower level of education and income exhibited highest prevalence of major cardiovascular risk factors like hypertension and smoking. Moreover, the incidence of cardiovascular deaths in patients with no job was associated with the highest risk of living in poverty (Kwada, 2012). Sallis et al. (2009) confirmed that the adults living in high-income neighbourhood had a lower BMI and higher physical quality of life. Mobley et al. (2006) found that the financially disadvantaged women were associated with higher risk of cardiovascular diseases. Thus the existing literature also reflects a clear link between income and incidence of cardiovascular diseases.
CONCLUSION
In this paper it has been found that income has a close association with the cardiovascular health of population under study. The people falling in lower income categories have recorded maximum cardiovascular mortality. The deaths of working males from cardiovascular mortality posed serious economic burden on the families of the deceased. Thus it can be concluded that the socioeconomic attributes of a region have a direct bearing on the cardiovascular well-being of the concerned population.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books where literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=717http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=717Kawada, T. Income poverty and cardiovascular disease. International journal of cardiology 2012; 156(1):97-98.
Mobley, L. R., Root, E. D., Finkelstei and n, E. A., Khavjou, O., Farris, R. P., and Will, J. C. Environment, obesity, and cardiovascular disease risk in low-income women. American journal of preventive medicine 2006; 30(4):327-332.
Sallis, J. F., Saelens, B. E., Frank, L. D., Conway, T. L., Slymen, D. J., Cain, K. L., ... and Kerr, J. Neighborhood built environment and income: examining multiple health outcomes. Social science and medicine 2009; 68(7):1285-1293.
Stelmach, W., Kaczmarczyk-Cha?as, K., Bielecki, W., Stelmach, I., and Drygas, W. How income and education contribute to risk factors for cardiovascular disease in the elderly in a former Communist country. Public health 2004; 118(6):439- 449.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareA RARE FINDING OF THYROID IMA ARTERY ARISING FROM THE AORTIC ARCH WITH
ABSENCE OF LEFT INFERIOR THYROID ARTERY: A CASE REPORT
English1517Takkallapalli AnithaEnglishAn anomalous artery was seen arising from the arch of aorta and coursed upwards to the isthmus of thyroid gland. In the same cadaver, on further exposure of blood vessels supplying the thyroid gland, it is observed that the left inferior thyroid artery was absent. Though the incidence of thyroid ima artery arising from brachio cephalic trunk and subclavian artery was reported earlier, this is a rare finding where the artery arose from arch of aorta with absence of left inferior thyroid artery.
EnglishBlood supply of thyroid, Inferior thyroid artery, Arch of aortaINTRODUCTION
Arteria thyroidea ima is a small, inconstant but important artery of thyroid gland. In addition to thyroid, the artery may also supply the thymus gland and neck viscera [1]. It is present in 3% of cases and when present, it emerges from brachio cephalic trunk, the arch of Aorta, the subclavian artery, right common carotid artery or internal mammary artery [2]. Krudy et al stated that an additional midline artery to the thyroid posing a threat in cervico surgical operations was first described by Neubauer in 1772 and so was named Neubauers artery [3]. Hollishead (1962) described an accessory artery replacing the inferior thyroid artery as thyroid ima artery [4]. The knowledge of thyroid ima artery plays a significant role in neck surgeries [5].
CASE REPORT
The thyroid ima artery in this case report was observed in an embalmed adult male cadaver, aged 53 years, during routine dissection in the department of Anatomy at Chalmeda Anand Rao Institute of Medical Sciences, Bommakal , Karimnagar. During the neck dissection, an anomalous artery was observed in front of trachea, ascending upwards to reach the isthmus of thyroid gland. On further exposure of thorax and tracing the artery to its origin, it was noticed that this slender artery arose from the upper margin of arch of aorta and coursed towards isthmus without giving any branches. On further dissection to expose the blood vessels of thyroid gland, it is observed that the inferior thyroid artery on the left side was absent. The right inferior thyroid artery had normal origin and course.
DISCUSSION
The thyroid ima artery is the inconstant third artery that supplies blood to the isthmus of the thyroid gland. The calibre of thyroid ima artery may be as large as the inferior thyroid artery or merely a small twig. A review of literature shows marked degree of variability in the frequency, the site of origin and the size of thyroid ima artery. The incidence varies from 1.5 to 12’2% [6]. The commonest site of origin of the thyroid ima artery is from the innominate artery [1.9 to 6%] followed by right common carotid artery in 1.4% to 1.7 % [7]; from the arch of aorta on left side in 0.36 %[4] . Bilateral thyroid ima arteries have been reported by Gruber. [7]. Faller et al observed that in 60% of 100 sides that they investigated and reported, the incidence of absence of inferior thyroid artery has been 0.20% to 5.9 % When an inferior thyroid artery is absent, its place is usually taken by a branch of superior thyroid artery of same side or the inferior thyroid artery of other side or is taken by thyroid ima artery [6].The present study coincides with the above observation.
Phylogenitically, the thyroid gland has a rich network of nutrient vessels. During development many vessels disappear except the superieor and inferior thyroid arteries, persistirng as the regular supply. Occasionally a part of the original vascular network connecting the brachiocephalic, the arch of aorta and carotids may persist and by fusion may either supplement or substitute for the regular arteries as the thyroid ima arterty. [8]
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
The knowledge of the course of the thyroid ima artery is important for surgeons while performing neck surgeries or during tracheostomy procedures [9] . Atypical branching of vessels can cause intraoperative bleeding and /or post operative hematoma by damaging the thyroid ima artery [10]. The knowledge of this artery is necessary in angiography done as a preoperative requisite in the thyroid and parathyroid surgeries, which could be missed if this artery is not selectively injected.
CONCLUSION
The thyroid ima artery cannot be undermined in clinical practice as per its vulnerability to be accidentally cut or injured during tracheostomies or mediastinoscopy leading to uncontrollable haemorrhage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to author/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=718http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=7181. Kimmel DL: Anterior mediastinal origin of the thyroidea ima artery. Anatomical Records, 1949; 103: 544 Abst No:270.
2. Chummy S. Sinnatamby. Last’s anatomy, regional and applied Churchill living stone. 11th ed. 2006; P 352.
3. Krudy AG, Doppman JL, Brennan F: The significance of the thyroid ima artery in angiographic localization of parathyroid adenomas Radiology, 1980; 136: 51-55.
4. Hollinshead WH; Head and Neck In: Anatomy for surgeons (vol.1). 1st edn. Hober and Harper, Newyork, 1962: PP: 520-533.
5. Nanka O, Sedy J, Vitkova I , Libansky P, Adamek S.Surgical anatomy of parathyroid gland with emphasis on parathyroidectomy. Prague Med. Rep. 2006; 107: 261-272.
6. Faller A, Scharer O: Uber die variabilitat der arteriae thyroideae. Acta Anatomica, 1947; 4: 119-122.
7. Gruber W. Ueber die thyroidea ima Archives of pathology Anatomic und physiologie u Klin medicine. 1872; 54: 445- 484. Cited by Krudy et al (1980) vide infra.
8. K. Dharwal: The thyro thymic trunk – A collateral vessel to the thyroid and the thymus: People’s journal of scientific research vol.2(2), July 2009: 31-33.
9. Yilmaz E, Celik H H, Durgun B, Atasever A, Ilgi S. Arteria thyroidea ima arising from the brachiocephalic trunk with bilateral absence of inferior thyroid arteries: a case report. Surg. Radiol Anat: 1993: 15: 197-199.
10. Carty SE. Prevention and management of complication in parathyroid surgery. Otolaryngol. Clin. North Am. 2004; 37: 897-907.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareSATISFACTION AMONG USERS (DOCTORS & NURSES ) WITH LABORATORY SERVICES AT A TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL
English1822Malik AubidEnglish Manhas Anil K.English Haroon RashidEnglish Qadri G. J.English Malik AminaEnglish Hamid ShahnawazEnglishObjective: To study satisfaction among users (doctors and nurses) with laboratory services at a tertiary care hospital.
Material and Methods: a cross sectional study was carried out for a period of six months among the cadre of professionals who utilized the services of central laboratory at skims, where biochemistry and hematological investigations are performed. Simple Random sampling was used for selection of users. Results: the satisfaction survey had a response rate of 96%. Among faculty the overall satisfaction score ranged from 1.31 to 2.88 with mean score of 2.04. Among residents the overall satisfaction score ranged from 1.37 to 2.7 with a mean score of 2.17. Satisfaction score in nursing supervisors ranged from 2.17 to 2.55 with a mean score of 2.37. Among incharges/nursing staff, the satisfaction score ranged from 1.7 to 2.6 with a mean score of 2.04. Conclusion: communication of laboratory services which included communication of relevant information and notification of significant abnormal results was considered weak by both faulty and resident doctors (17.77% and 14.03% of satisfaction respectively). This highlights the need for improving the communication skills among laboratory staff and users(doctors and nurses) to improve quality in laboratory services. Further researches must be conducted on communication in laboratories to identify the communications.
EnglishUser satisfaction, Laboratory communicationINTRODUCTION
A laboratory is a place of specialized work, research, clinical or diagnostic procedures and also a place for teaching and training. There are different types of laboratories and great number of hazards which may be found in them. Codes of practice and Guidelines are documented which specify safe practices for particular task or occupations(1). The developments in clinical laboratory medicine in recent years have been impressive, clinical laboratories have evolved from relatively simple structures to facilities of great complexity. In many modern clinical laboratories the extensive use of instrumentation, automation and computerization has created a commercial and industrial atmosphere. Regardless of the sophistication of the clinical laboratory, we, as clinical laboratory professionals, must remember that the goal of clinical laboratories is to provide services and not products. By offering the five services namely, analysis, data processing, consultation, education and research, it well ensure that the clinical laboratory will be recognized as an integral part of health care team(2). Many recent changes in clinical chemistry including automation, increasing data processing capability, and increasing regulation of laboratory performance have brought about a search for better ways to quantify thequality of patient results coming out of clinical laboratory. This has resulted in a great diversity of approaches related to the definition and measurement of quality in clinical chemistry. (3) The modern quality system in an institution today is agreed organizational – wide, detailed operating work structure of technical, Scientific, and managerial procedures for guiding the coordinated actions of humans, the equipment and the information of the institutions in the best and most practical ways, to assure user quality satisfaction and reasonable cost of quality.(4) A high quality organization meets customer’s needs. Clinical laboratory managers often assume they know what customers want (accuracy, precision, speed, economy etc.) and set out to directly measures laboratory performance in each specific area. Another approach to measuring qualities to assess customer satisfaction with services without making any assumptions about the relative importance of specific functions. Each approach to assessing quality has advantages. Direct assessment of accuracy, precision, and turnaround time helps managers understand whether local performance is improving and how it compares to published norms(5). Today assessing customer satisfaction with laboratory services is considered an important component of laboratory quality assurance programme and is required for accreditation by the college of American pathologists (CAP) and the Joint Commission on Accreditation for Health care Organization (6,7). Physicians are one of the primary customers of laboratory services and obtaining their feedback provides laboratory managers with opportunities to identify areas for improvement.
METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out in a tertiary care institute Sher-i- Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences (SKIMS) after a proper clearance taken from an ethical committee of the institute. It is a cross sectional study conducted for a period of six months among the cadre of professionals who utilized the services of central laboratory at SKIMS where Biochemistry and Hematology investigations are performed. The users (doctors and nurses) were selected for interview by simple random sampling.The total number of subjects included 217. It included doctors (All Heads of concerned departments and 20% of faculty, senior residents, post graduates and junior residents involved with the investigations of Central laboratory and Nurses (100% supervisor, 100% in charges and 20% staff nurses) a predesigned Performa was used for data collection. Statements regarding appropriate location, adequacy of staff for receiving and processing samples, proper communication which included communication of relevant information and notification of significant abnormal results between users and laboratory staff, conformity of tests with the clinical diagnosis, proper reporting, repeat testing on account of erroneous reports and timeliness of reports were asked. The satisfaction was measured on 3 point scale from 1 = dissatisfied to 3 = satisfied.
RESULTS
Out of 226 questionnaires distributed, there was response from 217 subjects comprising of 45 faculty members, 57 resident doctors, 45 supervisors and 70 incharge/staff nurses, with a response rate of 96% and revealed that 66.66% of faculty, 56.14 % of resident doctors, 55.5% of nursing supervisors and 45.72 % of incharge/staff nurses were satisfied with location of laboratory staff (table 1). 11.11% of faculty, 24.56% of resident doctors, 64.44% of nursing supervisors and 51.42% of inchare/staff nurses were satisfied with adequacy of staff (table 2). 17.77% of faculty, 17.54% of residents, 64.44% of nursing supervisors and 44.28% of incharges/staff nurses were satisfied with proper communication (table 3). 93.33% of faculty, 85.96% of resident doctors, 73.33% of supervisors and 54.28% of incharges/staff nurses were satisfied with proper reporting (table 4). 64.44% of faculty, 85.96% of resident doctors were satisfied with conformity of results (table 5). 44.44% of faculty, 35.08% of resident doctors were satisfied with repeat testing (table 6 ). 37.77% of faculty, 52.63% of resident doctors, 62.22% of supervisors and 71.42% of incharges/staff nurses were satisfied with reporting on time (table 7). Among faculty the overall satisfaction score ranged from 1.31 to 2.88 with mean score of 2.09. Faculty were most satisfied with proper reporting (2.88), proper location (2.46), conformity of results (2.40) and were least satisfied with reporting on time (1.97), communication (1.57) and adequacy of staff (1.31) (table 8). Among residents the overall satisfaction score ranged from 1.37 to 2.7 with a mean score of 2.12. Residents wre most satisfied with conformity of test results (2.7), proper reporting (2.65), location (2.19) and least satisfied with repeat testing (1.91), adequacy of staff (1.89) and communication (1.37) (table 9). Satisfaction score in nursing supervisors ranged from 2.17 to 2.55 with a mean score of 2.36. the nursing supervisors wre most satisfied with proper reporting (2.55), communicaton (2.42) and were least satisfied with location (2.17) (table 10). Among incharges/nursing staff, the satisfaction score ranged from 1.7 to 2.6 with a mean score of 2.09. incharges/staff nurses wre most satisfied with reporting on time (2.6), adequacy of staff (2.26) and were least satisfied with proper reporting (1.70) (table 11).
DISCUSSION
“User (doctors and nurses) satisfaction” which was studied by a pretested questionnaire for an assessment of satisfaction with laboratory services revealed that 45.07% of the faculty staff, 48 36% of resident doctors and 67.99% of nursing staff were satisfied with most of the parameters used in the satisfaction survey. 93.33% of the faculty staff was satisfied with the “proper reporting” of tests and 85.96% of residents were satisfied with proper reporting of tests “Communication” of laboratory services was considered weak by both faculty and resident staff (17.77% and 14.03% satisfaction respectively), in comparison to Nursing Supervisors and Incharges / Staff which reported 64% and 45 % satisfaction respectively for the same. Faculty and residents were least satisfied with communication with satisfaction score of (1.57) and (1.37) respectively. Resident doctors were most satisfied with conformity of test results (2.7) proper reporting (2.65) location (2.19) reporting on time (2.17). Incharges/staff were most satisfied with reporting on time with score of (2.6) . In line with the findings of the present study research by Zarbo RJ et al; to study the physician and patient satisfaction with laboratory services revealed that the median(50th percentile) laboratory had an overall median satisfaction score of 4.4; the lowest satisfaction scores that were obtained all related to poor communication, which included timeliness of reporting, communication of relevant information and notification of significant abnormal results(8). In a study by Nakhleh R E et. al the overall satisfaction for surgical pathology reports as well as satisfaction with report test turnaround time, completeness and style were high. Report turnaround time received the lowest scores of all parameters(9). In another study by Zarboo RT et.al in 2003 showed that the median (50th percentile) laboratory had an overall median satisfaction score of 4.4. the lowest scores that were obtained are related to poor communication(10).
CONCLUSION
User (Doctors and Nurses) satisfaction which was studied by a pretested questionnaire for an assessment of satisfaction with laboratory services reveled that communication of relevant information and notification of significant abnormal results was considered weak by faculty and resident doctors with satisfaction score of 1.57 and 1.37 respectively. Faculty and resident doctors were most satisfied with proper reporting with a score of 2.88 and 2.65 respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to author/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=719http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=7191. Leanne Mumford, Australian standard 2243. Safety in laboratories. Risk management office. University of Sydney 2001.
2. Richard Juel. What Laboratory services should be offered. The clinical pathologists point of view: Quality Assurance in Health care – A critical approval of clinical chemistry, AACC, CAP 1980 : 81-94.
3. Brauer G. A and Rand R. N. Techniques For defining and measuring quality in clinical chemistry: QA in Health Care – A critical Appraisal of clinical chemistry, AACC, CAP 1980 : 207.
4. Feigenbaum AV: What is total quality control: QA in Health care – A critical appraisal of clinical chemistry, AACC, CAP 1980 : 11.
5. Jones B A, MD; Leaonas G. Bekeris, MD; Raouf E. Nakeleh, MD; Molly K. Walsh, phD; Paul N. Valenstein, MD; Physician Satisfaction with Clinical Laboratory Service. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2009; 133:38-48.
6. Laboratory general checklist. Laboratory Accrediation Programme. Northfield, I11 college of Americal Pathologists; 2006. GEN. 20368.
7. Comprehensive Accreditation Manual for Laboratory and Point-of-Care Testing. Oakbrook Terrace, III: Joint Commission on Accreditation for Healthcare Organization; 2005- 2006.
8. Richard J. Zarbo, Raouf E. Nakeleh, Molly Walsh; Quality practices committee, College of American Pathologists: Ann 1st super Sanita. 1996;32 (2) : 207-14.
9. Raouf E Nakeleh, Rohna Soures, Stephen G.Ruby-Physcian Satisfation with Surgical pathology reports: Arch Pathol Lab Med November 2008; vol. 132, No. 11, PP. 1719-1722.
10. Richard J. Zarbo MD, DMD; Raouf E. Nakeleh, MD; Molly Walsh, phD – Customer satisfaction in Anatomic Pathlogy. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2003; 127; 23-29.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareA CASE OF HIGH GRADE MUCOEPIDERMOID CARCINOMA OF MAXILLARY SINUS
English2325Bindu ChannabasappaEnglish Satish KumaranEnglish Anuradha NavaneethamEnglish Vijay JainEnglish Lalitha ThambaiahEnglishSalivary gland carcinomas are rare and clinically diverse group of neoplasm among which mucoepidermoid carcinoma comprises approximately 10-15% of all salivary gland neoplasm. These malignancies are diagnosed generally at a later date during the course of the disease as they are mostly asymptomatic in nature and become symptomatic in the later stages of the disease process. We report a case of high grade mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the maxillary sinus in a 78 year old male patient in which the tumour perforated the skin on the medial aspect of the infraorbital region before the patient underwent surgery.
EnglishSalivary gland carcinomas, Nneoplasm, Mucoepidermoid carcinomaINTRODUCTION
Mucoepidermoid carcinoma (MEC) comprises approximately 10-15% of all salivary gland neoplasams and about 30% of salivary malignancies. According to description by Stewart et al salivary gland duct, composed of several type of cell types (mucous secreting, basiloid, intermediate and epidermoid) represent the histological origin of Mucoepidermoid carcinoma.The tumour is well known to display a widely diverse biologic behaviour and a variable clinical manifestation which seems to correlate with tumour stage and grade. Maxillary sinus malignant tumours are relatively uncommon malignancies and can include several histological types such as squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, lymphoma and metastatic tumours1 . Mucoepidermoid carcinoma was first reported by Alexander et al in 1974 to describe specific tumours of the salivary glands. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma accounts for 13% of all malignancies occurring in the maxillary sinus2,3. We report a case of aggressive mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the maxillary sinus in a 78 year old male patient.
Case history
A 78 year old male patient was referred to the department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery from the department of Oral medicine and Radiology for extraction of upper right maxillary posterior teeth which were associated with mild swelling and pain on right side of the face (Figure1). On examination the swelling extended from the infraorbital region to lower border of the mandible and from the ala of the nose to the tragus. Intraorally 15, 16 and 17 were tender on percussion. Extraction of 15, 16 and 17 was done under local anaesthesia and patient was prescribed a course of antibiotics. One week following extraction patient reported back with pain and swelling in the region of extraction. On examination intraorally a mild proliferation of the soft tissue was present in the region of extraction which was reddish in colour; on palpation the growth was tender (Figure2). Patient was prescribed a course of antibiotics to rule out infection of the socket. One week later patient reported back with pain, on examination intraorally the soft tissue proliferation had slightly increased in size. An orthopantamogragh was taken to rule out any associated pathologies of the sinus. Orthopantamogragh showed complete radioopacity of the right maxillary sinus. A provisional diagnosis of squamous cell carcinoma of the right maxillay sinus was made and an incisional biopsy was done and the patient was adviced to get a Computed tomography scan to get a complete picture of the lesion involving the maxillary sinus. Axial section of the CT scan showed complete obliteration of the maxillary sinus by a mass (Figure3). Gross specimen was soft in consistency and pale brown in colour measuring 1.5×0.5cms. Histological examination of haematoxylin and eosin stained section showed a high grade mucoepidermoid carcinoma showing intracystic component with numerous mitosis. Atypical epidermoid cells and scanty mucinous cell component was seen(Figure 4). By the time the tumour was diagnosed and the patient was taken up for surgery the tumour perforated the skin and appeared in the medial angle of the eye.
Discussion
Malignancies of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses represent only 3-5% of all head and neck carcinomas1,3,5. The maxillary sinus is the most common paranasal sinus affected representing approximately 70% of the cases1,3,5 with squamous cell carcinoma being the most common histologic type5,6,7. Maxillary sinus non Squamous cell carcinoma’s include glandular carcinomas and undifferentiated carcinomas. In non Squamous cell carcinoma’s of the maxillary sinus mucoepidermoid carcinoma comprises 5-10% of all salivary gland neoplasms and accounts for 13% of all malignancies occurring in maxillary sinus3 . Mucoepidermoid carcinoma is a malignant epithelial neoplasam composed of both mucous secreting and epidermoid type cells in varying proportions. It was first studied and described as a separate entity by Stewart et al in 19458 . After systematic review of its histology and degree of differentiation the World Health Organisation classification in 1991 recommended that the term “mucoepidermoid tumour” is changed to “mucoepidermoid carcinoma”. Maxillary sinus non –Squamous cell carcinoma’s mainly affecting the adults with a female predilection2 . Maxillary sinus Mucoepidermoid carcinoma’s present as a long lasting asymptomatic tumour as they have a longer complaint interval and fewer symptoms reported by the affected patients. Our patient also reported with a dull pain in the right maxillary sinus region. Traditionally Mucoepidermoid carcinoma’s are histologially classified as low and high grade based on the relative proportion of the cell types9 . A three tiered grading scheme has replaced the previous classification, incorporating the third intermediate grade which essentially resembles with low rather than the high grade lesions. Surgery is the treatment of choice for maxillary sinus carcinomas prognosis is better for patients managed by surgery than for patients treated using Radio therapy and/ or chemotherapy alone. Maxillary sinus malignancies are very difficult tumours to treat and traditionally have been associated with poor prognosis. One reason for this poor prognosis is the close anatomic proximity to vital structures as the skull base, brain, orbit and carotid artery10. This complex location makes the complete resection of the tumour almost impossible. Treatment of maxillary sinus carcinomas with conservative surgery combined with Radiotherapy and regional chemotherapy showed an overall 5 year survival for mucoepidermoid carcinoma2,6.
Conclusion
Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the maxillary sinus is a rare entity. Management of such tumours in the maxillary sinus has poor prognosis as the diagnosis is made late during the course of the disease as it is a slow growing tumour and due to its proximity to the important vital structures.
Acknowledgement
Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to author/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=720http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=7201. Alexander D Rapidis, Nikolaos Givalos, Harikila Gakiopoulou et al Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the salivary glands. Review of Literature and clinicopathalogical analysis of 18 patients. Oral Oncology 43, 130-136, 2007.
2. Myers LL, Nussenbaum B, Bradford CR et al: paranasal sinus malignancies: An 18 year single Institution experience. Laryngoscope 112: 1964, 2002.
3. Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma and Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma of the maxillary sinus: Report of a 44-year experience of 25 cases from a Single Institution.
4. Dulguerov P, Jacobsen MS, Allal AS, et al: Nasal and paranasal carcinoma: Are we making a Progress? A series of 220 patients and a systematic review. Cancer 92: 3012, 2001.
5. Norlander T, Fordin JE, Selfverward.C et al: Decreasing incidence of malignant tumours of the Paranasal sinuses in Sweden. Analyses of 141 consecutive cases at Karolinrka Hospital from 1960-1980. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 112; 236 2003.
6. Nishino H, Miyata M, Morita M, et al: Combined therapy with conservative surgery, Radiotherapy and regional chemotherapy for maxillary sinus carcinoma. Cancer 89: 1925, 2000
7. Bhattacharya N: Factors affecting survival in maxillary sinus Cancer. J Oral Maxillofac Surg61: 1016, 2003.
8. Rajendran R, Shivapathasundharam B. Tumours of the Salivary gland. 6th Ed . New Delhi: Elsevier India; 2000. Shafers Textbook of oral pathology; pp. 219-53.
9. Seifert G, Sobin LH. In International classification of tumours. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1991. Histological typing of salivary gland tumours.
10. Bhattacharya N. Survival and Staging characteristics of non squamous cell malignancies of the Maxillary Sinus. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003; 129: 334-7.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareLEPTIN - IT'S ROLE IN ENERGY HOMEOSTASIS
English2630Dipti MohapatraEnglish Prakash K. SasmalEnglish Nibedita PriyadarsiniEnglish Ellora DeviEnglish Priyambada PandaEnglishLeptin (from the Greek leptos, meaning thin) is a 167-amino acid protein hormone with important effects in regulating body weight, metabolism and reproductive function. Leptin, an adipose tissue derived hormone relays information about the peripheral energy reserve and their availability to the brain. This review article is on understanding the physiology of leptin and its role in energy homeostasis thereby controlling obesity, neuroendocrine function, energy metabolism and insights into emerging clinical applications. It also addresses the possible therapeutic uses of leptin in humans.
EnglishLeptin receptor, Obesity and receptor resistanceINTRODUCTION
Obesity is a rising menace globally, especially in the rapidly developing countries. The weight of the individual is maintained by a balance between the energy intake and expenditure. It is because of the easy availability of high calories diet and lack of physical activity due to sedentary lifestyle that obesity is an emerging problem. The excess energy is stored in the form of triglycerides in the adipose tissue. An interesting neuroendocrine system controls the energy balance in the body by constantly monitoring energy storage, availability, and consumption. Adipose tissue and the brain are the two main components of this neuroendocrine system. The brain controls energy homeostasis and body weight by integrating various metabolic signals released in peripheral tissues. One of the key components is leptin, an adipose tissue derived hormone that conveys critical information about peripheral energy storage and availability to the brain. The term leptin is derived from the Greek word leptos, meaning “thin”. Leptin is a protein approximately of 16 kDa in mass and encoded by the obese (ob) gene1 . In human beings the gene for leptin is located on chromosome 7. Leptin, the genetic defect of ob/ob mice was first described in the 1950s as the spontaneous mutation that causes a severe obese phenotype due to both overeating and decreased energy expenditure. The gene was named ob and the obese mice carrying the mutation were called ob/ob mice2 . Leptin is a 167-amino acid protein hormone with important effects in regulating body weight; metabolism and reproductive function3 . Leptin is expressed mainly by adipocytes, which fits with the idea that body weight is sensed as the total mass of fat in the body4 . Leptin in smaller amounts of are also secreted by cells in the epithelium of the fundus of the stomach, skeletal muscle, liver, placenta, heart, in granulose and cumulus oophorus cells of the human ovaries, human mammary gland and gastric epithelium5-7. The Adipocyte Brain axis: The adipose tissue–derived hormone leptin is produced in proportion to the body fat stores. Circulating leptin serves to communicate central nervous system (CNS) the state of body energy repletion in order to suppress food intake and permit energy expenditure 8-10. Leptin decreases appetite and increases energy expenditure through sympathetic activation, which consequently decreases adipose tissue mass and body weight through its action on the hypothalamic nuclei (Fig. 1). To regulate energy balance in humans the hormone levels are decreased during fasting and increased after several days of overfeeding. So leptin is considered a homeostatic hormone regulating food intake and body weight. Due to latter homeostatic control mechanism, leptin is an anti-obesity hormone, based on the hypothetical fact that high leptin levels would prevent the occurrence of obesity. Unfortunately, this is not the case, and so the strong correlation between serum leptin levels and body fat mass found in obese individuals now suggests the existence of an endogenous leptin-resistant mechanism in obesity 11. The Leptin Resistance as the important cause for obesity: Leptin was also proposed to be a satiety factor because a defect in leptin molecule or receptors led to overeating and obesity. Circulating leptin levels are directly proportional to adipose tissue mass12. High serum levels of leptin signal the presence of sufficient energy stores to sites in the central nervous system, which respond by reducing appetite and increasing energy expenditure, preventing severe obesity. Therefore, leptin signals the nutritional status from the periphery to the area of the brain involved in the homeostasis of energy balance. However, the primary function of leptin may not be as a satiety factor. Leptin treatment at physiological levels reduces eating (and increases energy expenditure) by ob/ob mice to the levels of normal mice, but it does not cause satiety (end of eating). Higher doses of leptin are required to decrease food intake in normal animals13. The same relationships are true in humans with the ob gene defect and normal humans. Leptin levels are also modulated acutely. For example, leptin levels change rapidly with feeding or fasting disproportionately to the changes in fat depot. Therefore, leptin is not just a read out of the fat stores14. Leptin is expressed predominantly by adipocytes, which fits with the idea that body weight is sensed as the total mass of fat in the body, it is a key mediator in the regulation of food intake and energy expenditure. Whereas women have higher leptin concentrations, even after correction for body fat mass, in both genders the subcutaneous fat depot seems to be a stronger predictor of leptin levels than intra-abdominal fat15.Body adiposity has been shown to be a major determinant of circulating leptin. Leptin appears to function more as a signal of recent energy balance than as an “adipostat.”16. Leptin’s effects on body weight are mediated through hypothalamic centers that control feeding behavior and hunger, body temperature and energy expenditure17. Decreased hunger and food consumption is mediated at least in part by inhibition of neuropeptide Y synthesis. Neuropeptide Y is a very potent stimulator of feeding behavior. Increased energy expenditure is measured as increased oxygen consumption, higher body temperature and loss of adipose tissue mass. As expected, injections of leptin into db/db mice, which lack the leptin receptor, had no effect. When leptin was given to normal mice, they lost weight, showed profound depletion of adipose tissue and manifest increases in lean mass. The mechanisms by which leptin exerts its effects on metabolism are largely unknown and are likely quite complex. In contrast to dieting, which results in loss of both fat and lean mass, treatment with leptin promotes lipolysis in adipose tissue, but has no apparent effect on lean tissue18. Leptin has also been implicated in roles as diverse as the regulation of the immune system and respiratory function. In addition, ongoing studies are clarifying the central nervous system (CNS) mechanisms by which leptin exerts its effects on energy balance as well as suggesting important actions for leptin in regulating peripheral metabolic fluxes19-23. Adequate leptin levels also permit energy expenditure in the process of reproduction and growth and similarly regulate the autonomic nervous system, other elements of the endocrine system and the immune system 24-25.
LRs and sites of leptin action
The effect of leptin is mediated by receptors (Ob-R). The leptin receptor contains an extracellular ligand-binding domain, a single transmembrane domain and a cytoplasmic signaling domain and is member of the interleukin (IL)-6 receptor families of class 1 cytokine receptors 26. Leptin receptors are highly expressed in areas of the hypothalamus known to be important in regulating body weight, as well as in T lymphocytes and vascular endothelial cells (Fig. 2). There are multiple LR isoforms, all of which are products of a single lepr gene27-28. The lepr gene contains 17 common exons and several alternatively spliced 3¢-exons. In mice, the six distinct LR isoforms that have been identified are designated LRa–LRf. In all species, LR isoforms can be divided into three classes: secreted, short and long. The secreted forms are either products of alternatively spliced messenger RNA (mRNA) species (e.g. murine LRe, which contains only the first 14 exons of lepr) or proteolytic cleaveage products of membrane bound forms of LR. These secreted forms contain only extracellular domains that bind circulating leptin, perhaps regulating the concentration of free leptin. Short form LRs (LRa, LRc, LRd and LRf in mice) and the long form LR (LRb in mice) contain exons 1–17 of lepr and therefore have identical extracellular and transmembrane domains as well as the same first 29 intracellular amino acids, but diverge in sequence thereafter due to the alternative splicing of 3¢ exons. Short form LRs contain exons 1–17 and truncate 3–11 amino acids after the splice junction. LRc-, LRd- and LRf specific sequences are not well conserved among species. However, LRa (the most abun-dantly expressed isoform) is reasonably well conserved, as is LRb, which has an intracellular domain of approximately 300 residues. LRb is crucial for leptin action. Indeed, the originally described db/db mice lack LRb (but not other LR forms) as a consequence of a mutation that causes mis-splicing of the LRb mRNA; these mice display a phenotype that is indistinguishable from that of db3J/ db3J mice (which are deficient in all LR isoforms) and of leptin-deficient ob/ob animals 29. The function of shortform LRs is less clear, although proposed roles include the transport of leptin across the blood-brain barrier and the production of circulating LR extracellular domain to complex with leptin. Many of the effects of leptin are attributed to effects in the CNS, particularly in the basomedial hypothalamus, a site of high LRb mRNA expression 30-33. Here, leptin acts on neurons that regulate levels of circulating hormones (e.g. thyroid hormone, sex steroids and growth hormone) 34. Leptin action on these hypothalamic neurons also regulates the activity of the autonomic nervous system, although direct effects of leptin on LRb-containing neurons in the brainstem and elsewhere probably also have an important role 35. The effects of leptin on the immune system appear to result from direct action on T cells that contain LRb 36. Leptin might also regulate glucose homeostasis independently of effects on adiposity; leptin regulates glycemia at least partly via the CNS, but it might also directly regulate pancreatic b cells and insulin-sensitive tissues 37-40. Like other cytokine receptors, LRb does not contain intrinsic enzymatic activity but instead signals via a noncovalently associated tyrosine kinase of the Jak kinase family (Jak2 in the case of LRb).
A. Jak-STAT pathway
LEPR-B appears to be competent for intracellular signal transduction and is critical for energy homeostasis. LEPR-B upon leptin binding to its extracellular domain, undergoes a conformational change to activate its associated Jak2 tyrosine kinase 41. Activated Jak2 promotes the tyrosine phosphorylation of several intracellular residues on LEPR-B (also on Jak2 itself) and each tyrosine phosphorylation site recruits a specific set of downstream molecules to promote specific intracellular signals. LEPRB contains three distinct tyrosine phosphorylation sites: Tyr985, Tyr1077 and Tyr1138 42. Tyr1138 recruits signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT 3), a latent transcription factor, which subsequently becomes tyrosine phosphorylated (pSTAT3) by Jak2, enabling its nuclear translocation and promoting its transcriptional effects. Detection of pSTAT3 is used as an important bioassay of LEPR-B signaling in vivo 43. Similarly, Tyr1077 recruits and mediates the phosphorylation and activation of a related transcription factor, STAT544. Tyr985 recruits the tyrosine phosphatase PTPN11 [protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 11 (also called SHP2) which controls extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK) activation] and also binds suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) 3, an inhibitor of Lep Rb Jak2 signaling45.
B. IRS-PI3K pathway:
Intracellular signaling by insulin and leptin converge in key neuronal subsets at the level of the insulin receptor substrate-phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase (IRS-PI3K) pathway. A potential mechanism linking the leptin receptor to IRS-PI3K signaling involves the protein SH2B1 (46), which appears to facilitate Jak2-mediated IRS phosphorylation in response to leptin receptor activation Although leptin and insulin both have the potential to activate IRSPI3K signaling in neurons and other cell types, both the sub cellular localization and intracellular consequences of this activation can differ substantially depending on cell type and on whether activation is mediated by leptin or insulin. Leptin binding promotes the activation of LEPR-B-associated Jak2, which phosphorylates three tyrosine residues on the intracellular tail of LEPR-B (Fig. 3). Each of these phosphorylated residues recruits a unique set of downstream signaling molecules. Phosphorylated Tyr985 (pY985) recruits SHP2 (which participates in ERK activation) and SOCS3 (an inhibitor of LEPR-B signaling). pY1077 recruits the transcription factor STAT5, whereas pY1138 recruits STAT3. A variety of processes contributes to the attenuation of LEPR-B signaling (red lines), including the feedback inhibition that occurs by STAT3- promoted SOCS3 accumulation. PTP1B, ER stress and inflammatory signals might also participate in the inhibition of LEPR-B signaling in obesity.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from the various articles that signal from peripheral tissues, such as leptin hormone synthesized by adipose tissues, along with various other agents act at the central level to regulate energy intake, energy homeostasis and thereby controlling glucose and fat metabolism. The leptin hormone pathway may be a potential tool to fight against the rising menace of obesity and prevent the associated diseases like hypertension, myocardial infarction, and diabetes mellitus before their emergence.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=721http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=7211. Cherhab FF, Mounzih K, Lu R, Lim ME. Early onset of reproductive function in normal female mice treated with leptin. Science 1997, 275:88.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareASSESSMENT OF STAINING QUALITY OF ROSELLE (hibiscus sabdariffa) ON FORMALINFIXED PARAFFIN-EMBEDDED RENAL TISSUE SECTIONS
English3133Abd-Alhafeez IbnoufEnglish Esam AbdulRaheemEnglish Mohamed SeedAhmedEnglish Dalia DahabEnglishObjective: This experimental descriptive study aimed to explore the efficiency and resolution of Hibiscus Sabdariffa (HS) as staining dye for renal histological sections as compared to Hematoxylin-Eosin routine stain. Methods: Paraffin-embedded formalin-fixed tissue sections from kidney were stained by Hibiscus Sabdariffa solution using different concentrations and time durations in room temperature. Results: Best results were obtained by using 5% HS solution for one hour. Bad results were noticed mainly when duration of staining was only 1-2 minutes. Conclusion: Hibiscus Sabdariffa is an efficient natural cheap substitute of eosin in the ordinary stain Hand E (Hematoxylin and Eosin) for histological sections.
EnglishHibiscus Sabdariffa, Histological StainingINTRODUCTION
Histological stains have been important for better appearance of cells and tissues under the microscope to reach accurate and proper diagnosis [1]. Most of histological stains in current use are of synthetic origin; however, natural dyes are still promising to be cheaper potential sources for histological stains [2]. Any development of new histological stain is justified if the new stain is cheaper, available, harmless, and easier in application [3]. Hibiscus Sabdariffa (HS) is a plant belongs to the vascular flowering plants, known as Roselle or Red Sorrel in English and Karkade in Arabic [4]. Sudan is the largest country that produces and exports Karkade (HS) [5]. The plant has several uses; the outer thick red and fleshy cup-shaped leaves, for example, are commonly used in the production of several food products and are consumed worldwide as a cold beverage and as a hot (sour tea) drink [6]. The staining potentials of this plant were poorly explored; the current study, to our knowledge, represents the first initiative of using a pure aqueous extract of this plant in the staining of histological sections in Sudan.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This experimental descriptive study was conducted during January 2014. A healthy kidney was obtained from a healthy rabbit, sliced and fixed in 10% formalin, processed through ascending grades of ethanol, cleared in xylene, and then embedded in paraffin wax. The specimen was cut into 160 of 3-5 μ m-thick sections. These sections were divided into four equal groups; each group was stained by a different concentration of the Hibiscus solution (1%, 5%, 10%, or 100%) in different time durations (1-2 minutes, 10 minutes, 30 minutes, and 60 minutes) at RT (room temperature). Nuclei were stained by haematoxylin stain and the cytoplasm and other structures were stained by Hibiscus solution. Stained slides were then dehydrated, cleared, mounted with DPX, and assessed under a light microscope. The obtained data was analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social sciences (SPSS) software version 16 and Ethical Clearance was obtained from the Ethical Committee of Faculty of Medical Laboratory Sciences Neelain University.
Preparation of Hibiscus Sabdariffa extract and staining solution
A measured quantity of the Roselle powder (1 g, 5 g, 10 g, or 100 g) was brought to boil in 100 ml distilled water with continuous mixing and shaking; allowed standing for 30 minutes, and then filtered to obtain the colored extract with the appropriate concentration.
RESULTS
Quality of staining by Roselle was graded into 4 grades: bad, poor, good, and very good; that was according to the microscopic appearance of cell membrane, nuclear membrane, cytoplasm transparency, and extracellular matrix. If all the four parameters were clearly seen, quality was given the grade very good; if three were clearly seen, it was good; if two, it was poor; with only one parameter clearly seen quality was considered bad. With 1% solution, no very good results obtained (Table No 1). With 5% solution, 5% of tissues showed very good staining (Table No 2). With 10% solution, 2.5% showed very good staining (Table No 3). With 100% solution, no very good results obtained (Table No 4). For all concentrations, the best time duration for better staining was 60 minutes.
DISCUSSION
Several research papers discussed the nutritional and therapeutic benefits of Hibiscus Sabdariffa [7, 8, and 9]. On the contrary, few researchers tried to apply extracts of the plant in diagnostic medical laboratory procedures. This study is a new one in the track of exploring laboratory properties of Karkade; pure water extracts without additions were used instead of eosin to stain cytoplasm and extracellular elements with encouraging results. The only disadvantage noticed was that a long time (one hour) was needed to obtain better results. Eman A. Hashim [10] applied 20% concentration of Hibiscus Sabdariffa instead of eosin stain in the ordinary Hematoxylin- eosin stain to stain tissues from albino mice. She proposed the use of purified acidic part of Hibiscus Sabdariffa instead of eosin because this part has similar physical and chemical characteristics to the eosin stain. Ihuma et al [11] reported that methanolic extracts from H.sabdariffa could be used as a staining agent for some fungi and therefore reduced the problems associated with over-dependence on toxic, expensive and scarcely available exotic stains. Egbujo EC and colleagues [12] prepared Roselle (Hibiscus Sabdariffa) water extracts with various modifications and used it for the differential staining of rabbit testicular tissue sections. Various levels of differentiation of nuclear and cytoplasmic structures as well as other structures of this organ were obtained especially when 1% eosin was applied as a counter stain. The best staining result was obtained when iron alum was used to mordant the extract and when the extract mordanted with potassium alum was acidified using acetic acid and used to stain the sections. Modification of the aqueous extract to an alkaline pH using ammonia gave the poorest staining effect. Benard Solomon [13] prepared a stain composed of H.sabdariffa extract, ferric chloride, sodium chloride, and glacial acetic acid. This solution was used to stain paraffin sections of formaldehyde-fixed tissues at 4 microns along with parallel Hematoxylin and Eosin (Hand E) staining for control. Results showed that staining of nuclei with the extract solution was comparable with those sections stained with Hand E. It was therefore suggested that the extract solution could be a progressive nuclear stain substitute for hem alum in Hand E procedure due to its domestic availability, ease of preparation and use, resistance to fading and above all its good nuclear staining properties.
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion from this study, Hibiscus Sabdariffa is a cheap natural efficient staining dye for histological sections and it is comparable to the routine Hematoxylin and Eosin stain. However, larger studies with careful adjustment of temperature and time are highly recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=722http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=7221. Avwioro OG. Histochemistry and tissue pathology. 1st ed. Ibadan, Nigeria: Claverianun Press, 2002, pp. 134−213.
2. Mattuk, H. I. Studies on the utilization of natural colorants extracted from some plant sources. Egypt J. Appl.Sci. 1998; 13: 286-303.
3. Penney DP, Powers JM, Frank M and Churukian C. Analysis and testing of Biological Stains–the Biological Stain Commission Procedures. Biotechnic and Histochemistry. 2002; 77: 237-275.
4. Ali BH, AL- Wabel N and Blunden G. Phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological aspects of a Hibiscus Sabdariffa L, a review. Phytotherapy Research. 2005; 19 (5): 369- 75.
5. Plotto A, Mazaud F, Röttger A, and Steffel K. Hibiscus: Post-production management for improved market access organization: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), AGST, 2004.
6. Qi Y, KL Chin, F Malekian, M Berhame, and J Gager. Biological characteristics, nutritional and medicinal value of Roselle Hibiscus Sabdariffa. Circular- Urban Forestry Natural Resources and Environment, No. 604, March 2005; pp 1-2.
7. Nayak BS, Raju SS, Orette FA, and Rao AVO. Effects of Hibiscus Rosa sinensis L on Wound Healing Activity: A Preclinical Study in a Sprague Dawley Rat. International Journal of Low and Extreme Wounds. 2007; 6(2):76-81.
8. Abdullah MA, Suliman AOA, Eldeen S, Idriss AA, and Abdualrahman MAY. A comparative study on red and white Karkade (Hibiscus Sabdariffa L) calyces, extracts and their products. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2011; 10(7): 680– 683.
9. Sharma S et al. Study on prevention of two- stage skin carcinogenesis by Hibiscus Rosa sinensis extract and the role of its chemical constituent, gentisic acid, in the inhibition of tumor promotion response and oxidative stress in mice. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2004; 13(1) : 53-63.
10. Eman A Hashim. The use of watery extract of Kujarat flowers Hibiscus Sabdariffa as a natural histological stain. Iraqi J Med Sci. 2006; 5 (1): 29-33.
11. Ihuma JO, GH Asenge, JOK Abioye, and SK Dick. Application of Methanolic extracts from Hibiscus Sabdariffa Linn as a biological staining agent for some fungal species. International Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Sciences. 2012; 2 (2): 254-9.
12. Egbujo EC, Adisa OJ, and Yahaya AB. A Study of the Staining Effect of Roselle (Hibiscus Sabdariffa) on the Histologic Section of the Testis. Int. J. Morphol. 2008; 26(4):927-930.
13. Benard Solomon. Iron-Roselle: A Progressive Nuclear Stain Substitute For Haematoxylin. J. Histotechnologyy. 2008; 31:57.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareINDICATIONS FOR DENTAL IMPLANT TREATMENT- A CLINICIAN'S POINT OF VIEW
English3438Rajesh PremEnglish B. L. Guruprasanna AcharyaEnglish Jacob MathewsEnglish AmbadasEnglish Prashant JagtapEnglish Bhavika BhavsarEnglishA dental implant is a surgical component that interfaces with the bone of the jaw or skull to support a dental prosthesis such as a crown, bridge, denture, facial prosthesis or to act as an orthodontic anchor. The basis for modern dental implants is a biologic process called osseointegration where materials, such as titanium, form an intimate bond to bone. The present article highlights on the major indications of dental implants from a clinician point of view to clear the major doubts before going for a dental implant treatment.
EnglishDental implant, Dental prosthesis, OsseointegrationINTRODUCTION
God gives us two sets of teeth for free, but for the third we have to pay by keeping this in mind patients visit a dental clinic, they often present with a desire to replace missing teeth or are faced with the need to have teeth extracted for a variety of reasons, like trauma, infection, exfoliation etc1 . Replacement of teeth with fixed implant restorations or the use of implants to support and retain removable dentures are evidence based treatment options with the potential for very high success rates. Often, alveolar bone and soft tissue also require replacement, so implant treatment frequently involves replacement of alveolar tissues using both biological and prosthetic means1 . We discusses indications for dental implants by considering the following factors
1. Why does the patient wish to replace missing teeth?
2. What are the prosthodontic advantages of implant treatment?
3. What is the problem with an existing fixed restoration or the natural teeth?
4. Is there a denture-related problem the patient wishes to solve?
5. Does the cause of missing or failing teeth have any influence on indication for implants?
6. Does the timing of tooth loss have any influence on indication for implants?
7. What are the main drawbacks of implant treatment?
1. Why does the patient wish to replace missing teeth? To improve aesthetics?
The wish to replace missing teeth is often understandably driven by a desire to smile with confidence and conform to socially accepted norms of appearance 1, 2. To improve masticatory function? Because teeth perform keys roles in mastication of food, their absence often causes compromise in chewing function and may also indirectly affect nutritional status by influencing food choices.
To improve speech function? The presence of teeth and alveolar structures is critical in production of certain speech sounds. Their absence can affect speech intelligibility (how an individual is able to communicate through speech) 1, 2. To enable wind instrument playing? Some wind instruments require anterior teeth to be present to enable the appropriate embrasure to be formed around the mouthpiece of the instrument. To regain what has been lost? Loss of a body part (e.g., a tooth) may be associated with a deep-seated desire to replace what is missing, irrespective of the role played by the anatomical part 1, 2.
2. What are the prosthodontic advantages of implant treatment?
To avoid tooth preparation and possible sequelae Removal of tooth structure, the inevitable exposure of cut tooth surface to bacteria in saliva, and other procedures involved in attaching bridge retainers to teeth are associated with a risk of pulp necrosis and the need for either extraction or endodontic treatment3 . No need for connectors between pontic and abutment teeth Implants are ideally suited to restoring missing teeth where there are interdental spaces, particularly in the aesthetic zone. Avoids mechanical risks of conventional bridges The longer the span of a fixed bridge, the higher the risk of mechanical complications such as superstructure fracture or decementation of a retainer. It follows that the longer the edentulous space, the more likely it is that implants are indicated as fixed tooth replacements 2,3. The deep complete overbite—No need to accommodate a denture connector When the mandibular incisors contact the palatal mucosa in the intercuspal position, it is difficult to provide a removable denture because the connection to the denture tooth will often produce an occlusal interference. A dental implant as the definitive replacement can circumvent this occlusal difficulty 1, 2. Concurrent use of an implant as an orthodontic anchor Dental implants are well suited to use as orthodontic anchors because they do not move through the alveolus when subjected to low-level prolonged (orthodontic) forces. The prosthodontic advantage lies in the ability to use a provisional restoration on an implant as a guide to orthodontic alignment and ultimately to replace the provisional restoration with a definitive one 1 . Linking implant restorations together Linking natural teeth together for whatever reason is a concern because of the potential for differential tooth movement causing failure at the tooth–restoration interface that can be difficult both to diagnose and to manage. Because implants have negligible differential movement, linking them together is prosthodontically acceptable. A practical advantage of linking implant restorations together is that it reduces the number of interdental contacts that may require adjustment in order to achieve accurate fit. Linking also provides the opportunity to share occlusal loads between a numbers of implants 1, 3. Retrievability of the restoration It is common for an implant restoration to be attached to the underlying implant in a way that allows it to be retrieved. This can allow for repair, replacement, or inspection if necessary1 . Denture retention and support Removable dentures can be significantly enhanced by implants, which provide both support and retention. This is a particular advantage for a complete denture in the edentulous mandible. Recording the jaw relations can also be facilitated by incorporating attachments into the registration appliances 4 . To take advantage of machined fitting parts One of the challenges of conventional crown and bridge dentistry is the need to capture accurate impressions of tooth preparations and adjacent gingival margins. Implant dentistry allows for the easy use of machined components to facilitate the impression stages of construction 5 .
3. What is the problem with an existing fixed restoration or the natural teeth?
Problematic bridgework Both conventional and minimal preparation adhesive bridges may fail for a number of reasons, including failure of the cement lute. It may be possible to restore the abutment teeth and improve their prognosis by leaving them as single units, replacing the missing teeth with implant restorations. Metallic retainers have the potential to significantly alter the shade of abutment teeth, particularly if they are thin. This problem is circumvented by using implants 3,6. Periodontal disease Periodontal disease may manifest as tooth hypermobility and migration causing discomfort, aesthetic problems, and occlusal difficulties. Alone or in combination, the latter can complicate the design of fixed and removable restorations. It may be appropriate to remove such teeth when providing dental implants. It is also important to consider the risk of future peri-implant infection arising from pathologic bacteria in the remaining periodontium and disease susceptibility of the individual. Unfortunately, periodontal disease causes loss of alveolar bone, which can severely compromise the volume of bone available for optimal implant placement 2 . Unrestorable teeth Apart from replacement of missing teeth, decisions are often required about teeth that are badly affected by caries, pulp/ periapical disease, root resorption, and mechanical failure. There are many factors to take into account when making what can be difficult decisions about the predictability of restoring teeth compared with extraction and replacement with implants 1,7.
4. Is there a denture-related problem the patient wishes to solve?
Improved removable denture By helping to support and retain removable dentures, a number of denture-related problems can be overcome, such as a tendency for loose dentures to stimulate a gag reflex or dentures that are loose and painful because they move in function. Implants give the potential to construct dentures without the need for visible clasps or palatal coverage 8 Fixed restoration instead of removable denture? It is not difficult to appreciate the desire patients may have to avoid a removable denture altogether. Not only is there the potential for improved function but also ageing-related perceptions of removable dentures may be avoided. Unfortunately, the pattern of alveolar resorption in the maxilla can make it difficult to construct fixed implant restorations that match the aesthetic and phonetic qualities of removable dentures. Multiple implants and the possible need for bone grafts also make this style of restoration expensive 8 .
5. Does the cause of missing or failing teeth have any influence on indication for implants?
In some situations, the cause of tooth loss may have a particular bearing on planning, treatment, and success of implant restorations. Pertinent factors are discussed in the following sections. If the patient is involved with medicolegal proceedings related to the loss of teeth, there may be an expectation that damage payments will fund implants. All parties must be fully aware of the circumstances and claim status 5 . Periodontal disease Loss of alveolar bone, complications due to further tooth loss, and the risk of future peri-implant disease pose challenges and limitations for this group of patients 2 . Congenital/developmental absence Failure of development of permanent teeth (and supporting tissues) can result in inadequate alveolar volume for dental implants. Malposition and malformation of the permanent teeth that do develop pose additional challenges. These patients may benefit from specialist multidisciplinary management. Patients in this category may also present at a young age when dental implants may not be advisable. Once integrated, implants will not migrate with the growing alveolus as healthy teeth do, so they can become malpositioned by the time craniofacial growth slows. Ectopic teeth that fail to erupt can pose an obstruction to implant positioning. Removal of ectopic teeth to allow implant insertion may result in an alveolar defect that can complicate implant placement 1 . Caries Planning for implants is more straightforward if the oral environment is stable. If caries is ongoing, it may mean that further tooth loss will occur with deleterious consequences for a long-term plan involving implants. Related to treatment for head and neck cancer Compromised teeth may need to be extracted when radiotherapy is to be used to treat head and neck cancer. Side effects of radiotherapy, such as oral dryness and poor-quality mucosa, can significantly affect the success of mucosa-borne removable dentures, making implant supported restorations a helpful option. However, there is a risk of precipitating osteoradionecrosis if implants are placed in irradiated alveolar bone 7. Tumour excision may involve dentoalveolar structures leaving a range of anatomical defects that may be amenable to restoration with fixed or removable prostheses. The need for ongoing tumour surveillance must be borne in mind when designing restorations for these patients. Trauma Young adults who have lost individual or small numbers of teeth as a result of trauma frequently present seeking replacement with implants. Implants may be particularly desirable if adjacent teeth are intact and would require significant irreversible adjustment to fashion them into bridge abutments. More extensive trauma may be accompanied by loss of alveolar or even basal bone. Resulting defects may require bone and soft tissue grafts to create sufficient alveolus to provide support and aesthetic frame for implants. There will be a limit to what is feasible and realistic in each case. It is important to consider whether lifestyles that pose a risk of traumatic damage to the teeth could likewise leave implant restorations at risk of damage 9 . Root resorption Teeth that undergo replacement root resorption during alveolar development may produce alveolar deficiency because a possible effect of tooth ankylosis is to inhibit local alveolar growth. The result may be a challenging vertical and horizontal alveolar volume deficiency. If replacement root resorption takes place after growth has ceased, then there is the potential for more bone to remain for an implant than would be the case after extraction of a nonresorbed root. Periradicular infection Residual periradicular infection has the potential to cause infection at an implant inserted in the vicinity. Implant insertion immediately after extraction of a tooth with periradicular infection is likely to carry a greater risk than insertion at a later date when there has been a chance for residual infection to be resolved. Periradicular infection is commonly associated with inflammatory bone resorption. Teeth that have been subjected to root surgery will also either have had periapical bone removed for surgical access or be associated with pathologic inflammatory bone resorption. Residual periradicular bone defects clearly have the potential to complicate implant insertion 1, 4. 6. Does the timing of tooth loss have any influence on indication for implants? Resorption of bundle bone around a tooth root and further localized alveolar remodelling begins when a tooth is lost. There may be a window of opportunity of up to 3 months following extraction or traumatic avulsion of teeth during which implant insertion can be more straightforward than if the alveolus is left to remodel for longer with likely loss of bone volume. Delaying may run the risk that implantation is not feasible without preliminary bone grafting to augment the alveolus 1 . 7. What are the main drawbacks of implant treatment? The need for surgery Provision of implants involves some level of surgical intervention, which may be seen as a drawback. The extent of surgery, the risk of damage to neighbouring structures, the likelihood of postoperative side effects and complications, and patient responses will vary greatly depending on numerous patient- and operator-related factors 5 . Cost and duration of treatment Implant treatment tends to be more expensive than nonimplant alternatives. It is also common for treatments to extend over several months or longer because of the need to wait for hard and soft tissue healing. Lack of implant product standardization Because there are hundreds of ever-evolving implant systems in use worldwide, patients may have difficulty locating a dentist who is willing and able to maintain and perhaps refurbish or repair restorations made with an unfamiliar implant system. Although not inevitable, mechanical and biological complications do occur, particularly for implant overdentures. Possible need for a tooth-free period There are occasions when a patient may not be able to have tooth replacement for short periods (days) during stages of treatment: typically, immediately following surgery to provide bone grafts or place implants. It may also be necessary for a patient to use a removable denture for a period of time during treatment even when fixed implant restorations are the ultimate objective. Difficulty achieving aesthetic perfection and easy access for oral hygiene Unless patient expectations are managed effectively, there is a risk of patient dissatisfaction with the aesthetic outcome of implant treatment. The main challenge in this respect is in relation to achieving a perfectly naturallooking gingival frame around an implant restoration in the anterior maxilla (often referred to as the aesthetic zone). Despite best efforts, the form of an implant superstructure may not be conducive to regular easy access for oral hygiene by the patient. In addition, what may be possible to clean when the patient has good dexterity and eyesight at the outset may prove impossible to clean if these faculties deteriorate with age or illness 1, 2, 6.
CONCLUSION
Dentures and bridges should always be considered as alternative approach for tooth replacement. Orthodontist can close some spaces. Implants are the treatment of choice for most edentulous spaces. Soft and hard tissue loss will compromise the appearances unless augmentation is considered. Prognosis of individual teeth and the whole dentition needs to be estimated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=723http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=7231. Francis J. Hughes, Kevin G. Seymour, Wendy Turner, Shakeel Shahdad, Francis Nohl Clinical Problem Solving in Periodontology and Implantology, Series First Edition Churchill livingstone ELSEVIER 2013.
2. Michael G. Newman, Henry H. Takei, Perry R. Klokkevold, Fermin A. Carranza, Carranza’s Clinical Periodontology 11th Edition 2012, Elsevier.
3. Johns RB, Jemt T, Heath MR, Hutton JE, McKenna S, McNamara DC, et al. A multicenter study of overdentures supported by Branemark implants. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 1992; 7:513-22.
4. Theisen FC, Shultz RE, Elledge DA. Displacement of a root form implant into the mandibular canal. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1990; 70: 24-8.
5. Schmitt A, Zarb GA. The longitudinal clinical effectiveness of osseointegrated dental implants for single-tooth replacement. Int J Prosthodont 1993; 6:197-202.
6. Jemt T, Linden B, Lekholm U. Failure and complications in 127 consecutively placed fixed partial prostheses supported by Branemark implants: from prosthetic treatment to first annual checkup. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 1992; 7:40-4.
7. Granstrom G, Tjellstrom A, Brånemark PI, Fornander J. Bone-anchored reconstruction of the irradiated head and neck cancer patient. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1993; 108:334-43.
8. Boerrigter EM, van Oort RP, Raghoebar GM, Stegenga B, Schoen PJ, Boering G. A controlled clinical trial of implantretained mandibular overdentures: clinical aspects. J Oral Rehabil 1997; 24:182-90.
9. Eckert SE, Meraw SJ, Cal E, Ow RK. Analysis of incidence and associated factors with fractured implants: a retrospective study. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 2000; 15:662-7.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareULTRASOUND BIOMICROSCOPY AS AN IMPORTANT DIAGNOSTIC ADJUNCT IN THE MANAGEMENT OF LIMBAL TUMORS
English3944Kabra Ruchi C.English Thakkar Hansa H.EnglishAim: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the high frequency sonographic characteristics of limbal tumors, their extent and invasion in the adjacent conjunctival and corneal tissue with the help of ultrasoundbiomicroscopy (UBM).
Material And Method: Sixty three cases of limbal tumors with conjunctival and or corneal extension were enrolled in our prospective non-randomized study and subjected to clinical and UBM examination. Result: Sixty three eyes of 63 patients were subjected to UBM. All masses had hyperechoic, highly reflective surface with solid acoustic internal pattern in 58(89.2%) cases. With the help of 50 MHz high frequency ultrasound the posterior margin was demarcated in 57(81%) of tumors and lateral margin in 42(67%).Intraocular tumor extension was appreciated as shallowing of anterior chamber, thickening of cilliary body and breach in Descemet’s membrane. Conclusion: Ultrasound biomicroscopy has dramatically improved resolution of anterior segment structures by noninvasive means. In vivo imaging of limbal tumors along with their biometry, delineation and extension helped us to decide the treatment protocol in our patients and proved to be an important diagnostic adjunct in management of limbal tumors. In the 54 patients we operated upon the sonographic findings correlated with clinicopathological results.
EnglishUltrasound biomicroscopy, Limbal tumorsINTRODUCTION
Ultrasound Biomicroscopy (UBM) uses high frequency ultrasonography ranging between 20 and 50MHz.The 50 MHz probe generally gives a penetration of 5 to 6 mm and a transverse resolution of about 50 microns and an axial resolution of about 25 microns. Higher frequency units achieve greater resolution (depending on the MHz rating of the transducer), with the disadvantage of shorter tissue penetration.[6] Over the time high frequency ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) has become a well established method for imaging anterior segment anatomical configuration and pathological abnormalities like glaucoma, cornea, iris pathologies and anterior segment tumors. Clinical assessment to assess the extent and depth of limbal masses with conjunctival and corneal extension is generally crude and the posterior margin of the tumor are typically revealed either during surgery or histopathological examination. Clinical findings which suggest invasion in to the globe or orbit include an palpable mass in orbit, irregular anterior chamber depth, anterior chamber cells, associated scleritis, presence of synechia, an intraocular mass or spontaneous perforation of the globe.[7,8] Pavlin and Foster were the first to describe the use of high frequency ultrasound to examine conjunctival tumors.[1] In our English literature search, we found there are several reports comparing UBM n OCT in fields of glaucoma and anterior segment surgery, however studies related to defining ultrasonographic characteristics of conjunctival or limbal tumors are few. In few related studies we found that UBM provides useful information regarding anterior segment tumor configuration and invasion which later proved to be of immense help in deciding the treatment protocol. In our study we specifically aim to assess and describe in a prospective manner the high frequency ultrasonographic characteristic of limbal tumors with conjunctival and corneal extension, their extent, configuration and the ability of sonographic waves to uncover invasion of tumor prior to surgical intervention. The information hence obtained regarding tumor configuration and invasion may prove to be immense help in deciding the treatment protocol of limbal tumors.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sixty three patients with tumors involving the limbus with conjunctival and or corneal extension who attended our oculoplasty clinic were enrolled in our prospective study done between April 2008 to March 2013 at our institute. As UBM is a non invasive OPD based procedure patients of all age and sex were included in the study. No specific exclusion criterion was predetermined in the study. All the patients enrolled in the study were subjected to a basic history taking, visual acquity testing, thorough clinical and slit-lamp examination, gonioscopy, fundus examination and B-Scan imaging. All the patients with limbal tumors after recording of visual acquity and a thorough workup as described above were subjected to UBM imaging at the very first visit to our institute. History for drug allergy was inquired especially proparacaine and moxifloxacin eye drops which had to be instilled in the eye prior to and after the procedure. All the patients were described the procedure and consent for examination, imaging and photography were done as per the routine protocol Demographic data including patient age (in years), gender, and address was recorded. Tumor features based on slit lamp examination regarding shape (diffuse, flat, dome, sphere, mixed) color (pigmented or nonpigmented), size (diameter in millimeter), extent, location (o’clock hours), dimension, feeding vessels were noted. After a complete work up all the patients with limbal tumors underwent UBM examination. UBM at our institute (OTI 2000) uses high frequency ultrasonograpy and requires an eye bath and reclining position of the patient to obtain images. The frequency of the transducer was set to 50MHz so the images hence acquired were of 50 micron resolution. All the patients were scanned in a supine position after anaesthetizing the ocular surface with topical proparacaine drops twice at five minute interval and after introduction of the water bath. Two dimensional images were obtained and analyzed. During UBM, scan is acquired with to and fro movement of the transducer. Depending on the distance the probe sweeps and the structures scanned underneath, cross sectional image of the cornea, iris, sclera, ciliary body, anterior chamber and anterior uveal tissue are seen. Both transverse and longitudinal scanned image can be obtained. For acquiring transverse images the probe movement should be parallel or tangential to limbus, whereas for longitudinal scans the probe is rotated 90 degree from position of transverse scan. Hence, in longitudinal scans the backand-forth movement of the transducer becomes perpendicular to the limbus. Longitudinal and Transverse scans were acquired in all cases in the study. The photographic record was kept on paper and in electronic format. The Caliper tool and the zoom tool which were already incorporated in the machine helped in the detail biometric analysis of the tumors. All the UBM features were recorded separately. Acoustic features (hollow/solid), internal pattern (homogenous/heterogeneous), tumor configuration (diffuse, flat, dome, sphere, mixed), tumor dimension, tumor thickness were noted along with extent of anterior, posterior and lateral margin. We recorded the visibility and demarcation of anterior posterior and lateral margin of the tumors as – margin visible or not visible. The invasion of Descemet’s membrane, anterior chamber, cilliary body, anterior choroid by tumor growth was documented. The extent of posterior shadowing in presence of pigmented masses was noted. In short, on UBM examination complete tumor analysis was done according to tumor visualization, resolution of the internal structures, pigmentation and demarcation of the margins and invasion of neighboring structure.
RESULTS
The mean age of patients with limbal tumors who underwent UBM at our institute was 48 years (range,1-84). 39(62%) were males and 24(38%) of patients were females. 36(57%) patients had right sided involvement whereas 27(43%) had left sided involvement. Fifty two (82.5%) patients presented with a single lesion and 11(17%) patients had multinodular lesion. The most common presentation of the single tumors was as dome shaped masses .These constituted 32 (50.7%) of the total tumors. The others shapes recognized on UBM were flat in 12 (19%) and spherical in 5(7.9%) cases. The tumor surface was hyperechoic in all patients 63(100%). Solid acoustic internal pattern was seen in 58(89.2%) and cystic internal pattern was seen in 5(7.9%) amongst all cases. The stroma was hypoechoic in 47(74.6%) and heteroechoic in 16(25.3%) patients. The Descemet’s membrane and corneal endothelium appeared as a hyperechoic layer. Breach in corneal endothelial integrity was seen in 5(8%) cases. Blunting and swallowing of anterior chamber structures was seen in 4(6.30%) cases. In 51(81%) patients the posterior plane could be identified and in 42(67%) the lateral margin of the lesion could be differentiated from the surrounding structures. The UBM features of all the 63 cases enrolled for the study are mentioned in table 1 and are given below Fiftyfour patients were finally operated upon and the specific diagnosis according to the clinicopathological data was obtained. The results of the histopathological data post surgery we obtained are listed in table 2. DISCUSSION High quality high frequency ultrasonographic biomicroscopic imaging allowed preoperative imaging of limbal tumors. This technology due to its ability to penetrate through the lesion into the eye and provide images of posterior and lateral extension of tumor improved our ability to assess the depth and extent of tumor invasion. With the help of the Caliper tool and the Zoom tool in the machine, a detailed biometric tumor analysis was possible. This in detail analysis indirectly helped to overcome the obvious limitation of clinical and slit lamp examination in assessing the tumor characteristics in toto and hence proved to be very valuable in preoperative surgical planning of tumor management. In our series we studied the various cross-sectional views of limbal tumors with UBM and recorded in detail the tumor surface characteristic, internal reflectivity, borders and its extension. The tumor surface appeared more reflective and hyperechoic as compared to the nearby normal epithelium. This can be probably attributed to hypercellularity, dyskeratosis, and different morphological characteristics of tumor cells as compared to normal cells. It was found that the tumor stroma generally showed solid acoustic internal pattern, cystic nature of the tumor was seen in only 8% of cases. This was well correlated clinically and histopathologically. Paul et al in their study of 11 cases wherein they evaluated high frequency ultrasonographic characteristic of conjunctival intraepithelial neoplasia and squamous cell carcinoma also found similar sonographic surface characteristics [3]. Ocular surface neoplasia is considered a low grade malignancy [13,14]. Recurrences of these lesions are common after surgical excision depending on the margin of involvement after surgical excision[13,14,15]. These lesions formed a major group in our study. High frequency ultrasonography allowed for the measurement of tumor thickness and tumor extensions and invasion of the surrounding structures. In about 81% of the lesions a posterior plane could be differentiated from the surrounding structure. Hence, demarcating the lesion on UBM and recording of the tumor thickness and extension proved to be of help in deciding the excisional and post excision plan to be executed. There is no doubt to the fact that the histopathological analysis still remains the gold standard for delineating deep invasion of limbal, conjunctival and corneal masses but the introduction of the use of a such minimally invasive diagnostic tool can potentially enable an optical biopsy in vivo. Intraocular extension though uncommon may occur in ocular surface neoplasia. The intraocular invasion may also be presented as scleritis and or by development of secondary glaucoma[16,17]. The morphological features of the conjunctiva, cornea, ciliary body and iris could be well studied with UBM and this helped to detect subtle penetration into the anterior chamber and involvement of anterior chamber structures. In lesions which showed deep penetration in UBM, tissue for patch grafting can be kept ready. Shields et al in a comparative study in assessing anterior segment tumors by UBM and anterior segment OCT concluded that for anterior segment tumors UBM offers better visualisation of the posterior margin and provides overall better images for entire tumor configuration compared with AS-OCT.[2} As with any technology, there are limitations of imaging limbal lesions with high frequency sonography. One limitation is that in presence of very thick solid lesions because of the posterior shadowing it is difficult to view the posterior extent of the tumor. Although in most of our cases a plane separating the lesion from normal surrounding structures could be differentiated this device cannot rule out depth of micro-invasion which is very important especially in cases of malignancy. A greater sample size along with correlation of histopathological data regarding invasion of tumor is needed to determine the sensitivity and specificity of the technique. Although not performed in this study we later realized that this technique of imaging could also have been used for monitoring the tumor dimensions as a response to conservative treatments like chemotherapy or brachytherapy. We further look forward to future generations of ultrasound biomicroscopy devices where with better resolution the diagnostic validity parameters of this device in deciding the extension and invasion of limbal masses will definitely improve.
CONCLUSION
The role of UBM in managing limbal tumors at this point remains as a very useful noninvasive diagnostic adjunct to the gold standard of diagnostic histopathology in delineating the extension and margins of tumor.This delineation of the tumor preoperatively is extremely useful to the surgeon in deciding the management protocol for patients of limbal tumors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in the references of this manuscript. Authors are also very grateful to all the authors/editors/publishers of all the articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=724http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=7241. PavlinCJ, MC Whae JA, MC Gowan HD. Ultrasound biomicroscopy of anterior segment ocular tumors. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:1220-8
2. Carlos Bianciotto, MD, Carol L. Shields et al. Assessment of Anterior Segment Tumors with Ultrasound Biomicroscopy versus Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography in 200 Cases. Ophthalmology.2011;118-7:1297-1302
3. Paul T Finger et al. High-Frequency Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Conjunctival Intraepithelial Neoplasia and Squamous CellCarcinoma.Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121:168-172
4. DH Char, G Kundert, R Bove, J B Crawford. 20 MHz high frequency ultrasound assessment of sclera and intraocular conjunctival squamous cell carcinoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86:632–635
5. Tunc M, Char DH, Crawford JB, et al. Intraepithelial and invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the conjunctiva: analysis of 60 cases. Br J Ophthalmol 1999; 83: 98–103.
6. Pavlin CJ, Foster FS. Ultrasound biomicroscopy high frequency ultrasound imaging of eye at microscopic resolution. RadiolClinNorth Am.1998; 36:1047-1057.
7. Char DH , Crawford JB, et al. Resection of intra ocular squamous cell carcinoma.Br J Ophthalmol.1992;76:123-5
8. Tunc M, Char DH, Crawford JB et al. Intraepithelial and invasive squamous cell carcinoma of conjunctiva: analysis of 60 cases. Br J Ophthalmol.1999;83:98-103
9. Katz NR, FingerPT, McCormikSA et al. Ultrasound biomicroscopy in management of malignant carcinoma of the iris. Arch Ophthalmol.1995; 113:1462-1463.
10. Tunc M, CharDH, CrawfordB, Miller T. Intraepithelial and invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the conjunctiva: analysis of 60 cases. Br J Ophthalmol.1999; 83:98-103.
11. Mahmood MA, Al-Rajhi A, Riley F, Karcioglu ZA. Sclerokeratitis: an unusual presentation of squamous cell carcinoma of the conjunctiva. Ophthalmology 2001; 108: 553-558.
12. Conway RM, Chew T, Golchet P et al. Ultrasoundbiomicroscopy: role in diagnosis and management in 130 patients evaluated for anterior segment tumors. Br J Ophthalmol .2005; 89:950-5
13. Pizzarello LD, Jakobie FA. Bowen’s disease of the conjunctiva a misnomer. In: Jakobiec FA, editor. Ocular and adenexal tumors. Birmingham (AL) 7 Aesculapius.
14. Erie JC, Campbell RJ, Liesegang J. Conjunctival and corneal intraepithelial and invasive neoplasia. Ophthalmology 1986;93(2):176-83
15. Caroll JM, KuwabaraT. A classification of limbal epithelioma. Arch Ophthalmol 1965;73:541-45.
16. Sheilds JA, Sheilds CL, Gunduz K, EagleJr RC. The 1998 Pan American Lecture. Intraocular invasion of conjunctival squamous cell carcinoma in five patients. Ophthal Plast Reconstructive Surg 1999;15(3):153-60.
17. Schlote T, MielkeJ, Rohrback JM. Massive intraocular invasion of conjunctiva by squamous cell carcinoma: a case report. Klin Monatsbl Augenhenheikd 2001;2189(7):518-21
18. Katz NR, Finger PT, Mc Cornick SA et al. Ultrasound biomicroscopy in the management of malignant melanoma of the iris. Arch Ophthalmol.1995; 113; 1462-1463.
19. Finger PT, MC CornikSA, Lombardo J, Tello C, Ritch R. Epithelial inclusion cyst of the iris. Arch Ophthalmol.1995; 113:777-780.
20. Reminik LR, FingerPT, Ritch R, Weiss S, Ishikawa H. Ultrasound biomicroscopy in the diagnosis and management of anterior segment tumors. J AM Assoc. 1998; 69: 575-581.
21. Marigo FA, Finger PT, McCornik SA, et al. Iris and ciliary body melanomas: Ultrasound biomicroscopy with histopathological correlation. Arch Ophthalmol. 2000; 118:1515-1521.
22. Marigo FA, Esaki K, Finger PT, et al. Differential diagnosis of anterior segment cysts by ultrasound biomicroscopy. Ophthalmology 1999;106:2131-2135
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11HealthcareA STUDY OF PROFUNDA FEMORIS ARTERY IN CADAVERS
English4550Vaishali Prakash AhireEnglish Lakshmi RajgopalEnglishIntroduction: Profunda femoris artery is the largest branch of femoral artery. It is frequently incorporated in vascular reconstructive procedures in the proximal leg. Objectives: This study is aimed at observing the site of origin of profunda femoris artery, measuring the distance between midinguinal point (MIP) and the site of origin of profunda femoris artery (PFA) and studying the variations of its branches. Materials and methods: This study was performed on one hundred and three lower limbs of properly embalmed cadavers.Results: We found that the mean distance between MIP and the site of origin of PFA was 4.3 ± 1.13 cm on the right side and on the left side it was 4.3 ± 1.08 cm. We also found that there was a high origin of PFA in 3 cases (5.8%) on the right side and in 4 cases (7.8%) on the left side. In two lower limbs, there was bilateral higher origin of PFA. The lateral circumflex femoral artery (LCFA) was arising from the femoral artery in 9.6% of right lower limbs and 2% of left lower limbs. The medial circumflex femoral artery (MCFA) was arising from the femoral artery in 3.9% of the left lower limbs. Conclusion: The anatomical knowledge of location of PFA and variations of its branches i.e. medial and lateral circumflex femoral arteries is important to avoid inadvertent damage to these vessels and to avoid complications during surgeries.
EnglishMid-inguinal point, Profunda femoris artery, Medial circumflex femoral artery, Lateral circumflex femoral arteryINTRODUCTION
Profunda femoris artery (PFA) is the largest branch of femoral artery; it is the principal supply to the muscles of the thigh. It forms the main route of collateral circulation in occlusion of femoral artery. The femoral artery at the femoral triangle is directly opened at the origin of the PFA for femoral embolectomy in lower limb arterial thromboembolism.1 The PFA is also used for arteriography, flap surgery etc. It is frequently incorporated in vascular reconstructive procedures in the proximal leg.2 In this study we measured the distance between midinguinal point (MIP) and the site of origin of PFA. We also observed the variations of medial circumflex femoral artery (MCFA) and lateral circumflex femoral artery (LCFA). The anatomical knowledge of location of the PFA and variations of its branches is very important for clinicians, surgeons, plastic surgeons, radiologists and interventional radiologists for performing various clinical procedures.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
One hundred and three lower limbs of 54 formalin-fixed cadavers from a tertiary care hospital were dissected carefully. In five lower limbs, the femoral artery and its branches had got cut during dissection by students and hence were not included in this study. The femoral triangle was dissected carefully. The profunda femoris artery (PFA) and its branches were identified. The anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) and pubic symphysis (PS) were identified and marked with the help of coloured pins. The distance between ASIS and PS was measured with scale and the midpoint of this distance was taken as midinguinal point (MIP). The MIP was also marked with a coloured pin. The distance between MIP and the site of origin of PFA was measured (Fig. 1). We also observed any variation in the site of origin of medial and lateral circumflex femoral arteries. This study was conducted over a period of two years
RESULTS
The profunda femoris artery (PFA) was present in all the lower limbs. The range of distance between MIP and the site of origin of PFA was 1.3 – 7.5 cm in 52 right lower limbs and 2.0 – 6.6 cm in 51 left lower limbs. The mean distance was 4.3 ± 1.13 cm on the right side and on the left side it was 4.3 ± 1.08 cm. There was a high origin of PFA in 3 cases (5.8%) on the right side and in 4 cases (7.8%) on the left side. In two lower limbs, there was bilateral higher origin of PFA. In these cases, the mean distance between the MIP and the site of origin of PFA was 1.7 cm on the right side and it was 2.2 cm on the left side. We found that the LCFA was arising from the femoral artery in 9.6% of right lower limbs and 2% of left lower limbs (Fig. 2). In all other cases it was arising from the PFA. The mean distance between MIP and the site of origin of LCFA from femoral artery was 4.3 cm on both the sides. We also found that the MCFA was not arising from the femoral artery in any of the right lower limb. The MCFA was arising from the femoral artery in 3.9% of the left lower limbs (Fig. 3). The mean distance between MIP and the site of origin of MCFA from femoral artery on the left side was 2.9 cm.
DISCUSSION
Some authors have measured the distance of profunda femoris artery (PFA) from midpoint of inguinal ligament or just from inguinal ligament. In this study, we measured the distance of PFA from mid-inguinal point (MIP) and we have compared the results with similar studies in the literature.
Origin of PFA with reference to inguinal ligament
Siddharth P et al in 1985 dissected 100 lower limbs and found that the distance between the inguinal ligament and the site of origin of PFA was 4.4 cm.3 In 1990, William Chleborad et al analysed student dissections of 101 cadaver extremities (61 males and 40 females) and found that the mean distance of PFA from the inguinal ligament was 5.30 ± 1.47 cm on the right side and it was 5.31 ± 1.47 cm on the left side.4 Origin of PFA with reference to midpoint of inguinal ligament (Table 1) Many authors have measured the distance of PFA from the midpoint of inguinal ligament. Those studies and their results are tabulated separately.
Origin of PFA with reference to MIP (Table 2)
Manjappa T, Prasanna LC in 2012 dissected 40 properly embalmed human cadaver specimens and found that there was absence of PFA in one case, no such variation was found in the present study.11 In 2012, Mamatha H et al dissected 40 lower limbs and measured the distance of origin of PFA from MIP. The range of this distance was 3.5 – 5 cm.12 Suthar K, Patil D et al in 2013 described the femoral artery and its branches in detailed. They dissected 50 lower limbs and found that the distance of origin of PFA from MIP ranged in between 4 – 6 cm.13 In 2013, Kulkarni SP et al dissected 60 lower limbs and found that the origin of PFA was more distal than other studies.14
High origin of PFA
MB Samarawickrama et al in 2009 dissected 26 lower limbs and mentioned that in 23% of the cases the PFA was originating closer to the inguinal ligament from the lateral aspect of the femoral artery.1 In 2011, Dixit DP, Kubavat DM et al dissected 228 lower limbs and found that in two cases, the PFA originated at a higher level i.e. between 0 – 1 cm from the midpoint of inguinal ligament.7 Mamatha H et al in 2012 dissected 40 lower limbs and found that the higher origin of the PFA was seen in 5% of the cases. The mean distance between MIP and the site of origin of PFA was 1.3 cm.12 In 2013 Sabnis AS studied the anatomical variations of the PFA. The author dissected 60 lower limbs and studied the point of origin, course and branches of PFA. The author found that in 18 lower limbs the PFA was arising just below the inguinal ligament.9 Suthar K, Patil D et al in 2013 dissected 50 lower limbs and found that in 23% of cases the PFA originated from lateral aspect of femoral artery. They also commented that the PFA arose laterally when it originated closer to the inguinal ligament.13
LCFA arising directly from the femoral artery
J Perera in 1993, dissected 62 lower limbs and found that the LCFA arose from the femoral artery in 14.6% of cases.15 In 2001, Dixit DP, Mehta LA and Kothari ML studied the origin and course of PFA and its branches. They dissected 48 lower limbs and found that the LCFA on the right side was arising from the femoral artery in 8.3% of cases. On the left side, the LCFA was arising as a common stem with PFA in 8.3% of cases.5 Baptist Marina et al in 2007 dissected 40 lower limbs and found that the LCFA was arising from the femoral artery in only one case (2.5%).6 In 2008, Uzel M, Tanyeli E, Yildirim M dissected 110 lower limbs and found that the LCFA was a branch from the femoral artery in 19.1% of cases.16 Tanvaa Tansatit et al in 2008 dissected 60 lower limbs and found that LCFA was originating from the PFA in 56.7% of cases and from the femoral artery in 43.3% of cases.17 In 2010, Prakash et al dissected 64 lower limbs and found that the LCFA was originating from femoral artery in 12 out of 64 (18.7%) extremities.2 Manjappa T, Prasanna LC in 2012 dissected 40 lower limbs and found that the LCFA on the right side was arising from the PFA in 80% of cases and from the femoral artery in 20% of cases. On the left side, it arose from the PFA in 70% 0f cases and from the femoral artery in 25% of cases.11 Suthar K, Patil D et al, in 2013 dissected 50 lower limbs and found that the LCFA was arising from the PFA in 80% of cases and from the femoral artery in 20% of cases.13
MCFA arising directly from the femoral artery
J Perera in 1993 reported the variations of origin of circumflex femoral arteries dissected 62 lower limbs and found that the MCFA arose from the femoral artery in 35.4% of cases.15 Emanuel Gautier et al in 2000 dissected 24 lower limbs and found that the MCFA was originating from the femoral artery in 16.7% of cases.21 In 2001, Dixit DP, Mehta LA and Kothari ML studied the origin and course of PFA and its branches. They dissected 48 lower limbs and found that the MCFA on the right side was arising the femoral artery in 29.1% of cases. On the left side, the MCFA was arising from the femoral artery in 12.5% of cases.5 Ercan Tanyeli, Uzel M et al in 2006 dissected 100 lower limbs and found that the MCFA was a branch from the PFA in 79% of cases and from the femoral artery in 15% of cases.22 In 2007, Baptist Marina et al dissected 40 lower limbs and found that the MCFA was arising from the femoral artery in only one case (2.5%).6 MB Samarawickrama et al in 2009 dissected 26 lower limbs and found that the MCFA arose from the PFA in 62% of cases whereas it originated from the femoral artery in 31% of cases.1 In 2010, Prakash et al dissected 64 lower limbs and found that the MCFA was originating from the femoral artery in 21 out of 64 (32.8%) extremities.2 In 2012, Mamatha H et al dissected 40 lower limbs and found that the MCFA arose from the PFA in 87.5% of cases while it was originating from the femoral artery in 12.5% of cases.12 Danish Anwer et al in 2013 dissected 60 lower limbs and found that the MCFA was originating from the PFA in 73.3% of cases and from the femoral artery in 21.7% of cases.10
CONCLUSION
The anatomical knowledge of location of profunda femoris artery and variations of its branches i.e. medial and lateral circumflex femoral arteries is important to avoid inadvertent damage to these vessels and to avoid complications during surgeries.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Authors would like to extend their gratitude to Dr Shubangi Parkar, Dean-incharge, Seth G. S. Medical College and K.E.M. Hospital, Mumbai and Dr P. S. Bhuiyan, Professor & Head, Department of Anatomy, Seth G. S. Medical College, Mumba
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=725http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=7251. Samarawickrama MB, Nanayakkara BG, Wimalagunarathna KWR, Nishantha DG, Walawage UB. “Branching pattern of the femoral artery at the femoral triangle: a cadaver study.” Galle Med J. 2009; 14(1): 31-34.
2. Prakash, Jyoti kumari, A kumar bhardwaj, Jose BA, S kumar yadav, G singh. “Variations in the origins of the profunda femoris, medial and lateral femoral circumflex arteries: a cadaver study in the Indian population.” Rom J Morphol Embryol. 2010; 51(1): 167-170.
3. Siddharth P, Smith NL, Robert A Mason, Fabio Giron. “Variational anatomy of the deep femoral artery.” Anat Rec. 1985; 212(2): 206-209.
4. Chleborad WP, David L Dawson. “The profunda femoris artery: variations and clinical applications.” Clin Anat. 1990; 3(1): 33-40.
5. Dixit DP, Mehta LA, Kothari ML. “Variations in the origin and course of profunda femoris.” J Anat Soc India. 2001; 50(1): 6-7.
6. Baptist M, Sultana F, Hussain T. Anatomical Variations; The origin of profunda femoris artery, its branches and diameter of femoral artery. Professional Med J. 2007; 14(3): 523-527.
7. Dixit Daksha, Dharati M Kubavat, Sureshbhai P Rathod et al. “A study of variations in the origin of profunda femoris artery and its circumflex branches.” Int J Biol Med Res. 2011; 2(4): 1084-1089.
8. Thitilertdecha, Siriporn Rungruang et al. The origin of profunda femoris artery in Thais. Siriraj Medical Journal. 2012; 64: 34-36.
9. Sabnis AS. “Anatomical Variations of Profunda Femoris Artery.” Journal of Clinical Research Letters. 2013; 4(1): 54- 56.
10. Anwer Danish, Karmalkar Arun Shankar, Humbarwadi RS. “A study of variation in origin of profunda femoris artery and its branches.” Int J Biol Med Res. 2013; 4(6): 366-368
11. Manjappa T, Prasanna LC. “Anatomical Variations of the Profunda Femoris Artery and Its Branches—A Cadaveric Study in South Indian Population.” Indian Journal of Surgery. 2012: 1-5.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241621EnglishN2014November11General SciencesTHE GENUS OSCILLATORIA VAUCHER (OSCILLATORIALES: CYANOPROKARYOTA) IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA
English5163Jayanta SikdarEnglish Jai Prakash KeshriEnglishIn spite of its ubiquitous occurrence our knowledge about Cyanoprokaryotes of tropical countries is not proper (Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005). Oscillatoria Vaucher is the most ubiquitous genus of Oscillatoriales of Cyanoprokaryota growing in almost all accessible habitats starting from hot springs to snow-fed rocky areas. Its adaptability to different climatic conditions is marvelous. In India Oscillatoria Vaucher is represented by over 76 species (Desikachary 1959, Anand, 1989, 1998). During systematic investigations on the algal flora of West Bengal the authors recorded following species of Oscillatoria viz O. obscura Brühl et Biswas, O. sancta (Kützing) Gomont, O. simplicissima Gomont, O. anguina (Bory) Gomont, O. subbrevis Schmidle, O. nitida Škorbatov, O. proboscidea Gomont, O. tenuis Agardh ex Gomont, O. salina Biswas, O. princeps Vaucher ex Gomont, O. raoi DeToni, J., O. limosa Agardh ex Gomont, O. amoena (Kützing) Gomont, O. vizagapatnesis Rao, C.B., O. okeni Agardh ex Gomont and O. laete-virens (Crouan) Gomont. The distributions of different species have been discussed. O. simplicissima, O. princeps, O. subbrevis, O. sancta and O. tenuis are most common species in unpolluted habitats where as O. limosa is common in polluted habitats. O. nitida appears to be the first Cyanoprokaryote recorded in India.
EnglishOscillatoriales, Cyanoprokaryotes, West Bengal, IndiaINTRODUCTION
In spite of good quantum of work done on Indian Cyanoprokaryotes our knowledge about this group is not proper. According to the world authorities (Komárek and Anagnostidis 1999, 2005) this knowledge is to be updated at least in the tropical countries. Investigations in India have been done in scattered manner. This venture has been taken to fill the lacuna concentrating genus and area wise. In this investigation the genus Oscillatoria Vaucher has been taken into consideration. It is represented by over 76 species (Desikachary 1959, Anand, 1989, 1998) in India. The distributional records however need to be checked all over the country because of its various roles in wide climatic conditions and due to its wide ecological adaptability. Keeping this fact in mind the present investigation has been done. In this account following 16 species of the genus Oscillatoria have been recorded from Singur block, Hooghly district of West Bengal. Cyanoprokaryotes of West Bengal has been studied by several workers. Biswas (1925) worked on road slimes of Calcutta. Banerji (1938) reported some cyanoprokaryotes of adjoining area from Calcutta. Jana and Sarkar (1971) reported few cyanoprokaryotes from the thermal springs in Bakreshwar. Mukhopadhyay and Chatterjee (1981) prepared a checklist of cyanoprokaryota in the rice field of 24-Pargana district. Pal and Santra (1982) worked on Murshidabad district. Sen et al. (1987, 1998) worked on Gangetic planes of West Bengal. Santra et al (1988) provided information on cyanoprokaryotes of saline habitats. Sen and Naskar (2003) worked on the flora unusual habitats of Sundarban. Sinha and Mukerjee (1975a, 1975b and 1984) investigated the cyanoprokaryota of Bankura district. Some other works have been done by Gupta (1965, 1975), Gupta and Sen (1987a, 1987b), Brühl and Biswas (1922a, 1922b), Prain (1905), Naskar et al., 2008, Chakraborty et al. 2010 and Keshri and Chatterjee (2010).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The Singur block is part of the Hooghly district of West Bengal from which the samples have been collected throughout the year. Freshly collected materials were stored in 5% formalin in polythene bags (size 4” X 3”), tagged and ecological notes recorded in field data book. Lugol’s Iodine in the ratio of 1:100 of water samples were sometimes used for phytoplanktonic samples. pH and temperature of the water bodies were measured using pH paper (Merck indicator range 1-10). 10% glycerin or G.F.W. solution (Bando1988) was used as mountant for microscopical observation. Algal specimens were worked out with Olympus GB compound microscope. Camera Lucida drawings were made for identification up to species level and digital photographs were also taken from the Carl Zeiss Axiostar microscope with Axio vision 4.8 software. Algal materials were identified with the help of standard literature (Desikachary 1959, Prescott 1962, Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005).
RESULTS
Following sixteen taxa of Oscillatoria have been recorded in this investigation
1. Oscillatoria limosa Agardh ex Gomont 1892
Geitler 1932, page 944, figure 598d; Desikachary 1959, page 206, plate 42, figure 11; Prescott 1962, page 489, plate 109, figure 17; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 593, figure 886. Thallus dark blue green, trichome straight, not constricted at the cross-walls, 10 µm broad and 4 µm long, granules uniformly distributed, end cell rounded and thickened, apex not attenuated, cross walls frequently granulated. Collection No. JS-49; Date: - 18/11/2011 pH:- 6.5; Temperature- 30°C; Place:- Near Singur Health Center, West Bengal. Habitat: - Aquatic, lodged on the surface of a stagnant polluted water body. Distribution in India:- Andhra Pradesh (Ghousuddin, 1937; Munawar, 1974; Rao, 1977); Assam (Deka and Sarma, 2011); Bihar (Vasishta, 1968); Gujarat (Kamat, 1962-63; Gupta, 1964); Himachal Pradesh (Vasishta, 1968; Kumar et al., 2013); Uttarakhand (Gupta, 2005); Jammu and Kashmir (Anand, 1979); Karnataka (Bharati and Bongale, 1975a, 1975b; Bongale and Bharati, 1980a); Kerala (Shaji and Panikkar, 1994); Maharashtra (Vasishta, 1968; Kamat, 1968b; Tiwari, 1972, 1975; Ashtekar and Kamat, 1980; Kumawat and Jawale, 2006); Odisha (Rao, 1939; Mohanty, 1982; Dash et al., 2011), Panjab (Vasishta, 1961, Prasad and Srivastava, 1965a; Sarma and Kanta, 1978); Tamil Nadu (Ganapati, 1940, Ramkrishnan and Kannan, 1992; Subramaniyan et al., 2012; Ramanathan et al., 2013); Uttar Pradesh (Ahmad, 1967, 1972; Kumar, 1970; Singh et al., 1970; Khan and Kumari, 1972; Khan and Rawat, 1972; Pal and Yadav, 1974; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Darbal et al., 1978; Rai and Kumar, 1979; Prasad and Mehrotra, 1980; Pandey, 1982; Pandey and Pandey, 1982; Misra and Srivastava, 2005; Tiwari and Chauhan, 2006; Misra et al., 2008), West Bengal (Martens, 1870, 1871, Prain, 1905; Biswas, 1927, 1942; Kachroo, 1959; Chatterjee et al., 1980; Sen and Gupta, 1998; Naskar et al., 2008; Chakraborty et al. 2010, Sen Sarkar et al., 2013)
2. Oscillatoria simplicissima Gomont 1892
Synonym: Phormidium simplicissimum (Gomont) Anagnostidis and Komárek 1988 Geitler 1932, page 961; Desikachary 1959, page 224; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 586, figure 876. Thallus light green, not constricted at the cross-walls, trichome more or less straight, 6-8 µm broad and 4 µm long, granule uniformly distributed, end cell rounded, not capitate. Collection No. JS-26, 142, 145, 157; Date: - 25/10/2011, 28/01/2012 pH:- 6, Temperature- 28°C; Place:- Near Singur Abani Maidan, West Bengal. Habitat: - Attached on the aquatic weeds in a small water body. Distribution in India:- Punjab (Sarma and Kanta, 1978); Karnataka (Kamat, 1972); Mahrashtra (Bhosale et al.. 2012); Madhya Pradesh (Sharma and Naik, 1996); Odisha (Dash et al., 2011); Uttar Pradesh (Kumar, 1970; Pal and Yadav, 1974; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Pal, 1975); West Bengal (Sen and Gupta, 1998; Chakraborty et al. 2010).
3. Oscillatoria sancta (Kützing) Gomont 1892
Desikachary 1959, page 203, plate 42, figure 10; Geitler 1932, page 943, figure 598c; Prescott 1962, page 490, plate 110, figure 4; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 594, figure 890. Thallus dark blue green, mucilaginous sheath present, trichome more or less straight, constricted at the crosswalls, 12 µm broad and 6 µm long, end cell hemispherical and attenuated, slightly capitate with a thickened membrane. Collection No. JS-228; Date: - 17/03/2012 pH: -7; Temperature- 30°C; Place:- Beside Singur Mahamaya High School, West Bengal. Habitat: - Lodged on the surface of aquatic weeds. Distribution in India:-Assam (Deka and Sarma, 2011); Bihar (Rao, 1939; Vasishta, 1968; Sinha and Srivastava, 1980); Delhi (Rao, 1940); Himachal Pradesh (Vasishta, 1968); Jammu and Kashmir (Kant and Kachroo, 1975); Kar-nataka (Gonzalves and Joshi, 1946; Vasishta, 1968); Odisha (Rao, 1939; Rao and Pattnaik, 1975; Mohanty, 1982); Punjab (Vasishta, 1961; Grover and Pandhol, 1975; Pandhol and Grover, 1976; Sarma and Kanta, 1978); Maharashtra (Karande et al., 2012; Patil and Neelima, 2013); Uttar Pradesh (Rao, 1937; Gupta, 1956; Singh, 1959a; Bendre and Kumar, 1975, Pal, 1975; Prasad and Mehrotra, 1980; Prasad and Saxena, 1980; Pandey and Pandey, 1982); West Bengal (Banerji, 1938; Kachroo, 1959; Sen and Gupta, 1998)
4. Oscillatoria obscura Brühl et Biswas 1922
Brühl et Biswas 1922, page 6, plate 2, figure 9; Geitler 1932, page 945; Desikachary 1959, page 207; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 599. Trichome 4 µm broad and 2 µm long, end cell rounded, nearly straight, thallus blue green colour, constriction not present at the cross-walls, cross wall granulated, trichome attenuated at the apex. Collection No. JS-141; Date: - 28/01/2012 pH:- 6.5; Temperature- 32°C; Place:- Near Singur Abani Maidan, West Bengal. Habitat: - Aquatic, attached on an aquatic weed in a rice field. Distribution in India:- Uttar Pradesh (Rao, 1937; Pandey, 1965a; Kumar 1970; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Prasad and Mehrotra, 1980; Pal, 1975; Chadha and Pandey, 1983; Tiwari and Chauhan, 2006); Bihar (Laloraya and Mitra, 1973; Jha et al., 1986); Odisha (Rao, 1938a; Laloraya and Mitra, 1973; Mohanty, 1982); Andra Pradesh (Laloraya and Mitra,1973); Karnataka (Bongale and Bharati, 1980; Somashekar and Ramaswamy, 1984); Punjab (Grover and Pandhol, 1975; Pandhol and Grover, 1976); Jammu and Kashmir (Goyal et al., 1984); Madhya Pradesh (Sharma and Naik, 1996); West Bengal (Laloraya and Mitra, 1973, Sinha and Mukherjee, 1975b; Pal and Santra, 1982; Sen and Gupta, 1998; Chakraborty et al. 2010).
5. Oscillatoria subbrevis Schmidle 1901
Geitler 1932, page 946, figure 601b; Desikachary 1959, page 207, plate 37, figure 2 and plate 40, figure 1; Prescott 1962, page 491, plate 107, figure 23; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 587, figure 878; Thallus yellow green, trichome almost straight, constriation absent at the cross-walls, 8 µm broad and 4 µm long, end cell capitate. Collection No. JS-32, 49; Date:- 05/11/2011 pH: - 6.5; Temperature- 32°C; Place:- Near Singur Co-operative Bank, West Bengal. Habitat:-Floating on the water body and attached with weeds. Distribution in India:- Assam (Baruah et al. 2009; Deka and Sarma, 2011); Maharashtra (Dixit 1936; Gonzalves and Joshi, 1943; Vasishta, 1968; Marathe and Sontakke, 1977; Tarar and Kelkar, 1979; Bharate and Tarar, 1982; Thomas and Gonzalves 1965; Ansari et al. 2012; Nandan and Ahuja 2010; Thakur and Behere 2008; Patil and Nandan 2011; Tarar and Mazumdar 1981; Charian 2010a; Charian 2010b; Kumawat and Jawale 2006, Patil and Neelima. 2013; Karande et al., 2012); Jammu and Kasmir (Prasad and Srivastava 1965); Uttar Pradesh (Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Misra et al. 2008; Tiwari and Chauhan 2006; Misra et al., 2008; Singh 1959a; Singh 1959b; Dubey et al. 2010; Goyal et al. 2008; Gupta and Agrawal 2008; Dwivedi 2010; Singh and Saxena 1969; Rao, 1936; Prasad and Srivastava, 1965, 1968; Pandey, 1969; Khan, 1970; Kumar, 1970; Singh and Chaturvedi, 1970; Pal and Yadav, 1974; Pal, 1975; Rai and Kumar, 1976, 1979; Prasad and Saxena, 1980; Pandey, 1982a); Arunachal Pradesh (Sudhakar and Venkateswarlu 1989; Mikter et al. 2006); Tamil Nadu (Anand and Subramanian, 1994; Muthukumar et al. 2007; Kasthuri et al. 2011; Sugumar et al. 2011; Balasingh 2010; Nagasathya and Thajuddin 2008; Senthilkumar and Sivakumar 2008; Kannan and Vasantha 1992; Sankaran 1998; Vetriselvi et al. 2011; Singh and Balasingh 2011; Vijayakumar et al. 2007; Anand and Subramanian 1994; Subramaniyan et al., 2012; Madhumathi and Vijayakumar, 2013); Punjab (Singh 1941; Vasishta, 1960b; Prasad and Srivastava, 1965; Grover and Pandhol, 1975; Pandhol and Grover, 1976; Sarma and Kant, 1978); Karnataka (Bharati and Bongle, 1975a; Bongale and Bharati, 1980a; Basavarajappa et al. 2010; Kumar and Hosmani 2010; Somashekar and Ramaswami 1984); Madhya Pradesh (Garg and Garg 2002; Singh and Samdariya 2006), Jharkhand (Kumar and Sahu 2012); Bihar (Saha and Wujek 1989; Kumar and Choudhary 2009; Bharadwaja 1963); Kerala (Shaji and Panikkar 1994; Senthil et al. 2012); Odisha (Dash et al., 2011); Rajasthan (Vishnoi and Srivastava 2006); Andhra Pradesh (Reddy and Venkateswarlu 1992; Reddy and Venkateswarlu 1985); Arunachal Pradesh (Singh et al. 1997); Sikkim (Suseela and Toppo, 2004); Odisha (Dey et al. 2010; Dash et al. 2011); West Bengal (Sen and Gupta, 1998; Sen and Gupta 1998; Naskar et al. 2008; Chakraborty et al. 2010); Gujarat (Gupta, 1964); Himachal Pradesh (Vasishta, 1968); Kerala (Shaji and Panikkar, 1994); Uttarakhand (Gupta, 2005).
6. Oscillatoria anguina (Bory) Gomont 1892
Desikachary 1959, page 210, plate 38, figure 11; Geitler 1932, page 948, figure 599b; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 592, figure 885; Prescott 1962, page 485, plate 108, figure 24. Thallus yellowish green, trichome almost straight, constriction absent at the cross-walls, 8 µm broad and 4 µm long, end cell capitate and slightly thickened membrane present, cross walls more or less granulated. Collection No. JS-8; Date: 09/08/2011 pH:- 7; Temperature- 31°C; Place:- Beside Singur station, West Bengal. Habitat:- Aquatic, lodged on weeds in a small stagnant water body. Distribution in India: - Assam (Deka and Sarma, 2011); Uttar Pradesh (Pandey, 1965); Odisha (Mohanty, 1982); Bihar (Rao, 1939); Delhi (Rao, 1940); West Bengal (Mukhopadhyay and Chatterjee, 1981)
7. Oscillatoria salina Biswas 1926
Synonym: Oscillatoria indica P.C.Silva 1996 Geitler 1932, page 979, figure 624; Desikachary 1959, page 239; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 601, figure 906. Thallus blue green, trichome more or less straight, end of the trichome arcuated and pointed constriction not present at the cross-walls, cells 4 µm broad and 2 µm long, end cell not capitate, calyptra absent. Collection No. JS-51; Date: - 05/11/2011 pH:- 7; Temperature- 30°C; Place:- Near Singur Co-operative Bank, West Bengal.. Habitat: - Aquatic, lodged on the surface of the submerged aquatic plants. Distribution in India:- Goa (Modassir and Ansari, 2011); Kerala (Shaji and Panikkar, 1994); Maharashtra (Ashtekar and Kamat, 1980); Tamil Nadu (Anand and Subramanian, 1994; Nedumaran and Manokaran, 2009; Sugumar et al., 2011; Subramaniyan et al., 2012; Silambarasan et al., 2012, Madhumathi and Vijayakumar, 2013; Ramanathan et al., 2013); Uttar Pradesh (Prasad and Mehrota, 1980); West Bengal (Banerji, 1938; Sen and Gupta, 1998; Chakraborty et al., 2010)
8. Oscillatoria tenuis Agardh ex Gomont 1892
Geitler 1932, page 959, figure 611f, g; Desikachary 1959, page 222, plate 42, figure 15; Prescott 1962, page 491, plate 110, figure 8, 9, 14; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 587, figure 878. Thallus blue green, trichome straight, constriction not present at the cross-walls, cell 6 µm broad and 4 µm long, granule present uniformly. Collection No. JS-58, 158, Date: - 18/11/2011, 28/01/2012 pH:- 6.5; Temperature- 28°C; Place:- Beside Mahamaya High School, West Bengal. Habitat: - Aquatic, lodged on the aquatic weeds in a rice field. Distribution in India:- Andhra Pradesh (Ghusuddin, 1937; Zafar, 1968); Assam (Deka and Sarma, 2011); Bihar (Rao, 1939, Vasishta, 1968); Delhi (Rao, 1940); Gujarat (Kamat, 1962-63; Vasishta, 1968; Marathe and Choudhari, 1976); Kerala (Shaji and Panikkar, 1994); Himachal Pradesh (Kamat, 1968a; Vasishta, 1968); Karnataka (Kamat, 1972); Maharashtra (Gonzalves and Joshi, 1946; Kamat, 1963b; Vasishta, 1968; Ashtekar and Kamat, 1980; Kumawat and Jawale, 2006); Manipur (Brühl and Biswas, 1926); Madhya Pradesh (Sharma and Naik, 1996); Odisha (Rao, 1939; Mohanty, 1982; Dash et al., 2011); Tamil Nadu (Fremy, 1942; Ramkrishnan and Kannan, 1992; Anand and Subramanian, 1994; Silambarasan et al., 2012, Subramaniyan et al., 2012; Madhumathi and Vijayakumar, 2013; Ramanathan et al., 2013); Uttar Pradesh (Rao, 1937; Saxena, 1960; Prasad, 1964-65; Kumar, 1970; Singh et al., 1970, Ahmad, 1972; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Pal, 1975; Darbel et al., 1978; Prasad and Saxena, 1980; Misra and Srivastava, 2005; Tiwari and Chauhan, 2006; Misra et al., 2008); West Bengal (Martens, 1870; Prain, 1905; Brühl and Biswas, 1922; Biswas, 1925, 1927, 1942; Banerji, 1938; Vasishta, 1968; Chakraborty et al. 2010).
9. Oscillatoria proboscidea Gomont 1892
Geitler 1932, page 948, figure 598b; Desikachary 1959, page 211, plate 38, figure 9; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 596, figure 891; Thallus pale green colour, trichome straight, constriation absent at the cross-walls, cell 8 µm broad and 4 µm long, tip portion capitate. Collection No. JS-71; Date: - 30/11/2011 pH:- 7.5; Temperature- 32°C; Place:- Near Singur Health center, West Bengal. Habitat: Aquatic, lodged on the submerged bamboo leaves. Distribution in India:- Assam (Deka and Sarma, 2011); Andhra Pradesh (Sarojini, 1996); Bihar (Vasishta,1968; Sinha and Srivastava, 1980); Delhi (Rao, 1940); Gujrat (Vasishta, 1968); Himachal Pradesh (Vasishta, 1968; Kumar et al., 2013); Karnataka (Bongale and Bharati, 1980a); Madhya Pradesh (Tiwari, 1972, 1975); Maharashtra (Gonzalves, 1947; Vasishta, 1968; Tiwari, 1972; 1975; Kamat, 1975; Kumawat and Jawale, 2006); Tamil Nadu (Tiwari, 1972; 1975; Anand and Subramanian, 1994; Subramaniyan et al., 2012); Uttar Pradesh (Singh, 1939a, 1939b, Venkataraman, 1958; Pandey, 1965a, 1965b; Ahmad, 1967; Khan, 1970; Kumar, 1970; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Pal, 1975; Chaturvedi and Pandey, 1976; Darbal et al., 1978; Tiwari and Chauhan, 2006); West Bengal (Vasishta, 1968; Sinha and Mukherjee, 1975; Naskar et al., 2008) 10. Oscillatoria nitida Škorbatov 1923 Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 586, figure 875 Thallus green colour, constriation absent at the crosswalls, cells 8 µm broad and 4 µm long, trichome straight, tip portion rounded, granule uniformly present. Collection No. JS-68; Date: - 30/11/2011 pH:- 7; Temperature- 31°; Place:- Near Singur Abani Maidan, West Bengal. Habitat: - Growing on the surface of a stagnant water body. Distribution in India:- This is probably the first record of the species from India. 11. Oscillatoria raoi DeToni, J. 1939 Desikachary 1959, page 223, plate 42, figure 16-19 Thallus light green colour, trichome more or less straight, constriction not present at the joints, cells 5 µm broad and 4 µm long, end cell more or less rounded not capitate, without any calyptra. Collection No. JS-34, 155; Date: - 05/11/2011, 28/01/2012 pH:- 7; Temperature- 29°C; Place:- Near Singur Co-operative Bank, West Bengal. Habitat: - Aquatic, found in the stagnant water in a rice field. Distribution in India:- Karnataka (Somashekar , 1984); Uttar Pradesh (Kumar, 1970; Pal, 1975; Bendre and Kumar, 1975); Punjab (Pandhol and Grover, 1976; Sarma and Kant, 1978); Maharashtra (Bhoge and Ragothaman, 1986; Kumawat and Jawale 2006); West Bengal (Sinha and Mukherjee, 1984; Chakraborty et al. 2010). 12. Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher ex Gomont 1982 Desikachary 1959, page 210, plate 37, figure 1, 10, 11, 13, 14; Geitler 1932, page 947, figure 598a, 601c-g; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 590, figure 883; Prescott 1962, page 489, plate 110, figure 1. Thallus blue green, slightly curved, constriction absent at the cross-walls, 6 µm long and 24 µm broad, end cell slightly capitates. Collection No. JS-15; Date: - 09/08/2011 pH:- 6.5; Temperature- 30°C; Place:- Beside Singur station, West Bengal. Habitat: - Whitish green algal mass, attached on the surface of the aquatic plants. Distribution in India:- Andhra Pradesh (Ghousuddin, 1937; Venkateswarlu, 1976; Sarojini, 1996); Assam (Biswas, 1934; Deka and Sarma, 2011); Delhi (Rao, 1940); Gujarat (Gupta, 1964; Patel et al., 1974); Himachal Pradesh (Kumar et al., 2013); Jammu and Kashmir (Subba-Raju, 1963; Mir and Suri, 1975; Anand, 1976, 1979); Karnataka (Srinivasan, 1963; Kamat, 1972; Tiwari, 1972, 1975; Bongale and Bharati, 1980a, 1980b); Kerala (Suxena et al., 1973; Shaji and Panikkar, 1994); Madhya Pradesh (Bendre and Agarkar, 1965; Agarkar, 1967; Tiwari, 1972, 1975; Dikshit and Agarkar, 1974); Maharashtra (Dixit, 1936; Kamat, 1963b; 1974; Palli,1975; Kumawat and Jawale, 2006); Odisha (Rao, 1939; Mohanty, 1982; Dash et al., 2011; Das andv Adhikary, 2012; Patil and Neelima. 2013); Punjab (Vasishta, 1963; Grover and Pandhol,1975; Pandhol and Grover, 1976); Rajasthan (Goyal, 1964); Tamil Nadu (Rao, 1938b; Tiwari, 1972, 1975; Ramkrishnan and Kannan, 1992; Anand and Subramanian, 1994; Subramaniyan et al., 2012; Madhumathi and Vijayakumar, 2013); Uttar Pradesh (Rao, 1936; Mitra, 1961; Gupta, 1957; Singh, 1959b; Saxena, 1960; Gupta and Nair, 1962; Prasad, 1964-65; Das et al., 1965; Gupta and Srivastava, 1965; Gupta, 1966; Shukla, 1966; Kumar, 1970; Singh et al., 1970; Pal and Yadav, 1974; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Chaturvedi and Pandey, 1976; Rai and Kumar, 1976, 1979; Darbal et al., 1978; Prasad and Saxena, 1980; Pandey, 1982a; Misra and Srivastava, 2005; Tiwari and Chauhan, 2006; Misra et al., 2008); Uttarakhand (Gupta, 2005); West Bengal (Biswas, 1925, 1927, 1949; Banerji, 1938; Kachroo, 1959; Sinha and Mukherjee, 1975; Sen and Gupta, 1998; Chakraborty et al. 2010) This appears to be the one of the most common species of Oscillatoria in India. 13. Oscillatoria okeni Agardh ex Gomont 1892 Synonym: Phormidium okenii (C. Agardh) Anagnostidis and Komárek 1988 Desikachary 1959, page 231, plate 38, figure 17 Thallus yellowish green, trichome more or less straight, constriction at the cross-walls, 4-5 µm broad and 4 µm long, end cell attenuated, slightly bent, undulating, end cell not capitate, without calyptra. Collection No. JS-69,117; Date: - 12/01/2012 pH:- 7; Temperature- 32°C; Place:- Near Singur Co-operative Bank, West Bengal. Habitat: - Aquatic, lodged on the aquatic plants in a rice field.
Distribution in India:- Assam (Deka and Sarma, 2011); Uttar Pradesh (Rao 1937, Kumar, 1970; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Chaturvedi and Pandey 1976, Pandey and Chaturvedi 1979, Chadha and Pandey 1983; Singh and Suxena 1969; Tiwari and Chauhan 2006; Mishra et al. 2008); Andra Pradesh (Sarojini 1996); Arunachal Pradesh (Singh et al. 1997); Delhi (Suryaprakasa 1940); Odisha (Rao 1938a; Ghadai et al. 2010; Mohanty 1982); Southern east coast of India (Thajuddin and Subramanian 1992); Tamil Nadu (Tiwari 1972; Deepa et al. 2011; Subramaniyan et al., 2012); Madhya Pradesh (Singh and Samdariya 2006); Bihar (Ranjana et al. 1998); Uttarakhand (Shukla et al. 2009); Maharashtra (Kamat 1963a; Kamat 1975); Punjab (Pandhol and Grover 1976, Sarma and Kanta 1978); Kerala (Parukutty 1940); West Bengal (Sinha and Mukherjee 1975a, Sen Sarkar et al. 2013); Karnataka (Kamat, 1972). 14. Oscillatoria vizagapatnesis Rao, C.B. 1938 Rao, C.B. 1938, page89, figure 1-3; Desikachary 1959, page 205, plate 39, figure 16,18; Komárek and Anagnostidis 2005, page 602, figure 909 Thallus yellowish green colour, trichome straight, 12 µm broad and 4 µm long, without constriction at the crosswalls, tip portion elliptical forming cap like structure. Collection No. JS-126; Date:- 12/01/2012 pH: - 7; Temperature- 29°C; Place:- Near Singur Abani Maidan, West Bengal. Habitat: - Light green, growing on the moist soil. Distribution in India:- Andhra Pradesh (Rao, 1938b); Assam (Deka and Sarma, 2011); Gujrat (Vaidya and Upadhayaya, 1968); Jammu and Kashmir (Anand, 1976, 1979); Karnataka (Kamat, 1972); Kerala (Shaji and Panikkar, 1994); Madhya Pradesh (Tiwari, 1972, 1975); Maharashtra (Patil and Neelima. 2013); Rajasthan (Anantani and Marathe, 1972); Odisha (Sethi et al., 2012); Tamil Nadu (Tiwari, 1972; 1975); Uttar Pradsh (Khan, 1970; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Pal, 1975); West Bengal (Chakraborty et al. 2010; Sen Sarkar et al., 2013). 15. Oscillatoria amoena (Kützing) Gomont 1892 Desikachary 1959, page 230, plate 40, figure 12; Prescott 1962, page 484, plate 109, figure 2-4. Thallus light green colour, trichome straight, end cell slightly attenuated, 8 µm broad and 4 µm long, end cells capitate, slightly constricted at the cell walls, granule uniformly distributed, end cell with calyptra. Collection No. JS-32, 49; Date: - 05/11/2011 pH: - 6.5; Temperature- 30°C; Place:- Beside Singur Mahamaya High School, West Bengal. Habitat: - Attached on the surface of the bamboo in a shaded area in a small water body. Distribution in India:- Uttar Pradesh (Chaturvedi and Pandey, 1976; Prasad and Mehrotra, 1980); Karnataka (Bongale and Bharati, 1980; Somashekar and Ramaswamy, 1984); Jammu and Kashmir (Goyal et al., 1984); Madhya Pradesh (Mishra and Purohit, 1979); Punjab (Sarma et al., 1979); West Bengal (Sinha and Mukherjee, 1975b; Mkhopadhyay and Chatterjee, 1981). 16. Oscillatoria laete-virens P.L.Crouan and H.M.Crouan ex Gomont 1892 Synonym: Phormidium laetevirens (P.L.Crouan and H.M.Crouan ex Gomont) Anagnostidis and Komárek 1988 Geitler 1932, page 949, figure 603c; Desikachary 1959, page 213. Thallus blue green in colour, trichome slightly bent at tip portion, cross wall slightly constricted, 4 µm broad and 6 µm long, apical part slightly attenuated and bent, cells more or less as long as broad, end cell not capitates, without calyptras. Collection No. JS-131; Date: - 28/01/2012 pH:- 7; Temperature- 30°C; Place:- Beside Singur station, West Bengal. Habitat: - Aquatic, attached on aquatic weeds. Distribution in India:- Gujarat (Vasishta, 1968); Himachal Pradesh (Vasishta, 1968; Kumar et al., 2013); Karnataka (Bongale and Bharati, 1980a); Maharashtra (Kumawat and Jawale, 2006); Uttar Pradesh (Gupta, 1975; Singh, 1961; Gupta and Nair, 1962; Gupta, 1966; Pandey, 1965a. 1965b; Pandey, 1969, 1970; Khan and Kumari, 1972; Pal and Yadav, 1974; Bendre and Kumar, 1975; Chaturvedi and Pandey, 1976; Pandey and Chaturvedi, 1979; Prasad and Mehrota, 1980; Prasad and Saxena, 1942; Kumar, 1970), Madhya Pradesh (Sharma and Naik, 1996); Andhra Pradesh (Sarojini, 1996); Tamil Nadu (Subramaniyan et al., 2012; Madhumathi and Vijayakumar, 2013). DISCUSSION During the course of investigation it has been observed that O. simplicissima, O. princeps, O. subbrevis, O. sancta and O. tenuis are most dominant species in unpolluted habitats and O. limosa is common in polluted habitats. From this studies we can easily explain the ecological preferences of various species of Oscillatoria and role of some of them (O. limosa) as pollution indicator.
CONCLUSION
Under this study we recorded 16 species of Oscillatoria Vaucher from various localities of Singur block of Hooghly district of West Bengal. Actually these types of studies pinpoint the habitat specified knowledge of this group of algae in the concerned area. As we all know that cyanoprokaryotic members can withstand a wide ecological regime this study will also help to fill the existing lacunae in our knowledge of the biodiversity of the group in this country. In this study we found O. simplicissima, O. princeps, O. subbrevis, O. sancta and O. tenuis as most common species in unpolluted habitats where as O. limosa is common in polluted habitats. O. nitida appears to be the first Cyanoprokaryote recorded in India.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thankful to the Head, The department of Botany, The University of Burdwan for proving the necessary laboratory facilities and one of the authors Mr. Jayanta Sikdar is also thankful to University Grants commission (UGC), New Delhi, for providing financial assistance under RGNFS scheme. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
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LEGEND TO FIGURES
Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher ex Gomont; Plate I, Figure 1 and Plate III, Figure 29 Oscillatoria simplicissima Gomont; Plate I, Figure 2 and Plate III, Figure 24 Oscillatoria laete-virens PAGEL.Crouan and H.M.Crouan ex Gomont; Plate I, Figure 3 Oscillatoria vizagapatnesis Rao, C.B.; Plate I, Figure 4 Oscillatoria proboscidea Gomont; Plate I, Figure 5 and Plate III, Figure 18 Oscillatoria anguina (Bory) Gomont; Plate I, Figure 6 and Plate III, Figure 30 Oscillatoria limosa Agardh ex Gomont; Plate II, Figure 7 and Plate III, Figure 17 Oscillatoria nitida Škorbatov; Plate II, Figure 8 and Plate III, Figure 25 Oscillatoria raoi DeToni, J.; Plate II, Figure 9 and Plate III, Figure 20 Oscillatoria sancta (Kützing) Gomont; Plate II, Figure 10 and Plate III, Figure 22 Oscillatoria subbrevis Schmidle; Plate II, Figure 11 and Plate III, Figure 19 Oscillatoria salina Biswas; Plate II, Figure 12 and Plate III, Figure 23 Oscillatoria tenuis Agardh ex Gomont; Plate II, Figure 13 and Plate III, Figure 21 Oscillatoria okeni Agardh ex Gomont; Plate II, Figure 14 and Plate III, Figure 27 Oscillatoria amoena (Kützing) Gomont; Plate II, Figure 15 and Plate III, Figure 28 Oscillatoria obscura Brühl et Biswas; Plate II, Figure 16 and Plate III, Figure 26 Study Area: - Plate IV