Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Warning: Cannot modify header information - headers already sent by (output started at /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php:195) in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 234
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20General SciencesApplication of Road Traffic Accident Modelling for Future Prediction: A Case Study of Kolkata
English0108Tuhin Kanti Ray1English Sukla Bhaduri2EnglishAt present most of the metropolitan cities of India are going through the burden of increasing road traffic accidents. Road accident modelling is the most efficient way to estimate the future growth of traffic accidents. Present paper does not engage in any kind of model formulation but it gives emphasis on the application of the already formulated models on Road Traffic Accidents (RTA) for the prediction of traffic accidents in India in general and Kolkata in particular. Smeed’s model, Andreassen’s equation and Regression Based Model are primarily applied for the fulfilment of the objective of the present research paper. Results derived indicate that occurrences of traffic accidents in India are still very high, while in the metropolitan city of Kolkata their numbers has been checked significantly. Assessment of the condition in Kolkata shows that though fatalities due to road accidents are reducing in numbers, the rate of injuries are still quite high, indicating the need to further enhance road safety parameters. But overall estimate of RTA determines that traffic accidents taking place in Kolkata are way below their predicted values indicating increasingly better management of traffic situation in the city.
EnglishAccident model, Future prediction, Fatalities, Injuries, Traffic managementIntroduction:
Success of any kind of hazard management depends on its future prediction. Road traffic accident (RTA) is not an exception. A sustainable management of RTA is very much associated with its future prediction. Around 85 percent of all global road deaths, 90 percent of the disability-adjusted life years lost due to crashes, and 96 percent of all children killed worldwide as a result of road traffic injuries occur in low-income and middle-income countries (WHO, 2004). Therefore gradually it had been realised that modelling of road traffic accidents is an urgent requirement for the developing countries as most of the low and middle income countries belong to the developing world.
Many researchers have devoted their research work to the area of road accident including its prediction and estimation. Initially this kind of modelling was started in the developed country with the increasing burden of vehicular population and road crashes while it started at a much later stage in developing countries.
Application of Prediction techniques to Road Safety:
R.J. Smeed in 1949 first proposed the relationship among traffic fatalities, traffic congestion and country population. In his law traffic congestion was measured by the proxy of motor vehicle registration. Smeed’s analysis was very much criticised by Andreassen for model accuracy. According to his argument it was not applicable universally to all countries. Andreassen produced a generalized relationship incorporating the attributes responsible for fatalities as stated by Smeed but with his modification in 1985. Adams (1987) researched on Smeed’s law and gave some insights in the analysis. Various other researchers like Livneh and Hakkert, Partyka, Jacobs and Cutting have developed models for prediction of road traffic accidents for the developing countries.
The Indian Scenario of Road Traffic Accident Prediction Modelling:
Several notable studies have been conducted by a group of researcher for metropolitan cities in India. Mohan (1985) attempted a study to understand total crash pattern in Delhi. One of the pioneering works has been attempted by Valli and Sarkar in 1993 and it was based on the different states and union territories. Another research in this regard has been done by them (1997) where they developed a model for India based on Smeed’s approach. Valli (2005) developed another road accident model by using Smeed’s and Andreassen’s equation for the large metropolitan cities of India.
In 2004 Valli had done a research work to develop road accident models for large metropolitan cities of India. This work incorporated the scenario of Kolkata with other metro cities of India and calculated rate of change in road accident indices for Kolkata. Here based on Smeed’s model, an attempt has been made to develop relationship among the parameters, namely, road accidents, the number of registered motor vehicles and population (Valli, 2004). Just after this one in 2005 Chakraborti and Roy made another attempt to develop model for Kolkata and it had been taken to predict future accidents following Smeed’s approach (Chakraborty and Roy, 2005).
Objective of the Study:
The prime objective of the study is to predict the future trend of road traffic accident in Kolkata that can be considered as an indicator for the assessment of the efficiency of present management system of traffic accident in this city.
Methodology:
Generally, prediction of accidents is performed by analyzing the various factors responsible for accidents and quantifying their effect on the accidents using statistical techniques (Vhat et all, 2013). Smeed’s formula established the relationship among road traffic accident, traffic congestion and country population whereby an increasing traffic volume causes to an increase in fatalities per capita. But the same is also responsible for the decrease in fatalities per vehicle. Smeed’s formula is expressed as:
Where
D = annual road deaths,
n = registered number of motor vehicles
p = population
Smeed examined the relationship on a number of road fatalities with those of motor vehicles and the population of twenty countries in 1938. It was observed that ten of the values of death calculated by his formula were within fifteen percent of their actual values, nine were within forty percent and one was in error by sixty seven percent. Smeed and Jaffocate further made an attempt to predict the accident figures of seventy countries for the time period of 1960 to 1967 (Smeed and Jaffocate, 1970). It was found that except five out of seventy countries, Smeed’s model was able to predict the number of fatalities successfully. India was one of them.
However Andreassen had criticised Smeed’s formula for its accuracy and opined that it cannot be applied universally. In 1985 Andreassen formulated a generalised relationship in the form of:
D= const* (N) M1 * (P) M2
In this present study therefore Smeed’s model has been incorporated to analyse the fatality pattern caused due to road accidents. Nevertheless following Valli (2005) who in his model attempted to make a comparative study based on Smeed’s and Andreassen’s equation values of accident for India from 1970 to 2001, Andreassen’s equation has also been incorporated in this present research work. The comparative analysis according to Valli reveals that the estimated values getting from Andreassen’s equation was less deviated from the actual values than the values obtained from Smeed’s equation. Hence an endeavour has been done to assess the efficiency of the stated equations based on range of percentage deviation from the actual number of accident cases for India in the said time period.
Furthermore for understanding the situation in Kolkata three types of attributes namely number of accident cases, mid-year population and annual growth of motor vehicles for the time period of 1998 to 2014 has been considered. The population of the intermediate years i.e. years between two successive census years has been calculated by the population projection method. Predicted values thereby derived from different models have been used for a comparative study to get the final findings. However to assess the situation in Kolkata along with Smeed’s model Regression analysis has also been applied. Regression Based Model is given by the formula:
The models for total accident, fatality and injury are:
Model for total accident: C/N = 0.003764(N/P)-0.73 (r = 0.9875) ......... (i)
Model for fatality: F/N = 0.0001025(N/P)-0.998 (r = 0.9898) ........ (ii)
Model for injury: I/N = 0.001255(N/P)-0.64 (r = 0.989) ......... (iii)
where:
C/N = Number of total accidents per vehicular population
F/N = Number of fatalities per vehicular population
I/N = Number of injuries per vehicular population and
N/P = Number of registered motor vehicles per population
Discussion and Findings
This paper highlights predicted situation of accidents in India in general and Kolkata in particular.
Case of India
In spite of the fact that India is a low motorised country, urbanization and industrialization is accentuating the need to develop roadways in the country leading to increase in vehicular population as well. As a result, one of the negative influences of such development has emerged very significant i.e. urban areas along roadways and highways are facing the burgeoning problem of road traffic accident. In this situation the estimation of future trend of road traffic accident would help to deal with the negative impacts of development. Keeping this in mind, in this study, the case of India has been taken up and inspiration has been taken from the previous work done by Valli (2005). A comparison was made by him of the estimated values of the total accident cases by the Smeed’s model as well as Andreassen’s equation. Following the same, in this present paper the comparison made of the given years in table 1 has revealed significant difference in their level of accuracy. In case of Andreassen’s equation range of percentage deviation from the actual number of accident cases was lesser than the Smeed’s model. In Andreassen’s equation near about sixty three percent of the years were lying in between -4 to +4 range of percentage deviation where as in
the same range of percentage deviation, the value was near about thirty percent under Smeed’s model. A representation of the same is shown in figure 1 and 2.
Comparison of the estimated values of the total fatal cases as shown in Table 2 has revealed a higher level of accuracy than the estimation of total number of accident cases. It was observed from the range of percentage deviation of the actual number of fatal cases, that almost sixty six percent of the studied year were lying in between the range of -5 to +5 in Andreassen’s equation and in case of Smeed’s Model the same was near about forty four percent. Though a significant variation can be observed between both the equation, the fact that a relationship exists between fatal cases and increase in population and motor vehicles cannot be overlooked. However, this relation is not as strong as for injury cases as one would observe in the following paragraph.
In injury cases (Table 3) near about sixty to seventy percentage of the years during this studied time period were lying in between the percentage deviation range of -5 to +5. This indicates a positive co-relation between number of injury cases with that of population and number of motor vehicles, which have been established by both the models.
The above assessment has revealed that level of accuracy was high for the estimation of total injury cases but for fatal cases and overall accident case estimates the accuracy is low. An alarming fact is that near about forty to fifty percent years, for all cases, were lying in the positively deviated range i.e. in those years the actual values were higher than the estimated values. This may be considered as a resultant effect of the poor management in those respective years. Nevertheless inference drawn therefore implies a chance of further improvement of the existing traffic management system in urban as well as suburban and rural parts of the India, so that the rate of accidents may be checked.
Case of Kolkata
Having assessed the situation of India, the latter half of the paper focuses on the condition in Kolkata. The city of Kolkata is characterised by an unprecedented growth in population numbers accounting to 4.5 million in the core and in its suburbs to 14.1 million (Census, 2011), making it the third most populous metropolitan area in the country. Only in the last decade has there been a decline in population growth rate to -1.9% whereas the population of the suburbs has increased by 11.5%. Not only has this huge population of the city increased the usage of transportation facilities, but also a large section of working population who commutes to the city daily, contributes to the ever increasing travel demand. It has been estimated that about 20 million passengers and 11.04 million vehicles move in and around the city on almost all working days. Furthermore the vehicular population of the city has also been on a rise from 2.61 lakh in 1985 to 11 lakh in 2011. It has been projected that in 2025 vehicle population will increase by 3 million and transit trips to 32 million (Comprehensive Mobility Plan, 2008). This ever increasing number of vehicles and road users enhances the chances of road accidents. Moreover the fact that Kolkata has a very less road space of only 8% of the total area of the city, haphazard road development and mixed vehicular traffic within the same road space augments to the enormity of the problem.
With this background a study has been attempted to understand the present traffic situation and the atrocities of road traffic accidents in the city. For this purpose the regression method has been used to estimate the situation of total number of accident cases as well as the number of injury cases in Kolkata.
Estimation of the total number of cases reveals that the predicted values were higher than the actual values. However, in the initial phase (1998-2000) of the studied time period, the actual values were slightly higher than the predicted values (Fig 3). This can be attributed to the fact that within these years in comparison to its vehicular and population growth, the rise in the total number of accidents was insignificant. Since then the gap between estimated and actual values have increased and by the year 2004 the gap was more than hundred percent which in between 2005 and 2010 rose more than three hundred percent. Drastic fall in the total number of accident cases during this time period might be cited as responsible for such a huge negative difference between actual and predicted values. Nevertheless after this time period the gap has once again started to decrease due to further enhanced road accident cases.
Accidents not only involve fatalities but also injuries. Infact the number of injury cases, be it severe or minor are quite significant along roads both in India as well as Kolkata, particularly due to rash driving and disobey of traffic rules. However, calculations reveal that in almost all the years of the studied time period, the actual values of injury cases were lower than the estimated values of injury cases (Fig 4). This is indicative of the fact that even though Kolkata has been experiencing an overwhelming pressure of vehicles as well as population, Kolkata Traffic Police have been efficient enough to manage the traffic and has been able to enforce the traffic rules and regulations upon the road users, be it drivers or pedestrians. The difference between actual and estimated values in case of injury cases was not as higher as in case of total accident cases and that indicates a further scope of improvement of the injury prevention measures which have been taken by the respective authorities.
The most atrocious of all accident types are the fatal cases. Though there numbers are much less than that of injuries and further have been curbed due to immense improvements in medical facilities in the country as well as in the metropolis, there occurrences are always of great significance since it questions the management of not only the traffic departments but also the health departments as well. Hence being the most serious of all accident types, to calculate estimated fatalities, both Smeed’s and Regression method has been used. Table 5 calculates the percentage of error and their mean values. A comparison of observed and actual fatalities based on above two approaches as presented in the table depicts that observed values compare quite favourably with regression based model than that of the Smeed’s model of estimation.
In the Smeed’s equation the average gap between the actual fatalities and estimated fatalities was around 74 percent, indicating a better management of traffic accidents on the part of Kolkata Police, as the predicted values are much higher than the actual values.
Regression based model formulated on same parameters, on the other hand, is more useful because in this model it is also possible to estimate total number of accident, fatalities and injuries. In the case of Kolkata it has been observed that the gap between actual and estimated values is negligible. Nevertheless this model also highlights the efficient management of traffic accidents in Kolkata practically because the percentage of error as compared to the mean values in regression model like Smeed’s equation is less diverse.
Conclusion:
This quantitative approach to the study of accident cases unfolds a fact that traffic management though within municipal areas in the country are efficiently carried out (as observed in case of Kolkata), outside its jurisdiction areas a lack in the efficiencies of police personnel is observed. Since the drive towards urbanization is of great significance many a times the rural and suburban roads lack proper driving standards. Inadequate traffic signs, police personnel and inefficient imposition of regulations, beyond municipal boundaries increase accident cases, thus in case of India actual values of occurrences of accidents lie far above the predicted values. Moreover, in other metropolitan areas of the country, where vehicular population in much higher than that of Kolkata, the traffic management system need to be even greater equipped. Contrarily in Kolkata Police Jurisdictional Area total number of accidents, the actual growth of fatalities and injury cases was revealed to be lesser than their model based predicted values. It could be stated here that often accident cases are not recorded by the concerned authorities and to add to the woes though accident cases are recorded their impact on the victims are overlooked. This might create some discrepancies in the final tabulation of fatal and injury cases. But quantification is an important way of supporting field realities. The decreasing number of accidents in general and improved road condition makes the efforts of Kolkata police essentially visible. It is an admirable fact that in spite of its increasing vehicular and passenger pressure, Kolkata police have given their best endeavour to manage its traffic and control the severity of the traffic hazards.
Acknowledgement:
The first author would like to express his sincere gratitude to the Kolkata Police for giving the opportunity and permission of collecting several published as well as unpublished data which were required for the preparation of the present paper. He is also thankful to the Public Vehicle Department, Kolkata, for providing the data related to the growth of motor vehicles during the studied time period in the Kolkata Police Jurisdictional Area. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=116http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=116Andreassen, D. (1985): Linking deaths with vehicles and population, Traffic Engineering and Control Vol.26, Issue11, pp.547-549.
Bhat, P., Hebbani, L.,RamaV, A.,Kolhar,P.(2013):Accident Prediction Modelling for an urban road of Bangalore, International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology,IC-RICE Conference Issue,pp.137-141.
Chakraborty S. and S. K. Roy (2005): Traffic Accident Characteristics of Kolkata, Transport and Communication Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific, No. 74, pp.75-86.
Elvik R. (1995): Analysis of official economic valuations of traffic accident fatalities in 20 motorized countries, Accid Anal Prev., Vol. 27, pp.237-47.
Emenalo, M., Pustelli, A., Ciampi and Joshi, H.P. (1987): Analysis of road traffic accidents data in Zambia, Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 28, pp.635-640.
Fieldwick, R. and Brown, R.J. (1987): The effect of speed limits on road casualties, Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol.28, pp.635-640.
Jacobs, G.D. and Cutting, C.A. (1986): Further research on accident rates in developing countries, Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 18 No.2, pp.119-127.
Jamal Al-Matawah and Khair Jadaan (2009): Application of Prediction Techniques to Road Safety in Developing Countries, International Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Vol.7,No.2,pp.169-175
Jamal, R.M. Ameen and Jamil A. Naji. (2001): Causal models for road accident Fatalities in Yemen, Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 33, pp.547-561.
John, G.U. Adams (1987): Smeed’s law : Some further thoughts, Traffic Engineering and
Control, Vol. 28,pp.70-73.
Livneh, M. and Hakkert, A.S. (1972): Some factors affecting the increase of road accidents in developing countries, with particular reference to Israel, Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol.4,pp.117-133.
Mekky Ali. (1985): Effects of rapid increase in motorization levels on road fatality rates in some rich developing countries Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol.17,No.2, pp.101-109.
Minter, A.L. (1987): Road casualties improvement by learning processes, Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 28, pp.74-79.
Mohan Dinesh (1985): An analysis of road traffic fatalities in Delhi, India, Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 17, No.1, pp.33-45.
Sharmin E. S. C., Md. Ashiqur R., Quazi S. H. and Syed A. A.(2015): Road accident models for Khulna metropolitan city, Bangladesh, Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol.1,No.1,pp.1-8
Smeed, R. J. (1949): Some statistical aspects of road safety research, Journal of Royal Statistical Society, Series: A (Statistics in Society), part1, series 4, pp.1-24.
Smeed, R.J. and Jaffocate (1970): Effects of changes in motorization in various countries on the number of road fatalities, Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 12(3): pp.150-151.
Susan, C. Partyka. (1984): Simple models of fatality trends using employment and population data, Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 16, No.3, pp.211-222.
World Health Organization (2004): World report on road traffic injury prevention Ed:
Margie Peden et all, World Health Organization, Geneva, p.4.
Valli, Pramada P. and P.K. Sarkar (1993): Variation in the pattern of road accidents in different states and union territories in India, Proceedings of the third National Conference on Transportation systems studies: Analysis and Policy, pp. 1X-5 to 1X-9.
Valli, P. and P.K. Sarkar (1997): Models for road accidents in India, Highway Research Bulletin, vol. 56, New Delhi, Indian Road Congress, pp. 1-11.
Valli PP (2005) : Road Accident Models for Large Metropolitan Cities of India, IATSS Research, Vol.29 No.1,pp. 57-65.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20General SciencesStudy of Variation in Repetitive Signature of Same Writer
English0911Manju Sahu1English Isha Shukla2EnglishComparison of signatures is based on the principle of variation in handwriting as no two signatures are precisely alike. However, due to presence of variation in all handwriting components such as style, slope, slant, alignment, spacing and pen lift, it serves to personalize and identify writing. Therefore, it is essential to resolve these primary elements and habits of writing with an accurate range of variation. In the present study, 3 sample of signature were collected from the 70 persons of Bilaspur district, Chhattisgarh with an attempt to study the variation in repetitive signature of same writer. As a result in a typical state of mind, most of the character and letters were not changed and just a few letters and characters were changed. Thus, it provides evidence of the identity.
EnglishHandwriting, Signature, Variation, Writing, IdentificationINTRODUCTION
Signature, a handwritten depiction of someone’s name, gives confirmation of the attribution of the document and the purpose with regard to that document. It is the most common writing act and largely habitual (1). Signature is often used in legal and financial transactions because unique characteristics in an individual’s handwriting distinguish it from every other handwriting (2). No two signature specimens are absolutely identical. If a writer signs multiple signatures at same time they have also some variation (1). No one ever signs indistinguishably the same starting with one time then onto the next regardless of the possibility that an author signs numerous marks at same time they have likewise some variety (3). No repeated act is always accomplished with identical the same results regardless of whether it is produced by a machine or human effort. Huber and Headrick (1999) defined variation as imprecision with which the habits of the writer are executed on repeated occasions (4). Variation in handwriting is the primary principle of handwriting examination. Handwriting of an individual is made up of a complexity of habitual patterns which are constant in characteristics variety of variation of the model patterns (5). Variations are expected in angularity, slope, speed, pressure, letter and word spacing, relative dimensions of letters, connections, pen movement, writing skill, and finger dexterity (6). The range of natural variation, rather than the characteristics themselves, will change gradually with time. However, due to presence of variation in all handwriting components such as style, slope, slant, alignment, spacing and pen lift, it serves to personalize and identify writing. Therefore, it is essential to resolve these primary elements and habits of writing with an accurate range of variation. Handwritten evidence is being regarded as a very essential and effective part of information for forensic investigation purposes.
METHODOLOGY
In present study 3 sample of signature were collected from the 70 persons of Bilaspur district for the determination of natural variation in signature of same writer on the basis of handwriting characteristics. Questionnaire cum schedule was being prepared and signature sample was collected in sitting position. The samples were observed for various parameters to measure the physical characters of signature sample such as size, angles, spacing, alignment and other characteristics to differentiate the variation in signature sample. The signatures were analyzed through magnifying lens, enlarger, scale and protector.
Figure 1.1 represents the percentage of handwriting characters showing variation in which the highest percentage of variation was seen in size of signature (43%) followed by greater deliberation at start of word (20%), blunt beginning and ending strokes (15%), upstrokes (9%) and retouching (7%). On the other hand least variation was observed in characteristics such as meaningless marks (3%), downstrokes (2%) and speed (1%).
DISCUSSION
Variation is an attribute of writing that has been observed. It is a reflection of the degree of consistency between or within standards or rather between samples of the discriminating elements present in the standards. The present study reveals that there is little variation in repetitive signature of the same writer. The variations are generally present in the signature characteristics such as size and greater deliberation whereas most of the characteristics remain unchanged. Thus, variations in writing cannot be completely controlled. There is a wide variation in the circumstances under which legitimate signatures are written and almost equal variation in the results.
CONCLUSION
The outcomes in the present study from table alongside the figures, it has been found that in typical state of mind, nerve and muscle the greater part of the character and letters were not changed, just a couple letters and characters were changed mostly such as size of signature, variation in greater deliberation, blunt beginning and ending strokes, upstrokes and in retouching, thus they were not changed totally from begin to the finish of the letter/character. The remaining handwriting characters such as hand movement, spacing, pen pause, pen lift, angle, alignment, abbreviation does not show variation in any sample. The changed parts of the letter/characters were in rhythmic nature. By the help of following data it is now possible to answer questions related to individualization of signature and in determination of intentional and unintentional variation in sitting position during writing of questioned signature.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=117http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1171. Kumar Suneet., Saran Vaibhav., Gupta A. K., Vaid B. A., Study of Variation in Signature of Same Writer, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software Engineering. 2013; 3(10).
2. Koppenhaver M. Katherine, Forensic Document Examination, Humana Press. 2007.
3. NAS: Strengthening the Forensic Sciences: A Path Forward. National Academy of Sciences press. 2009.
3. Huber A. Roy., Headrick M. A., Handwriting Identification: Facts and Fundamentals, CRC Press, Boca Raton New York. 1999.
5. Hilton O., Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents, North Holland, New York. 1982.
6. Saferstein Richard., Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, Tenth edition, Pearson.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20General SciencesFungi Associated with the Spoilage of Post Harvest Tomato Fruits and Their Frequency of Occurences in Different Markets of Jabalpur, Madhya-Pradesh, India
English1216Sajad A. M.1English Jamaluddin2English Abid H.Q.3EnglishDuring the regular survey of local Tomato growing field of Jabalpur, it was observed that most of the Tomato fruits have been suffered by fruit rot disease caused by Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Geotrichum candidum, Alternaria solani, Mucor racemosus, Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium moniliforme, Penicillium digitatum,Rhizopus stolonifer, alternaria alternata,Colletotrichum lycopersici, Sclerotium rolfsii, Myrothecium roridum, Phoma destructiva and Trichothecium roseum. Highest frequency of occurrences occurred in Alternaria alternata 16.51%, followed by Alternaria solani 12.43%, Geotrichum candidum 10.66%, Aspergillus niger 8.82%, Colletotrichum lycoperssici 7.53%. Lowest frequency of occurrences were found in sclerotium rolfsii, Mucor racemosus, Penicillium italicum and Cladosporium fulvum. Percentage frequency of occurrences on all tomato fruits were found maximum for Alternaria alternata I6.51%. Therefore Alternaria alternata were selected for test organism for pathogencity test.
EnglishFungal pathogens, Lycopersicon esculentum fruit, Different markets of Jabalpur, Percentage frequency of occurrencesIntroduction
Tomato fruit is used worldwide, eaten as both raw and processed forms (Moneruzzaman et al., 2008). It is annual and short lived perennial herb, dicotic and angiospermic plant belongs to family solanaceae. It was first reported from South America and entered to Europe in 16th century, later to East Africa in the early 1900 (Wamache, 2005). Tomato is rich in vitamins, Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and potassium (Talvas et al., 2010). Post harvest handling, weak storage practices, transportation and improper marketing are seriously affecting the quality of tomatoes. Tomato fruit rots are mainly caused by fungi Several fungal species were associated to cause fungal infections in tomatoes. They were Geotrichum candidum, Rhizopus stolonifer, black mold rot caused by Alternaria sp., Fusarium rot by Fusarium sp. Tomato contaminated with Fusarium species is dangerous for human health, because they produce mycotoxins (Burgess 1985, Jofee 1986, Nelson et al., 1990). Magnitude of post harvest losses in fresh tomato fruits is to be estimated 25.80% (Thirupathi et al., 2006). It is difficult to harvest tomatoes without causing any damage. Fungal rots on tomatoes are not only problem in Indi but is a worldwide problem. Alternaria rot has been considered a common diseases and causes huge losses to tomatoes thus making tomatoes unfit for consumption (Douglas 1922). Sour rot of tomatoes due to Geotrichum candidum is a wound pathogen gets easy chance to enter in injured portion (Brown 1979, Carmo-Sousa 1965, Gutter 1978, Lewis and Sinclair 1966, Mahmood 1970 and Moris 1982). The magnitude of post-harvest losses always vary from one country to another country and one season to another and even one day to another (Mujib et al., 2007). Control of tomato rots always remain challenge for researchers.
Huge losses has forced to researchers for simple effective and economic methods to control post harvest diseases and other losses in tomatoes (Wilson and Wisniewski 1989). Post harvest practices include harvesting, storage, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing (Merema and Rolle, 2002). These post harvest losses are more severe in developing than developed nations (Enyiukwu, 2014). It is estimated that ripe tomato fruit contain approximately 94 % of water, 4.3 % carbohydrates, 1 % protein, 0.1 % fat, 0.6 % fibre and vitamins. Both the biological and physical damages during the harvest and transportation phases, coupled with large amount of water and soft endocarp makes tomatoes more susceptible to spoilage by fungi (Asan and Ekmeki, 2002, Onuoral and Orji, 2015).
Materials and methods:
Collection of Tomato fruits.
Different infected tomato fruits and few fresh tomato fruits were collected from nine different sites of Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh. Samples were collected in sterilised polythene bag.
Mycological studies
For isolation of fungal pathogens from diseased part of tomato fruit, first we need preliminary operation for isolation including, sterilisation of glassware’s, petriplates and other materials needed. These petriplates and conical flasks were and slides were properly washed in chromic acid solution and then sterilized in hot air oven at 1600C for one hour. Sterlized petriplates were used for PDA medium and were put in petriplates in appropriate concentration.
Isolation of associated fungi
Infected samples were first washed with running tap water. An appropriate size of spoilt tomatoes were carefully cut with the aid of sterile blade then sterilized with 70% ethanol and rinsed in sterile distilled water. Sliced portion were then plated on sterile PDA medium and 2% tetracycline was used to inhibit bacterial growth and then incubated at 26+1C0. Incubation was carried out in inverted positions of petriplates for 4-6 days. The colonies thus developed are repeatedly sub cultured on PDA medium to obtain pure cultures. Isolations were identified based on cultural and microscopic characteristics and compared with standard mycological texts. (Donsch et al., 1980, Burnett and Hunter 1992). Unidentified fungal species were identified from Agharkar Research Institute Puney, Maharastra.
Identification of Fungi
The wet mount of isolates, lactophenol in cotton blue were examined in digital microscope and identified based on their morphology, mycelia structure, Conidial structure and arrangement.
Pathogenicity test
Pathogenicity test showed severe decay of tomato fruit inoculated with their respective pathogens under laboratory conditions. On infected portion, fungal growth was clearly visible. These symptoms resemble to those found under natural conditions. Fruit inoculated with distilled water remains does not show any sign of infection. Initial symptoms were observed after three days of inoculation. Small light brown spots which increase in size. Fungal mycelium on PDA appears as dark greenish colonies
Results
The results obtained from this study have indicated that tomatoes which are marketed in different markets of Jabalpur are contaminated by fungal pathogens. Isolates such as Aspergillus niger, Alternaria solani, Aspergillus flavus, Mucor racemosus, Geotrichum candidum, Phoma destructiva, Sclerotium rolfsii, Trichothecium roseum, Colletotrichum lycopersici, Rhizopus nigricans and Colletotrichm spp., etc. This is in agreement with the findings of Kutama et al., 2007. Who also reported several fungal pathogens associated with the tomatoes. Alternaria alternata were prevalent among all isolates. The result of pathogenicity test by Alternaria alternata showed that fungal isolates were capable of causing diseases if proper conditions were given. Temperature and Humidity are important factor, which affect the vegetable fruits and provides medium for the growth of fungal pathogens.
In Alternaria alternata, it was observed that concentration of spores/ conidia increased the severity of diseases. At low concentration 102 spores ml-1. The lesion diameter was 9.6mm where as at high concentration 108 spores ml-1 it was 22.23 mm respectively.
Tomato were found to be infected with A. alternata, Aspergillus niger, Geotrichum candidum, Phoma destructiva, Rhizopus stolonifer, Trichothecium roseum, Alternaria solani, Colletotrichum lycopersici, Rhizopus nigricans and Mucor racemosus throughout the year (2013-2016). However Cladosporium fulvum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Myrothecium roridum and Penicillium italicum were not frequent. Highest frequency of occurrences occurred in Alternaria alternata 16.51%, followed by Alternaria solani 12.43%, Geotrichum candidum 10.66%, Aspergillus niger 8.82%, Colletotrichum lycopersici 7.53%. Lowest frequency of occurrences occurred in sclerotium rolfsii, Mucor racemosus , Penicillium italicum and Cladosporium fulvum. Percentage frequency of occurrences on all tomato fruits were found maximum for Alternaria alternata I6.51%.
Discussions
During my survey (2013-2016) of local markets of Jabalpur. Tomato was seen as most important vegetable crop of Jabalpur, not only in Jabalpur but all over India. However, in comparison to many other countries, its production in India is hampered due to diseases in the markets and fields, which causes huge losses. Alternaria solani were already reported by Agarwal et al., 1950 in local markets of Jabalpur. Kajansoon and Mathur, 1961 also reported it on tomato fruit. Alternaria solani were also reported from Tikamgarh MP india by Chaurasia et al., 2013. Fungal rot by Alternaria solani were also reported by Hasssan, 1996 from different parts of India. Aspergillus niger also causes black mold, and causes huge losses to tomato fruits in Jabalpur market. Anwer et al., 2013 also reported Aspergillus niger on tomato fruit. Fusarium oxysporum mostly reported in wet conditions reported already by Ansari et al., 2012. Sclerotium rolfsii forms yellowish lesions and on tomato fruit, Banyal et al., 2008 . Phytophthora infestans were also reported from Jabalpur market and other parts of India. Trichothecium roseum form 2 celled conidia on tomato fruit which is characteristic feature of it. A. alternata were the pathogens which were responsible for heavy losses in tomato and other vegetable fruit commodity during survey conducted in the local markets of Jabalpur. The results of regular market survey revealed that most of the tomato fruits have been suffered by fruit rot disease by Alternaria solani, Rhizopus rot caused by Rhizopus stolonifer, buckeye rot caused by Phytophthora species, black mold rot caused by Alternaria alternata and Fusarium rots caused by Fusarium species. Diseases constitute a serious limiting factor to tomato production in Jabalpur, M.P. Thus, it can be suggested that the intake of spoilt tomatoes could be dangerous, since these organisms produce spores and toxins that could cause severe food poisoning that will result in fatal outcome. It is not only necessary to improve the average production of this crop, but also to protect the produce from postharvest losses due to infection.
Conclusion
Many studies were carried out with respect to occurrences, causal organisms, severity, losses and pathogenicity. The present study showed that many fungal pathogens are associated with tomato diseases. In present investigation, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, Alternaria, Penicillium, Rhizopus sp, are found to be major disease causing organisms. Tomato fruits were more prone to infection by fungal pathogens than bacteria and viruses. Alternaria alternata appeared to be most active of all the pathogens that result losses of economic resources as well as mycotoxins. Control measures must be employed by vegetable growers, marketers and consumers at the time of harvesting, transportation, handling, storage and processing of tomato fruits.
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge the immense help, received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. We are also grateful to authors, editors, publishers of all those articles and journals and books from where the literature of this article have been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=118http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=118Brown, G.E. 1979. Biology and control of Geotrichum candidum. The cause of citrus sour rot. Fla state Hortic. Soc. 92: 186-189.
Burgess, L.W., Nelson, P.E., Tousson, T.A. & Marasas, W.F.o. 1985. Fusarium scirpi: Amended description and notes on geographic distribution. Mycologia 77: 212-218
Douglas B, 1922. A new Alternaria spot of tomatoes in California. Phytopathology, 12: 146-148.
Gutter, Y. 1978. A new method for inoculating citrus fruit with Geotrichum candidum phytopathol, Z. 91: 359-361.
Joffe, A.Z. 1986. Fusarium Species: Their Biology and Toxicology. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Kutama, A.S., Aliyu, B.S., Muhammed I. 2007. Fungal pathogens associated with tomato wicker storage baskets. Science world journal, 2:345-378
Lewis, M.H. and Sinclair, J.B. 1966. Geotrichum candidum. Plant tissue Ph. and susceptibility to plant and animal isolates. Plant Dis. Rep. 54: 681-685
Moneruzzaman K.M. Hossain A. Sani W. and Saifuddin, M. (2008). Effect of stages of maturity and ripening conditions on the biochemical characteristics of tomato. American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 4: 336-344.
Moris, S.C. (1982). Synergism of Geotrichum candidum and Penicillum digitatum in infected citrus phytopathology, 72: 1336-1339.
Mujib, U. R., Naushad, K. and Inayatullah, J. 2007. Post-harvest losses of tomato crop. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 23(4): 1279
Kajansoon, P. and Mathur, R.S. 1961. Fungus flora of stored vegetables and pulse seeds its relation to premergence injuries and the beneficial effect of fungicidal seed treatments, Proc.Nat.Acad.Sci.India31:416-421.
Chaurasia, A.K., Chaurasia,S., Chaurasia,S. and Chaurasia Su., (2013) Studies on the development of fruit rot of tomato caused by Alternaria solani. International Journal of Pharmacy and sciences, 4(6).
Hassan H.A.H., (1996). Alternaria mycotoxins in Black rot lesion of tomato fruits: Conditions and regulations of their productions. Acta Immunolgica Hungarica, 43, 125-133.
Anwer, A. and Khan, M.R., (2013). Aspergillus niger as tomato fruit, quality enhancer and plant health promoter, Journal of post harvest technology 1(1)36-51.
Ansari, S., Shahab, S., Mazid, M., Ahmed, D. (2012). Comparative study of Fusarium oxysporum f sp. lycopersici and Meloidogyne incognita race-2 on plant growth parameters of tomato. 3(6): 844-847
Banyal, D.K. Mankotia, V. Sugha, S.K., 2008, Integrated management of tomato collar rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. J.Mycol. Plant pathol., 38:165-167.
Nelson, P.E., Burgess, L.W. & Summerell, B.A. 1990. Some morphological and physiological characters of Fusarium species in sections liseola and elegans and similar new species. Mycologia 82: 99-106
Agarwal G.P., Neme K.G., Beliram R., 1950. Fungi causing plant disease at Jabalpur, M.P. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India. 13: 310-315.
Talvas, J, Caris-veyrat, C, Guy L, Rambeau, M, Lyan B., Minet-Quinard, Lobaccaro, J.A, Vasson, M., George, S., and Mazur A. (2010). Differential effects of lycopene consumed in tomato paste and lycopene in the form of purified extract on target genes of cancer prostatic cells. American Journal of Clinical nutrition, 91: 1716-1724.
Thirupathi, V. Sasikala, S. and John Kennedy, Z. (2006). Preservation of fruits and vegetables by wax coating, pp1-10. In: Science Technology Enterpreeur. (Mittal, H.K. et al) (eds) NSTEDS, DST. Delhi.
Wilson, C.L. and Wisniewski, M.E. (1989). Biological control of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables: an emerging technology. Annu. Rev. phytopathol. 27: 425-441.
Merema, C.G., Rolle, S.R. (2002). Status of the post harvest sector and its contribution to agricultural development and economic growth. 9th JIRCAS International symposium- Value Addition to Agricultural product, pp.13-20.
Enyiukwu D.N., Awurum, A.N., Nwaneri, J.A. (2014). Efficacy of plant derived pesticides in the control of myco-induced post harvest rots of tubers and agricultural products: Net Journal of Agricultutral science 2(1): 30-45.
Asan, A. and Ekmeki, S. (2002). Contribution to the colonial and morphological characteristics of some Aspergillus species isolated from soil. Journal of Faculty of Science 25:121-139
Onuorah, S. and Orji, M.U. (2015). Fungi Associated with the Spoilage of Post-harvest Tomato Fruits Sold in Major Markets in Awka, Nigeria. Universal Journal of Microbiology Research 3(2): 11-16
Domsch, K.H.,Gams, W. and Anderson, T.H. (1980). Compendium of soil fungi. Vol, Academic press, London, 859pp.
Barnett, H.L. and Hunter, B.(1972). Illustrated genra of imperfect fungi. Burgress publishing companyMinneapolis 241pp.
Mahovic, M., Sargent, S.A. & Bartz, J.A. 2004. Identifying and controlling post-harvest tomato diseases in Florida. HS866 document, one of a series of the Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, university of Florida. Revised edition: 2004. Available from EDIS web site at http:// edis.ifas.ufl.edu. (accessed on 14 oct. 2009).
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20General SciencesNew Intuitionistic Fuzzy Similarity Measures and Application to Pattern Recognition
English1721Anshu OhlanEnglishAim: The aim of the paper is to introduce three new intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measures. Methodology: To achieve the goal of this paper, an exponential methodology is used with three different functions. The important properties of the proposed measures are discussed axiomatically.
Results: The applicability and efficiency of these new similarity measures in pattern recognition are demonstrated with illustrative examples. It is shown that the proposed measures are efficient, reasonable and simpler than the existing measures.
Conclusion: The proposed intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measures are consistent for the application point of view in the context of pattern recognition
EnglishFuzzy set, Intuitionistic fuzzy set, Intuitionistic fuzzy divergence measure, Intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measureINTRODUCTION
The notion of fuzzy set introduced by Zadeh [1] has acknowledged a central attention from researchers for its useful applications in various fields such as pattern recognition, image processing, speech recognition, bioinformatics, fuzzy aircraft control, feature selection, decision making, etc. Zadeh [2] presented the concept of entropy, as a measure of uncertainty. In 1972, De Luca and Termini [3] introduced an axiomatic structure of fuzzy entropy measure based on Shannon [4] entropy. In the past decades, literature on fuzzy and intuitionistic fuzzy measures of information and their generalizations are significantly extended by the different researchers [5-23].
The idea of Atanassov’s intuitionistic fuzzy sets (IFSs) was first invented by Atanassov [24-27] which found to be well suited to deal with both fuzziness and lack of knowledge or non-specificity. It is noticed that the concept of an IFS is the best alternative approach to define a fuzzy set (FS) in cases where existing information is not enough for the definition of imprecise concepts by mean of a conventional FS. Therefore, the concept of Atanassov IFSs is the generalization of the concept of FSs. In 1993, Gau and Buehrer [28] initiated the concept of vague sets. But, Bustince and Burillo [29] presented that the idea of vague sets was the same to that of Atanassov IFSs. As a very significant content in intuitionistic fuzzy mathematics, the study on the similarity measure between IFSs has established more attention in recent years. Similarity measure between IFSs has been extended by many researchers in last decades. Initially, Dengfeng and Chuntian [30] presented the axiomatic definition of similarity measures between IFSs A and B given by
Liang and Shi [31] revealed some counter-intuitive cases resulting from the measures provided by Dengfeng and Chuntian [30] and then presented a number of similarity measures to overcome those cases are as
Hung and Yang [32] implemented the Hausdorff distance for developing similarity measure between intuitionistic fuzzy sets. Thereafter, many researchers [33-43], provided the definitions of similarity measures between IFSs.
Although there exist several similarity measures of between IFSs, it is expected to have efficient similarity measures which deal with the aspect of uncertainty, that is, fuzziness and non specificity or lack of knowledge and also deals with the real world problems. Briefly motivated by the above mentioned work, in this paper, we relate the exponential approach on IFSs and propose three similarity measures between two IFSs.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Methodology section is devoted to review briefly some well-known concepts related to fuzzy set theory and intuitionistic fuzzy set theory. In results section we introduce three new similarity measure between IFSs with the proof of their validity. The application of the proposed similarity measures in pattern recognition is presented in discussion section. Final section concludes the paper.
METHODOLOGY
We begin by reviewing some well-known concepts related to fuzzy set theory and intuitionistic fuzzy set theory.
Definition 1. Fuzzy Set (FS) [1]: A fuzzy set A' defined on a finite universe of discourse is given as:
where is the membership function of A'. The membership value describes the degree of the belongingness of is valued in {0, 1}, it is the characteristic function of a crisp i.e., non-fuzzy set.
Definition 2. Intuitionistic Fuzzy Set (IFS) [24-27]: An Atanassov intuitionistic fuzzy set (IFS) on a finite universe of discourse is defined as
with the condition
The numbers denote the degree of membership and non-membership of X1 to X2, respectively.
For each intuitionistic fuzzy set inX we will callthe intuitionistic index or degree of hesitation of Xi in A. It is obvious that for each . For a fuzzy set, . Thus, FSs are the special cases of IFSs.
Atanassov [26] further defined set operations on intuitionistic fuzzy sets as follows:
Hung and Yang [32], Tan and Chen [44] and Chen and Chang [45] adopt the following properties for the validity of a measure to be an intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measure as:
RESULTS
It is well known that distance and similarity measure are dual concepts. Therefore, we may use the distance measure introduced by Ohlan [6] to propose the new similarity measures as
Thus we may define one of similarity measure between IFSs A and B using the exponential operation as follows:
On the other hand we may define one more new similarity measure as:
Theorem 1. The defined measures (3)-(5) between IFSs and are valid measures of similarity between intuitionistic fuzzy sets :
Proof: Let us assume f be a monotonic decreasing function and since
consequently, we have and all the other properties will also hold for a monotonic decreasing function.
Now we have to select a useful and reasonable f for each case.
(i) Let us first assume f as , then the similarity measure defined in (3) is well-defined and also satisfies all the properties of a valid measure of similarity between IFSs given in methodology section.
(ii) Now we choose the exponential function , from which we can say that the measure , is well-defined in view of definition provided above.
(iii) On the other hand, if we choose the function f as , for which the similarity measure (5) is also defined in view of definition already given in methodology section.
Hence, in view of definition of Hung and Yang [32], Tan and Chen [44] and Chen and Chang [45] provided above in Methodology section, the three intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measures (3)-(5) are valid measures of similarity measures.
DISCUSSION
We now demonstrate the efficiency of proposed three intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measures in Pattern Recognition by considering the example of Liu [37], Vlachos and Sergiadis [46], Yen [42] and Farhadinia [47].
Example 1
Let and three known patterns P1,P2 and P3 which have classifications C1, C2 and C3 respectively are represented by the following IFSs,
,
where for
we have an unknown pattern represented by IFS
our aim here is to classify to one of the classes C1, C2 and C3. In order to proceed we use the criteria
From the calculated numerical values of different proposed intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measures from (3) - (5) given in Table 1, it is observed that the pattern should be classified to The results are exactly matching with that obtained in Liu [37], Yen [42] and Farhadinia [47].
Example 2
Given three known patterns P1, P2 and P3 which have classifications C1, C2 and C3 respectively. These are represented by the following IFSs in the universe of discourse
where for
we have an unknown pattern represented by IFS
our aim is to classify to one of the classes and . In order to proceed we use the criteria
From the computed numerical values of different proposed intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measures from (3) - (5) given in Table 2, it is observed that the pattern should be classified to . Thus, the proposed intuitionistic fuzzy similarity measures are consistent for the application point of view in the context of pattern recognition.
CONCLUSION
Despite the fact that many similarity measures between IFSs have been developed in past years, still there is a good scope that the better similarity measures can be developed, which will have useful applications in the variety of fields. In this paper, we have proposed three new information-theoretic similarity measures for IFSs with the proof of their validity. The efficiency and consistency of these new similarity measures in the context of pattern recognition are presented with help of examples.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose article cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Conflict of interest: Nil
Source of Funding: Nil
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=119http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=119
L.A. Zadeh, Fuzzy sets, Information and Control 8(3) (1965), 338-353.
L.A. Zadeh, Probability measures of fuzzy events, Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications 23(1968), 421-427.
De Luca A. and Termini S.(1972), “A definition of non-probabilistic entropy in the setting of fuzzy set theory”, Information and Control, 20(4), 301-312.
Shannon C.E.(1948), “The mathematical theory of communication”, The Bell System Technical Journal, 27(3), 379-423.
Ohlan A.(2015), “A new generalized fuzzy divergence measure and applications,” Fuzzy Information and Engineering, 7(4), 507-523.
Ohlan A.(2016), “Intuitionistic fuzzy exponential divergence: application in multi-attribute decision making,” Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, 30, 1519-1530.
Ohlan A. and Ohlan R.(2016), “Generalizations of Fuzzy Information Measures,” Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
Ohlan A. and Ohlan R.(2016), “Fundamentals of Fuzzy Information Measures,” in Ohlan A. and Ohlan R., Generalizations of Fuzzy Information Measures, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 1-22.
Ohlan A. and Ohlan R.(2016), “Parametric Generalized R-norm Fuzzy Information and Divergence Measures,” in Ohlan A. and Ohlan R., Generalizations of Fuzzy Information Measures, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 23-52.
Ohlan A. and Ohlan R.(2016), “Parametric Generalized Exponential Fuzzy Divergence Measure and Strategic Decision-Making,” in Ohlan A. and Ohlan R., Generalizations of Fuzzy Information Measures, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 53-69.
Ohlan A. and Ohlan R.(2016), “Sequence and Application of Inequalities Among Fuzzy Mean Difference Divergence Measures in Pattern Recognition” in Ohlan A. and Ohlan R., Generalizations of Fuzzy Information Measures, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 71-92.
Ohlan A. and Ohlan R.(2016), “Applications of Generalized Fuzzy Divergence Measure Multi-criteria Decision Making and Pattern Recognition” in Ohlan A. and Ohlan R., Generalizations of Fuzzy Information Measures, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 93-105.
Ohlan A. and Ohlan R.(2016), “Generalized Hellinger's Divergence Measure and Its Applications” in Ohlan A. and Ohlan R., Generalizations of Fuzzy Information Measures, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 107-121.
Ohlan A. and Ohlan R.(2016), “Intuitionistic Fuzzy Exponential Divergence and Multi-attribute Decision-Making”, in Ohlan A. and Ohlan R., Generalizations of Fuzzy Information Measures, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 123-142.
Tomar V.P. and Ohlan A.(2014a), “Two new parametric generalized norm fuzzy information measures”, International Journal of Computer Applications 93(13), 22-27
Tomar V.P. and Ohlan A.(2014b), “Sequence of fuzzy divergence measures and inequalities”, AMO - Advanced Modeling and Optimization, 16(2), 439-452.
Tomar V.P. and Ohlan A.(2014c), “Sequence of inequalities among fuzzy mean difference divergence measures and their applications”, SpringerPlus, 3, 623, 1-20.
Tomar V.P. and Ohlan A.(2014d), “New parametric generalized exponential fuzzy divergence measure,” Journal of Uncertainty Analysis and Applications, 2(1), 1-14.
Ohlan A.(2016a), “Some Recent Developments on Probabilistic Information Measures,” International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 5(12), 20455-20460.
Ohlan A.(2016b), “Overview on Development of Fuzzy Information Measures,” International Journal of All Research Education and Scientific Methods (IJARESM), 4(12), 17-22.
Ohlan A.(2016c), “An Overview On Intuitionistic Fuzzy Similarity Measures,” International Journal of Advanced Technology in Engineering and Science, 4(11), 192-198.
Ohlan A.(2016d), “Generalized Exponential Fuzzy Information Measures,” International Journal of Advanced Technology in Engineering and Science, 4(12), 392-399.
Ohlan A.(2016d), “Similarity Measures on Intuitionistic Fuzzy Sets,” International Journal of Science Technology and Management, 5(12), 463-468.
Atanassov K.T.(1986), “Intuitionistic fuzzy sets”, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 20, 87-96.
Atanassov K.T.(1994), “New operations defined over the intuitionistic fuzzy sets”, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 61, 137-142.
Atanassov K.T.(1999), “Intuitionistic fuzzy sets”, Springer, Heidelberg.
Atanassov K.T.(2000), “Two theorems for intuitionistic fuzzy sets”, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 110, 267-269.
Gau W.L. and Buehrer D.J.(1993), “Vague sets”, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 23, 610-614.
Bustince H. and Burillo P.(1996), “Vague sets are intuitionisic fuzzy sets”, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 79, 403-405.
Dengfeng L. and Chuntian C. (2002),“New similarity measures of intuitionistic fuzzy sets and application to pattern recognition,” Pattern Recogn. Lett., 23, 221-225.
Liang, Z. and Shi, P., “Similarity measures on intuitionistic fuzzy sets,” Pattern Recogn. Lett., 24 (2003), 2687-2693.
Hung W.L. and Yang M.S.(2004), “Similarity measures of intuitionistic fuzzy sets based on Hausdorff distance”, Pattern Recognition Letters, 25, 1603-1611.
Wang W. Q. and Xin X. L.(2005), “Distance measures between intuitionistic fuzzy sets”, Pattern Recognition Letters, 26, 2063-2069.
Park J.H., Park J.S., Kwun Y.C., Lim K.M.(2007), “New similarity measures on intuitionistic fuzzy sets", Fuzzy Information and Engineering Advances in Soft Computing, 40, 22-30.
Mitchell H.B. (2003), “On the Dengfeng-Chuntian similarity measure and its application to pattern recognition", Pattern Recognition Letters, 24(16), 3101-3104.
Julian P., Hung K.C., Lin S.J., (2012), “On the Mitchell similarity measure and its application to pattern recognition”, Pattern Recognition Letters, 33(9), 1219-1223.
Liu H.W. (2005), “New similarity measures between intuitionistic fuzzy sets and between elements”, Mathematical and Computing Modelling, 42(1-2), 61-70.
Zhang C. and Fu H. (2006), “Similarity measures on three kinds of fuzzy sets”, Pattern Recognition Letters, 27(12), 1307-1317.
Hung W.L., M.S. Yang (2007), “Similarity measures of intuitionistic fuzzy sets based on Lp metric”, International Journal of Approximate Reasoning, 46(14), 120-136.
Hung W.L. and Yang M.S. (2008), “On similarity measures between intuitionistic fuzzy sets”, International Journal of Intelligent Systems, 23(3), 364-383.
Hung W.L. and Yang M.S. (2008), “On the J-divergence of intuitionistic fuzzy sets with its applications to pattern recognition”, Information Sciences, 178(6), 1641-1650.
Yen J. (2011), “Cosine similarity measures for intuitionistic fuzzy sets and their applications”, Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 53(1-2), 91- 97.
Hwang C.M., Yang M.S.(2012), “Modified cosine similarity measure between intuitionistic fuzzy sets”, 4th International Conference, AICI 2012, 7530, 285-293, Chengdu, China, October 26-28.
Tan C. and Chen X. (2014), “Dynamic similarity measures between intuitionistic fuzzy sets and its application”, international journal of fuzzy systems, 16(4), 511-519.
Chen S.M. and Chang C.H. (2015), “A novel similarity between Atanassov's intuitionistic fuzzy sets based on transformation techniques with applications to pattern recognition”, Information Sciences, 291, 96-114.
Vlachos I.K. and Sergiadis G.D.(2007), “Intuitionistic fuzzy information-application to pattern recognition”, Pattern Recognition Letters, 28(2), 197-206.
Farhadinia B. (2014), “An efficient similarity measure for intuitionistic fuzzy sets”, Soft Computing, 18, 85-94.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20HealthcarePrevalence of Leptospirosis among paddy field workers in Pune, Western India
English2225Potdar Gayatri A.1English Pol Sae S.2English Bharadwaj Renu S.3EnglishBackground: Leptospirosis has been under-reported and under-diagnosed in India. Certain occupational groups such as agricultural labors, animal handlers, sewage workers, abattoir workers and miners etc. constitute high risk groups for acquiring Leptospirosis.
The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of anti-Leptospiral antibodies among paddy field workers reporting with fever to a rural hospital in Pune district and thus to ascertain the extent of the problem in paddy field workers in Maharashtra , India.
Settings and Design: This was a cross-sectional prospective study. A total of 160 paddy field workers were included in the study, during year 2013 to2014.
Materials and Methods: All patients who presented with clinical features were tested with IgM ELISA and MAT tests.
Results: The common clinical presentation amongst the paddy farmers was myalgia and headache in association with fever. Majority of patients were in the age group 30-50 years. Total 55.2% males and 44.7% females were affected. IgM ELISA was positive in 23.8% of the patients. Total 9.4 % were positive by MAT test. The commonest serovars to which antibodies were detected was Grippotyphosa. Total 60.52% of patients with laboratory confirmed leptospirosis gave evidence of leptospirosis by Faine’s Criteria.
Conclusions: Leptospirosis is thus an important cause of febrile illness in paddy field workers at risk and must be kept in mind in the management of such patients. The major prevailing serovars in Maharashtra, western India are Grippotyphosa and Hebdomadis, which differs from the prevalent serovars in urban areas. Adequate foot covers in the form of closed shoes and rubber gloves must be advised for farmers working in the paddy fields to prevent infection.
EnglishLeptospirosis, ELISA, MAT, Paddy field workersIntroduction:
Leptospirosis is a global public health problem, the severity of which can vary from mild to a rapidly fatal illness. The extent of the problem in tropical and subtropical regions can be chiefly attributed to climatic and environmental conditions. The causative bacteria, Leptospira species, are responsible for a wide spectrum of clinical symptoms (1,2).
Due to unavailability of appropriate laboratory diagnostic facilities in most parts of the country, lack of awareness of the disease, and inadequate epidemiological data, Leptospirosis has been under-reported and under-diagnosed in India. (3)All available evidences recommend that , Leptospirosis is emerging in India as an important public health problem(4) .The disease is currently endemic and deeply entrenched in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. High risk areas include Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Goa and West Bengal(5–9).
Certain occupational groups such as agricultural labors, animal handlers, sewage workers, abattoir workers and miners etc. constitute high risk groups for acquiring Leptospirosis(10–12). Local agricultural practices, poor housing and waste disposal give rise to many sources of infection in the rural setting.
Rice field workers spend the major part of their day in rice fields flooded with water. This water is often contaminated with rodent urine and leptospira from the urine enter the skin through minor cuts and abrasions on the hands of these workers making them more prone to get leptospirosis.
The present study was conducted with the objective to estimate the prevalence of anti-Leptospiral antibodies among paddy field workers reporting with fever to a rural hospital in Pune district and thus to ascertain the extent of the problem in paddy field workers in Maharashtra , India.
Materials and Methods:
This was a cross-sectional prospective study conducted at B J Govt Medical College Pune and the study was approved by the institutional ethical committee. Patients were recruited to the study after written informed consent was obtained.
Adult Paddy field workers presenting with febrile illness to Rural Hospital, Pawana Nagar, Pune were included in this study. Faine’s criteria were used for suspecting leptospirosis, wherein patients with fever, headache, jaundice, cough and breathlessness, sub-conjunctival suffusion, signs of meningeal irritation were included(2).
The presenting complaints of the farmers, duration of pyrexia and history of contact with animals were recorded. Their age, sex and address was noted. A detailed clinical examination was done and the routine investigations such as Widal test for typhoid, IgM ELISA for dengue and Peripheral Blood Smear for Malaria Parasites, were done. The score as per Faine’s criteria (2)were noted .
A total of 160 paddy field workers were included in the study.
Blood samples were collected from these 160 paddy field workers attending Rural Hospital, Pawana Nagar, Pune, during year 2013 to2014. Samples were collected aseptically using sterile 5 mL syringe. Serum was separated by centrifugation of blood at room temperature; the sera were transferred into 1.5 mL sterile micro tube (Eppendorf) and tested for evidence of leptospira infection.
Commercially available Leptospira IgM ELISA (Panbio Pty., Ltd., Queensland, Australia) was used for the detection of IgM antibodies to Leptospira species. The method was followed as per the manufacturer’s protocol .The absorbance of each well was read at a wavelength of 450 nm with Erba reader (Transasia, India). The results were expressed as Panbio units and interpreted as per the manufacturer’s instructions.
MAT: Samples were sent to National Leptospirosis Reference Centre, Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), Port Blair, for Microscopic Agglutination Test as per standard protocol against common Indian strains (13).
Statistical methods:
Percentage is taken into consideration in common presenting clinical features, age wise distribution of patients among ELISA positive patients, sex-wise distribution, and for results of ELISA and MAT test.
Results:
The common clinical presentations amongst the paddy farmers were Myalgia and headache in association with fever (Table1). Majority of the study group were patients in the age group 30-50 years (Table 2). 55.2% males and 44.7% females were affected (Table 3). Evidence of recent infection by leptospires could be found in Leptospirosis was found in 23.8% of the patients. Only 9.4 % of the infections could be confirmed by MAT. The commonest serovars to which antibodies were detected was Grippotyphosa (Table 4).
60.52% of patients with laboratory confirmed leptospirosis gave evidence of leptospirosis by Faine’s Criteria.
Discussion:
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic and an occupational disease. National Reference Centre, Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), Port Blair, during the period 2000–2001, conducted a countrywide study in India (14). The positivity rate was highest in South India at 25.6%, followed by 8.3%, 3.5%, 3.1% and 3.3% in northern, western, eastern and central India respectively (7).
However, little data is available regarding epidemiology of the disease, even in those individuals who are at risk of acquiring the disease. These individuals include farmers, sewer workers, abattoir workers and veterinarians etc. as they work in environments which could be contaminated with leptospires. New risk groups may be formed as a result of changes in agricultural or social practices or in the reservoir animal population in the area.
Paddy field workers work in rat infested muddy damp conditions, often contaminated with rat urine. Abrasions are common in body extremities, which are likely, serve as a portal of entry for leptospira. Intermittent rains and repeated flooding of rodent nests lead to the contamination of surface water and paddy fields.
In the present study 23.8% of paddy field workers reporting to hospital with a febrile illness had serological evidence of leptospirosis. A total of 18(11.25%) samples showed equivocal results (Table 4). In 11.25% of the cases the result were equivocal, a convalescent sample taken after two weeks is required to confirm the results. A limitation of using a single serum sample in the demonstration of IgM antibodies is the absence of antibodies very early on in the infection or the persistence of antibodies.
Serological evidence in present study is definitely higher than the previous report of urban studies in western Maharashtra. Total of 18.6% cases were seropositive in cases of Pyrexia of unknown origin(15). The reason for high prevalence of leptospirosis in this area may also be due to the overuse of fertilizers commonly used for agriculture, which makes the pH of the water and soil alkaline, thereby allowing Leptospira to survive for a longer time and thus facilitating its transmission. The prevalence of leptospirosis is higher in rural as compared to the urban population, mainly due to greater exposure to livestock.
A study conducted in Vietnam found a seroprevalence rate of 18.8% in the rice growing areas of the country. Studies conducted to detect the prevalence of leptospirosis in various occupational groups have shown a range of 7% to 56% in various occupational groups. In a study carried out by Everard et al(16), the seroprevalence rates were 7% in meat processors, 33% in rice field workers and 45% in sugarcane farmers.
In Swapna et al study seropositivity rates were, hospital sanitary workers (56.2%) and fishermen and fisher folk (52.8%) followed by construction workers (40%), agricultural workers (30%)sewage workers (28.2%), veterinarians (13.3%) and laboratory staff (3.3%)(17). Occupational groups having a direct or indirect contact with animals are more likely to be infected as these animals at as reservoirs of leptospires.
The preponderance of cases occurred in the age groups of 30 to 60 years of age shows that this disease is common in the working population who are most likely to be exposed to this organism (Table 2). No sex preponderance was noticed in the current study as males and females are equally involved in field activities and so are at same risk of acquiring the infection. In contrast to this, in Kalimuthusami et al study, of 329 rice mill workers, who were tested for seropositivity 80.9% were males and 19.1% were female(18).
The commonest symptoms of those who were detected as having leptospirosis were fever, headache, Myalgia. This triad was seen in 34.21% of the patients. These results were comparable with Patil, et al study, Clinical profile and outcome of leptospirosis(19).
The overall seropositivity of leptospirosis by MAT was 9.37%. This may be due to the fact that the samples were collected in the acute phase when IgM antibodies appear while MAT detects a combination of IgM and IgG and may be positive a little later in the illness. In a study by Shekatkar et al.also the IgM ELISA gave more positivity as compared to MAT. (20).
The serovars which were predominantly observed in this area were Grippotyphosa (53.3%), followed by Hebdomadis (26.7%) and Lai (20%). In urban Pune, Autumnalis and Copenhaegeni are common infecting serovars(21). The geographical variation in the distribution of serovars is related with the predominance of animal reservoirs. Grippotyphosa has been implicated as the predominant serogroup in Andaman and Kerala also (22).
According to the Thai Ministry of Public Health, Bureau of Epidemiology (BOE) report on leptospirosis a total of 1779 cases and 27 fatalities were reported from 70 provinces over eight month period. The attack rate was 2.80 per 100 000 population. The case fatality rate (CFR) was 0.04 percent. The majority of cases (58.5 percent) were rice farmers(23).
Conclusion:
Leptospirosis is thus an important cause of febrile illness in paddy field workers at risk and must be kept in mind in the management of such patients. The major prevailing serovars in Maharashtra, western India are Grippotyphosa and Hebdomadis, which differs from the prevalent serovars in urban areas. Adequate foot covers in the form of closed shoes and rubber gloves must be advised for farmers working in the paddy fields to prevent infection.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. P. Vijayachari of National Leptospirosis Reference Centre, Regional Medical Research Centre (ICMR), Port Blair, India for performing MAT test. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature of this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Conflict of interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=120http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=120Bibliography:
1. Heath CWJ, Alexander AD, Galton MM (1965) Leptospirosis in the United States: Analysis of 483 cases in Man. N Eng J Med 273: 857-64.
2. Faine S (1982) Guidelines for the control of leptospirosis. WHO Offset Publication No. 67, Geneva.
3. Muthusethupathi MA, Shivkumar S, Suguna R, Jayakumar M, Vijaykumar R, Everard COR, et al. (1995) Leptospirosis in Madras: a clinical and serological study. JAPI 43: 456-58.
4. Shekatkar SB, Harish BN, Menezes GA, Parija SC. Clinical and serological evaluation of Leptospirosis in Puducherry, India. J Infect Dev Ctries 2010;4:139-43.
5. Pappas G, Papadimitriou P, Siozopoulou V, Christou L, Akritidis N. The globalization of leptospirosis: Worldwide incidence trends. Int J Infect Dis 2008;12:351-7.
6. Christopher AM, Mohapatra AK, Binay, Dutta TK, Kanungo R, Das AK. Pulmonary manifestations of leptospirosis. In: Souvenir, 3rd Annual Conference of Indian Leptospirosis Society, Pondicherry, 2002. 32.
7. Kamath S. Leptospirosis In: Das S Ed. API Medicine update, Mumbai.2003; 13:1008-11.
8. Olszyna DP, Jaspars R, Speelman P, van Elzakker E, Korver H, Hartskeerl RA. Leptospirosis in the Netherlands 1991-1995. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1998; 142: 1270-1273.
9. Koutis CH. Special Epidemiology. Athens, Greece: Technological Educational Institute of Athens; 2007.
10. Padre LP, Watt G, Tuazon ML, Gray MR, Laughlin LW. A serological survey of ricefield leptospirosis in central Luzon, Philippines. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Pub. Health 1988; 19: 197-199.
11. Chan OY, Paul DR, Sng EH. Leptospirosis among abattoir workers- a serological study. Singapore Med. J. 1987; 28: 293-296.
12. Levett PN. Leptospirosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2001; 14(2): 296-326.
13. ThaipadungpanitJ,ChierakulW,WuthiekanunV,Limmathurotsakul D, Amornchai P, Boonslip S, Smythe LD, Limpaiboon R, Hoffmaster AR, Day NP, Peacock SJ, 2011. Diagnostic accuracy of real-time PCR assays targeting 16S rRNA and lipl32 genes for human leptospirosis.
14. Christopher AM, Mohapatra AK, Binay Dutta TK, Kanungo R, Das AK (2002) Pulmonary manifestations of leptospirosis. In: Abstracts, 3rd Annual Conference of Indian Leptospirosis Society, Pondicherry, p32.
15. Sandhya A Kamath, Shashank R Joshi. March 2003Re-emerging of Infections in Urban India - Focus Leptospirosis. JAPI vol. 51.
16. Everard COR, Hayes RJ, Fraser Chanpong GM. A serosurvey of leptospirosis in Trinidad among urban and rural dwellers and persons occupationally at risk. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1985; 79(l): 96-105.
17. Swapna RN, Tuteja U, Nair L, Sudarsana J. Seroprevalence of leptospirosis in high risk groups in Calicut, North Kerala, India. Indian J Med Microbiol 2006;24:349-352.
18. Kalimuthusmi Natarajaseenivasan, Marimuthu Boopalan, Krishnaswami Selvanayaki, Sudalaimuthu Raja Suresh, ans Sivalingan Ratnam 2002.Leptospirosis among rice mill workers of Salem, South India. Jap J Infect Disease, 55; 170-173.
19. Patil VC, Patil HV, Agrawal V. Clinical profile and outcome of leptospirosis at tertiary care centre in western Maharashtra. J Acad Med Sci 2012;2:30-7.
20. Smita B. Shekatkar, Belgode N. Harish, Godfred A. Menezes and Subhash C. Parija. Clinical and serological evaluation of leptospirosis in Puducherry, India. J Infect Dev Ctries 2010; 4(3):139-143.
21. Bal AM, Bharadwaj RS, Joshi SA, Kagal AS, Arjunwadkar VP. Common infecting leptospiral serovars in and around Pune, Maharashtra. Indian J Med Res 2002 Jan;115:14-6.
22. Ratnam S, Subramanian S, Madanagopalan N, Sundararaj T, Jayanthi V (1983) Isolation of leptospires and demonstration of antibodies in human leptospirosis in Madras, India. Trans Roy Soc Trop Med Hyg 77: 455-58.
23. National News Bureau of Thailand Public Relations Department.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20HealthcareAssessment and Comparison of Liver Functions in Leprosy
English2632G. P. Dhavalshankh1English A. G. Dhavalshankh2English S. Gaurkar3EnglishLeprosy is chronic infectious disease of man, caused by Mycobacterium leprae, affecting peripheral nerves, skin and sometimes other tissues. Hepatic involvement is seen in all stages of the leprosy, more so in lepra reactions.
Aim: The present study was undertaken to evaluate hepatic status by studying the various liver function tests in leprosy patients as well as in patients of lepra reaction.
Methodology: Sixty untreated leprosy patients (30 Multibacillary, 30 Paucibacillary) with duration of illness varying from one month to three years were considered. Hepatic functional status was evaluated by estimation and comparison of variations in the levels of liver enzymes, proteins (Albumin, Globulin) and Australia antigen in paucibacillary, multibacillary leprosy and type I&2 lepra reactions.
Results: Deceased levels of serum albumin were noted in all forms of leprosy except in type II reaction while serum globulins were decreased only in paucibacillary leprosy. Raised levels of SGOT were found in all forms of leprosy including lepra reactions. However SGPT was significantly raised in type II lepra reaction. Serum bilirubin was raised in type II lepra reaction while raised levels of serum alkaline phosphatase were observed in type I lepra reaction. Serum cholesterol levels were decreased in all forms of leprosy except in type I reactions.
Conclusion: We found that liver is significantly affected in leprosy and in lepra reactions. Assessment of liver functions is useful to measure the severity of affection of the liver in leprosy and for monitoring the patients on antileprosy treatment..
EnglishLeprosy, Liver Function Tests (LFT), Multibacillary (MB), Paucibacillary (PB)INTRODUCTION:
Leprosy is chronic infectious disease of man, caused by mycobacterium leprae, affecting peripheral nerves, skin and sometimes other tissues.1 In individuals having no cell mediated immunity against mycobacterium leprae, a widespread clinical form of leprosy is seen. This form is called lepromatous leprosy. The continuous bacillemia of lepromatous leprosy, estimated at 105 organisms/ml blood, ensures the constant bombardment of internal organs by mycobacterium leprae. The reticuloendothelial system acts as a filter to the circulating bacteria which accumulate in macrophages in the liver, spleen, bone marrow and several groups of lymph nodes especially in lepromatous leprosy.
The liver lesions in lepromatous leprosy are fairly common and are well described.2,3 Histopathological examination shows prominent Kupffer cells and numerous miliary lepromas.4 Involvement of liver, of a milder nature and degree is also seen in other types of leprosy such as tuberculoid leprosy. Tuberculoid granulomas in the liver of leprosy patients are known to occur especially during the reactive phase and have been well described.5 The involvement of liver in leprosy is well reflected in serum enzymes denoting liver function which have been found to be elevated mainly in lepromatous leprosy. There are reports of increased serum bilirubin, reversal of albumin globulin (A: G) ratio5 and increased SGOT6 and also SGPT7, increased serum gamma globulins6 but decreased serum cholesterol.8
The aim is to collect a comprehensive data regarding biochemical parameters of liver in leprosy with comparison of the collected data between the two groups of leprosy (i.e. Paucibacillary and multibacillary) and lepra reactions (Type I and Type II) with the control.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
The present study was conducted over a period of two years in 60 patients attending outpatient department of Skin and Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) in a government hospital, Kolhapur. After ethical consideration and written consent, patients without prior history of leprosy or prior history of leprosy treatment i.e. freshly diagnosed leprosy cases were chosen from the outpatient department depending on their willingness to undergo investigations.
A detailed history was taken to rule out chronic alcoholism, recent history of jaundice, liver disease or recent intake of any hepatotoxic drugs. Patients with such history were excluded from the study. Remaining patients were then subjected to careful clinical examination to determine the extent of the disease. The clinical type of the disease was determined according to Ridley and Jopling’s classification9 (1966) and findings were entered in proforma. After that, patients were subjected to special investigation called “skin clip”.
Skin clip
The skin clip was done by ‘Slit and Scrape’ method of Wade. Smears were made from suspected lesions as well as from sites commonly affected in lepromatous leprosy – forehead, ear lobules, chin, extensor aspect of forearm, buttocks, nasal cavity etc. The smear was stained by Ziehl-Neelsen method for staining for acid fast bacilli.
Recording of smear reports
About 50 to 100 fields were examined with oil immersion lens and results were noted as positive or negative. In cases of positive finding, results were recorded as follows:
6+ Very numerous – more than 1000 bacilli; or globi per oil immersion field.
5+ Numerous – 100 to 1000 bacilli per oil immersion field.
4+ Moderate – 10 to 100 bacilli per oil immersion field.
3+ Few – 1 to 20 bacilli per oil immersion field.
2+ Very few – 10 to 100 bacilli per entire slide (100 fields).
1+ Rare – 1 to 10 bacilli per entire slide (100 fields).
Bacteriological Index (BI) was calculated by adding the degree of positivity of all smears and dividing the total by number of smears examined. Those patients with positive bacteriological index were grouped under multibacillary group and those with negative bacteriological index in paucibacillary group. In each group, 30 patients were included to make a total of 60 patients for our study. Also 30 normal healthy individuals were chosen as control group. All these 90 patients were subjected to special investigation of liver function tests.
Liver function tests: 10
About 20 ml of blood was collected, usually on the day of admission by venepuncture using aseptic technique following liver function tests were carried out.
Total plasma proteins, serum albumin and globulins (Biuret method for total proteins and albumin by bromocresolgreen method).
Serum bilirubin (Malloy and Evalyx method).
Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) (Calorimetric method of Reitman and frankel).
Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) (Calorimetric method of Reitman and Frankel).
Serum alkaline phosphatase (king Armstron method).
Serum cholesterol (ferroham method).
Australia antigen (Latex Agglutination).
Due to difficulty in performing electrophoresis of protein fractions to find out differential proteins (alpha, beta, gamma proteins) in our institute, this was not done.
Statistical method: Independent sample’t’ test was used to compared the data. P < 0.05 was considered as significant and evaluated by ANNOVA method.
DISCUSSION
In this study sixty cases of freshly diagnosed patients of leprosy were included. The ratio of male to female patients was 2.33:1 which corresponds to normally found 2:1 ratio of male leprosy patients to female leprosy patients in our population. Out of 60 cases, 42 were male patients and 18 were female patients. Majority of the patients were belonging to age group of 20 to 40 years. The youngest patient was 16 years old while the oldest was 75 years. (Fig 1)
The two groups studied include 30 paucibacillary leprosy patients in first group and 30 multibacillary leprosy patients in the second group. In the 30 cases of paucibacillary leprosy 29 were borderline tuberculoid (BT) and 1 was of tuberculoid tuberculoid (TT) leprosy. In second group of 30 cases of multibacillary patients, 2 were borderline borderline (BB), 21 were borderline lepromatous (BL), 7were lepromatous lepromatous (LL) patients. This shows statistically highly significance. (Fig 2)
Out of these 60 patients, 11 patients were undergoing lepra reaction– 6 undergoing type I and 5 undergoing type II lepra reaction. In type I reaction, 4 were BT and 2 were BL leprosy cases. In type II (erythema nodosum leprosum) reaction, 5 cases of BL leprosy were studied. Here not any difference observed between type I and type II reaction in both groups of leprosy. (Fig 3)
LIVER FUNCTION TESTS IN LEPROSY
Plasma proteins (Total serum proteins, Albumin and Globulins):
In this study, total serum proteins with standard deviation (sd) of 0.44 in paucibacillary leprosy patients as comparedd to 0.96 in control group giving statistically highly significant ‘p’ value. In multibacillary group serum total proteins with sd 0.56 which was very near to that in control group with sd 0.96 with statistically non significant p value. Thus we found that total serum proteins in normal range in multibacillary leprosy patients but significantly decreased in paucibacillary.
In our study serum albumin and globulin levels in paucibacillary leprosy patients were 3.154 gm% and 2.857 gm% respectively which were 3.49 gm% and 3.15gm% respectively in healthy control group. However, the mean serum albumin and globulin levels in multibacillary leprosy patients were 3.01 gm% and 3.18gm% respectively indicating that in paucibacillary serum albumin and globulin decrease is highly significant statistically. But in multibacillary leprosy there is highly significant decrease in albumin level but not significant with globulin. (Table 1 & 2)
Gupta et al11 recorded fall in total proteins in lepromatous type however we recorded significant fall in total proteins in paucibacillary leprosy but not in multibacillary type. M Swathi12 found the lowering of A/G ratio in leprosy cases which was statistically significant when comparedd to controls. But Shivde and Junnarkar et al7 and Nigam et al6 found normal or raised total proteins. Increase in total proteins, lowered serum albumin and raised globulin values were recorded by Kinnier and Davison13 and Gharpuray et al14. Gupta and Gupta15 states that decrease in total proteins and albumin are due to chronic destructive nature of the disease and liver involvement. It is well known that albumin synthesis takes place in hepatic cells whereas in globulin synthesis, both plasma cells and lymphocytes participate. Therefore one or more factor like decreased albumin synthesis due to hepatic dysfunction. However significant decrease in serum globulin is not detected due to stimulation of reticuloendothelial system leading to globulin synthesis.
In our study with type I reaction patients total serum proteins and albumin was significantly decreased but that of globulin is not statistically significant as comparedd to control. In type II reaction patients statistically significant changes were not observed in all three levels. In contrast to our observations, Patnaik J.K.et al16 observed altered albumin to globulin ratio in patients with lepra reaction. Similar findings observed by Ischikara’s17 in erythema nodosum leprosum (type II) are interesting. During the acute attack, globulins (particularly gamma) levels were very high and they came down after acute antibody phenomenon. Type I reaction is because of change in cell mediated immunological status hence there is hardly any change in humoral immunity so immunoglobulin production is not increased. In erythema nodosum leprosum, there is rapid destruction of lepra bacilli and antigenic load is more in circulation. This leads to antibody production and formation of immune complexes: this explains slight increase in globulin level in type II reaction as compared to type I reaction in our study.
Serum Enzyme Estimations in Leprosy (SGPT, SGOT):
In the present study SGOT was significantly raised in paucibacillary as well as in multibacillary leprosy patients but there were not statistically significant alterations in SGPT levels. (Table 1&2) There was highly significant rise in the levels of SGPT in type II reaction patients as compared to type I reaction patients. In all the forms of leprosy including lepra reactions significant increased levels of SGOT were noted. (Table 3 &4)
Teresa et.al18 reported that there is raised SGOT and SGPT in lepromatous leprosy which correlates with our study. Nigam et al6 found increase in values of SGOT and SGPT in all types of leprosy. Gharpuray et al14 found increase in SGPT levels in 7 out of 20 tuberculoid cases, 7 out of 10 lepromatous cases and normal value in 8 dimorphous cases. Mohanty et al19 found increase in levels of both SGPT and SGOT in 14 out of 24 lepromatous patients and 5 out of 8 patients with lepra reaction.
Balkrishnan20 found more increase in patients with lepra reaction than lepromatous patients. Levels of SGPT were 34 and 30 IU/L and of SGOT were 52 and 32 IU/L respectively which correspond to our study. Kinnier and Davison13 and Shivde and Junnarkar7 observed a rise in serum transaminase activity in leprosy patients especially in lepromatous group which corresponds to our study.
The transaminases, serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) are present in substantial amount in liver and other sites like skeletal and cardiac muscle, pancreas and kidney. Normally they are just detectable in plasma. SGPT estimation is more sensitive than SGOT estimation. Estimation of these enzymes in leprosy is of particular importance since involvement of liver and skeletal muscle is frequently encountered in good number of leprosy cases mainly of lepromatous leprosy.6, 19
In different studies it is stated that slightly increase in these enzyme levels is due to skeletal muscle involvement in lepromatous leprosy. Nigam et al6 quoted this increase may be due to hepatic dysfunction and muscular involvement. Mohanty et al’s19 impression was that increase indicates subclinical involvement. Balkrishnan20 concluded that the increase in values in reaction may be due to breakdown of liver tissue in reaction. Shivde and Junnarkar7 quoted that rise in SGPT in lepromatous leprosy indicated a toxic effect of leprosy bacilli to hepatic cells. The values were especially high in those cases with portal cirrhosis and in those harboring miliary lepromas in the liver.
Alkaline Phosphatase:
In our study, significant rise in serum alkaline phosphatase was seen only in type I reaction patients, however normal levels were recorded in both the forms of leprosy and in patients with type II reaction.
Kappor21 and Mukharjee22 found increased levels in lepra reactions than lepromatous cases which correlates with our findings. Balkrishnan20 and Nigam et al6 found increased values more commonly in lepromatous type. According to Dhopale and magar23 values of serum alkaline phosphatase are normal in early cases and increase with severity of disease. They found more values in tuberculoid type than lepromatous type which correlates with our study. Ischihara17 also found increased value in all types of leprosy. This increase in levels of serum alkaline phosphatase may indicate subclinical hepatic involvement and it higher values in reaction may be due to destruction of liver tissue during reaction.
Serum Bilirubin
In the present study, serum bilirubin levels were significantly raised in type II reaction but no significant rise was noted in paucibacillary, multibacillary and in type I reaction patients.
Dhopale A. M. and Balkrishnan S.24 observed increased values of serum bilirubin levels in advanced stages of lepromatous leprosy. Nigam et al6 also observed hyperbilirubinaemia chiefly in lepromatous leprosy. Dhopale A.M. and Balkrishnan24 stated that the term bilirubin is generally employed to designate the several forms of iron free pigment present in the blood which are ultimately derived from the breakdown of hemoglobin. It is important to bear in the mind that bilirubin level in the blood is probably maintained at normal by different excretory mechanisms. The blood is cleared of bilirubin so long as sufficient normal functioning of hepatic tissue remains.
Serum Cholesterol
In our study of paucibacillary patients as well as multibacillary patients shows significant decrease in serum cholesterol value and highly significant decrease in type II reaction but not significant in type I reaction .
Our findings correspond to the findings of following studies. Robins et al8 and Gupta et.al25 (2002). They found low serum cholesterol values in patients of leprosy as compared to the normal controls, whereas Dhopale A.M. and Balkrishnan24 observed lowering of serum cholesterol levels in lepromatous leprosy. Dhopale and Magar23 observed that reduction of serum cholesterol levels was proportional to the severity of the disease. However K.C. Nayak et al26 in their study observed normal values for serum cholesterol in all groups of leprosy patients.
Robins et al8 found no cause for low serum cholesterol values in leprosy patient. However Dhopale A. M. and S. Balkrishnan24 stated that changes in serum cholesterol in leprosy patients are more in keeping with the usual cholesterol metabolism and excretion; and suggests that low serum cholesterol levels in lepromatous leprosy is due to the hepatic involvement. CM Nwosu and SNN Nwosu27 observed higher cholesterol level in lepromatous leprosy and also mentioned that patient have serum cholesterol levels in abnormal range this may predisposed to enhanced atherogenesis and increased cardiovascular morbidity.
Australia Antigen (Au Ag)
In the present study only one patient from borderline tuberculoid and 2 patients from borderline lepromatous leprosy were positive of Australia antigen. Thus incidence of Australia antigen in the present study is 5%.our study data correlate with observations of SK Sinha et.al28. Tin et al 29 in their study observed positivity for Austalia Antigen only in 2 patients in study group of 75. Blumberg et al30 in 1967 found that there is increased positivity for AuAg and in 1970 they found 6.2 % incidence in lepromatous and 2.5 % in tuberculoid leprosy in South India. Datta R. N. et al31 demonstrated high incidence of HbsAg in 8.1 % with no clinical manifestation of hepatitis but it was not found in tuberculoid leprosy cases. Nuti et al35 had found very high incidence of 24.4% in lepromatous leprosy (175 cases) and 11.5 % in tuberculoid leprosy (87 cases). Chakravarti et al32 had given incidence of HbsAg in lepromatous as 3.8% (234 cases) and in tuberculoid as 2.5% (431 cases). Kelkar et al33 found increased incidence in tuberculoid (6.3%) than lepromatous (5%) leprosy. Various other authors have given incidence upto 4%, slightly more in lepromatous than in tuberculoid leprosy.
. Datta R. N. et al31 described this positivity of HbsAg to poverty and hot climate. He also suggested that the increased incidences of positive AuAg in lepromatous leprosy as compared with tuberculoid leprosy may be due to decreased cell mediated immunity in patients of lepromatous leprosy. According to Kelkar et al33 this association of Australia antigen was merely reflection of opportunity for infection and stay in hospital. Because of decrease in cell mediated immunity in patients with lepromatous leprosy, they are unable to get rid of hepatitis – B virus once it gets entry in the body.
K. C. Nayak et al26 in study of 50 patients of various subtypes of leprosy and 25 healthy control, for detection of Australia antigen concluded that incidence of Australia antigen in both groups were zero. No relationship was established between hepatic lesion, Australia antigen and liver function test. They could not find any relationship between leprosy and HbsAg. These authors proposed genetic hypothesis that patients who are homozygous for a gene designated ‘AU’ are more susceptible to chronic infections with AU (I) virus, than individuals with alternate phenotypes as a consequent detectable Australia antigen in their blood. In their study patient represented as identical socio-economical group of population. The chance of infective organism in a community living in a residential home is always more which might be the reason for the higher incidence of HbsAg in lepromatous cases in Blumberg’s study.30
Genetic hypothesis states that presence of Australia antigen is determined by gene which is autosomal recessive. The individual homozygous for the gene may have detectable Australia antigen. Bearers of this gene may be more susceptible to certain illness like leukaemia, viral hepatitis, lepromatous leprosy etc. If this hypothesis is correct, then the population having both the gene and mycobacterium leprae are more likely to have impairment of their immunological mechanisms and so are more likely to have lepromatous leprosy than tuberculoid leprosy.
CONCLUSION:
In concluding, we found that liver is significantly affected in both the types of leprosy (Paucibacillary and Multibacillary) and in lepra reactions (Type I and Type II). AS the drugs used in the treatment of leprosy are known to be hepatotoxic, assessment of liver functions is useful to measure the severity of affection of the liver in leprosy and for monitoring the patients on antileprosy treatment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
SOURCES OF FUNDING: None
CONFLICT OF INTREST: None
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=121http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=121
Bryceson ADM. Leprosy, 3rd edition, English Language Book Society, Churchill Levingstone, pg 1, 1990.
Fite GL. Leprosy from histopathological point of view. Arch Path. 35 : 475-481, 1943.
Mitsuda K,Ogawa M. A study of 150 autopsis on cases of leprosy. Lnt J Lepr.5:53-60,1937.
Hastings RC. Leprosy, 2nd edition, Churchill Livingstone,Edinburgh London Madrid Melbourne New York and Tokyo, 1994.
Karat ABA, Job CK and Rao PSS. Liver in leprosy, histopathology and biochemical findings. BMJ 307-310, 1971
Nigam P, Ayala SG,Goyal BM,Joshi LD, Samuel KC. Leprous hepatitis, clinical and pathological study. Lepr in lndia 50:185, 1978.
Shivde AV, Junnarkar RV. Seurm transaminases activity in leprosy in relation to liver damage. Int J Lepr. 35: 366-375, 1967.
Robins K, Vijaykumar T, Gopinath T, Vasudevan DM. Liver in leprosy functional changes. Lepr in India. 52: 416, 1980.
Ridley DS. Classification of leprosy-A window on leprosy, edited by BR Chatterjee, Pg 112, 1978.
Wooten IDP. Microanalysis in medical biochemistry. 4th edition, J and A Churchill Ltd, London.
Gupta SC, Sinha SN, Sharma D ,Bajaj AK, Bisht D, Malhotra TN. Serum proteis and Immunogiobulins in Leprosy. Int J Lepr. 46:9-14, 1978.
M swathi . A Study of Liver Function Tests in leprosy, Indian journal of leprosy 86(4):155-9 · September 2015.
Kinnier AA and Davison AR. Hormone excretion and liver function in gynecomastia of Leprosy. Int J Lepr. 25 : 110-118,1957.
Gharpuray SM, Gharpuray MB, Kelkar SS. Liver functions in leprosy. Lepr in India . 49 : 216, 1977.
Gupta RM,Gupta SC, Singh G,Khanna S. Immunoglobulins in leprosy. Int J Lepr. 46 : 342,1978.
Patnaik JK, Saha PK, Satpathy SK, Das BS, Bose TK. Hepatic morphology in reactional status of leprosy. Int J Lepr. Other Mycobact Dis. 57 (2) :499-505, 1989.
Ischikara S. A study of serum proteins in leprosy. Int J Lepr. 21 :187-189,1955.
Teresa c. A. Ferrari, marcelo g. Arauâ jo & maria m. F. Ribeiro. Case report Hepatic involvement in lepromatous leprosy. Lepr Rev. 73, 72-75, 2002.
Mohanty HC and Murhy RS. Serum transaminases in leprosy. Lepr in lndia 45:163 ,1973
Balkrishnan S. Biochemical aspects of reactional states in leprosy. Lepr in India. 48 : 406, 1976
Kappor KK, Gupta SH. Serum cholesterol and alkaline phosphatase in different types of leprosy. Lepr in India. 46; 152, 1974.
Mukharjee A. Ghosh S. Liver function and coagulation factors in leprosy. Lepr in India. 45:19, 1973.
Dhopale AM, Magar NG. Studies in blood chemistry of leprosy. Lepr in India. 34:299, 1962.
Dhopale AM and Balkrishnan S. Liver function tests in leprosy. Ind J Med Res. 56 : 1552-1558, 10th Oct 1968.
Gupta Anju , Ravindra V Koranne, Nancy Kaul. Study of serum lipids in leprosy. Indian Journal Of Dermatology, Venerology And Leprosy . : 68 (5) ;262-266: 2002
Nayak KC Gupta RK,Agawal TD,Chadda VS and Krishnakumar K. A study of incidence of Australia antigen and derangement in Live Function tests in leprosy. lnd J Lepr .61:23-30,1989.
CM Nwosu, SNN Nwosu. Abnormalities in Serum Lipids and Liver Fuction in Nigeria Patients with Leprosy. Journal of Medical Investigation and Practice.Vol.2: 5-10:2001
SK Sinha, PP Banerjee, ML Bangal, GC Saha. Australia-antigen in lepromatous leprosy patients. Indian journal of dermatology. 31 (1) :36-37 ;1986
Tin shwe and a. J. Zuckerman. Australia antigen and antibody in British patients with leprosy. J. clin. Path., 25, 401-402, 1972
Blumberg B.S, Mc Lartin L,, Lanchat M and Guinto RS. Association between lepromatous leprosy and Australia antigen. Lancet 2: 173- 176, 1967.
Datta RN, Saha K. Au Antigen in lepromatous leprosy, its incidence and persistence and relation to cell mediated immunity. Ind J Med Res. 61: 1758-1765, 1973.
Chakrawarti MS,Mukharjee KK, Chakrawarti SK, Ghostis, Chaudhary S. Hepatitis b surface Antigen (HBsAg) in leprosy patients of Calcutta – its prevalence and subtypes. Lepr in India. 51 : 182,1979.
Kelkar SS, Niphadkar KB, khare PM, Gharpuray MB. Environment and carriage of hepatitis B Ag in leprosy. Ind J Med Res. 62 :1794-1799, 1974.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20HealthcareEffect of Sprouting Time on Antioxidant Properties of Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fenugreek) Seeds Available in Delhi-NCR Region
English3337Sadhna Jain1English Punita Saxena2English Heena Lamba3EnglishAim: Fenugreek seeds are popular for their diverse therapeutic benefits. Processing intervention to improve nutritional properties of such agricultural seeds is an age old practice. In the current study, sprouted fenugreek seeds have been analyzed for their potential use as a home based approach for the management of oxidative stress related disorders.
Methodology: Germinated seeds were dried at 60°C, powdered and stored at 4°C. The samples extract (10 mg/mL) in distilled water were then analyzed for Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and antioxidant activity by DPPH and FRAP. The results obtained for seven days were compared for significant differences using one-way ANOVA.
Results: The process of sprouting showed significant changes in the antioxidant properties of fenugreek seeds with the maximum activity observed on 7th day of sprouting. An increase ranging from 40% to 45% in TPC and antioxidant activity was observed on the seventh day of germination. A correlation analysis among the TPC and antioxidant activity (DPPH and FRAP) was also performed that confirmed a high value of R2 (0.965, 0.956) between the two.
Conclusions: Fenugreek seeds at seventh day of sprouting have the prospect to be used as nutraceutical for the management of oxidative stress related disorders.
EnglishTotal phenolic content, DPPH, FRAP, Antioxidant activity, Fenugreek seedsINTRODUCTION
For many years mankind is using plant sources to alleviate or cure chronic illness like diabetes, cardio-vascular diseases, cancer, hypertension etc. Herbal plants are inherently rich in pharmacologically active compounds and hence herbal remedies are popular and used globally for their health benefits. Fenugreek or Trigonella foenum graecumis a legume and belongs to family ‘Fabaceae’ and is commonly called as “methi”. It is a herb cultivated for its seeds majorly in Mediterranean countries. In India, it is mainly cultivated in regions of Rajasthan (maximum production), Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. Apart from the flavouring properties of its seeds, it has been able to mark its presence in ayurvedic system of medicines since ages, owing to its nutritional and therapeutic benefits. It is a rich source of fibres, proteins, vitamin A and C, iron and calcium. It is a highly recommended medicinal plant for treatments of various dysfunctions and diseases, as recorded in history of Ayurveda. Being rich in phytochemicals like phenols, flavonoids, alkaloids and tannins, it has been taggedas antidiabetic, anticarcinogenic, hypocholesterolemic, antioxidant, and immunological booster.
There is increased evidence of participation of free radicals in pathogenesis of various diseases like cancer, diabetes, ageing etc. Free radical is an atom of molecule with unpaired electron. Antioxidants on the other hand, are agents that scavenge free radicals and prevent or impedes cell oxidation by free radicals. Antioxidants can greatly reduce oxidative damage by neutralizing free radicals and thereby preventing damage to lipids, protein, enzymes, carbohydrates and DNA. Many studies have reported antioxidant properties of fenugreek seeds [1]. Fenugreek seed powder supplementation in diet has also been reported to reduce oxidative damage biomarkers in alloxan-diabetic rats [2]. Further polyphenols present in the seeds are known to prevent oxidative haemolysis and lipid peroxidation induced by hydrogen peroxide in vitro, in human erythrocytes[2].
Germination or sprouting is a processing intervention by which nutritional content of the crop can be enhanced significantly[3]. Sprouting has shown to improve the nutritional profile of fenugreek seeds and decrease the fibre content such that it gets digested and absorbed in the system more easily. Also, germinated fenugreek seeds have higher antioxidant content and enhanced antidiabetic effect than its boiled counterpart [4]. This effect was attributed to the release or higher bioavailability of bound antioxidants upon germination. Physical conditions such as light and temperature, genotype [5] and chemical composition of seeds have also been reported to be a cause of variation on antioxidant properties and germination of fenugreek seeds [6]. Few reports are available on the effect of germination on total phenol content and antioxidant properties of fenugreek seeds. These studies either employed use of natural elicitors like fish protein hydrolysates, lactoferrin and oregano extract for sprouting fenugreek seeds [7] or different fractions of the germinated seeds were evaluated for the phytochemical analysis [8]. However, very few studies have been conducted on antioxidant properties of whole aqueous extract of germinated fenugreek seeds of varieties available locally in Delhi/NCR region of India. Thus, present study is aimed to investigate the effect of germination on total phenolic content and antioxidant properties of fenugreek seeds in Delhi/NCR region for the purpose of using it as a nutraceutical, showing maximum potential of antioxidant activity under given conditions.
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS
The materials used in the conduct of in vitro assays included
Fenugreek seeds obtained from local market of Delhi/NCR region of India.
Chemicals used included Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), sodium carbonate and aluminum chloride, Ascorbic acid, Gallic acid, Potassium ferricyanide, trichloroacetic acid, Ferric chloride.
Equipments used for biochemical analysis were Electric air draught oven (Universal Oven sourced from Narang Scientific Works), spectrophotometer (Systronics Visican 167)
GERMINATION AND PREPARATION OF EXTRACTS
Soaking and germination
Fenugreek seeds in eight portions of 50 g each were soaked in 70% ethanol solution for 15 minutes at room temperature for disinfection. Soaked seeds were then washed with tap water and distilled water. Washed seeds were then soaked in distilled water (1:10 w/v) for 12 h at room temperature. The presoaked seeds were again washed in distilled water and kept for germination on flat trays lined with moist paper towel. The trays were covered with aluminum foil for dark germination. The germinating seeds were kept moist with distilled water and germinated for 7 days. Sprouted seeds after each day starting from first day were frozen to stop further germination. After thawing at room temperature, seeds were dried in an electric air draught oven at 60°C for 48 hrs. Dried and sprouted seeds were ground in an electric grinder, sieved and stored in plastic bottle container at 4°C for further analysis.
Stock solution of extracts
Extracts of germinated seeds of each day were prepared by dissolving powder at a concentration of (10 mg/mL) in distilled water and filtered through layers of filter paper and assays were carried out with freshly prepared solutions.
BIOCHEMICAL AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Total phenolic content (TPC)
Antioxidant activity of different extracts was determined by estimating TPC following the method adopted by Musa et al. [9]. Approximately 0.4 mL distilled water and 0.5 mL diluted Folin-Ciocalteu reagent was added to 100 µL fenugreek seeds extracts. The samples were set aside for 5 min and 1 mL 7.5% sodium carbonate (w/v) was added. The absorbance of sample was then taken at 765 nm using a spectrophotometer after 2 hrs. The calibration curve of Gallic acid was used for the estimation of sample activity. The result was recorded in terms of mg of Gallic acid equivalents per 100g of dry powder (mg GAE/100 g of dry powder).
DPPH radical scavenging activity
The antioxidant activity was assessed using a 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging system [9]. The stock solution was obtained by dissolving 40 mg DPPH in 100 mL methanol and then stored at -20°C till further use. Approximately 350 mL stock solution was mixed with 350 mL methanol to obtain the absorbance of 0.70 ± 0.01 unit at 516 nm using a spectrophotometer. In the dark, 100 µL germinated fenugreek seeds extracts was mixed with 1 mL prepared methanolic DPPH solution. The samples were stored overnight and scavenging activity was determined based on the following equation:
Where A denotes the measure of absorbance.
Antioxidant activity (FRAP)
Antioxidant assay was estimated by ferric reducing antioxidant power method [10]. To 2.5 mL of extract, 1mL of 0.2 M phosphate buffer (pH 6.6) and 1mL of 1 % potassium ferricyanide was added. The reaction mixture was incubated in water bath at 50°C for 20 minutes. Reaction mixture was then rapidly cooled. In order to stop the reaction, 2.5 mL of 10% trichloroacetic acid was added. 2.5 ml of the sample was taken and 2.5 mL of distilled water and 0.5 mL of 0.1 % ferric chloride solution was added. The colour of the mixture changed to green. The mixture was allowed to stand for 10 minutes. Absorbance was recorded at 593 nm using spectrophotometer. The blank was performed using reagent blank and Ascorbic acid was taken as standard. The result was recorded in terms of mg of Ascorbic acid equivalents per 100g of dry powder (mg AAE/100 g of dry powder).
Statistical analysis
The results obtained for seven days were tested for significant differences using one-way ANOVA on Microsoft Excel.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Data obtained by experimental results were expressed as the means of three independent experiments. The results obtained for seven days were compared for significant differences using one-way ANOVA on Microsoft Excel. Total phenolic (TP) content, Antioxidant activity by DPPH and FRAP are presented in Table 1.
The process of sprouting showed significant changes (P≤0.05) in the antioxidant properties of fenugreek seeds with the maximal activity observed on day 7 of sprouting.
Total Phenol Content (TPC)
Figure 1 shows the variation in the total phenolic content of sprouted fenugreek seeds grown over a span of seven days. TP content was seen to be increasing with the days from 37.041 mg/100 gm of dry powder on the 1st day to 87.958 mg/100 gm of dry powder on the 7thday of germination. Total phenolic content increased significantly (P≤0.05) from the 1st day till 7th day. The maximum content was observed on the seventh day (87.958±0.024 mg/100 gm DW). After the seventh day, a slight fungal growth was observed in the sample and hence no evaluations were made beyond seventh day of germination. Interestingly, seeds used in the sample showed absence of flavonoids in spite of high TP content and antioxidant activities. This could be due to an increase in other phenolic compounds present in fenugreek seeds. As can be seen from the graph, there is no significant difference (P>0.05) in the TP content on day 5 and 6 but there is a significant difference in the TP content on day 6 and 7(P≤0.05).
Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)
Figure 2 shows the ferric reducing antioxidant power values for sprouted fenugreek seeds over seven days of germination. The values showed a significant increase (P≤0.05) from 0.344±0.013 mg/100 gm of dry powder on the 1stday to 0.622±0.007 mg/100 gm of dry powder on 7th day. The maximum activity for FRAP was observed on 7th day of germination. However, the values on day 6 and 7 are not statistically significantly different (P>0.05). This means the optimal ferric reducing antioxidant power does not change whether the seeds are used after 6 or 7 days of germination.
DPPH
Figure 3 shows the free radical scavenging activity values determined by DPPH over 7 days of germination of fenugreek seeds. This activity was measured in terms of % inhibition exhibited by the sample observations against controlled observations. These values ranged from 25.66 % on the 1stday to 60.869% on 7th day of germination. Sprouted seeds showed a significantly (P≤0.05) higher radical scavenging activity over the seven day period of germination. This characteristic helps in managing oxidative stress related degenerative disorders and reduces the risk of age related degeneration. It was observed that there was no significant difference (P>0.05) in the DPPH values during the first three days of germination. However, the DPPH values were significantly different(P≤0.05) on 5th, 6thand 7th day of germination and the maximum was observed on 7th day. Sprouting of seeds is known to produce various metabolic activities in seeds and an increase in antioxidant activity is one such change. This change could be attributed to the amalgamation of various compounds.
Hence, it can be concluded that day 7 is the optimal day of germination for fenugreek seeds to be used for nutraceutical purposes as they show maximum total phenol content and antioxidant activities on this day.
Correlation:
A correlation analysis among the TPC and antioxidant activity (DPPH, FRAP) was also performed. Table 2 below shows a high value of R2 showing a significant correlation between the two. Studies [9] have shown that antioxidant activity is related to the active component irrespective of the extraction techniques and solvents used. In the present study, it can be concluded that the process of germination also preserves this property of high correlation.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of the study showed that the process of sprouting increases the Total Phenolic Content, ferric reducing antioxidant power and free radicals scavenging activities in fenugreek seeds significantly (P≤0.05). The difference in the activities was highly significant between the third day and the sixth day of germination. Thus, for the best results the seeds should be consumed after at least six days of germination. Total phenolic content showed a good correlation with DPPH and FRAP. Thus, it can be concluded that sprouted fenugreek seeds have a high potential to be used as a cost effective approach to be used as nutraceutical for the management of oxidative stress related disorders in a developing country like India.
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF THE STUDY
The study and the experiments were conducted by in-vitro method only. No clinical testings were done. The study can be extended by involving dieticians and clinical experts to analyse the efficacy of the results obtained.
Conflict of Interest
The authors of this manuscript declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Dr. Ritu Verma, Head, Cell Biology Division, Dabur Research Foundation, India for her guidance in carrying out this study and University of Delhi, India for funding this project under the Innovation Projects Scheme 2015-16. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=122http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=122[1] Wani SA, Kumar P., Fenugreek: A review on its nutraceutical properties and utilization in various food products. J Saudi Soc Agr Sci 2016; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2016.01.007
[2] Ravikumar P, Anuradha CV. Effect of fenugreek seeds on blood lipid peroxidation and antioxidants in diabetic rats. Phytother Res 1999;13(3):197-201.
[3] Pandey H, Awasthi P. Effect of processing techniques on nutritional composition and antioxidant activity of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seed flour. J Food Sci Tech 2015;52(2):1054-1060.
[4] Naidu MM, Shyamala BN, Naik JP, Sulochanamma G, Srinivas P. Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the husk and endosperm of fenugreek seeds. LWT-Food Sci Tech 2011;44:451-456.
[5] Singh KP, Nair B, Naidu AK. Contribution of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum L.) seeds towards the nutritional characterization. J Med Plants Res 2013;7(41):3052-3058.
[6] Pour AP, Farahbakhsh H, Saffari M, Keramat B. Effects of Seed Priming on Germination and Seedling Growth under Salinity Stress in Fenugreek. Int JAgr Sci 2012;9(12):779-786.
[7] Randhir R, Lin YT, Shetty K. Phenolics, their antioxidant and antimicrobial activity in dark germinated fenugreek sprouts in response to peptide and phytochemical elicitors. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2004;13(3):295-307.
[8] Dixit P, Ghaskadbi S, Mohan H, Devasagayam TP. Antioxidant properties of germinated fenugreek seeds. Phytother Res 2005;19(11):977-983.
[9] Musa KH, Abdullah A, Jusoh K, Subramaniam V. Antioxidant activity of pink-flesh guava (Psidium guajava L.): effect of extraction techniques and solvents. Food Anal Method 2011;4(1):100-107.
[10] Patel A, Patel A, Patel NM. Estimation of flavonoid, polyphenolic content and in-vitro antioxidant capacity of leaves of Tephrosia purpurea Linn.(Leguminosae). Int J Pharm Sci Res 2010;1(1):66-77.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20HealthcareReversible Alteration of Blink Reflex in Hypothyroid Patients in Response to Treatment
English3840Sharma G.1English Aprajita2English Aggarwal S.3EnglishBackground: Hypothyroidism is associated with central and peripheral nervous system disturbances. It affects the CNS due to the impairment of the sensory pathways secondary to hormonal imbalances causing segmental demyelination. It also affects the transmission of impulses along the complex polysynaptic pathways, such as those mediating the blink reflex.
Objective: Evaluation of Blink Reflex for early diagnosis of neurological dysfunction in hypothyroid patients and to study the response to treatment.
Method: Blink Reflex was recorded using RMS EMG EP MK2 machine in 30 overt hypothyroid patients (serum TSH ?10 mIU/L) between 18 – 50 years of age who were followed up after 3 months of treatment.
Result: The latency of blink reflex showed an early ipsilateral R1 response and late R2 responses (ipsilateral R2i, contralateral R2c) which were found to be prolonged in the patients. Following the hormonal replacement therapy the latency tend to decrease while the amplitude was increased.
Conclusion: Increased latency of blink reflex indicates impairment predominantly of the sensory pathways. These changes are further more altered in untreated patients in the advanced stage of the disease. Hence blink reflex is useful non-invasive tool for early detection of cranial neuropathy in newly diagnosed hypothyroid patients and to access their response to treatment.
EnglishCentral Nervous System (CNS), Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Blink reflex (BR)Introduction
Central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction is an important consequence of thyroid deficiency. The metabolic and hormonal changes in hypothyroidism cause CNS dysfunction.[1,2] Thyroid hormone is known to influence the synthesis of protein and the production of enzyme and myelin.[3] Myelin synthesis is an important factor in determining the speed of impulse transmission along complex polysynaptic pathway such as those mediating the evoked potential and blink reflex.[3,4] Blink reflex (BR), has been shown to be an effective method for revealing subclinical involvement of cranial nerves in generalized neuropathies.[5] The electrically elicited BR is an exteroceptive-nociceptive reflex recorded on the orbicularis oculi muscle. It is comprised of three components : R1(ipsilateral), R2i (ipsilateral) and R2c (contralateral).[3]
Material and Methods
The present study was conducted in the Department of Physiology, Pt.B.D.Sharma PGIMS, Rohtak, Haryana in collaboration with the Department of Endocrinology. The study was approved by the ethical committee of PGIMS, Rohtak. This study was planned to find out the response to hormone replacement therapy and also to find the correlation between the thyroid function tests and the blink reflex parameters both pre and post treatment which has not been established clearly in the older studies.
Inclusion criteria: Newly diagnosed hypothyroid patients of age group 18-50 years were included in the study that fulfilled the following criteria Overt hypothyroid – Elevated TSH ≥ 10mIU/L and decreased free T4 and/or T3. Routine relevant biochemical tests were carried out.
Exclusion criteria: Patients with chronic disorders i.e. diabetes mellitus, cerebrovascular diseases, motor neuron diseases, parkinsonism, multiple sclerosis, neuromuscular disorders, smoking, alcoholism. Patients who had other illnesses or were taking medications which could
affect the peripheral and/or central nervous system were excluded.
Blink reflex recording:
Subjects were asked to sit in a relaxed position in a quiet room with eyes open. The recording was done simultaneously from both sides. Active electrode was placed at inferior orbicularis oculi muscle bilaterally while the reference electrode was placed just lateral to the lateral canthus bilaterally. Ground electrode was placed on the forehead and the supraorbital nerve was stimulated on both sides. Three parameters were recorded i.e. R1, R2i (Ipsilateral) and R2c (Contralateral).
Blink Reflex settings: Sweep speed - 10 ms per division, sensitivity 200 ìV per division, filter setting 2Hz to 10 kHz, electrical pulse 100 ìs duration and intensity 15-25 mA.[6]
Observation and Results – Statistical analysis was done using SPSS software. The data was analyzed/described using mean and standard deviation. ‘P’ value Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=123http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1231. Khedr EM, El Toony LF, Tarkhan MN, Abdella G. Peripheral and central nervous system alterations in hypothyroidism: electrophysiological findings. Neuropsychobiology. 2000 Jan;41(2):88–94.
2. Cakir M, Samanci N, Balci N, Balci MK. Musculoskeletal manifestations in patients with thyroid disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2003 Aug;59(2):162–7.
3. Nazliel B, Ylmaz MM++, Gokce M, Yetkin IM+, Baysal AI. Blink Reflex in Hypothyroidism. Endocrinologist. 2007 Jun;17(3):144–7.
4. Ladenson PW, Stakes JW, Ridgway EC. Reversible alteration of the visual evoked potential in hypothyroidism. Am J Med. 1984 Dec;77(6):1010–4.
5. Sachin Pawar VU. Usefulness of blink reflex in hypothyroid patients with or without polyneuropathy: a case control study. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2014;58(1):56–60.
6. Michael J A. Electromyography in clinical practice. In: 5th ed. Elsevier 2005;
7. Karlikaya G. Nerve Conduction Studies, SEP and Blink Reflex Studies in Recently Diagnosed, Untreated Thyroid Disease Patients. J Neurol Sci Turk. 24(1):007–15.
8. Oflazo?lu B, Somay G, Us O, Surardamar A, Tanrida? T. Median sep and blink reflex in thyroid diseases. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 2006 Nov;46(6):365–70.
9. Kakked G, Bhatt N, Lakhani J, Prakash S. Electromyographic evaluation of blink reflex as a tool for early diagnosis of neurological dysfunction in patients of hypothyroidism. Ann Neurosci. 2013 Jul;20(3):95–8.
10. Duyff RF, Van den Bosch J, Laman DM, van Loon BJ, Linssen WH. Neuromuscular findings in thyroid dysfunction: a prospective clinical and electrodiagnostic study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000 Jun;68(6):750–5.
11. Tonner DR, Schlechte JA. Neurologic complications of thyroid and parathyroid disease. Med Clin North Am. 1993 Jan;77(1):251–63.
12. Nemni R, Bottacchi E, Fazio R, Mamoli A, Corbo M, Camerlingo M, et al. Polyneuropathy in hypothyroidism: clinical, electrophysiological and morphological findings in four cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1987 Nov 1;50(11):1454–60.
13. Ozkardes A, Ozata M, Beyhan Z, Corakci A, Vural O, Yardim M, et al. Acute hypothyroidism leads to reversible alterations in central nervous system as revealed by somatosensory evoked potentials. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1996 Nov;100(6):500–4.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524195EnglishN2017March20HealthcarePrevalence of asymptomatic malaria parasitaemia during pregnancy and its effect on foetal birth weight
English4148Owa OO1English2English Eniowo AR2English Adedosu AN3English Ogunro PS4English Faturoti SO2English Ogunro AA2EnglishBackground: Pregnant women in endemic area may experience malaria infection without clinical symptoms. Its effects on the neonatal outcomes mayalso occur in this asymptomatic state.
Objective: To determine the prevalence of asymptomatic malaria parasitaemia in pregnancy and the relationship between the level of malaria parasitaemia and foetal birth weight.
Materials And Methods: A total of 290 asymptomatic paturients and their babies were recruited over 4 months with informed consent. The maternal, placenta and cord blood samples were obtained and examined for level of malaria parasitaemia. New-borns were weighed and classified as normal birth weight (?2500 g) or LBW (EnglishMalaria parasitaemia, Pregnancy, Foetal birth weightINTRODUCTION
Malaria remains a major health concern worldwide; perhaps the most important parasitic infection affecting mankind with an estimated 3.3 billion people at risk of malaria in 2010 worldwide.1 An estimated 655,000 deaths were recorded globally in 2010 of which 86% were children less than 5 years of age. The disparity in region specific mortality is huge with 91% of all deaths recorded by WHO in Africa region.1 Women are more susceptible to malaria during pregnancy and in the puerperium.2, 3
In areas where malaria is endemic, that is stable malaria transmission like Nigeria, at least one in four pregnant women has evidence of peripheral or placental malaria at delivery.4, 5 However, most cases of malaria in pregnancy in such areas may remain asymptomatic thus undetected and untreated.6 The pre-existing immunity retained during previous exposures protect against clinical malaria. Unfortunately, this subclinical infection poses great challenge to mother and foetus.4, 7
The mechanism underlying increased susceptibility to malaria and the severity of the disease in pregnancy is not fully understood.8,9 It has been suggested that despite the acquired antimalaria immunity of these pregnant women, the uteroplacental vascular space apparently provides a site for parasite sequestration and development.10,11
The main effects of malaria in pregnancy on birth outcomes are thought to be mediated by maternal anaemia12,13,14 and placental insufficiency.11,15 Both factors have been suggested to act together to cause either intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) or preterm delivery leading to low birth weight (Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=124http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1241. World Health Organization. World Malaria report 2011, Geneva. World Health Organization: 2011 p 200 .
2. Diagne N, Rogier C, Sokhna CS, Tall A, Frontenille D, Roussilhon C, et al. Increased Susceptibility to Malaria during early Postpartum Period. N. Engl J. Med. 2000; 343(9): 598-603.
3. Terkuile FO, Terlouw DJ, Phillips-Howard PA, Hawley WA, Friedman JF, Kariuki SK., et al. Reduction of Malaria during Pregnancy by Permethrin - treated bed nets in an area of intense Perennial Malaria Transmission in Western Kenya. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2003; 68 (4 suppl.): 50-60.
4. Oraneli BU, Okeke OC, Ubachukwu PO. Effect of placental malaria on birth weight of babies in Nnewi Anambra State. Nigeria. J. Vect. Borne Dis. 2013; 50(1):13-17.
5. Houmsou RS, Amuta EU, Sarr TT, Adie AA. Malaria infection in pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Gboko Benue State, Nigeria. Int. J. Acad. Res 2010; 2:33-36.
6. Mokuolu OA, Falade CO, Orogade AA, Okafor HU, Adedoyin OT, Oguonu TA, et al. Malaria at Parturition in Nigeria: Current Status and Delivery Outcome. Infect Dis in Obstet Gynecol 2009; 2009: 473971.
7 Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Slutsker L, Heymann DL, Breman JG. The problem of malaria and malaria control in pregnancy in Sub Saharan Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996; 55: 2-7.
8. Guyath HL, Snow RW. Impact of Pregnancy on Low Birth Weight in Sub-Saharan Africa. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2004;17 (4): 760-769.
9. Guyatt HL, Snow RW. Malaria in Pregnancy as an indirect cause of Infant Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Trans R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2001; 95: 569-576.
10. Fried M, Duffy PE. Adherence of Plasmodium Falciparum to ChondrotinSulphate A in the human placental.Science 1996; 272:1502-4.
11. Rogerson SJ. Hviid L. Duffy PE. Malaria in Pregnancy Pathogenesis and Immunity. Lancet Infec Dis 2007; 7(2): 105-117.
12. Uneke CJ. Impact of Placental Plasmodium Falciparium Malaria on Pregnancy and Prenatal Outcome in sub-Saharan Africa. Introduction to Placental Malaria Yale J. Biolo. Med. 2007; 80(2): 39-50. II. Effect of Placental Malaria on Perinatal Malaria and HIV pp 95-103.
13. Brabin B, Piper C. Anaemia –and malaria attributable low birth weight in two populations in Papua New Guinea. Ann Hum Biol 1997; 24:547-555.
14. Kasumba IN, Nalunkuma AJ, Mujuzi G. Kataka FS, Byaruhanga R, Okong P, Egwang TG. Low birth weight associated with maternal anaemia and plasmodium falciparum infection during pregnancy in a peri-urban/urban area of low endemicity in Uganda. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 2000; 94:7-13.
15. Beenson JG, Amin N, Kanjala M, Rogerson SJ. Selective accumulation of mature asexual stages of plasmodium falciparum –infected erythrocytes in the placenta. Infect Immun 2002; 70:5412-5415.
16. Moormann AM, sullivan AD, Rochford RA, Chensue SW, Bock PJ, Nyirenda T, Meshnick SR. Malaria and Pregnancy: placental Cytokine expression and its relationship to intrauterine growth retardation J. infect Dis 1999; 180: 1987-1993.
17 Menendez C, Ordi J, Ismail MR, Ventura PJ, Aponte JJ, Kehigwa E, Font F, Alonso PL. The impact of placental malaria on gestational age and birth weight. J Infect Dis 2000, 181:1740-1745.
18.. Suguitan AL. Jr, Cadigan TJ, Nguyen TA, Zhou A, Leke RJ, Metenow S, Thuita L, Megnekou R, Fogako J, Leke RG, Taylor DW. Malaria associated cytokine changes in the placenta of women with pre-term deliveries in Yaoundé, Cameroon. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2003, 69.574-581.
19. Rijken M, McGready R, Boel ME, Poespoprodjo R, Singh N, Syafruddin D, Rogerson S, Nasten F. (2012) Malaria in Pregnancy in the Asia- Pacific Region. Lancet Infect Dis. 12: 75-88.
20 Nduka FO., Eybu A., Okafor C., Nwaugo CO. Prevalence of malaria parasites and anaemia in pregnant and non-pregnant women in Aba and Okigwe towns of South East Nigeria. Animal Research International 2006; 3(3): 506-512.
21. Akum AE, Kuoh AJ, Minang JT, Boyo MA, Mokube JA, Troye-Blomberg M. The effect of maternal, unbilical cord and placental malaria parasitaemia on the birthweight of newborns from south-western Cameroon. Actra Paediatr(Stockholm) 2005; 94:917-23.
22. Ogunsedun A, Kofie BAK., Adetunji JA, Fakoya EAO, Bamgboye EA. Prevalence and Significance of Asymptomatic Malaria Parasitaemia in Sagamu, Nigeria.Nig. J. of Parasitology 1990; 9:145-158.
23. Sule-Odu OA, Ogunledun A, Olatunji AO. Impact of asymptomatic malaria parasitaemia at parturition on perinatal outcome J. of Obstet Gynaecol 2003; 22(1):25-28.
24. Ibhanesebhor SE and Okolo AA. Placental malaria and pregnancy outcome. Int J GynecolObstet1992;37(4):247–252.
25. Mukhtar MY, Lesi FEA, Iroha EU, Egri-Okwaji MTC, and Mafe AG. Congenital malaria among inborn babies at a tertiary centre in Lagos, Nigeria.J. Trop Paediata 2006;52(1):19-23.
26. Panti AA, Omokanye LO, Ekele BA, Jiya NMA, Isah AY, Nwobodo EI, Ahmed Y. The prevalence of asymptomatic malaria parasitaemia at delivery in Usmanu Danfodiyo University teaching Hospital Sokoto North Western Nigeria. Glo. Res. J. Med 2012; 2(4): 48-53.
27. Bola O. Profile of Ondo State. Coastal News of July 2010 Available at www.coastalnews-com/627-profile of Ondo State
28. Adeyemi A. Ondo State “The sunshine State”. Welcome to Nigeria March 18, 2011;http://wwwcometomgeria.Com/search-by-region/south-west /ondo-state.
29. Sowanmi A, Abohweyere AEJ, Akindele JA. Ilesanmi AO, Folade CO, Oduola AMJ. Comparison of the incision and aspiration Methods for the Diagnosis of Placental Malaria Infection. J of ObstetGynaecol. 1996;16(5): 316-320.
30. Ngassa PC. Malaria Parasitaemia and the risk of preterm Labour. A Re-Evaluation of the Evidence. African Journal of Reproductive Health 2000; 4(2): 53-61.
31. Cheesbrough M. District Laboratary Practice in Tropical Country Part 2 Cambridge University Press United Kingdom 2000 PP 284-312.
32. Trap JF, Rogier C. Combating Malaria Morbidity and Mortality by reducing transmission. Parasitology today. 1996; 12(6):236-240.
33. Greenwood BM and Armstrong JRM. Comparism of two simple methods of determining malaria parasite density. Trans. Royal soc. Trop. Med. Hygiene 1991; 85: 186- 188.
34. Falade CO, Tongo OO, Ogunkunle OO, Orimadegun AE. Effects of malaria in pregnancy on newborn anthropometry. J. Infect DevCtries2010; 4(7):448-453.
35. Anorlu RI, Odum CU, Essien EE. Asymptomatic Malaria Parasitaemia in Pregnancy Women at Booking in a Primary Health Care Facility in a Periurban Community in Lagos, Nigeria. Afr. J. Med and Medical Science. 2001; 30 (Supp): 39-41.
36. Ayoola OO, Whatmore A, Balogun WO, Jarrett OO, Cruickshank JK and Clayton PE. Maternal malaria status and metabolic profiles in pregnancy and in cord blood: relationships with birth size in Nigerian infants. Malar J. 2012; 11:75
37. Obiajunwa PO, Owa JA, and Adeodu OO. Prevalence of congenital malaria in Ile-Ife, Nigeria.Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 2005;51:219-222.
38. N’Dan CT, N’Diaye JL, Gaye A., Le Hesran JY. Placental Malaria and Pregnancy Outcome in a Peri-Urban Area in Senegal Revue d’ Epidemiologieet de SantePublique. 2006; 54(2): 149-156.
39. Tako EA, Zhou A, Lohoue J, Leke R, Taylor DW, and Leke RFG.Risk factors for placental malaria and its effect on pregnancy outcome in Yaounde, Cameroon.Am J. Trop. Med. Hyg.2005; 72(3): 236-242.
40. Morgan HG. Placental Malaria and Low Birth Weight Neonate in Urban Sierra Leone. Ann Trop. Med. Parasitol. 1994; 88:575-580.
41. Kolawole OM, Babatunde AS, Jimoh AAG, Balogun OR, Kanu IG.Risk Determinations to Congenital Malaria in Ilorin Nigeria Asian J. of Microbiol Biotech Env. Sc. 2007; 12(2): 215-222.
42. Garner P, Gulmezoglu AM, “Prevention versus treatment for malaria in pregnant women,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2000; no. 2, Article ID CD000169.
43. Duff PE and Fried M. Malaria in the Pregnant Woman.Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology.2005; 295: 169-200.
44. Sarr D, Marrama L, Gaye A. High Prevalence of Placental Malaria and Low Brith Weight in SahelianPeri-urborn Area. Am J Trop. Med. Hyg 2006; 75(1): 171-177.
45. Egwunyenga OA, Ajayi JA, Duhlinska-Popova DD, Nmorsi OP. G. Malaria infection of the cord and birth weights in Nigerians. Central Afr J. Med 1996; 42(9): 265-268.