Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411017EnglishN2018September10HealthcareEfficacy of Steroid and Proton Pump Inhibitors in Patients Undergoing Tonsillectomy – A Comparative Study   English0105Vijay SundaramEnglish Satya PrabhakarraoEnglish AkhilaEnglishIntroduction: Advancement of technology has affected the surgical methods of tonsillectomy for reaching desired benefits. This study aims to find a practical, economical and pragmatic way in managing post-operative morbidity with respect to tonsillectomy. Materials and Methods: Patients were randomly divided into two groups – Group A and Group B. Group A received Injectiondexamethasone, while Group B received oral pantoprazole. Post-operatively patients were assessed on pain, incidence of haemorrhage and wound healing on POD 0, 1, 7 and 14. Results: Group A had comparatively less pain on POD 0 and POD 1, but over the long term both groups didn’t show any significant difference. Both groups didn’t show much difference in regards to healing of tonsillar fossa. Incidence of Secondary haemorrhage (2%) and Reactionary haemorrhage (4%) were seen in Group A, but no incidence of haemorrhage was recorded in Group B. Discussion: Tonsillectomy as a surgical procedurehas evolved over the years.our study tookin to account two pharmacological agents which is administered,works and acts by radically different approach in which most potent,economical with fewer side effect was found to be Dexamethasone. Conclusion: The results concluded that there was no significant statistical difference between the two drugs in alleviating postoperative pain, haemorrhage and wound healing.  English Tonsillectomy, Post-operative, Pain, Haemorrhage, Healing Introduction The first tonsillectomy was reported by a Roman Physician Celsus about 2000 years ago. Tonsillectomy is one of the most common otolaryngologic surgical procedure done all over the world.             Advancement in technology have affected the surgical methods of tonsillectomy for the reaching the desired benefits. This helps in reducing the operative time, intraoperative blood loss, post-operative pain and prolonged morbidity.                 A variety of methods have been attempted, with the aim of reducing the postoperative pain associated with tonsillectomy such as lasers, radio-frequency, coblation, bipolar etc. Apart from instrumentation physicians have over half a century studied the pathology behind the post-operative pain and the other morbidities associated with tonsillectomy.                 In this context, my study aims to find a practical, economical and pragmatic way in managing post-operative morbidity with respect to tonsillectomy. The two drugs before mentioned have radically different ways of approaching the problem, yet the goal remains the same. Materials and Methods Study Design Prospective, comparative study. Setting: Conducted in the department of ENT and Head & Neck surgery in NRI Medical College and General Hospital from January 2016 to January 2018 Sample size: Study  conducted on 100 patients (50 in each category) Inclusion Criteria Chronic Tonsillitis Seven episodes of tonsillitis in the preceding year Five episodes in each of the preceding two years Three episodes in each of the preceding three years Patients above 18 years of age. Exclusion criteria Children under 18 years of age Patients with Peritonsillar abscess Immuno-deficient patients Other indication of tonsillectomy including as a part of UPPP or Styloidectomy Acute infection Tumours of tonsils Co- morbid conditions (hypertension, cardiac disease, diabetes mellitus, bronchial asthma Study Group Patients were randomly divided into two groups: Group A and Group B Group A : 50 patients received Inj. Dexamethasone 0.5 mg/kg (maximum 8mg) before intubation and on POD 1 after a period of 24 hours Group B: 50 patients received orally pantoprazole 40mg O.D for 2 weeks prior to the tonsillectomy. No steroids are given to this group. Methodology Cases selected according to the inclusion criteria will be subjected to detailed history and clinical examination Patients will be randomly selected into 2 groups. One receiving Steroids & one receiving proton pump inhibitors. Pre-operative investigations like haemoglobin percentage, total count, differential count, bleeding time, clotting time, prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, international normalised ratio, blood grouping & typing, and urine routine were performed Standardization of Surgical procedure: Dissection and snare method Intra-operative Assessment: Intra operative bleeding assessed by direct observation Post operatively patients will be assessed on pain and wound healing Follow up on Post-operative day 0,1,7 and 14 from the date of surgery At POD 0 At POD 1 At POD 7 At POD 14 Post-operative pain is assessed by visual analogue scale The patients were discharged and called for follow up at the end of 1st week and 2nd week from date of surgery to assess the tonsillar fossa. Tonsillar fossa was assessed by calculating the rate of healing, as determined by size of post tonsillectomy slough. The size of the post tonsillectomy slough was taken as an indication of the rate of healing process. Five grades of healing are considered: 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 per cent, according to the size of the slough in comparison with the areal size of the original post-operative bed. (26), where 0% represented a bed completely covered with slough and 100% represented a totally healed bed. The lower grade was selected in case of inequality between both sides. All patients were monitored closely in post-operative period to check for any eventuality of bleeding with respect to the laterality, quantum of bleed and their subsequent management.  The data obtained from both groups was compared and statistically analysed. Results A total of 100 patients were included in the study, with 50 patients in each group. They were divided into 2 groups as Group A and Group B based on blind randomization. Patient in group A received steroids and patients in Group B received Proton Pump inhibitor. All patients were assessed for post-operative pain, tonsillar fossa healing and incidence of haemorrhage. The data collected were tabulated and statistically analysed in consultation with a qualified statistician. Statistical Analysis Mean and standard deviation were estimated from the sample for each study group. Student ‘t’ test and chi-square was applied to find the level of significance between Group A and Group B In this study pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2520http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2520  Curtin JM. The history of tonsil and adenoid surgery. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1987; 20(2): 415-419 Timms MS, Temple RH. Coblation tonsillectomy: A double blind randomized controlled study. J. LArungolOtol 2002; 116:450 – 2 Papangelou, L. (1972), Steroid therapy in tonsillectomy. The laryngoscope, 82: 297 – 302 Anderson HA, Rice BJ, Cantress RW. Effects of injected deposteroid on post tonsillectomy morbidity: a double blind study. Arch Otolaryngol 1975; 101:86-8. Sayaka Suzuki, MD, Hideo Yasunaga, MD, PhD; Hiroki Matsui, MPH; HiromasaHorigucki, PhD; Kiyohide Fushimi, MD PhD; Tatsuya Yamasoba, MD, PhD: Impact of Systemic Steroids on Posttonsillectomy Bleeding Analysis of 61 430 Patients using a National Inpatient Database in Japan: JAMA Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery October 2014 Steward DL, Grisel J, Meinzen-DerrJSteward: Steroids for improving recovery following tonsillectomy in childeren (review) : Cochrane library Mohammed Shakkel, Aaron Trinidale, Ahmed Al Adhami: Intraoperative dexamethasone and risk of secondary haemorrhage: Journal of otolaryngology –Head & neck surgery vol 39, no 6 (December) 2010 Hargreaves K.M., Schmidt E.A., Mueller G.P. et al. (1987) Dexamethasone alters plasma levels of beta-endorphin and postoperative pain. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 42, 601-607 Mark vs Volk, MD, DMD, Pierre Martin, MD Linda Brodsky, MD. John F. Stnievich, M: The effects of preoperative steroids on tonsillectomy patients: Otolaryngology –Head and Neck surgery October 1993.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411017EnglishN2018September10Life SciencesCorrelation between the Type of Arterial  Vascularizacion and Presence and Localization of Myocardial Bridges   English0610Lujinovi? AlmiraEnglish ?osovi? EsadEnglish Kapur EldanEnglish Maida Šahinovi?English Kulenovi? AmelaEnglish Ajanovi? ZurifaEnglishIntroduction: Myocardial bridges represent an anomaly of the coronary arteries’ flow, which can be asymptomatic, or can lead to the coronary insufficiency and its clinical consequences. The aim of this research was to derermine whether there is a correlation between the type of arterial vascularization and presence and localization of the myocardial bridges. Material and Methods: As a material for this work, we used 45 human heart specimens from the Institute of Anatomy of the Medical Faculty in Sarajevo. At each heart, the type of arterial vascularization was determined, and in those specimens with myocardial bridges, the branch on which they were localized was recorded. Results: Out of total 45 human hearts, myocardial bridges were present at 24 (53.3%). One myocardial bridge was present in 16 hearts, two in 7 hearts and three in one heart. In the heart group with myocardial bridges, the incidence of right type of vascularization was 79.2%, and in the group without myocardial bridges 76.2%. The left type of vascularisation was least represented in both groups, with 9.5% in the heart group without bridges and 8.3% in the group with myocardial bridges present. Out of 33 detected myocardial bridges, 25 of them were on the left and 8 on the right coronary artery, so myocardial bridges are much more often localized on the branches of the left than the right coronary arteries, regardless of the type of arterial vascularization. Conclusion: There is no correlation of the type of arterial vascularization of the human hearts with the presence and localization of myocardial bridges.  English Coronary arteries, Type of arterial vascularizacion, Myocardial bridgesINTRODUCTION Myocardial bridges represent an anomalies in the flow of coronary arteries in which coronary arteries and their branches that run subepicardially plunge shallow or deeper into the myocardium and after a short or long intramiocardial flow, return to the subepicardicial space (1). The anomaly of bridging coronary arteries of human hearts was first mentioned by Reyman, distant in 1737 (2), and then Black in 1805 (3). In the 20th century, many morphologists studied this anomaly, which was labeled with different names before the term myocardial bridge became established in medical terminology. Thus, Tandler used the name of the tunneled artery (4), alleging that the artery, in one part of its course, leaves the suepicardial space and plunges into the myocardium. Afterwards, Geiringer referred to it as the mural artery (5), then Polacek and Kralove first used the term myocardial bridge, which would become the most commonly used term for this anomaly (6). For a long time, myocardial bridges have been considered as benign anomalies of coronary artery flows, without any clinical significance (7, 8). However, at the end of the last century, using quantitative coronary angiography and intravascular ultrasound, it was established that the systolic reduction of the lumen of the "tunneled" segment of the dissected artery was caused by myocardial bridge contraction, maintained in the first half of the diastole, which is the dominant phase in myocardial perfusion, it became clear myocardial bridges can lead to coronary insufficiency and its clinical consequences (9,10). Since then, myocardial bridges have attracted not only morphologists but also clinicians. A vast number of clinical manifestations (angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, sudden cardiac death, cardiac rhythm disorders) have been described as a consequence of myocardial bridges' effect on coronary haemodynamics (11-15), mechanisms leading to the same (16-19), as well as significant influence of the morphological characteristics of myocardial bridges on the occurrence of coronary insufficiency (20-22). However, there is still a small number of data that speak of the presence and localization of myocardial bridges with the type of arterial vascularization of the heart, which led to this research. MATERIALS AND METHODS As a material for this research, we used 45 human hearts specimens from the Insitute of Anatomy of the Medical faculty of University of Saeajevo. The hearts were perserved 3-5 days in 10% formalin solution, followed by careful disecction and prepared arterial blood vessels of the heart. Type of arterial vascularization was determined in each specimen, and in those specimens where myocardial bridges were detected, the branch on which they were localized was recorded. The obtained results were processed via SPSS 21 statistic program and a chi-square test was used to establish whether there is a correlation between the type of arterial vascularization of the heart with the presence and localization of myocardial bridges. RESULTS Out of a total 45 analyzed human heart specimens, the right type of the arterial vascularization was established in 35 (77.8%) specimens. The symmetrical (codominant) type of arterial vascularization was established in 6 specimens (13.3%) and the left type in only 4 (8.9%). More than a half of heart specimens, 24 (53.3%) of them, had myocardial bridges present at the branches of the coronary arteries (Chart 1). Chart 1. Distribution of the myocardial bridges(MB) pattern (n=45) Total number of myocardial bridges was 33, from which 16 hearts had one myocardial bridge (Fig.1), 7 hearts had two and in one heart 3 myocardial bridges were found. In the group of hearts with myocardial bridges, as well as in the group of hearts without them, dominant type of arterial vascularization was the right type (Chart 2). As seen from chart 2, the left type of the arterial vascularization was the least present in the both of the heart groups (8.3% in the group with the myocardial bridges and  9.5 % in the group without them). The symmetrical type of the vascularization was present in the 12.5% of the hearts with the myocardial bridges, and in the 14.3% of the hearts without myocardial bridges. By testing the hypothesis of (non) existence of association of the type of vascularization and the presence of myocardial bridges, we conclude that in our sample there is no association between the type of vascularization and status in relation to the presence of myocardial bridges (χ2=0.057, p=0.972). Table 1 shows the distribution of a part of the heart specimens in which myocardial bridges existed(24 hearts), accordingly to their location: left coronary artery (LCA), right coronary artery (RCA), and both left and right coronary arteries (LCA and RCA), in regard to the type of vascularization. As shown in table 1, in 24 hearts with myocardial bridges, in 17 of them bridges were found  on the left coronary artery, in 2 on the right coronary artery, and 5 hearts had myocardial bridges on both the left and right coronary arteries. Regardless of the localization of myocardial bridges ( left coronary artery-LCA, right coronary artery-RCA, or both), the right type of vascularization is dominant (the same is represented by 77.3% in the hearts with myocardial bridges on the left, with 80.0% in the hearts with bridges on both the left and right, and the only type of vascularization identified in the hearts with myocardial bridges only on the right coronary artery). Hearts with symmetrical type of vascularization did not have myocardial bridges on the right coronary artery, whereas this type of vascularization was present in 17.6% of the hearts with myocardial bridges localized only on the left coronary artery. Left type of vascularization, as the least represented, was present in 5.9% of hearts with myocardial bridges only on the left, or in 20.0% of hearts with myocardial bridges present on both left and right coronary arteries. By testing the hypothesis of the independence of the type of vascularization and localization of myocardial bridges, we obtain evidence for accepting the zero hypothesis, therefore we conclude that there is no association between the type of vascularization (right, left, or symmetrical) and localization sites of myocardial bridges (left coronary artery-LCA, right coronary artery-RCA, or both) (χ2=2.467, p=0.651). Independently of the type of vascularization, most of the myocardial bridges, 25 of 33 (75.6%), were localized to the left, and only 8 bridges (24.24%) on the right coronary artery. DISCUSSION Data regarding frequency of myocardial bridges varies greatly depending on the method used for their detection. Using coronary angiography, they are detected in as little as 0.4-12% (23-26). Using dissection method, myocardial bridges are detected in a significantly larger number, so that the frequency of 53.3% determined in this paper coincides with the results of other authors using the same method and reported a frequency of 34.5% (27), 54% (28), 56% (29) and 58% (30). Of the total of 45 hearts used as a material for this work, 37 (77.8%) had the right type of arterial vascularization, which confirmed the results of numerous authors that this type is dominant in human heart vascularization (31-33). The variation in the frequency of this dominant type of arterial vascularization of the heart may be related to the ethnic diversity of the inestigated populations, ranging from 60.5% to the Pakistani (34), to 86.6% in Turkish (35), up to 89% in the Indian population (36). The recorded frequency of the left type of vascularization of 8.9% and symmetric of 13.3% is also similar to the results obtained by the mentioned authors. The relation between the type of coronary circulation and the presence of myocardial bridges is rarely investigated and there is little data in the literature (37-39). The results of this study have indicated that the incidence of arterial vascularization types is approximately same in the heart group with myocardial bridges as well as in the group without them, so it is established that there is no correlation between the presence of myocardial bridges and the type of arterial vascularization of the heart. Up to the same conclusion came Luis Erresto and his associates who investigated the Colombian population (37), as well as Ashraf and Nasr (38) among the Saudi population. However, these results are opposite to the results of Loukas and associates (39) who state that among the hearts with present myocardial bridges, the left type of vascularization is most common, in 66.6% of cases, while the right type is represented by only 24.6%. They further point out that the localization of myocardial bridges is closely related to the type of vascularization and state that out of 17 hearts with myocardial bridges and the right type of vascularization, 11 of them had myocardial bridges on the right coronary artery, and 46 hearts with myocardial bridges and left type vascularization, even at 42 hearts, the bridges were localized to the left coronary artery and its branches. Contrary to the results of Loukas and associates, the results obtained in this paper undoubtedly show that there is no correlation between the type of vascularization of the human hearts and the myocardial bridges localization, and that, regardless of the type of vascularization, myocardial bridges are most often localized to the branches of the left coronary artery. Namely, from 19 hearts with bridges and right type of vascularization, as many as 17 had myocardial bridges on the left coronary artery, where bridges were also located in both hearts with left and all 3 hearts with symmetrical type of coronary vascularization. The lack of correlation between the type of vascularization and localization of myocardial bridges was confirmed in the studies of Bharambe and Arole (40). Ashraf  and Nasr (38)  came to the same conclusions and point out that 77.8% of myocardial bridges were on the left coronary artery, without a significant difference in regard to the type of vascularization, which is in accordance with the results of this study, where of a total 33 myocardial bridges, 25 (75.76%) were localized to the left coronary artery.  Our opinion is that the study of the relation between myocardial bridges and the type of arterial vascularization should be continued because, as we have stated, the number of data is limited and controversial, and the possible association may have an effect on the origin, intensity and clinical consequences of myocardial ischemia. CONCLUSION There is no correlation of the type of arterial vascularization of the human heart with the presence of myocardial bridges. Myocardial bridges are much more often localized on the branches of the left than the right coronary arteries, regardless of the type of arterial vascularization. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in refer ences of this manuscript. Conflict of interest: TheAuthors declare that they have any conflict of interest Source of Funding: This research was financially supported by the Federal Ministry of Science and Education of Bosnia and Herzegovina, rescript number: 05-39-3910-1/15. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2521http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2521 Shinjo SK, Oba-Shinjo SM, Prates Nevb. Bovine myocardial bridge morphology and association with coronary atherosklerosis. Braz J Morphol Sci. 2004;21(2):95-98. Alegria JR, Herrmann J, Holmes DR, Lerman A, Rihal CS. Myocardial bridging. European Heart Journal. 2005; 26(12):1159-1168. Black S. A case of angina pectoris with a diddection. Memoirs Med Soc London.1805;6: 41-48. Tandler J. Gefasse des Herzens. Anatomie des Herzens. 1913;41:219-229. Geirenger E. The mural coronary. Am Heart J. 1951; 41(3):359–368. Pola?ek P, Kralove H. Relation of myocardial bridges and loops on the coronary arteries to coronary occlusions. Am Heart J. 1961;61:44-52. Kramer JR, Kitazume H, Proudfit WL et al. Clinical significance of isolated coronary bridges: benign and frequent condition involving the left anterior descending artery. Am Heart J. 1982;103:283-288. Julliere Y, Berder V, Suty-Selton C et al. Isolated myocardial bridges with angiographic milking of the left anterior descending coronary artery: a long-term follow-up study. Am Heart J. 1995; 129:663-665. Schwarz ER, Klues HG, vom Dahl J et al. Functional, angiographic and intracoronary Doppler flow characteristics in symptomatic patients with myocardial bridging: effect of short-term intravenous beta-blocker medication. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996; 27: 1637–1645. Ge J, Jeremias A, Rupp A et al. New signs characteristic of myocardial bridging demonstrated by intracoronary ultrasound and Doppler. 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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411017EnglishN2018September10Life SciencesFormulation of Okra-Based Antidiabetic Nutraceutical from Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench (Ex-maradi Variety) and Evaluation of its Effect on Alloxan-induced Diabetic Rats   English1116Matazu K.I.English Muhammad I.English Bilbis L.S.English Abbas A.Y.EnglishFollowing our report on the development of okra-based antidiabetic nutraceutical formulation and the establishment that 10:90 % (Seeds: Peels) is the formulation with optimal antidiabetic and antioxidant properties in-vitro; this study evaluated in-vivo antidiabetic effects of the developed formulation in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Diabetes was induced by intra-peritoneal administration of a single dose (150 mg/kg body weight) of Alloxan. The rats were randomly divided into five groups of six rats each. The Normal Control (NC) and the Diabetic Control (DC) groups were orally treated with normal saline (10 ml/kg); the Metformin Control (MC) group was orally treated with Metformin (100 mg/kg) while the Test groups (FX1) and (FX2) were orally treated with 100 and 200 mg/Kg body weight of the formulation respectively. All the groups were treated for 21 days. The effects of the treatments on blood glucose level, glycated hemoglobin and lipid profile parameters were studied for the antidiabetic evaluation. Administration of FX1 and FX2 to the respective test groups for 21 days resulted in significant (PEnglishAbelmoschus esculentus, Diabetes Mellitus, Glycated hemoglobin, Lipid profile, Nutraceutical formulation  INTRODUCTION Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a widely spread epidemic disease and a serious metabolic disorder of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism reflected by an inappropriate high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) which results from the absence of insulin (Type 1 DM), decreased secretion (insufficient) of insulin and/or impaired (inefficient) action of insulin (Type 2 DM) [1,2]. Pancreas plays important role in the regulation of blood glucose level; it mainly consists of four types of cells viz: Alpha cells which secrets glucagon; Beta cells which secrets insulin; Delta cells which secrets somatostatin and Gamma cells which secrets pancreatic polypeptide [3]. The increased level of blood glucose stimulates insulin   secretion from the Beta cells of the Pancreas while Alpha cells’ secrets Glucagon in the condition of low blood glucose level, to maintain the normal blood glucose level in the body. The imbalance between insulin and glucagon is one of the major factors in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus [3]. DM is currently treated / managed by different types of synthetic oral hypoglycemic agents such as Biguinides, Sulfonylureas, Thiazolidinediones α- glucosidase inhibitors and or insulin injection [4,5]. These are associated with several side effects and their efficacies are sometimes debatable [5]. Hence, attention has been directed towards alternatives and of which is nutraceuticals originating from food plants that are rich in antidiabetic phyto-constituents [6]. Also, recent efforts for the complementary treatment of diabetes have focused on functional foods and their bioactive compounds [7]. According to World Health Organization (WHO), more than 80% of the world’s population relies on traditional medicine for their primary healthcare needs [8]. Bioactive  chemical substances  in plants such as alkaloids, phenols flavonoids, glycosides, gum, polysaccharides,  peptidoglycans, guanidine, steroids, triterpenes, terpenoides, carbohydrates, glycopeptides, amino acids and inorganic ions are responsible for their medicinal value [9]. However, few anti-diabetic poly-herbal products / formulations that contain plants metabolites as the active ingredients have been developed. For example, Alangium salvifolium tablet extracted from Alangium salvifolium and Gycin max [10]; Ipomea digitata tablet extracted from Ipomea digitata [11]; Bitter gourd tablets extracted from Momordica charantia [12]; Diamed powder extracted from Azardirachta indica, Cassia auriculata and Momordica charantia [13,14]; Also, Polyherbal product extracted from green tea  have been documented and are commercially available [3]. Due to the perceived effectiveness, less side effects in clinical experience and relatively low costs of herbs; herbal drugs are becoming more popular as an antidiabetic agents [15]. Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Okra) is a popular health food due to its nutritional and health values [16]. It is a flowering plant that belongs to Malvaceae family. It is valued for its edible green pods and seeds. A number of previous studies have reported that Abelmoschus esculentus (Okra fruit) possessed hypoglycemic effect [17,18,19,20]. Ex- maradi Okra fruit; (a commercially/ locally available dry okra fruit characterized by its viscous nature) have also been reported to have significant antidiabetic activity [1]. Attempt have been made to improve the acclaimed hypoglycemic effect of the okra fruit by formulating varying proportions of the seeds and peels of Ex- maradi Okra fruit in the ratio: (10:90, 20:80; 30:70; 40:60, 50:50 and vice versa); then, the antidiabetic and antioxidant potentials of the varying proportions were tested in-vitro. The 10:90 % (seeds: peels) ratio was observed to be the most potent as it shows optimal in-vitro antidiabetic and antioxidant effect [1]. Hence the aim of this research work is to evaluate in- vivo, the antidiabetic effect of this [10:90 % (seeds: peels)] nutraceutical formulation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Chemicals and Reagents: Analytical grade laboratory chemicals and reagents were used for this study. Okra Sample Collection: Ex-maradi (a commercially available Okra fruits from the vegetable growers/sellers at Maradi, Niger) was obtained from Maggi market at Sokoto State, Nigeria. The sample was identified and authenticated by Mal. A. Umar; a taxonomist at the Botany unit of the Department of Biological Sciences, Usmanu Danfidiyo University, Sokoto; Nigeria. A voucher specimen number (UDUH/ANS/0066) was assigned to the sample while the specimen sample was deposited in the Herbarium of the same Department. Formulation of the Okra- based Antidiabetic Nutraceutical: The formulation is according to Muhammad et al [21]. Briefly, the selected okra fruits were broken to separate the seeds from the pods. The two portions (the seeds and the peels) were separately grounded to fine powdered form. The powdered samples were sieved with a fine mesh then 10 : 90 %  (seed : peel) of the powdered okra seeds and peels were accurately measured, mixed thoroughly and stored in an airtight glass container at normal laboratory conditions until when required for reconstitution and administration. Experimental Animals: Thirty (30) apparently healthy young Wistar Albino rats of both sexes weighing between 100 - 120 g were used for this study. The rats were kept at animals house under normal environmental conditions and maintained with free access to pelletized growers feed, and water ad libitum. The animals were allowed to acclimatize for two weeks before the induction of diabetes. All procedures involving the use of animals in this research complied with the guiding principles for research involving animals as recommended by the Helsinki declaration and the guiding principles in the care and use of animals [22]. Induction of Diabetes Mellitus: All rats, except the Normal Control Group were intra-peritoneally injected with 150 mg/kg body weight of the prepared alloxan. After 6 hours of the alloxan administration, the rats were then allowed 10 % glucose solution for the next 24 hours in other to prevent alloxan induced hypoglycemia. The animals were observed for polydipsia, polyuria, polyphagia as well as general reduction in body weight. Seventy two hours after the alloxan administration, the animals were fasted overnight and diabetes was confirmed from the rats by measuring their fasting blood glucose level with the aid of a fine test glucometer (Codex Pharma Limited). Only the rats that have fasting blood glucose level >7.0 mmol/l (126 mg/dl) were considered diabetics and included in the study [23]. Grouping of Experimental Rats and Treatments: The rats were divided in to five (5) groups of six rats each and treated for 21 days as follows: The Normal Control (NC) and Diabetic Control (DC) groups were orally treated with normal saline (10 ml/kg) in addition to their normal diet and water; the Metformin Control (MC) group was treated with 100 mg/kg Metformin in addition to their normal diet and water while the Test groups (FX1 and FX2) were treated with 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight of the (10 : 90) Okra formulation in addition to their normal diet and water respectively. Blood Sample Collection and Preparation of Serum: Twenty four (24) hours after the last treatment, the animals were subjected to 12 hours fasting after which the animals were anaesthetized by dropping individual animal into a plastic jar saturated with chloroform vapor. The animal was then removes from the jar   and blood samples collected from the animal through cardiac puncture. Blood was collected in labeled plastic specimen bottles containing EDTA for glycated hemoglobin assay; the remaining blood was collected in plain plastic centrifuge tube and allowed to clot then centrifuged at 4000 g for ten (10) minutes. The sera obtained from the rats were used for estimation of the serum glucose and lipid profile. Estimation of Serum Glucose Level: This was estimated by glucose oxidase/ peroxidase method using Randox kit [24]. Estimation of Glycated Hemoglobin (HbA1c): The Glycated Hemoglobin (HbA1c) was estimated by the method of Yazdanpanah et al., [25]. Estimation of Serum Total Cholesterol (TC): TC was estimated by enzymatic method using Randox kit [26]. Estimation of Serum HDL- C: This was done by enzymatic method using Randox Kit [27]. Estimation of Serum Triglyceride (TG): This was assayed using Randox Kit[28]. Estimation of Serum LDL- C: This was calculated using Friedewald formula [29]; LDL-C (mg/dl)   =    TC – (HDL - C) + (  ) Estimation of Serum VLDL- C: This was calculated using Friedewald formula [29]; VLDL_C (mg/dl) =   Estimation of Atherogenic Index (AI): This was calculated as the ratio of LDL-cholesterol to HDL-cholesterol according to [30]. Data Analysis: The data obtained were presented as mean ± standard error of the mean. Results of the Biochemical parameters were analyzed statistically by one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by postHoc, Duncan multiple tests using the Statistical Package – for Social Sciences SPSS software, version 20. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS Effect of Administration of the 10: 90 Nutraceutical Formulation on Serum Glucose and Glycated Hemoglobin Levels The results of the effect of the treatments with the FX1 and FX2 of the formulation on serum glucose and glycated hemoglobin levels were presented in Table 1. The results indicated significant (P 0.05) difference in the effect of FX1 and FX2 treatments compared to Metformin. Effect of Administration of the 10: 90 Nutraceutical formulation on Serum Lipid Profile Levels The results of the effect of the treatments with the FX1 and FX2 of the formulation on serum lipid profile are presented in Table 2. The result indicated significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the levels of serum Total Cholesterol (TC), Triglyceride (TG), Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL-C), Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL-C), and Atherogenic Index (AIX) compared with that of diabetic untreated group (DC). Also, significant (P < 0.05) increase in the level of serum High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (HDL-C) (48.66±4.96 mg/dl) was observed in the FX1 and FX2 treated group as compared to that of the diabetic untreated group (16.90±3.59 mg/dl). Same effect was observed in Metformin treated group. DISCUSSION Following the Alloxan injection, the animals displayed the expected symptoms of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, i.e., hyperglycemia, polydipsia, polyuria, increase in food and water intake as previously observed [1]. This could be due to the selective toxicity of alloxan on β-cells of pancreas after the alloxan injection resulting in reduced synthesis and release of insulin which leads to alteration of glucose metabolism and utilization thereby causing hyperglycemia [31]. Generally; prolonged uncontrolled high blood glucose has been shown to results in elevated levels of serum glucose, glycated hemoglobin, oxidative stress indices as well as decreased levels of antioxidants defenses and lipid abnormalities due to lipid peroxidation [7]. The significant (P < 0.05) decrease in fasting blood glucose level observed in the groups treated with FX1 and FX2 for three weeks as compared to that of diabetic untreated group (Table 1) might be attributed with the ability of the dietary fibers and the characteristic viscosity of the formulation to reduce the diffusion of glucose and delay the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates derived from the rats’ diet. This has been supported by the earlier [32]. It has also been reported that different types of dietary fibers (especially the soluble fibers) could reduce the diffusion of glucose in- vitro [32] and in- vivo [33]. Another study also [34,35] reported the hypoglycemic effect of Okra fruit might be attributed to inhibition of α- glucosidase and α- amylase enzymes. The observed increase in the level of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) in the diabetic untreated group (Table 1) could be due to the persistent hyperglycemia in diabetic condition; because in diabetes, the persistent and excess amount of glucose present in the blood reacts with hemoglobin to form glycated hemoglobin which may also induce the generation of oxygen derived free radicals and other diabetes-associated complications in prolonged diabetic condition [34]. Effect of the treatment with FX1 and FX2 showed significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the glycated hemoglobin level (Table 1). Similar results were observed in the metformin treated group. The ability of the okra based nutraceutical formulation to decrease HbA1c levels in diabetic rats showed its potentials to prevent the diabetic-associated complications. This might be connected with its hypoglycemic effect as well as its antioxidants rich compounds (e.g., carotenoids, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, thiamine and nicotinic acid) identified in Okra fruit [36]. The antioxidant or free radical scavenging property in plants such as Okra fruit may inhibit oxidative reactions associated with glycation. Also, a study[16] have reported that ‘Okra have strong antioxidant properties through free radicals scavenging such as superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical and nitric oxide with strong synergic effects’. The significant (P < 0.05) elevation in lipid profile parameters (TC, TG, LDL-C VLDL-C and AIX as well as  significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the level of HDL-C ) in the diabetic untreated (DC) rats as compared to the normal control (NC) rats and that of the FX1 and FX2 treated groups of rats (Table 2) could be as a results of the facts that there is decreased  secretion of insulin and increase in other hormones such as glucagon and catecholamines. These hormones are lipolytic and hence increased lipolysis resulting in the release of more free fatty acids from the peripheral deposits into the circulation [37]. The increased fatty acid concentration also increases β-oxidation of fatty acids, producing more acetyl Co-A and cholesterol hence, hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglycedemia in diabetes [38, 39]. Administration of the FX1 and FX2 of the formulation significantly (P < 0.05) reversed the diabetes induced hyperlipidemia.  These results agree with previous reports on the antilipidemic properties of Okra fruits [40,41,42]. This may be due to the attainment of normoglycemia as a result of the hypoglycemic effects of the FX1 and FX2 administration. Also, the presence of some macro and micro nutrients as well as other vital antioxidant substances in okra fruit [36] may work in a way similar to the effect of insulin or enhance insulin sensitivity / secretion of insulin from the beta cells of pancreas. This may leads to increase in uptake of glucose and thereby decrease the rate of lipolysis. Further, the hypolipidemic effect of the formulation may also be associated with the fiber / mucilage content of the formulation which could decrease the absorption of dietary cholesterol from the intestine. It has been reported that Okra fruit is rich in pectin in addition to other dietary fiber content [43]. Pectin helps in reducing high blood cholesterol by modifying the synthesis of bile within the intestines. [43]. It could  also binds  with  the bile  salts  and  reduces  their  enterohepatic circulation  there by resulting in  increased  degradation  of cholesterol  to bile  salts [43]. This corroborated the findings of [40] which reported that “the Hypolipidemic Activity of Okra is mediated through inhibition of lipogenesis and upregulation of cholesterol degradation” [40]. Conclusion Based on these findings, the nutraceutical formulation (10:90) peel and seeds of Ex-maradi okra fruit possessed significant hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats and is suitable for the development of Okra–based nutraceutical for management of diabetes mellitus.   Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2522http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2522 Muhammad I, Matazu KI, Yar’adua AI, Nasir A, Matazu NU, Zainab AS, Abdul Rahman MB,  Bilbis LS, Abbas AY. Antidiabetic Activity of Abelmoschus esculentus (Ex- Maradi Okra) Fruit in Alloxan-induced Diabetic Rats. Nigerian Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 2017; 32(1): 44-52. Ilias M,  El-Mostafa K,  Nezha S, Bouchra M, Mourad K, Azlarab M, et al; In Vitro and In Vivo Antioxidant and Anti-Hyperglycemic Activities of Moroccan Oat Cultivars. Antioxidants. 2018; 6 (102): 1-20. Kaur CD, Talreja S. Fighting diabetes with herbal technological developments. Review:  world journal of pharmaceutical research. 2014; 3(2): 2842-2862. Jamal G,  Mohammed JG, Mohammed B. Supplementation with Rich-Polyphenols olive Tree Powder Improves Fasting Blood Glucose and Insulin Resistance in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A 14-Weeks Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR). 2018; 7(5): 545- 551. Michael PK, Asim AB, Robert SB. The Utility of Oral Diabetes Medications in Type 2 Diabetes of the Young. Current Diabetes Review. 2005; 1: 83-92. Niu CS, Chen W, Wu HT, Cheng KC, Wen YJ, Lin KC, Cheng JT. Decrease of plasma glucose by allantoin, an active principle of yam (Dioscorea spp.), in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Agric and Food Chemistry. 2010; 58, 12031–12035. Hyeon-Kyu GM, Mahbubur-Rahman M, Gi-Beum K, Chong-Sam N. et al; Antidiabetic Effects of Yam (Dioscorea batatas) and Its Active Constituent, Allantoin, in a Rat Model of Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes. Nutrients. 2015; 7, 8532–8544. World Health Organization (WHO) WHO Study Group Report on Prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus. (WHO Technical Report Series. 2011; No: 876). Rao MU, Sreenivasulu M, Chengaiah B. et al; Herbal Medicines for Diabetes Mellitus: A Review. International Journal of PharmTech Research. 2010; 2 (3): 1883- 1892. Kaushik K, Sharma AK, Agarwal V. Formulation and Evaluation of Herbal Antidiabetic Tablet. Journal of Drug Delivery & Therapeutics. 2011; 1(1): 65-67. Chandira M, Jayakar V. Formulation and Evaluation of Herbal Tablets Containing Ipomoea Digitata Linn. Extract. International Journal of Pharmeutical Science Research. 2010; 3(1): 101- 110. Hasan I, Khatoon S. Effect of Momordica Charantia (Bitter gourd) Tablets in Diabetes Mellitus: Type 1 and Type 2. Prime Research on Medicine. 2012; 2(2): 72-74. Pari L, Ramakrishnan R, Venkateswaran S. Antihyperglycaemic Effect of Diamed, a Herbal Formulation, in Experimental Diabetes in Rats. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2001; 53 (8): 1139-1143. Agrawal P, Rai V, Singh RB. Randomized placebo controlled single blind trial of holy basil leaves in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacological Therapy. 1996; 34: 406-409. Hui H, Tang G, Liang VW. Hypoglycemic Herbs and their Action Mechanisms. Journal of Chinese Medicine. 2009; 4: 1-11. Ortaç D, Mustafa C, Turan K, Mehmet E, Büyükokuro?lu ZÖ, Özdemir ATK, Sad?k G, In vivo anti-ulcerogenic effect of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) on ethanol-induced acute gastric mucosal lesions. Pharmacological Biology. 2018; 56(1): 165–175. John RT, Perez RJ, Baritua MO, Pacalna SO Malayao J. Exploratory Investigation on the Hypoglycemic Effect of Abelmoschus Esculentus in Mice. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research. 2013; 1 (2): 249. Indah MA. Differential Expression Analysis of Diabetic Related Genes in Streptozotocin  Induced Diabetic Rats in Response to Abelmoschus esculentus Treatment: A Research Framework. International Conference on Bioscience, Biochemistr & Bioinformatic. Singapore. 2011; 1: 5. Sathish KD, Srinivasa RB, Durga PG, Brahma SR, Nadendla R. Vijayapandi P, Shankul K. Physicochemical, Phytochemical and Toxicity Studies on Gum and Mucilage from Plant (Abelmoschus esculentus). The Journal of Phytopharmacology. 2014; 3(3): 200-203. Subrahmanyam GV, Sushma M, Alekya A, Neeraja H, Sai Sri H, Ravindra J. Antidiabetic Activity of Abelmoschus esculentus Fruit Extract. International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Chemistry. 2011; 1 (1): 231. Muhammad I, Matazu KI, Yaradua IA, Yau S, Nasir A, Bilbis LS, Abbas AY. Development of Okra-Based Antidiabetic Nutraceutical Formulation from Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench (Ex-maradi Variety). Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research. 2018; 2(2): 80-86. World Medical Association. American Physiological Society. Guiding principles for research involving animals and human beings. Am. J. physiol. Reg. Comp. Physiol. 2002; 283: 281-281. Kaliwal BB, Shetti AA, Sanakal RD, Antidiabetic effect of ethanolic leaf extract of Phyllanthus amarus in alloxan induced diabetic mice. Asian Journal of Plant Science and Research. 2012; 2 (1): 11-15. Trinder P. Determination of Blood Glucose in Blood Using Glucose Oxidase with an Alternative Oxygen Acceptor. Annals Clin. Biochemistry. 1969; 6: 24-25. Yazdanpanah S, Rabiee M, Tahriri M, Abdolrahim M, Tayebi L. Glycated hemoglobin-detection methods based on electrochemical biosensors. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 2015; 72, 53–67. Allain CC, Poon LS, Chan CSG, Richmond W, Fu PC. Enzymatic Determination of Total Serum Cholesterol. Journal of  Clinical Chemistry. 1974; 20: 470. Burstein M, Scholnick HR, Morfin R. Rapid Method for the Isolation of Lipoproteins  from Human Serum by Precipitation with Polyanions. Joural of Lipid Research. 1970; 11: 583-595. Tietz NW. Serum Triglyceride Determination. In: Clinical Guide to Laboratory Tests. Second Edition, W.B., Saunders Co., Philadelphia, USA. 1990; 554-556. Friedewald WT, Levy RI, Fredrickson DS. Estimation of LDL-C in Plasma without the use of the Preparative Ultracentrifuge. Clinical Chemistry. 1972; 18 (6): 499-502. Abbott RD, Wilson PW, Kannel WB, Castelli WP.  High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol, Total Cholesterol Screening and Myocardial Infarction. The Framingham Study.  Atheros., 1988;  8: 207-211. Arumugam S, Kavimanib S, Kadalmanic B. Antidiabetic Activity of Leaf and Callus Extracts of Aegle Marmelos in Rabbit. Sci. Asia. 2008; 34: 317-321. Ou S, Kwok K, Li Y, Fu L. In-vitro study of possible role of dietary fiber in Lowering Postprandial Serum Glucose. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 2001; 49: 1026-1029. 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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411017EnglishN2018September10Life SciencesDistribution of common Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs) among Symptomatic Females Attending out Patient Department in a Rural Tertiary Care Hospital in Central India   English1722Pooja ShendreEnglish Vijayshri DeotaleEnglish Ruchita AttalEnglishIntroduction: Prevalence of RTIs in females are very high and vary widely country to country and also region. Aim: The present study was aimed to look distribution of common RTIs in symptomatic females attending obstetrics and gynaecology OPD of a rural tertiary care hospital in Central India. Methods: Four high vaginal swabs and blood for serum was collected from each patient. Sample were processed for wet mount, gram stain, culture,VDRL and Mod. TPHA. Results: 500 females  were screened for presence of symptoms of RTIs and 33.4% (167/500) had one or the other symptoms of RTIs. Candidiasis (25.14%) including non albicans candida and Bacterial vaginosis (23.95%)  were the most prevalent infections followed by Trichomonas vaginalis  12/167 (7.1%) and syphilis 3/167 (1.7%). Conclusion: We observed laboratory confirmed predominance of candidiasis and BV in both urban and rural population and in pregnant as well as non pregnant females. Presence of considerable amount of infections in pregnant females calls for a routine screening of RTIs in this group. Also, clinically diagnosed Candida infection should be confirmed to species level as the NAC are more resistant to treatment leading to recurrent Vulvovaginal candidiasis.  EnglishReproductive Tract Infections (RTIs), Syphilis, Candida, Bacterial vaginosis, Trichomonas vaginalisIntroduction Reproductive health of women has now-a-days become focus of attention due to its importance in  women&#39;s own health & her family members, socioeconomic development, and population programmes. The reproductive health status of women in the developing countries especially India, always required urgent attention. Over one-third of all healthy lives lost among adult women are due to reproductive health problems (WHO, 1995).1 Reproductive tract infections (RTIs) include three types of infection : 1) Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) - such as gonorrhoea, chancroid, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV);                 2) Endogenous infections - which are caused by overgrowth of organisms normally present in the genital tract of healthy females, such as vulvovaginal candidiasis and bacterial vaginosis; and 3) Iatrogenic infections - which are associated with improperly performed medical procedures such as unsafe abortion or poor delivery practices. The studies conducted in India shows high prevalence of RTIs.2 A broad based study conducted in different parts of the country revealed a prevalence varying from 19 to 71 percent.3 RTIs can be caused by bacterial, parasitic, fungal or viral agents. The prevalence of these infections vary widely all over the globe due to differences in population, different types of studies and their reporting methods. The present study was undertaken to see the distribution of common RTIs in symptomatic females of reproductive age group attending the Obstetrics and Gynaecology out patient department (OPD) of a tertiary care rural hospital. Material and Methods This cross-sectional laboratory based observational study was conducted in the Department of Microbiology of a tertiary care rural hospital and teaching institute located in Central India. This study was approved by Institutes Ethical Committee dated  14/11/2014 with letter reference No. MGIMS/IEC/MIRC/ 77/2014. Total 500 females attending the OPD from Jan 2015 to Sep 2016 were screened for presence of symptom/s of RTIs. As per inclusion criteria, women with age  between 18 to 45 years and presenting with any symptoms of RTIs like vaginal discharge, pruritis or irritation, non menstrual lower abdominal pain, dyspareunia etc. were included in this study. Females who were menstruating, on antibiotics since last 2 weeks, having vaginal pessaries, having major diseases of reproductive tract like cervical cancer, uterine prolapse, fibroid uterus or hysterectomised females were excluded from the study.  Sample collection and processing Per speculum examination was performed and the vaginal mucosa was inspected for presence of inflammation, erythema, lesions, and discharge. Vaginal swab was collected from the lateral vaginal wall and posterior fornices of vagina. Also, characters like amount, colour, odour, nature (thick curdy, frothy, watery) of discharge, if any, was also noted. Discahrge was considered abnormal if it was profuse or moderate in amount; yellowish, greenish in colour, thick curd like or frothy in nature, with or without an offensive odour. We collected four swabs per patient in sterile tube with 0.5 ml of sterile 0.9% normal saline. Blood was collected for serum for diagnosis of Syphilis. Study protocol was followed as shown in Figure I.  Statistical Analysis Statistical Analysis was done by using Descriptive and Inferential stastics using χ2 test and software used in analysis were SPSS 17.0 version, Graphpad Prism 6.0 version and pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2523http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2523 Singh SK, Prasad R, Verma RK, Pandey A. Psychosocial, cultural and service factors affecting reproductive morbidity among rural women in Maharashtra: Summary Report. International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai,< www. iipsindia. org/pdf/05_b_012repro_morbidity. pdf. Bang RA, Baitule M, Sarmukaddam S, Bang AT, Choudhary Y, Tale O. High prevalence of gynaecological diseases in rural Indian women. The Lancet. 1989 Jan 14;333(8629):85-8. Latha K, Kanani SJ, Maitra N, Bhatt RV, Senapati SK. Prevalence of clinically detectable gynaecological morbidity in India: results of four community based studies. Journal of family welfare. 1997 Dec 1;43(4):8-16. Rao V, Savargaonkar D, Anvikar A, Bhondeley MK, Tiwary BK, Ukey M, Abbad A, Srivastava S. Reproductive Tract Infections in Tribal Women of Central India. Proceeding of National symphosium on Tribal health. 2006:275-7. Khan KA, Islam SM, Akhter S. A Study on Prevalence of Reproductive Tract Infections Amongst Women Attending in an Urban Clinic. Chattagram Maa-O-Shishu Hospital Medical College Journal. 2014 Jul 5;13(1):32-5. Narayankhedkar A, Hodiwala A, Mane A. Clinicoetiological Characterization of Infectious Vaginitis amongst Women of Reproductive Age Group from Navi Mumbai, India. Journal of sexually transmitted diseases. 2015 Aug 17;2015.http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/817092 Balamurugan SS, Bendigeri ND. Community-based study of reproductive tract infections among women of the reproductive age group in the urban health training centre area in Hubli, Karnataka. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 2012 Jan 1;37(1):34. Mintz JD, Martens MG. Prevalence of non-albicans Candida infections in women with recurrent vulvovaginal symptomatology. Advances in Infectious Diseases. 2013 Dec 2;3(04):238. Deorukhkar SC, Saini S, Mathew S. Non-albicans Candida infection: an emerging threat. Interdisciplinary perspectives on infectious diseases. 2014 Oct 22;2014. Ray K, Bala M, Bhattacharya M, Muralidhar S, Kumari M, Salhan S. Prevalence of RTI/STI agents and HIV infection in symptomatic and asymptomatic women attending peripheral health set-ups in Delhi, India. Epidemiology and infection. 2008 Oct 1;136(10):1432-40. Prasad JH, Abraham S, Kurz KM, George V, Lalitha MK, John R, Jayapaul MN, Shetty N, Joseph A. Reproductive tract infections among young married women in Tamil Nadu, India. International family planning perspectives. 2005 Jun 1:73-82 Pawanarkar J, Chopra K. Prevalence of lower reproductive tract infection in infertile women. Health Popul Perspect Issues. 2004;27(2):67-75. Garg S, Sharma N, Bhalla P, Sahay R, Saha R, Raina U, Das BC, Sharma S, Murthy NS. Reproductive morbidity in an Indian urban slum: need for health action. Sexually transmitted infections. 2002 Feb 1;78(1):68-9 Kiran A, Kujur A, Haider S, Kashyap V. Pattern of Reproductive Tract Infection in women of reproductive age group Attending obstetrics and Gynaecology OPD, RIMS, Ranchi. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 2015 Nov;44:479 Aparajita D, Madhutandra S. A study on reproductive tract infections among married women in the reproductive age group (15-45 years) in a slum of Kolkata. J Obstet Gynecol India. 2008;58(6):518-22. Begum A, Nilufar S, Akther K, Rahman A, Khatoon F, Rahman M, Khatun F. Prevalence of selected reproductive tract infections among pregnant women attending an urban maternal and childcare unit in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition. 2003 Jun 1:112-6. Sangeetha S. A study of reproductive tract infections among pregnant women in the reproductive age group, in Urban Field Practice Area in Hubli, Karnataka, India. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. 2012 May 1;5(3):209. Omar AA. Gram stain versus culture in the diagnosis of vulvovaginal Candidiasis. East Mediterr Health J. 2001;7:925–34 Rathore M, Swami SS, Gupta BL, Sen V, Vyas BL, Bhargav A, Vyas R. Community based study of self reported morbidity of reproductive tract among women of reproductive age in rural area of Rajasthan. Indian J Community Med. 2003 Jul 1;28:117-21. Parashar A, Gupta BP, Bhardwaj AK, Sarin R. Prevalence of RTIs among women of reproductive age group in Shimla city. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 2006 Jan 1;31(1):15. Varghese C, Amma NS, Chitrathara K, Dhakad N, Rani P, Malathy L, Nair MK. Risk factors for cervical dysplasia in Kerala, India. Bulletin of the world Health organization. 1999 Mar 1;77(3):281-3 Ram R, Bhattacharya SK, Bhattacharya K, Baur B, Sarkar T, Bhattacharya A, Gupta D. Reproductive tract infection among female adolescents. Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 2006 Jan 1;31(1):32.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411017EnglishN2018September10Life SciencesReview on a weed Parthenium hysterophorus (L.)   English2332LalitaEnglish Ashok KumarEnglishIn the present time we are facing the infestation of Parthenium hysterophorus everywhere. It is available in stocks around the railway tracks, in bare lands, in agriculture fields, in orchards and forests, it invade major portion of Indian continental. We are familiar with Parthenium hysterophorus noxious properties and want to control its infestation. However, only controlling its growth is not a solution to remove it but it can be managed via its utilization for different purposes. Recently a lot of research has been going on to explore the utilization properties of  Parthenium. This review article presents some properties and utility potential of Parthenium concluded by various researchers.  English Weed management, Allelopathy, Invasion, HerbicidesINTRODUCTION Weeds in routine are known to be unwanted in a given situation and these are harmful, dangerous or economically detrimental having serious threat to primary production and biodiversity. Invasive Alien Species are known to be the species which are introduced from outside from its origin place to other countries either by deliberately or unintentional human activities. They have established self-reproducing populations in the wild and have caused evident changes in nearby, simulated as well as biological systems.. Invasion is known as very important hazard to biodiversity (2). They reduce farm and forest productivity. Parthenium hysterophorus is the main invasive alien weed which dominates over the native species and adversely affects the biodiversity. The word Parthenium is taken from the Latin word parthenice which means for medicinal uses (4) Parthenium hysterophorus is an invasive weed plant of family Asteraceae. This erect, short-lived plant known for its flourishy growth and its abundance notably in hot climates. Parthenium is native plant of north-east Mexico and was endemic to America but now it is widely distributed in all countries of Asia and Europe. Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) is known with different names in different countries such as carrot weed, star weed, congress grass, wild feverfew, ragweed, bitter weed, white top, and the “Scourge of India” .This weed with productive seed generation has high allelopathic impact on neighboring plants and competitiveness with economically important crops. Spread of Parthenium hysterophorus has been documented to cause enormous loss to the biodiversity by replacing native species in the natural ecosystems, sometimes causing total habitat alteration. To know about Parthenium hysterophorus effects, habitat and its biology have immense significance in agriculture. Only with detailed knowledge of this noxious weed, it will be possible to controlled and manage the weed in different ways. Present review explores the possibility through knowing habitat, distribution, biology and chemical properties of Parthenium hysterophorus. (1) Origin and Distribution of Parthenium Parthenium hysterophorus is native to the region encompassing the Central America, Southern North America, Gulf of Mexico, West Indies, and Central South America. The weed has now spread all around the globe including mainland as well as island. In India and other countries of Asian continent such as China, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, etc, it has spread on alarming rate. Its spread and infestation are severe in some of the countries like Australia, South Africa, Ethiopia, India and Pakistan. It was  introduced into Asia, Africa and Oceania with cereal and grass seed shipment from America during the 1950s (5). (i) IN INDIA: Parthenium hysterophorus possibly entered India in 1910 (with infected cereals germplasm) however, went unrecorded until 1956. The weed was first revealed in India in 1955 (38) and now happens everywhere the (48) in around 35 million hectares of land (23). In India, this weed has serious problem in approximate all states like Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh and Uttar-pradesh (22). Parthenium hysterophorus occurred in all states of country and presenting a serious threat in many states those have large areas of agriculture land, non cropping areas and grazing land (25). At present time India has becomes one of the most infested countries of world. The spread of Parthenium hysterophorus has been reported from all states of India with different intensity. Generally, overall spread in terms of Parthenium density and dispersion level is maximum in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh; medium in Jharkhand, Assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Orissa, and West Bengal; low in Andaman & Nicobar, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Lakshadweep, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Pondicherry. However its infestation varied in different states and different regions of states (Table 1)- In U.P. earlier this weed was noticed at Pantnagar opposite to the railway station and has spread to a few agricultural lands and also in Rae-Bareily district and Jhansi areas (10). It grows most luxuriously in some districts especially 00around western U.P. Weed is found in plenty in the nearby agricultural lands, abandoned land and on the bank and the basin of rivers (29). It is very well reported to occur in Western U.P. like Pilibhit, Puranpur Tehsil, Bisalpur Tehsil, Shahjahanpur, Mala and Deoria forest (Pilibhit) Badaun, Bareilly, Etah, Aligarh, Hathras, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Mathura, Moradabad, Meerut, Bijnor, Rampur, Jyotiba-Phule Nagar, Baghpat, Muzaffarnagar, Saharanpur,  and other parts of the state (32). There are less data available on the abundance of Parthenium hysterophorus in Meerut district due to less research, but there are plenty of Parthenium found grown in the bare areas, railway platforms and in agriculture lands. (2) HABITAT:   This exotic weed is generally spotted on bare lands, industrial areas, developing residential colonies, railway tracks, roads, drainage and around the ditch etc. This weed also grows vigorously in gardens, forests and agricultural fields. Due to its high luxuriance growth, it can produce about 15,000 seeds/ plant, which can disperse and germinate to different area in a large amount. It has potentiality to adjust to a variety of habitat conditions. It infest woodland, open spaces of urban regions, overgrazed pastures, developed terrains, irritated and uncovered zones, for example, roadsides, tracks, and intensely loaded regions, for example, stockyards and watering areas such as irrigation canal, water channels and ditch(43). It grows better in hot climates. High temperature is favorable for the development of this noxious weed production. Low temperature represses the development of the plant and the seed productivity (33). Under favorable climatic conditions like more than 500 mm average rainfall and 30°C mean temperature Parthenium hysterophorus can reach heights of 1.5 to 2.0 m. Under dry conditions, the plants may mature and set seed at even heights of only 10 cm.  This weed is characterized by its density and biomass varying with soil type. It prefers alkaline clay, loam soil to heavy black clay soils to grow luxuriously (3). Parthenium invaded sites mostly have sandy loam soil with pH ranging from 5.4 to 7.4, water holding capacity 16.8 to 63%, total nitrogen 0.055 to 0.206%, organic matter 1.134 to 4.24%, phosphorus 31.86 to 69.93 kg/ha, potassium 74.72 to 746.5 kg/ha(15). Parthenium has ability to can grow over a wide range of moisture, pH and temperature conditions however it requires high soil moisture for its seed germination. Reportedly it is a photoperiod and thermo-period insensitive and can flower year-round. Seed germination can happen over an extensive range of temperature and soil pH. Further, it is very competitive to compete with a number of crops including legumes & cereals. (3) INFESTATION OF PARTHENIUM HYSTEROPHORUS (a) Agriculture and pastures ecosystems: Before 1980 this weed was seldom noticed growing in crop lands but now it has spread too much extent into almost all types of agriculture crops, forests and plantation ecosystems. In Uttar-pradesh, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, etc., Parthenium is known as harmful weed of agriculture lands. In crop fields, where only one crop is grown in a year, it grows abundantly in the fallow period following the occurrence of mild rains. Its infestation is severe in the field where irrigation canals are used. On the bank of narrow, human-made waterway systems(water canal or ditch), Parthenium hysterophorus weed grows abundantly due to the good availability of moisture and its seeds being carried by irrigation water canal. (b) Orchards and forests ecosystems: Earlier, it was not known for its infestation in gardens and forests but at present time it spread vigorously into these areas. This weed grows luxuriantly in orchards because of low weeding practices in such ecosystems. Mango orchards in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Mahrashtra are frequently invaded by Parthenium weed causing a nuisance to growers.  In Himachal Pradesh, this weed has spread in the majority of apple orchards grown in the lower elevations. Similarly in  Maharashtra, orange orchards have been invaded with Parthenium weed causing problems to growers. Parthenium can grow luxriously in bare lands/wastelands and in forests, it inhibits the growth of other plants by which local bio-diversity being threatened. Parthenium weed has invaded numerous National Parks of India including Pench, Rajaji, Kanha, Bandhavgarh etc. (25). (c) Bare lands Parthenium hysterophorus vigorously grows in bare lands. It can be seen growing everywhere either on roadside, around the factories or mills, platforms and  even the lands which are not suitable for crop production due to their high metal toxicity or scarcity of the mineral nutrients. It is the important feature of Parthenium weed that it has a wide range of habitat and it can be survive in harsh conditions in which other normal plants cannot survive. It is an important reason of the rapid infestation of Parthenium in India and other countries as alien weed. (4) MORPHOLOGY Parthenium hysterophorus is highly branched, short lived (annual), upright (erect) herbaceous plant that form a rosette habitat during the early stage of life. At maturity, but occasionally can reach up to 2m or even more in height. STEM  Stem is cylindrical, solid, more or less fluted with longitudinal lines corresponding to the extension of the midrib of the leaves. Mature stems are greenish and covered with small soft hairs which are known as hirustle, stems become much harder as reach to maturity. LEAVES The leaves are alternately arranged and stalked (petioles) upto 2 cm long founds in two different forms. During the early stages of life it forms rosette habitat. Leaves are alternate, simple and deeply pinnatifid. The blade is 11 to 15 cm long and 6-10 cm wide, the blade of lower leaves are broad and intensely divided in comparison to upper leaves. Abaxial surface of leaves are covered with short, stiff hairs that lie close to the surface.  FLOWERS Numerous small flower- heads generally known as capitulum are organized  in clusters at the top of the branches (in terminal panicles). Each flower-head (capitulum) is borne on a stalk (pedicel). Capitulum (3-5 mm across) are off-white or white in color containing ray florets (0.3-1 mm long). They also have various (15-60) small flowers (tubular florets) in the centre surrounded by two rows of small green bracts (an involucre). It can flowered at any time of the year, but commonly occur during raining season. SEED Five small ‘seeds’ generally  known as achenes are produced in each flower-head . Seeds are  black obovoid, 2 mm long and 1.5 mm wide  consisting  two or three small scales known as  pappus about 0.5-1 mm in height, two straw-colored papery structures (actually dead tubular florets), and a flat bract. (E) Seed biology, germination and longetivity After 24-48 days of germination flowering takes place in Parthenium. This can happen at any time of the year.  The best alternating temperature regime for its weed seed germination is 21/16 ?C (day/night). Further its seeds can live for between 4-6 years in the soil as seed bank. Studies have also shown their buried seeds to live much longer than seeds on the soil surface (1).    (5) HOW IT IS SPREADS Parthenium  hysterophorus retain an extraordinary capability to spread grow and established well in wide range of environmental conditions (Monika, 2014). It completes life -cycle 90-120 days which helps in quick spreading (20). Its  seeds can be dispersed through various methods such as water current, animals, movement of vehicles, machinery, livestock and the grains or seeds of crops.  Further Parthenium has a relatively short life cycle, grows very quickly and survives under different habitats. Generally for long distances it spread through vehicle, agricultural instruments and with water flow. Parthenium produced enormous number of tiny seeds which are light weight and can survive as seed bank in soil for long time (7). These some abilities of Parthenium hysterophorus helps to spread rapidly resulted in infestation of Parthenium everywhere.   (5) Causes of rapid spread High reproductive potential Fast growth rate Allelopathic potential Unpalatable to animals High reproductive potential: Parthenium hysterophorus produce a huge quantity of seeds with up to 15-25,000 seeds per plant (30)  with an tremendous seed bank, estimated about 2,00,000 seeds/m2 in bare lands and agriculture field (15). Seeds of Parthenium can survive under harsh conditions and remain viable for a long time period. These qualities of this weed help in its fast spreading. Seeds of Parthenium can germinate any time of the year, when suitable moisture is available (46). Fast growth rate: It is vigorously growing annual herbaceous weed. Generally, Parthenium flowered when it is only 4-8 week old and can flower for several months. Under unfavorable conditions like salt and drought stress, the weed can completes its life cycle within 4-5 weeks. Allelopathic potential: This noxious weed suppress the development  of  nearby  plants by allelopathy. Leachate and extract of leaves and inflorescence prevent the germination and growth of  associated economically important crops. Kumari et al. (2014) observed that physiological and biochemical parameters remarkably reduced when aquous extract of Parthenium were directly sprayed on the crop plants. Parthenium has strong allelopathic effects on other plants even it can cause 40-80% yield loss in agricultural crops. Unpalatable to animals: Parthenium hysterophorus is unpalatable to the animals. Generally animals do not eat Parthenium hysterophorus  because of its bitter taste and intense odour (14). Earlier investigations in India had revealed its serious health hazards to the livestock in Parthenium hysterophorus invaded areas. Being unpalatable,it can not use as animal fodder and its  population is  increasing day by day unless mechanically removed. (7) IMPACT OF PARTHENIUM Impact on Biodiversity This weed has the potential to disturb the natural ecosystem, as it can grow throughout the year in almost all drastic conditions suppressing native vegetation. Owing the absence of effective natural enemies, its allelopathic effect as well as photo insensitivity and thermo insensitivity, it is a threat for natural diversity. Rapid spread of Parthenium can disturb natural ecosystem because it has very fast infestation capacity and allelopathic potential which have the ability to disrupt any type of natural ecosystem. Species richness, evenness an local biodiversity gradually decrease  where this plant is present, this situation clearly indicates the native biodiversity loss of weeds and other crop plants due to Parthenium  infestation. Its infestation is coupled with its allelopathic potential and the absence of its natural inhibitors such as pathogen, insects and their larvae, these are the some important factor which are the reason of its luxurious growth and spread (22).  The concentrations of allelochemicals viz. Coronopilin, caffeic acid, parthenin, and p-coumaric acid which are present in Parthenium have serious allelopathic effects. Impact on Crop production The Parthenium hysterophorus weed has infested in a large area of india (24).  This plant contains parthenin, hysterin, hymenin, and ambrosin. Due to the presesnce of these allelochemicals this weed has strong allelopathic impacts on different crops and human being also (11). This weed have adverse impacts on legumes by disturbing their symbiosis with Nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum and Actinomycetes.  It produces huge numbers of pollens ( Approx. 700 million), which travels a long distance from source plant to other crop plants and inhibits the fruit setting in these crop plants such as tomato, brinjal, beans, and ceraels. Parthenium can cause yield loss upto 40% in legume crops (19). Impact on Soil Microflora Parthenium is known to its inhibitory effect on growth and activity potential of different bacterial species related to Nitrogen assimilation such as Rhizobium and Azotobacter and nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas.  Aqueous extract of Parthenium has detrimental effects on the growth of  Rhizobium, Nitrosomonas and Azotobacter. It reduced the Legheamoglobin content of root nodules by which Rhizobium-legume symbiosis is affected.  Leaf and root leachates and their chemical component  inhibit nitrate production (45). Besides these it can inhibit the growth of algae and mycorhyzzae associated to crop plants because of its fungicidal property (Megharaj et al., 1987). Effects on Animals Parthenium weed is noxious for livestock, it can cause dermatitis and skin disorders in animals (12). loss of skin pigmentation, dermatitis, mouth ulcers with extreme salivation and diarrhoea has been observed in animals. If excess amount of this weed is eaten by the animals it can cause death. The Parthenium extract reduce the total WBC count in animals wich results in the weaknig of immune system. Effects on Human Beings Parthenium plant parts can be toxic to some people it is estimated up to 73% of people living with the weed are sensitive to it. Females are twice more likely to be sensitive than males. Dermatitis, hay fever, asthma, and bronchitis are the major health problems found in human beings caused by the pollen grains and other plant parts of Parthenium. The major  allergens found in this plant are parthenin, coronopilin, tetraneuris, and ambrosin. Its pollen grains are well known to causing asthma in human beings. Direct contact of this plant can cause dermatitis not only site specific but can spread all over the body. Clinically the Parthenium dermatitis can be divided into five types which are- The classical pattern The chronic actinic dermatitis (CAD) The mixed pattern (classical and chronic actinic dermatitis pattern combination) The photosensitive lichenoid eruption The prurigo nodularis like pattern (4). (8) CONTROL OF PARTHENIUM The control of Parthenium weed is a serious challenge due to its vigorously spreading nature. Immediate actions are being quite necessary to eradicate the plant since it has more hazardous impact on environment as well as to public health. India has great risk of rapid invasion of the weed in agricultural lands, for which it might gave proper attention towards the remedy to control Parthenium. Many researches are going on for finding the cheap and best way for its control. Some of the control measures that can be undertaken in India are as follows- GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT Grazing management is the most useful method for the control and manage the  Parthenium spread on a large scale. However, this practice has not been implemented effectively in India. Meadow land can be sustain with growing grasses and herbs in them. This may however, requires rehabilitation of poor meadow followed by sound grazing maintenance programs. Such a practice, however, has a lot of challenges in our country due to socioeconomic and cultural factors. CONTROLLING OVERGRAZING Overgrazing may increase the Parthenium hysterophorus infestation. Control of overgrazing therefore can minimize its infestation to some extent. Overgrazing due to the explosive increase in livestocks populations decreases the vigor and diversity of grassland that enable the spread of Parthenium hysterophorus weed luxriously. So maintenance of correct stock number might be fruitful in the control of Parthenium weed dispersal(31). Alternatively, pasture spreading can be helpful for rehabilitation of pasture lands which might be more effective than simply reducing the weed. However, overgrazing must be avoided Spring-summer period is found to be quite suitable for pasture sapling with first 6-8 weeks being quite important. Grazing during winter is generally safe since the period has low risk of Parthenium spread. However, Parthenium may grow and germinate in this time also.   BURNING Another commonly practiced way of controlling Parthenium hysterophorus weed is burning. Mass vegetation of the weed can be destroyed by this practice. But it can not be considered as safe control strategy for the weed since there is great risk to soil, air and existing plant and animal diversity. Parthenium hysterophorus ash also has allelopathic effect on crop yield but yield loss is low in comparison to the leachate and dry mass of this weed (22). MANUAL CONTROL Manually, Parthenium weed can be controlled by simple hand plucking. But this is not recommended since it might cause serious health hazard. Further, the seeds may drop off and increase the area of infestation. HERBICIDE CONTROL/CHEMICAL MANAGEMENT Chemical management or herbicidal control is the most widely used to control the growth of Parthenium hysterophorus However, now we focuses on bioherbicides but it is not effective as chemical herbicides till now. Chemical herbicides which are commonly used are glyphosate @ 2.5 kg /ha-1, atrazine @ 2.6 kg/ ha-1, bromoxynil @ 0.56 kg/ ha-1, common salt @ 20%, 2,4-D amine @ 3 l/ ha-1, 2,4-D ester @ 4 l/ ha-1, Floumeturon @ 2.24 kg/ ha-1, Hexazinone @ 3.5 kg/ ha-1, Metribuzin @ 0.7 kg/ha-1, Norflurazon @ 2.24 kg /ha-1 and Paraquat 0.5 l/ ha-1. These herbicides are well known for their ability to control this weed. (16, 39,41,27).   The stage and time of the rosette stage is the right time to apply post emergent herbicides in wasteland, non-cropped areas, along railway tracks, water canals and roadsides (Khan et al., 2012). Very effective treatments for P. hysterophorus control were noticed glyphosate and metribuzin, having higher effect at 28 after the herbicide application. Applications of herbicides further divided into two branches which are as follows- Non-cropping areas Parthenium should be eradicated by herbicide treatment early before it can set seed. Small and isolated areas of infestations can be treated immediately. Repeated spraying is necessary to prevent seed production. Spraying should be done before the flowering when the plants are small. Active growth of other grasses could be prompted for simultaneous control of the weed. Some of registered herbicides to control Parthenium weed are: atrazine, 2, 4-D+picloram (trodon 75-D) 2,4-D ester, glyphosate, metasulfuron methyl (for seedlings only), hexazinone, dicomba, etc (CRC 2003). These herbicides in different concentrations are effective for spot spray or boom spray or both. Cropping areas Chemical herbicides can be used in non-cropping area without any problem but it is little bit risky to practicise these herbicides in cropping areas because these can harm crop plants. So use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture land requires precautions to choose the herbicides so that it can not harm crop plants.  The biological or natural herbicides, like the volatile oils from aromatic plants in very low concentration are quite helpful on such areas to abort Parthenium seeds (42). These essential oils have no or little effect on the existing vegetation/crops (13). Observations have revealed that essential oils from different plants such as Eucalyptus sp., Ageratum, Lantana camara etc. can be used for the control of Parthenium. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Biological control might be one of the best methods for controlling the Parthenium weed dispersal. It can be done by the use of insects which can feed on Parthenium hysterophorus and  we can also used fungi, bacteria and plants which have adverse effects on Parthenium. The moth Epiblema strenuana (introduced form Mexico) has been established in all Parthenium dominated areas. The moth’s larvae feed on the stem of the weed and forms ball which inhibit the plant growth. Some other released insects which are found to be beneficial in controlling the weed.   CONTROL BY OVER USE OF THE WEED  This weed can be managed by enhancing its utility for different purposes. It can be extensively used for biogas production, as green manure and flea-repellant and herbicide. Over-exploitation of Parthenium for its beneficial use thus should be prompted in the developing countries like India where implementation of other alternative and expensive control measures is difficult. (9) UTILIZATION OF PARTHENIUM Use as a Traditional Medicinal plant Parthenium hysterophorus accidently entered India in 1910 with the germplasm of cereal grains, and is now considered as an obnoxious weed in our country (37). The noxious impacts of Parthenium have been well documented not for human health but also for livestock and native plant species. It causes serious effects like asthma, bronchits, dermatitis (allergic reaction), and hay fever in human being. Despite this problem it has also been used in industry for its noxious, insecticidal, nematicidal and herbicidal properties as well as for composting (Sastri and Kavathekar 1990). The bisque of root used as remedy for amoebic dysentery. The sub-lethal doses of parthenin extract help in reducing cancerous activity in the cells of mice. Investigations also revealed that Parthenium can be used to cure the hepatic amoebiasis, neuralgia and certain types of rheumatism (40). In America, it is applied externally on skin as remedy for a wide variety of diseases. In Jamaica, the elixation is used to kill the flea in animals (8). Antifungal: As mentioned earlier Parthenium have antifungal effects on different fungal species. This quality of Parthenium  can be used to cure the human and animal fungal diseases. Antifungal potential of different extracts of Parthenium hysterophorus against human pathogenic fungi were investigated by Rai (36) and Rai (35). Fungi related to dermititis found sensitive to sequestoterpene lactone found in Parthenium hysterophorus and it can used for the remedy of skin diseases (37). Antioxidant:  Parthenium hysterophorus methanolic extracts showed high antioxidant effect. Therefore, it can be utilized as natural antioxidants. It is naturally available antioxidant, if it will be commercially available it can replace synthetic antioxidant which have harmful impacts on human health (18). It is more valuable to produce antioxidant naturally after the research that synthetic antioxidants have high carcinogenicity in comparison to naturally produced antioxidant. Antitumor: Parthenium hysterophorus’s Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2524http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2524 Adkins, S and Shabbir, A., 2014. 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