Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411016EnglishN2018August27HealthcareStudy on Blood Donation Among Medical Students of Udaipur City, Rajasthan
English0104Shiv Lal SolankiEnglish Abhilasha MaliEnglishBackground: This study has been carried out to know the knowledge, attitude and behavior about blood donation among medical college students of Udaipur city. Human blood is an essential element of life and it cannot be substituted other than human blood. Blood is needed crucially for transfusion in multiple diseases, episodes of injuries and the only source of blood is donation.
Methods: This cross- sectional study was conducted in Udaipur city of Rajasthan on medical college students, to explore their knowledge, attitude and practice on blood donation. Sample of 150 respondents was studied, during the period of October 2016- December 2016.
Results: Majority of respondents was aware, and had the good knowledge on blood donation. Blood group “O” is a universal donor is also known to majority of the subjects. The minimum age to donate blood was known to majority of the respondents and most of them were willing to donate blood with a view that the blood donation is useful and beneficial to society. Very few of the study subjects have ever donated blood and the frequency of blood donation was observed more in male donors than female. Majority of the donor’s preferred to donate blood to their relatives.
Conclusions: This study reveals that having good knowledge on blood donation, less number of respondents had ever donated the blood. Major steps should be initiated to overcome the obstacles with provision of adequate literature, advertisements and communication material for enhancing positive attitude of medical college students so that they start to take part willingly in voluntary blood donation. A good positive attitude may lead to higher eagerness for blood donation. .
EnglishVoluntary, Awareness, Emergency, Relatives, Human lifeINTRODUCTION:
Blood is a very specialized body fluid of humans which deliver necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and help in transportation of metabolic waste products away from the cells1.
Blood is manufactured by human beings and donation of blood by humans is the only way of acquiring blood to meet emergency requirements in cases of road traffic accidents, complications of pregnancy like ant partum and post partum hemorrhage, blood loss during childbirth, various anemic disorders and surgical emergencies2.
According to world health organization, an estimated 38% of reported voluntary blood donations are contributed by people under the age of twenty five. World health organization also insists the developing and developed countries, to focus on young people, to achieve hundred per cent voluntary unpaid blood donation3. India needs about 7 million units of blood annually and every year there is gradual increase in this demand4 due to various anemic disorders, accidents and emergencies. Millions of lives are saved each year in the globe, through blood transfusions, but the percentage of voluntary unpaid donors and the safety of blood transfusion is still a concern, particularly in the developing countries5.
It is estimated that donation by 1% of the population is sufficient to meet a nation’s most basic requirements for blood5. The World health organization recommends that the blood which is to be donated should be tested for some important infections like HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Syphilis, Malaria as these infections can be transmitted by blood donation to the recipients6.
Blood services are facing shortage of blood all over the world. Demand of blood is rising day by day and the current blood donation is insufficient to meet the demand. The WHO has categorized India as having less than 10 blood donations per 1000 population, with voluntary collection of 50%--89% of the total blood collection.
The medical students were aimed at for conducting our study because they represent the potential blood donors among the young population pool of tomorrow for our nation.
OBJECTIVES:
To know the knowledge, attitude and behavior towards blood donation among medical college students.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
This cross sectional study was conducted on 150 first MBBS students of Geetanjali Medical College and Hospital, Udaipur, during October 2016 to December 2016. Information regarding knowledge, attitude and practice for blood donation was recorded in a pre tested proforma, after obtaining the written consent from study subjects. Data was analyzed and results were expressed as using proportional percentage.
RESULTS:
The study sample consisted of (50%) males and (50%) females.
The study participants included age range of 17-21 years. (53.34%) of study participants belonged to 18-19 years age group followed by (32.0%) in age group 19-20 years. Minimum participants (3.99%) were of 17-18 years of age. The mean age of students was 18.95±0.71S.D.Years.
(78.0%) of the study subject knew that the blood group “O” is universal donor, (76.%) knew about the blood group “AB” is universal recipient. Majority (98%) knew, regarding 4 types of blood groups and (86%) knew for their own blood group. (80%) of the subjects knew that the 45 kg is minimum weight to donate blood, and (84.66%) were know that the 60 year of age is maximum age to donate the blood, (82%) were know after 90 days blood can be donated if donated once, (33.33%) of the subjects have the knowledge about 350ml of blood volume is collected in one spell of donation and all (100%) subject were know that blood of the donor, must be tested for HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Syphilis, Malaria before blood collection.
Out of 150 study subjects, (96%) were willing to donate the blood, (98%) of the subjects believed that blood donation is beneficial to society. (66.67%) of the study participants had the opinion to take permission from elderly before blood donation. (95.33%) of study participants want to become voluntary unpaid donor. All 150 study participants encouraged the people for blood donation.
Out of 150 study subjects only (14%) ever donated blood. Out of 21 who ever donated blood (80.95%) were male against (19.4%) female. (100%) of the subjects donated blood voluntarily and majority (66.67%) of donors donated blood to their relatives.
In the present study the cause of not to ever donate blood in majority was afraid of procedure (47.29%) followed by (31.0%) no one asked them, (9.31%) not supported by family and only (3.10%) were of the opinion that there is no need to donate blood to unknown persons.
Discussion:
The 150 study participants, included age range of 17-21 years. (80%) of students had knowledge regarding the minimum necessary body weight for blood donation ie 45 kg. Similar findings (72%) were observed by Giri PA et al7. Majority (84.66%) of study subjects were aware of the appropriate age for blood donation ie 18 years to 60 years. The appropriate age was known to (92%) of the study subjects in study by Giri PA et al7 while less values (11.7%) were observed by Hossein S. et al8 . Shahshahani HJ et al9 found in their study in Iran that less than 50% of the respondents were aware about the minimum age for blood donation.
(14%) of study subjects in our study, did not know their own blood group. This was similar to (18.18%) the findings of study conducted by Arun et al10. Majority (96%) of study subjects showed positive attitude towards blood donation, against the values observed in various studies, by Hossain GM et. al.11 (82 %), S Manikandan et al12 (63.58%), Abhishek et al13 (93.77%) and Shenga N et al14 (87.23%). In present study majority (98%) of the participants viewed that the blood donation is beneficial to society, similar to finding by Arun et. al10 (97.6%). Majority (86%) of study subjects have not donated blood ever, similar findings were observed (87.3%) and (75.4%) by Shenga N et. al.14 and Hossain S et. al8 respectively. In study among married women homemakers conducted at Tehran by Khadir M et.al15 showed that (24.1%) had ever donated blood and in another study in Palestinina central bureau of statistic16 revealed only (20%) had ever donated blood but in our study this data is low (14%) compared to others.
Among the donors in our study, majority of them were males (80.95%) against females (19.05%). Similar findings were observed by Shailesh K Mishra et al17 (75.8%) and (24.2%) on 1000 college going students at Chandigarh, while Hossain S et al8 observed (33.33%) male donors to (18.7%) females donors.
In our study the common cause for not to donate the blood was fear of procedure (47.29%), while Arun et al10 observed (31.34%), S. Manikandan et al12 in their study of Chennai, observed only (27.4%) while low figures (9.75%) were observed by Abhishek et al13.
No one asked to donate the blood for the cause (31%), was observed in our study, similar to S Manikandan12 (32.21%), and Arun et al10 (26.12%), where as Shailesh K Mishra17 observed only (9.8%), and Abhishek et al13 observed (42.68%)
The cause due to fear of weakness for not to donate the blood was observed by S. Manikandan et al12 (12.61%) and Shailesh K Mishra et al17 (19.0%) respectively against our findings (4.65%).
In our study (4.65%) of the respondents did not donate the blood due to fear of contracting any disease, this finding is supported by the study of Shailesh K Mishra et al17 (4.6%).
No one asked them was the reason observed among (31%) of the respondents in our study, similar to the stusy by S Manikandan et al12 (32.21%), while Shailesh K Mishra17 observed only (9.8%).
No support from the family, the cause of not to donate the blood was (9.31%) in our study while Abhishek et al13 observed (14.6%).
CONCLUSION:
It is evident by our study that greater knowledge about blood donation does not lead to high frequency of blood donation by medical college students. Special campaign is to be conducted to convert in to the actual blood donation by the medical students. If the medical college students set an example of blood donation on the eve of world donation day, that will in turn motivate and boost the morale of the community people for saving the human lives by donating blood. Voluntary blood donation by medical students with provision of adequate communication materials to masses, more advertisements to address the fears related to blood donation, shall increase the awareness among general masses in the society and it will also enhance the morals of voluntary blood donors to donate blood on regular basis to meet the challenges of blood transfusion of needy people.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Funding: No funding sources
Conflict of interest: None declared
Ethical approval: The study was approved by the institute ethics committee
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2514http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2514
The franklin Institute Incorporatin (2014) “Blood” The Human Heart http://www.fi.edu/learrn/heart/blood.blood.html
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World Health Organization. (WHO), Blood Transfusion Safety. Available from:http://www.who.int/bloodsafety/volintary_donation/en/.
National AIDS control Organization (NACO), India. Voluntary blood donation programme - An operational Guideline, 2007, Available from:http://www/nacoonline.org/upload/policiesandGuidelines/29, voluntary blood donation.pdf
Dhingra N. World blood donor day: new blood for the world. World Health Organization.http://www.who.int/mediacenetre/news/releasese/2010/blood_door_day_20100613/en
World Health Organization (2009) Screening Donated Blood for transfusing transmissible Infections. WHO, Geneva.
Giri PA, Palke DB. Knowledge and attitude about blood donation amongst undergraduate students of Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University of Central India. Ann Trop Med public Health 2012:5:569-73-14
Hossein S, Nasim P, Batool M. University student’s awareness and attitude towards blood donation in Kerman city. Iran J Blood Cancer 2009:1:3:107-10.
Shahshahani HJ, Yavari MT, Attar M, Ahmadiyeh MH, Knowledge, attitude and practice study about blood donation in the urban population of Yazd, Iran,2004. Transfusion Medicine. 2006/16:403-9
Arun Pulikkottil Jose et al, Knowledge, Attitude and practices on voluntary blood donation among college students in Bilaspur, Karnataka. Int J Cur Res Rev, June 2013/ Vol 05 (12) page 26.
Hossain GM, Anisuzzaman M, Begun A. Knowledge and attitude towards voluntary blood donation among Dhaka University students in Bangladesh East Afr Med J. 1997 Sep:74(9):549-553.
S Manikanandan, R Srikumar, P N Ruvanthika. A study on knowledge attitude, and practice on blood donation among health professional students in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, South India. Int. J. of Scientific and Research Publications:2013:3(3):1-4.
Abhishek Bachhotiya, V K Arora, Piyusha Mahashbde, Evaluation of intervention on voluntary blood donation among 1st prof medical and dental students of index medical college. Indore (MP), India National Journal of Community Medicine Volume 5, issue2,Apr- June2014
Shenga N, Pal R, Sengupta S, Pal S. Correlates of voluntary blood donation among the people in a hill capital in India. International Journal of Green Pharmacy. 2009:3(2):167-174.
Khadir M, Maghsudlu M, Gharehbaghian A, Danandeh E, Faghih H, Vafaiyan V, The evaluation of the attitude of Iranian women towards blood donation. Sci J Iran Blood Transfusion Organ. 2004;1:27-34
Palestinina central Bureau of Statistics. Knowledge, Attitudes and Trends of the Palestinian Community about Blood Donation, 2003 http.//www.pcds.gov.ps/Portals_pcds/pressRelease/blood.pdf
Shailesh K Mishra, Suchet Sachdev, Neelam Marwaha and Ajit Avasthi. Study of knowledge and attitude among college going students toward voluntary blood donation from north India. Journal of blood medicine, 2016:19-26.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411016EnglishN2018August27HealthcareClinical and Anatomical Study of Retromolar Foramen on Adult Dry Mandible in Uttarakhand Region in India
English0507Shikha MalikEnglish SunitaEnglish Alok ChoudharyEnglishAim and Objective: The aim of the present study is to observe and analyze the morphological variations found in retromolar foramen and to assess the average width of Retromolar foramen.
Material and Methods: In this study all available 72 dry, fully ossified adult mandibles from the department of Anatomy, Shri Guru Ram Rai institute of medical and health sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand north region of India were included without gender and age distinction. In 72 dry mandibles, the mandible which has retromolar foramen was studied for its diameter along with side preference.
Result: The diameter of the Retromolar foramen varies between 0.53 to 1.64 mm and the mean Diameter of foramen was 1.01mm. The mean width of Retromolar foramen in right side was 1.01mm which is same as of Left side (1.01mm).
Conclusion: The retromolar foramen and canal act as a common risk factor while performing conventional anesthetic techniques so the knowledge of the variation is relevant and after evaluating the width of the foramen which is not negligible surgeons must be careful about the anatomical structures that enter via Retromolar foramen, which can be injured during surgical approaches..
EnglishRetromolar Triangle, Retromolar foramen, Retromolar canalINTRODUCTION
A triangular area posterior to the third molar tooth on the alveolar surface of mandible known as retromolar triangle. Posterior to the lower third molar is a cribose triangle, the retromolar triangle, and laterally, the retromolar fossa.1 The boundary of retromolar fossa is formed from the medial side by temporal crest and from the lateral side by the anterior border of ramus.2 The retromolar foramen (RMF) of the mandible is a variant anatomical structure which is present on the retromolar fossa along with retromolar canal in Retromolar Triangle. It is sharp and narrow, and medially borders the extramolar sulcus (at the buccal edge of the third molar).3 This foramen runs straightly to the retromolar canal (RMC), which diverges from the mandibular canal and present as a morphologic and morphometrical variability.4 In the content of the Retromolar canal there is an artery which is a branch of the inferior alveolar artery, and a nerve derived from the inferior alveolar nerve and went towards the third molar region, the retromolar triangle mucosa, the buccal mucosa, the vestibular gingiva of the premolar region, and the inferior molars.5 Some researchers4,6,7 studied about the content of the canal and suggested that they emerges from the mandibular neurovascular bundlebefore enters into the mandibular canal and some other researchers5,8,9,10 studied that it arise from neurovascular bundle in mandibular canal and lie in buccal area.
According to the Japanese research studies retromolar canal is an extension through retromolar foramen on retromolar fossa of the body of the mandible through which the neurovascular bundle passed which has nerve and artery. This neurovascular bundle provided supply to the lower third molar, mucosa of retromolar triangle and the buccal gingival of premolar and molar area. The artery anastomosed with the branches of buccal artery and the facial artery after arising from the mandibular canal. Anthropological studies conducted that included 2500 number of mandibles of different human groups indicated that the Retromolar foramen can be found in diverse populations more common in native populations of North America than other populations of Africa, Europe, India and Northeast Asia.11 The information about the morphology of the mandible and its anatomical differences is very important in the preparation of various dental clinical procedures which rests on the presence of the neurovascular bundle, which passes through it.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In this study all available 72 dry, fully ossified adult mandibles from the department of Anatomy, Shri Guru Ram Rai institute of medical and health sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand north region of India were included without gender and age distinction. In 72 dry mandibles each mandible was observed for morphological variations that is retromolar foramen and the mandible with foramen were evaluate for the diameter of retromolar foramen along with side preference (Fig no.1 and 2).
Mandibles showing signs of pathology or other processes which may have influenced result (osteopetrosis, advanced alveolar bone resorption in the retromolar area) etc. and mandibles with the signs of damage to the retromolar area whether due to the ageing or handling of mandibles were excluded.
Result: -
In our findings it shows that the diameter of the Retromolar foramen varies between 0.53 to 1.64 mm and the mean diameter of the Retromolar foramen is 1.0 mm and the mean width of the RMF on right side (1.01mm) is same as that of the left side (1.01mm) showing in Table no.1, 2 and Graph no.1.
Discussion: -
A triangular area behind the third molar tooth on the alveolar surface of mandible known as retromolar triangle. 72 human mandibles are examined in the present study for the diameter of the retromolar foramen along with the side preference. The diameter of the Retromolar foramen varies between 0.53 to 1.64 mm and the mean Diameter of foramen is 1.01mm. The mean width of Retromolar foramen in right side is 1.01mm which is same as of Left side (1.01mm). The above findings show that the right Retromolar Foramen is of same width as Left foramen.
In findings it shows that the mean diameter of the Retromolar foramen is 1.01 mm which was in part accordance with the study conducted by Md. A. Khan12 which showed that the mean diameter of the Retromolar foramen was 1.25 mm. The variation is possible because of the sample size. In our finding it is showed that the width of the Retromolar foramen on right side (1.01mm) is same as that of the left side (1.01mm), which was not in accordance with the study conducted by the Md. A. Ashraf Khan and Senthil Kumar.S13 both stated that the left Retromolar foramen was larger than right. The differences in these studies may be due to differential origin in Indian population and their sample size.
Conclusion: -
The diameter of Retromolar foramen through which the nerves and artery passes less than 1mm was not considered as foramen and the diameter of the Retromolar foramen on both right and left side were found same. The constituent of retromolar foramen and canal are the nerves that provides innervation to the pulp of third molar, retromolar area, fibers of the temporalis and buccinator muscle.14 Presence of retromolar foramen and canal and its contents have great clinical implication and can be damaged in various surgical activities like flap lifting, bone tissue for autologous bone grafts, osteotomy for the surgical removal of third molar, placement of Osseo integrated implants for orthodontic or in sagittal split osteotomy surgeries15 so retromolar foramen is considered as potential route for further innervation to the lower third molar area causing failure in anesthetic mandibular blocking.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2515http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2515
Suazo GI, Cantín LM, López FB, Valenzuela UV, Valenzuela RR. Morphometric study of the retromolar triangle. Int J Odontostomat. 2007. Vol.1 (2):129-32.
Susan Standring, “Infratemporal and pterygopalatine fossae and temporomandibular joint” in Grays Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practices, S.Standring, H. Ellis, J.C. Healy, D. Jhonson and A. Williums, Eds., Churchill Livingtone, New York, NY, USA, 40 th ed, 2008. Pp. 532.
M. Lipski, I.M. Tomaszewska, W. Lipska, G.J. Lis, K.A. Tomaszewski. The mandible and its foramen: anatomy, anthropology, embryology and resulting clinical implication. Folia Morphol.2013.vol.72, no.4, pp.285-292. DOI: 10.5603/FM.2013.0048.
K Narayana, U A Nayak, W N Ahmad, J G Bhat, B A Devaiah. The retromolar foramen and canal in south Indian dry mandibles. European Journal of Anatomy. 2002; 6 (3): 141-146.
Kodera H, Hashimoto I. A case of mandibular retromolar canal; elements of nerves and arteries in this canal. Kailbogaku Zashi. 1995; 70 (1): 23-30
Kaufman E, Serman NJ, Wang PD: Bilateral mandibular accessory foramina and canals: A case report and review of the literature. Dentomaxillofac Radiol 29:170, 2000
Wang PD, Serman NJ, Kaufman E: Continious radiographic visualization of the mandibular nutrient canals. Dentomaxillofac Radiol 30:131, 2001
Ikeda K, Ho KC, Nowicki BH, et al: Multiplanar MR and anatomic study of the mandibular canal. Am J Neuroradiol 17:579, 1996
Ossenberg NS: Temporal crest canal: Case report and statistics on a rare mandibular variant. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 62:10, 1986
Ossenberg NS. Retromolar foramen of the mandible. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1987; 73: 119-28.
Silva FM, Cortez AL, Moreira RW, Mazzonetto R. Complications of intraoral donor site for bone grafting prior to implant placement. Implant Dent. 2006. vol. 15; 420-26.
Md. A.Khan, S.Agarwal, R.S. Mandloi. Prevalence of Retromolar Foramen in Dried Mandible along with Morphometric and Analytical study in North India. Natl J Med Dent Res. 2013. Vol. 2(1): 11-14.
Senthil Kumar S, Kesavi D. A Study on the incidence of Retromolar Foramen and Canal in Indian Dried Human Mandibles and its Clinical Significance. International Journal of Anatomical Sciences. 2010. Vol.1: 14-16.
Reyneke J. P, T sakiris P and Becker P. Age as a factor in the complication rate after removal of unerupted/ impacted third molars at the time of mandibularsagittal split osteotomy. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 2002; 60(6): 654-659.
Boronat Lopez A and Penarrocha Diago M. Failure of locoregional anesthesia in dental practice. Review of the literature. Med. Oral Patol. OralCir. Bucal. 2006; 11(6): 510-513.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411016EnglishN2018August27HealthcareRare Case of Capillary Hemangioma of Bilateral Lower Limb: A Case Report
English0810Vipan KumarEnglish Anu YarkyEnglish Aakash ParasharEnglish Devinder KumarEnglishAim: The aim of this case report is to bring to light an unusual case of soft tissue tumor in a young female.
Case Report: Hemangiomas are commonly occuring soft tissue tumors, but it rarely involves the feet. We are reporting a twenty two year old female with capillary hemangioma of her left ankle and right foot which was painful. Her excision biopsy was done and microscopic investigation revealed capillary hemangioma. The patient has had no recurrence since the surgery.
Discussion: Few similar cases have been reported in the past in children, adults and elderly patients and none of them experienced any recurrence after treatment by excision or sclerotherapy or embolisation.
Conclusion: Insidious onset and gradually progressive painful swellings can often be misdiagnosed as vascular malignant neoplasms. Here we have reported an unusual case of capillary hemangioma of bilateral lower limb in a young female.
EnglishSoft tissue tumors, Capillary hemangioma, Excision biopsyIntroduction :
Hemangiomas are benign soft tissue tumors. They can occur anywhere in the body be it skin, muscle, bone or our organs. Capillary hemangioma is the most commonly occurring hemangioma. Often surgeons, clinically misdiagnose patients with gradually progressing painful swellings as malignant. Thus the next step in diagnosis is radiological intervention and histopathological diagnosis. Here we are reporting an unusual case of a young female who was diagnosed to have capillary hemangioma in bilateral lower limbs.
Case scenario:
Our patient a young 22 year old female came to the out patient department with complaints of Swelling in the dorsum of right foot and left ankle since one and half year. She was apparently alright when she noticed swelling over her right foot, dorsal aspect and similar swelling over medial aspect of left ankle. Swelling was initially the size of a peanut but gradually progressed to the size of lemon within one and half year. It was painful and bluish brown in colour. There was no history of fever, discharge from the swelling, or pedal oedema. She complained of difficulty in walking due to pain, difficulty in bearing weight over a single limb and restriction of movement. There was no past history of Diabetes, hypertension, tuberculosis and no history of similar swellings in past. Family history was also inconclusive.
On examination, our patient had a bluish brown coloured swelling over her left ankle which was approximately of size 3*4 cm and another swelling over dorsum aspect of right foot which was approximately of the size 3.5*4 cm. It was tender, compressible, non reducible. There was no discharge or sinus present. There was no pedal oedema associated with the swelling. Peripheral pulses were normally palpable.
MRI- Magnetic resonance Imaging of right foot was done. (Figure a) It was suggestive of a well defined, lobulated, T1 Hypo mixed STIR hyperintensity lesion on dorsum of foot in subcutaneous plane on post contrast enhancement. It was of size 4*1*3 cm and was separated from the underlying extensor tendons. Underlying metatarsals were normal. Bones comprising the ankle joint showed normal configuration. Joint space was normal. Talocalcaneal and talo navicular joints were normal, Achilles tendon was normal. Plantar soft tissues were also normal. A possibility of Slow flow vascular malformation was kept.
Patient underwent Excision biopsy (Figure b and Figure c). and the tissue was sent for histopathological analysis which was suggestive of capillary hemangioma (Figure d). Post op patient was asymptomatic and no similar swellings were present till one year of follow up period.
Discussion :
A hemangioma is a benign tumor of blood vessels. They can occur anywhere in the body, including in skin, muscle, bone, and internal organs. Mostly they occur on the surface of the skin or just beneath it. Hemangiomas are rarely cancerous and do not require any medical treatment but some hemangiomas can be cosmetically disfiguring and may require treatment. There are some cases of hemangioma in which surgery may be necessary like when they are deep in muscle or bone, or for tumors on the skin that cause problems with vision, breathing, or eating.
Capillary hemangioma is the most common type of hemangioma.(1) It is made up of small capillaries that are normal in size but high in number. They form a tightly packed group held together by thin connective tissue. Because of their proximity to the skin, capillary hemangiomas are typically brighter red in color. They can be small or large; flat or raised; or may protrude out as a nodule. Diffuse hemangioma or angiomatosis appears as a spongy mass that covers an entire extremity. Other types of hemangiomas are compound hemangioma, cavernous hemangioma and lobular capillary hemagioma.
Types of hemangiomas according to their presentation can be infantile and congenital also. Hemangiomas in Muscle, Bone, and Internal Organs are not as common as hemangiomas of the skin but cases like ours have been reported in the past. Intramuscular hemangioma can develop at any age, but most often occur in young adults. Capillary hemangiomas are more common in muscle than cavernous and compound hemangiomas. These tumors are often painful and require treatment. Bone hemangiomas occur in the skull or spine typically and are most common in people who are 50 to 70 years of age.
A great deal of research is being done to learn more about hemangiomas. The development of medication directed at halting the development of blood vessels (anti-angiogenic drugs) is an exciting area of research for many types of tumors.
Yetkin H et al in 2001 reported a case of multiple hemangiomas of foot. They reported a case of a forty-seven-year-old female with multiple painless hemangiomas on her left foot. During surgery there were seven well defined masses that were totally excised after ligation of penetrating vessels. The microscopic investigation revealed mixed-type (capillary and cavernous) hemangioma. They did not experience any recurrence after two years follow up period.(2) Capillary hemangiomas that occur in adults and on the lower extremities are uncommon.
Cione et al in 2002 reported a similar uncommon case of capillary hemangioma involving surgical treatment of the lesion on an adult foot .(3)
Uslu M et al in 2014 presented a report of 2 cases of intramuscular hemangioma in children, 1 treated by excision and 1 by percutaneous sclerosis. They stated that Surgical excision, ultrasound or fluoroscopic-guided percutaneous sclerotherapy, and angiographic embolization are all worthy treatment options. Surgical excision is the most prevalent form of therapy, although this can be difficult when it is in the hands and feet. For this reason, ultrasound- and fluoroscopic-guided percutaneous sclerotherapy is a useful treatment option for pedal intramuscular hemangioma.(4) In matter of recurrence, our patient has not had any recurrence of similar swellings till date and has been asymptomatic for the past one year of follow up.
In 1986 Nappi et al reported a clinico-pathologic study of two cases of disseminated lobular capillary hemangioma which were misdiagnosed clinically as having malignant vascular neoplasms.(5) Reported cases had recurrence of multiple satellite lesions after surgical removal of a solitary capillary hemangioma. One patient developed skin nodules in several sites, including the mouth, knee, thumb, and foot, after surgical removal of a solitary oculocutaneous neoplasm. The second patient had more than 700 skin lesions, distributed over the entire body.
Conclusion
Several classification systems have been proposed for classifying peripheral vascular malformations.
Example 1: Classification of vascular malformations according to flow dynamics:
Low Flow : Venous, Lymphatic and mixed malformations
High Flow : Arteriovenous malformations and fistulas.
Example 2: International Study of Vascular Anomalies classification of vascular anomalies into tumours and simple malformations.
Vascular tumor : Hemangioma and others;
Simple vascular malformations : Capillary, venous, lymphatic.(6)
Haemangiomas are benign vascular tumours. They are characterised by cellular proliferation, rapid early proliferative stage and a later stage of involution. Low-flow lesions are some of the most common types of vascular malformations, with prevalence of up to 1% in the general population. The extremities encompass approximately 40% of the sites involved, with low-flow venous Peripheral vascular malformations being the most common types encountered. Other locations include the head and neck (40% of cases) and the trunk (20%).(6) Our patient presented to us with subcutaneous swellings in right foot and left ankle, which was diagnosed as a low flow vascular malformation on Magnetic Resonance Imaging and as capillary hemangioma on histopathology report of excised biopsy tissue. The purpose of our study is to present such rare case of capillary hemangioma over bilateral lower limbs in a young female.
Acknowledgement : Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Conflict of Interest: There is no conflict of interest.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2516http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2516Hemangioma - OrthoInfo - AAOS [Internet]. [cited 2018 Aug 1]. Available from: https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases--conditions/hemangioma
2. Yetkin H, Kanatli U, Guzel VB, Poyraz A. Multiple hemangiomas of the foot: A case report. Foot Ankle Int. 2001;
3. Cione JA, Cozzarelli J. Capillary hemangioma of the foot. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc [Internet]. 2002 Mar [cited 2018 Aug 1];92(3):155–7. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11904329
4. Uslu M, Be?ir H, Turan H, Bozkaya H, Erdem H. Two different treatment options for intramuscular plantar hemangioma: Surgery versus percutaneous sclerotherapy. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2014;
5. Nappi O, Wick MR. Disseminated lobular capillary hemangioma (pyogenic granuloma). A clinicopathologic study of two cases. Am J Dermatopathol. 1986;
6. Madani H, Farrant J, Chhaya N, Anwar I, Marmery H, Platts A, et al. Peripheral limb vascular malformations: an update of appropriate imaging and treatment options of a challenging condition. Br J Radiol [Internet]. 2015 Mar [cited 2018 Aug 1];88(1047):20140406. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25525685
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411016EnglishN2018August27Life SciencesRole of Latent Palm Prints Present on Documents in Establishment of Individuality
English1115Amit ChauhanEnglish Rhythm GandhiEnglishAim: The purpose of this study was to identify role of latent palm prints present on hieroglyphics substances in the establishment of individuality.
Methodology: In this study, 80 samples including male and female were studied from Northern part of India. Identity was established by using four parameters and 12 sub-parameters. All samples were intensified by using appropriate battery of powders/ chemicals.
Result: During the observation of parameters, it was observed that variation occurs and provides the correlation between the initials of an individual from line of writing.
Discussion: All samples were analyzed at statistical level at 90% of confidence level. During this study, it was observed that out of 12 sub-parameters, 8 were highly significant and only 4 sub-parameters were demonstratingthe level of variation.
Conclusion: This method can detect the forgery for the fixation the identity of individual. This method can be useful to individualize the person in forgery, smudged prints, anonymous letter and can be put on the par of other evidences.
EnglishIdentification, Questioned documents, Evidence, Latent prints, Individuality, etc.INTRODUCTION
Personal authentication is the key of security and reliability in society. Reliability of personal identification depends on various sources of evidences recovered from the crime scene. It has been observed that Palm prints, fingerprints are equally valuable evidence. Evidential value of palm print is clear as about 30 percent of the latent recovered from crime scenes are from palms which play a vital role in the identification of an individual(1) (2). The ridges are studded with sweat pores which secrete the sweat. However, it must remember that while writing or preparing works of art, one cannot help touching or holding the surface or part of the hand resting on the writing surface to support and facilitate the movement of hand. Since Palm has raised lines and furrows having sweat pores which keeps ridges moist, and as it touches the surface, it is expected to leave their impressionon writing surface(3) (4). Especially when we sign, Hypothenar area of the palm comes in the contact of the surface. Since sweat is apparently colorless fluid, so the prints left behind are not visible to the naked eye; the visibility of the prints are enhanced by various methods.
This inherent relation of signatures with the lateral palm prints lead the identity and increase the reliability of questioned documents examination(5). By studying the intensified palm prints and obtained 12 parameters from fresh and old samples(6), it was observed that the identification of subject is possible. Although the natural variation occurs, butparameters were capable to provide the authenticity of an individual(7). In handwriting examination, when a person try to disguise his handwriting, then the class characteristics are examined, whether For the dilatation of authorship in handwriting, numerous standard signatures are required (8) (9).
Along with the characteristics of forgery, the culprit will also leave their latent palm prints on the document. During the development process numerous prints will be visualize(10) (11). If the author is genuine, then prints are encountered below the signature. If latent prints are not on paper, it may be cause of disease, weather, atmospheric, age or wearing gloves in hands. It’s very rare that latent palm print does not occur on documents and very hard to believe(12). During examination if such conditions are faced, the identity will be established by these parameters. Some variation in the writing will be observed, which is the indication of genuineness.
METHODOLOGY
Whenan individual write’s or put their hand over the paper to support it, palm prints in latent form willtransfer below to the signature on it. All subjects were requested to write/ put their signature over paper after a time interval to examine; that an individual put their signature/ or write in analogous way or not? and identification is possible from the intensified palm prints or not?
Samples collection
In this study, 80 samples including male and female from age group of 15 -55 years were studied. All samples were collected from loacal Jaat’s resident of western UP. All samples were selected randomly. Sample collection procedure took place in two phases named fresh and old samples. Old samples were collected in October 2012 while fresh samples were collected in March 2013. All samples werecollected on the white paper sheet written by blue ball pen.
Methods
The selection criteria of all individuals were random, and consent was taken. The details about an individual such as Age, sex, Address, occupation and educational qualification were noticed. Subjects were asked to sit on chair at easeand to put the paper on a table which was upto the height of elbow. Then individuals were requested to put their signatures on the sheet at calm and congenial atmosphere.
After samples collection, samples were preserved in white paper envelope to prevent paper from dust, atmospheric ingredients and other effects at room temperature. All fresh samples were treated by black powder while old samples were treated by ninhydrin method. Intensified palm prints by black powder are given below in figure no-1 and 2-
The intensified palm prints by ninhydrin are given below in figure no.-3 and 4-
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Identification of an individual was based on the obtained aggregate information of latent palm prints. Firstly, we allocated three centers of curvatures in intensified palm prints which were correlated with line of writing, where signatures were put on(13)(14). To allocate the center of curvature, firstly, two tangential lines were drawn, where lines intersects each other from that point a corresponding line is also drown. Now from the corresponding line up to the deepest point A, it will be radius of centre of curvatures A. Thus, all three centers (A, B, C) and radius of respective centers were allocated. Now a straight line along with signatures was drawn, which will correlate palm prints with signatures. For all the of three centers A, B, C and their radius, ra, rb, rc, were measured, angle of the centre of curvature from line of writing and were taken. Inter-distance of three centers AB, BC, CA was measured, normal distance from line of writing of centers of curvatures la, lb, lc was determined. The correlation of these pointswith respect of writing’s line is cumulative and measurable. It’s also considered that all the obtained parameters were enough for identification of an individual(15).
For this study, paired students t- test and SPSS were used. A hypothesis was established that; H0 will be rejected in favor of Ha.
RESULT
During the observation of parameters, it was seen that variation in angle of center of curvature from line of writing and is up to (±50) in comparison of both samples which is due to natural variation. Angle of center of curvature from line of writings, is noticed higher in male than female, If author is left handed then the angle and of center of curvature will be more than right handed(16)(17). Details of sample no-1 is given below in table no.-1.
When mean values both samples of subject no. 1 were taken, it was seen that obtained mean values of radius of Curvature (ra, rb, rc,) gives significance of natural variationwhich is in parameters up to (±0.3cm.). In normal distance of center of curvature from line of writing (la, lb, lc,), la is always smaller than lb ,lc , and in comparison of female, obtained distances were higher in male. Variation was noted to the limit (±0.2cm). In parameter of inter distance between centre of curvatures AB, BC and CA, distance between the centers B and C are relatively smaller than AB, CA. Inter-distance may vary, it depends on health of subjects. These variations were observed up to limit of (±0.2cm). Same observations were noted in other subject no. 23’s samples also. Error in measured distance is within the limits of (±0.2cm), which can be attributed to instrumental error/constant error and are due to natural variation(18).
During examination of remaining samples, such similarities were observed. As, it can be seen in table no.-2 given below for sample no. 23
Statistical data for all fresh samples is given below in table no.-3, while statistical analysis of old samples were given below in table no. 4.
All samples were analyzed at statistical level at 90% of confidence level. During this study, it was observed that out of 12 sub-parameters, 8 were highly significant and only 4 sub-parameters were demonstrating the level of variation. Significance level table no.-5 is given below-
DISCUSSION
Observation of parameter one, all values; p-values for sub-parameters (ra, rb, rc, 0.08, 0.02, 0.001) represent that it will remain same and don’t change on different type of implementation of hand over any surface. While at second parameter, all values were not significant at p Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2517http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2517
Alston, J., Taylor, J.; Handwriting theory, Research and pratice, Beckenhan, Kent, 1987, pp, 80-93.
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Chaudhary Ramesh, Kumar pant Sarat ; Identification of authorship using lateral palm print –a new concept, Forensic Science international, 141 (2004), pp 49-57.
Amit Chauhan, Jyoti Singh, K.P.S. Kushwaha An Evaluation; Sexing from the Ridge density of latent palm prints of North Indian population, Research Journal of Recent Science, Vol-4, Pp-73-75, 2015 .
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Gutierrez-Redomero Esperanza, Alonso-Rodriguez Concepcion, Hernandez-hurtado Luis E., Rodriguez-Villalba Jose L.; Distribution of minutiae in the fingerprints of a sample of the Spanish population. Forensic Science international 208(2011), pp. 79-90.
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Amit Chauhan, Aditi Chauhan, Dr. Jyoti Singh, Dr. S. K. Shukla. A correlative study between the implementation of rhythmic system and hieroglyphicssubstantial’s. International Journal of current research and review. Vol 9 Issue 9 (2017). Pg; 1-05.
Amit Chauhan, Aparna Gautam, Sourabh Kumar Singh, Dr. S. K. Shukla. Gender inequity from the quadrant of lateral fingerprints among the age group of 18-25 years from the population of National capital region of India. International journal of civil engineering and technology. Vol. 8 Issue 4 (2017). Pg; 1402-1407.
Kumar Ajay, Wong David C.M., Shen Helen C. , Jain Anil K., Personal verification using palmprint and hand Geometery Biometric, Department of computer science, Hong Kong University of Science and technology, Clear water Bay, Hong Kong.
Kumar, Shen, H. C.; Recognition of Palm prints Using Wavelet-based Features. Proc. Intl. Conf. Sys., Cybern., SCI-2002, Orlando, Florida (2002).
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Naidu Swati, Chemudu Satish, Vaddi Seshu Satyanarayana, Pillem Ramesh, Hanuma Kumar, Naresh Bhuma, Ch. Himabin Du ; New palmprint authentication system by using wavelet based method, Signal and image processing : An international Journal. Vol. 2 (2011). Pp. 191-203.
Rae Laura, Gentles Dennis, Farrugia J. Kavin; An investigation into the enhancement fingermarks in the blood on fruits and vegetables. Journal of science and Justice, Vol 53, Issue 3 (2013) , pp 321-327.
Amit Chauhan, Varsha Chauhan. An expansion of indented signatures over the credential by the employment of domiciliary commodity. International journal of civil engineering and technology. Vol 8 Issue 4 (2017). Pg; 1960-1966.
Wu Xiagqian, Zhang David, Wang Kuanquan; Fisherpalms based palmprint recognition. Elsevier pattern recognition letters. Vol 24 (2003) pp. 2829-2838.
Wen-Xin Li, Zhang david, Zhuoqun XU; palmprint recognition based on fourier transform. Journal of Software. Vol. 13 (2002). Pp. 879-886.
You Jane, Li Wenxin, Zhang David; Hierarchical palmprint identification via multiple feature extraction, Recognition. Journal of pattern recognition society, Vol. 35 (2002). Pp. 847-859.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411016EnglishN2018August27Life SciencesProfile of Metal Accumulation in Aquatic Macrophytes
English1625Rolli N. M.English Hujaratti R. B.English Gadi S. B.English Mulagund G. S.English Taranath T. C.EnglishIndustrial development coupled with population growth has resulted in the over exploitation of natural resources. Life support systems viz; water, air and soil are thus getting exposed to an array of pollutants especially heavy metals released by anthropogenic activities. Tolerant species of aquatic plants are able to survive and withstand the pollution stress serves as pollution indicators and as tool for phytoremediation of heavy metals is an environment clean up strategy in which green plants are employed to remove toxic contaminants and operates on the principles of biogeochemical cycling.
The aquatic plants viz; Salvinia molesta and Pistia stratiotes were used for its toxicity and profile of metal accumulation (Cadmium –Cd) from synthetic media. The test plants were cultured in a modified Hoagland solution supplemented with cadmium nitrate Cd (NO3)2. The present study focuses on Cd toxicity on morphology, biochemical parameters and bioaccumulation potential of Salvinia and Pistia. The laboratory experiments were conducted for the assay of morphological index parameters (MIP), biochemical parameters, and profile of cadmium accumulation in test plants at various concentrations viz, 0.1 ,0.5 ,1.0,1.5 and 2.0
ppm at 4 days regular intervals for 12 days exposure. The test plants show visible symptoms, like withering of roots, chlorosis, necrosis and in particular, at higher concentrations (2.0 ppm) lower leaves gets decayed. However, the lower concentrations i.e. 0.1 ppm shows normal growth. The estimation of biochemical parameters viz total chlorophyll, protein and carbohydrates of test plants showed significant increased at lower concentrations i.e. 0.1 ppm of Cd. The biochemical constituents decreased with increase in exposure concentrations i.e.0.5 to 2.0 ppm. The toxic effect Cd was directly proportional to its concentrations and exposure durations. The profile of metal accumulation by both test plants was maximum at 4 days exposure irrespective concentrations and gradually decreases at subsequent exposure concentrations and duration.
EnglishBiochemical parameters, Cadmium, Toxicity, Accumulation, Aquatic plantsINTRODUCTION
Heavy metal pollution is a major environmental problem facing the modern world (1, 2). The global heavy metal pollution is increasing in the environment due to increases of human activities. However, it is gaining importance day by day due to its obvious impact on human health through the food chain (3). As a result of rapid growth in the industrial sectors, India is now encountering several environmental problems, especially contamination of heavy metals in water. The danger of heavy metals is aggravated by their almost indefinite persistence in the environment because they cannot be destroyed biologically but are only transformed from oxidative state or organic complex to another. In addition, they are highly toxic for both aquatic flora and fauna. The heavy metal, cadmium, is selected as toxicant for the present study because they are used in several industries in India and they are highly toxic to animals, humans and plants. Biological treatment of waste water through aquatic plants have a great potential for its purification which are effectively accumulates heavy metals (4). Aquatic macrophytes accumulates considerable amount of toxic metals and make the environment free from the pollutants. Thus, play significant role in cleaning up of environment and make the environment free from many pollutants. Many aquatic plants have been successfully utilized for removing toxic metals from aquatic environment (5). Similarly algae were also used to remove heavy metals from aquatic systems as they have capacity to accumulate dissolved metals (6, 7). The metal tolerance of plants may be attributed to different enzymes, stress proteins and phytochelatins (8). The accumulation of metals at higher concentration causes retardation of growth, biochemical activities and also generation of –SH groups containing enzymes (9).
In the present investigation Salvinia molesta Mitchell and Pistia stratiotes L, a common aquatic floating macrophytes are used to study the effect of different concentrations of cadmium on morphology, biochemical constituents and accumulation of Cd from the experimental pond under laboratory conditions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Salvinia molesta and Pistia stratiotes, free floating aquatic plants from unpolluted water bodies is maintained in cement pots (1 m diameter) under natural conditions at a temperature 28-300 C. About 20 g of young healthy Salvinia and Pistia were acclimatized for two weeks in Arnon and Hoagland nutrient solution maintaining pH between 7.1-7.4. The concentrations of Cd in the polluted water are in the range of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 mg/l and tap water as a control. Morphological Index parameters (MIP) viz, root length, leaf length and breadth were observed for
12 days at interval of 4 days. Photographs of Salvinia and Pistia which were taken by using Canon’s Power Shot G2 digital camera were treated with different concentrations of copper. For the further study the plants were harvested at the end of 4, 8 and 12 days exposure and are thoroughly washed with distilled water and used for the estimation of total chlorophyll, protein and carbohydrate and also for morphological observations. Plants harvested after 48 hrs were dried at 800 C for 2 days for metal extraction.
The fresh test plant samples of 1g is macerated in 100 ml of 80% (v/v) chilled acetone by using pestle and mortar. The centrifuged and supernatant was used for the estimation of total chlorophyll by standard method (10) using 652 nm against the solvent (80% acetone as a blank). The protein was estimated by Lowry’s method (11) using Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) as a standard, using 660 nm and carbohydrates by phenol sulphuric acid method (12) using glucose as standard at 490 nm. Morphological characters were identified with the help of photographs, using Canon’s Power Shot G2 -digital camera.
The estimation of metal Cd in the test plant was carried out by using standard method (13). The dried and powdered 1 g plant material was digested by using mixed acid digestion method in Gerhardt digestion unit. The digested samples were diluted with double distilled water and filtered through Whatman filter paper No-44. The estimation of Cd was done by AAS (GBC 932 Plus Austrelia) with air acetylene oxidizing flame and metal hollow cathode lamp at 217.00 nm wavelength. Working standards (SISCOP-Chem-Bombay Lab) were used for the calibration of instrument.
Statistical analysis:
Data are presented as mean values ± SE from two independent experiments with three replicates each. Data were subjected to Two - way ANOVA to know significance between concentrations and between exposure duration for the accumulation of heavy metal (Cd). Further, Dunet’s test is also applied for multiple comparisons between control and other concentrations. Two – way ANOVA test is also extended to know the significance between concentration and duration for biochemical parameters.
RESULTS
Toxicity effect of cadmium on morphology. The test plants showed luxuriant growth, shows increase in the laminal length and breadth at low concentration (0.1 ppm) in both test plants. In Salvinia at 0.1 ppm of Cd was found to promote laminal length by 2.166 ± 0.169, 2.200 ± 0.169 and 2.400 ± 0.094 and breadth by 2.066 ± 0.118, 2.333 ± 0.118 and 2.366 ± 0.144 at 4,8 and 12 days exposure duration. Similarly root length by 5.066 ± 0.383, 5.330 ± 0.0356 and 5.533 ± 0.381 in Pistia at the same concentration (0.1 ppm) shows increase in laminal length by 1.660 ± 0.027, 1.666 ± 0.027 and 1.738 ± 0.027 cm and breadth by 1.533 ± 0.027, 1.666 ± 0.047 and 1.666 ± 0.027 at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure durations respectively. Similarly, the root length by 7.000 ± 0.072, 7.130 ± 0.032 and 7.330 ± 0.027.at the same exposure duration.
However, in Pistia at 2.0 ppm Cd severely inhibit laminal length by 1.200 ± 0.047, 1.000 ± 0.000 and 0.700 ± 0.000 and breadth 0.833 ± 0.027, 0.813 ± 0.072 and 0.600 ± 0.072 at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure duration. Similarly root length inhibition by 4.000 ± 0.355, 3.160 ± 0.027 and 2.900 ± 0.355 at the same exposure duration.
Salvinia also shows at 2.0 ppm concentration severe inhibition of laminal length by 1.300 ± 0.047, 1.133 ± 0.072 and 1.116 ± 0.027 and laminal breadth by 1.600 ± 0.094, 1.4 ± 0.216 and 1.106 ± 0.027 at 4, 8 12 days exposure duration. Similarly root length inhibition by 2.666 ± 0.196, 1.866 ± 0.881 and 1.166 ± 0.259 cm at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure duration.(Table. 1 and 2).
Toxicity effect of Cadmium on biochemical parameters
The total chlorophyll content was very sensitive to heavy metal (Cd) toxicity. The results found that Cd at 0.1 ppm found to augment chlorophyll synthesis and was directly proportional to concentration and exposure duration in both the test plants. In Salvinia the chlorophyll content was increased by 3.65% (0.602 mg/g), 4.06 % (0.615 mg/g) and 4.56% (0.645 mg/g) respectively at 4, 8 and 12 days compared to control pond. Similarly in Pistia the chlorophyll content was increased by 0.79% (0.382 mg/g), 1.04 % (0.385 mg/g), 1.30% (0.389 mg/g) respectively at 4, 8 and 12 days compared to control pond.
However, the higher concentration of Cd found to inhibit the chlorophyll synthesis in both the test plants. The inhibition at 2.0 ppm Cd by 20.05% (0.303mg/g), 31.49% (0.261 mg/g) and 39.58 % (0.232 mg/g) significant at P > 0.95% in Pistia and the inhibition at 2.0 ppm Cd by 24.09% (0.441 mg/g), 29.61% (0.416 mg/g) and 34.52% (0.402 mg/g) in Salvinia.
Two way ANOVA represents biochemical toxicity to the test plants, concentrations were significant at P > 0.01 level but duration is not significant (Table. 3 and 4).
The increase in carbohydrate content of Salvinia at 0.1 ppm Cd by 3.44% (30.0 mg/g), 12.88% (36.0mg/g) and 13.88% (43.0mg/g ) respectively. Similarly, in Pistia the carbohydrate content increases marginally at 0.1 ppm concentration of Cd exposure by 8.82% (37.0 mg/g), 11.42% (39.0 mg/g) and 13.15% (43.0 mg/g) respectively at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure. However, the severity of inhibition is more pronounced in Pistia at 2.0 ppm of Cd by 47.05% (18.0 mg/g), 62.85% ( 13.0 mg/g) and 74.35 % (10.0 mg/g) respectively at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure (fig. ). The 2.0 ppm of Cd found to inhibit carbohydrate synthesis by 27.58% (21.0 mg/g), 43.75% (18.0 mg/g) and 65.78% (13.0 mg/g) respectively at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure in comparison to control (Fig. 1 and 2).
The protein synthesis at 0.1 ppm of Cd was promotive irrespective of exposure duration in both test plants. However, the protein content decreased at subsequent concentration and inhibition was directly proportional to the exposure duration. The 0.1 ppm of Cd promoted the protein synthesis by 2.38% (4.3 mg/g), 4.65 % (4.5 mg/g) and 6.81 % (4.7 mg/g) respectively at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure duration. Similarly for Pistia at 0.1 ppm shows promotive by 2.22% (4.5 mg/g), 8.33% (5.2 mg/g) and 12.24% (5.5 mg/g) respectively at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure duration (Fig. 1 and 2).
The reduction in content was observed with progressive in Cd concentration in both the test plants. The inhibition of protein content increase viz, 35.7% (2.7 mg/g), 44.18% (2.4 mg/g) and 59.09% (1.8 mg/g) was noticed in Salvinia at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure. Similarly in Pistia also at 2.0 ppm inhibition by 3.4 mg/g (24.44 %), 2.6 mg/g (45.83%) and 2.0 mg/g (59.18%) respectively at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure duration (Fig. 1 and 2).
Application of two-way ANOVA, it is found that the biochemical responses of test plants species with respect to their concentrations were significant at P > 0.01 level. However, exposure durations are not statistically significant (Table. 3 and 4).
Profile of metal accumulation
Fig.3 shows the concentration of Cd accumulation in Salvinia and Pistia and was directly proportional to its concentration and exposure duration. The Salvinia grown in experimental pond containing 0.1 ppm found to accumulate 112.050 µg/g, 130.75 µg/g and 133.75 µg/g. Similarly Pistia also shows metal accumulation at the same concentration by 112.50 µg/g, 130.75 µg/g and 133.75 µg/g at 4, 8 and 12 days exposure duration (Fig. 3).
However, at higher concentration (2.0 ppm) accumulation in Pistia by 1060.50 µg/g,1104.50 µg/g and 1125.00 µg/g and rate of accumulation in Salvinia also by 1270.0 µg/g, 1375.25 µg/g and 1381.00 µg/g during 4, 8 and 12 days exposure duration respectively (fig. 3).
Two way ANOVA showed that both concentration and exposure duration were significant at P < 0.01 level in both test plants and further Dunet’s test was applied for the multiple comparison between control and different concentration treatments of test plant. From the statistical analysis it is clear that concentrations treatments are significantly differ with control (Table. 5).
DISCUSSION
Toxicity effect of Cd on morphology
Morphological toxicity: Morphometric assay is one of the quantitative tools for the assessment of toxicants measured by using Morphological Index Parameter (MIP). The rate of inhibition in the root and leaf (fronds) is directly proportional to the concentration of cadmium in both the test plants. Two way ANOVA test states the concentrations are significantly toxic at 5% level but duration is not significant. MCA test also represent maximum deviation is at higher concentration compared to control (Table 1). Both the test plants showed normal growth at their respective lower concentrations (i.e. 0.1 ppm). Similar observations were made by (14) in Limnantherum cristatum at 1 ppm concentration of Pb, Zn and Cr. The higher concentration of Cd (0.5 to 2.0 ppm) exhibited toxicity symptoms like chlorosis and leaf fall were observed, then brownish was occurred being marked in old leaves, respectively at higher concentration 2.0 ppm in both the test plants. Our results of toxicity symptoms of Cd at higher concentrations observed were similar to (15) and (16) and also in Salvinia natans (2). Sobero et. al (17) confirmed root elongation of Cd in some members of lemnaceae was found at different concentrations of Cd. The heavy metal induces morphological abnormalities in algae also (18).
Toxicity effect of cadmium on biochemical parameters: A number of heavy metals required by plants as micronutrients and they act as co-factors of enzymes as a part of prosthetic groups and involved in a wide variety of metabolic pathway, but higher concentration of heavy metals are toxic and induces physiological and genetical changes in plants (19, 20).
In the present investigation the lower concentration of Cd promotes the synthesis of chlorophyll in Salvinia molesta and Pistia stratiotes. The enhancement of chlorophyll content from 0.602 mg/g to 0.642 mg/g in Salvinia and 0.379 mg/g to 0.384 mg/g in Pistia from 4 to 12 days exposure. The percent enhancement of chlorophyll is 4.56% in Salvinia and 1.56% in Pistia when compared to control (respective) during 12 days exposure. The stimulatory of Cd at lower concentration (0.01 to 0.4 mg/lt) was noticed in Ceratophyllum demersum (21). The phytochelatins (PCs) play an important role in cellular metal ion homeostasis and metal detoxification (22) and hence lower concentration of Cd shows stimulatory effect.
The Cd treatment at higher concentration decreases the chlorophyll content due to accelerated degradation of chlorophyll. In the present investigation, the inhibition varies from 0.441 mg/g to 402 mg/g in Salvinia and 0.303 mg g to 0.232 mg/g in Pistia. The inhibition is 34.52% in Salvinia and 34.58% Pistia at 12 days exposure compared to their respective control. The Cd found to inhibit general metabolic activities in many species of aquatic plants viz, Eichornia species (23) and in Salvinia natans (24). Inhibition activity of Cd is due to inhibition of haemobiosynthesis and chlorophyll formation by integrating with functional –SH group of enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll (25). Similar observation was made by (26) in Hydrilla verticillata at higher concentration of Pb at 20 ppm and Cd att 0.05 ppm. The decline in chlorophyll content in plants exposed to 2.0 ppm of Cd is due to i) inhibition of important enzymes associated with chlorophyll biosynthesis ii) peroxidation of chloroplast membranes resulting from heavy metal induced oxidative stress and iii) formation of metal substituted chlorophyll (27).
Carbohydrates acts as osmoregulaters which maintains water balance in plants (28). Lower concentration (0.1 ppm) of Cd increases the carbohydrate content from 30 mg/g to 36 mg/g in Salvinia and 37 mg/g to 43 mg/g in Pistia from 4 to 12 days exposure duration. The percent enhancement of carbohydrate at 12 days exposure is 13.88% in Salvinia and 13.55% in Pistia compared to respective control. However, higher concentration of Cd inhibits the synthesis of carbohydrate and vary from 21 mg/g to 3 mg/g in Salvinia and 18 mg/g to 10 mg/g in Pistia from 4 to 12 days exposure duration. The rate of carbohydrate at 2.0 ppm of Cd is 67.75% in Salvinia and 74.35% in Pistia during 12 days exposure compared to respective control. The reduction in carbohydrate content can be attributed to the reduced rates of photochemical activities. (18) and also succinic dehydrogenase (SDH) fall in cells indicate oxygen stress and energy crisis and mitochondria disturbances (29).
The lower concentration of Cd (0.1 ppm) enhance the rate of protein synthesis. The protein content vary from 4.32 mg/g to 4.7 mg/g in Salvinia and 4.6 mg/g to 4.7 mg/g in Pistia from 4 and 12 days exposure duration. The percent enhancement is 6.81% in Salvinia and 12.24% in Pistia during 12 days exposure when compared to their respective control. The stimulation of protein synthesis at lower concentration of Cd may be attired to the synthesis of stress proteins (30). The phytochelatins (PCs) are produced by Glutathione reductase (GR) and Phytochelatin Synthetase. These proteins bind and regulate the Cd and sequester the Cd toxicity and thus, plants shows metal tolerance (31).
However, the higher concentration of Cd inhibit protein metabolism in the plants. The protein content declines from 2.7mg/g to 1.8 mg/g in Salvinia and 3.4 mg/g to 2.0 mg/g in Pistia from 4 to 12 days exposure period. The percent inhibition is 59.09% in Salvinia and 59.18% in Pistia during 12 days exposure compared to respective at control. The Cd shows slight inhibitory effect 0.5 mg/lt and severe inhibition of algal growth at higher concentration in some algae ( 32, 18). The DNA and RNA were inhibited, rather due to blocking of _SH group or to the inactivation of RNA and DNA polymerase activity (18, 33).
Profile of metal accumulation
Heavy metal pollution of water is a major environmental concern , is increasing at alarming rate due to anthropogenic activities and is drawing attention and gaining paramanual importance due to its obvious impact on health through the food chain (1, 34). In the present investigation aquatic macrophytes viz, Salvinia and Pistia are used in accumulation.The plants exposed to concentration of cadmium, i.e 0.1 ppm found to accumulate maximum in Salvinia (133.75 µg/g) followed by Pistia (128.50 µg/g) during 12 days exposure duration. Similarly at higher concentration i.e 2.0 ppm of Cd during 12 days exposure duration shows 1381 µg/g in Salvinia and 1125 µg/g in Pistia.
Generally in our experiments it was found that the rate of accumulation is maximum at 4 days exposure irrespective of concentrations and exposure duration, however, at subsequent concentrations and exposure durations it is marginal. Similar observations were also made by (35) in Nastutium officinale and Mentha aquatic to the exposure concentrations of 0.1 and 0.5 ppm of Cd. Similar observation was made by (36) in the accumulation of Nickel in Hydrilla verticillata and Cd and Pb in Salvinia cuculata (24). The increase in the accumulation might be due to increased number of binding sites for the complexation of heavy metal ions, leading to the increased absorption, however, slow accumulation may be attributed to binding ions to the plants and establishment of equilibrium status between adsorbate and adsorbent (37, 38).
CONCLUSION
It is concluded from the findings that morphological, biochemical responses and profile of metal accumulation by Salvinia and Pistia were directly proportional to concentration of metal and maximum metal uptake was recorded at 4 days exposure and later it was marginal at subsequent concentrations and exposure durations Pistia stratiotes is found to be suitable candidate for toxicity evaluation. Salvinia molesta is the tolerant species and can be used for the remediation of heavy metals from aquatic ecosystem and environmental monitoring.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Principal, B.L.D.E.A’s Degree College, Jamkhandi (India), Research and Development centre, Bharthiar University, Coimbatore. Dept. of Botany, Karnatak University Dharwad for providing necessary facilities to carry out research work. Further, the author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The author is also grateful to authors / editors, publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been received and discussed.
Figure 2: Biochemical effects of Cadmium on Pistia stratiotes.
(A) Total Chlorophyll (B) Carbohydrate (C) Protei
Figure 3: Accumulation profile of Cadmium by aquatic macrophytes.
(A) Salvinia (B) Pistia
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2518http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2518
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411016EnglishN2018August27Life SciencesLimnological Profile of Kishanganga River in Kashmir (India)
English2634Nasrul AminEnglish Salma KhanEnglish Mohammad Farooq MirEnglishThe present research work was carried out in Kishanganga river system in the region where the damming of river has been done. The construction of hydropower generation wasundertaken by NHPC. Since the health of aquatic ecosystem is revealed by the chemical parameters of water. An attempt was made in the present research work to investigate the physico chemical parameters of Kishanganga at six different sampling stations affected controversially by the construction of hydroelectric power station.
EnglishLimnology, Kishanganga river, Kashmir (India)Introduction
The river ecosystem is formed by the interaction between river biota and their hydro-geochemical cycles. It is evident by the continuous transport of various substances, such as organic matter and the nutrients, from the soils of the drainage basin to the river and from there, downstream with the flowing water. River contains many other smaller types of ecosystems, including many of that not lie within the open-water channel. The ecosystem of river is also unique in that they are relatively small in volume, but open, ecosystems with high rates of energy throughout. Therefore, understanding a river ecosystem is clearly a challenging and complicated task.
Material and Methods
The present research work on Limnological analysis of Kishanganga river was carried out from November 2014 to June 2016. For the present investigation, six sampling sites were selected on the basis of accessibility, vegetation, and nearness below and above the dam site. Two sampling stations were selected from each site.
Study Sites:
For the present investigation, six sampling sites were selected on the basis of accessibility, vegetation, and nearness below and above the dam site. Two sampling stations were selected from each site. The description of study sites is given as under:
Above Dam Site:
Sampling site –1:
It was located above the dam site on the left bank. The site is about 6 kms downward from AstanNallah (a tributary of Kishanganga River). The site is marked by clear surroundings without any dense forest cover at the coherence of tributary with the main river course.
Sampling site – 2
It was notified on the right bank of the river Kishanganga above the dam site. The site is around 9 kms down from the BarzilNallah (a tributary of the Kishangangariver). The confluence is minimum because of dam spread area.
At Dam Site:
Sampling site – 3
The site was notified at the Malikporabridge, which is near the out flow of the dam. The site is located on the left bank of the dam outlet. The flow is minimal pertaining to diversion above the dam site towards turbine.
Sampling site – 4
The site was notified at the right bank of the Malikporabridge, which is near the out flow of the dam. The flow at this site is also minimal pertaining to diversion above the dam site towards turbine.
Below Dam Site:
Sampling site – 5
The site was notified at Kazarwan, which is around 5 kms down the dam site. The site has a confluence of tributary, where KurbulNallah meets the main course of river
Sampling site – 6
The site was notified on right bank at Kazarwan, which is around 5.5 kms down the dam site. The site has free ends, without dense forestation.
Water sample collection and analysis
Physico-chemical characteristics of water were investigated on the basis of seasonal variation. After air and water temperature were recorded on the sampling sites. The water samples were collected from the sampling sites by dipping one litre polyethylene bottle just below the surface of water. Special recommended glass bottles were used for the estimation of dissolved oxygen. For estimation of dissolved oxygen, samples were fixed at the sampling site in accordance with modified Winkler method. The analysis of water samples was done by adopting standard methods of Golterman and Clymo (1969), Adoni (1985), and APHA (1998). Water sample for other physico-chemical parameters were stored and carried to the laboratory and then immediately analyzed. The methods employed for the determination of different physico-chemical parameters of water are enumerated as follows
Physico-chemical Parameters:
Hydrogen ion concentration andconductivity:- was measured with the help of portable digital pH meter (OAKTON).
Air and Water temperature:- The temperature of surface water and air was recorded by using standard Celsius mercury thermometer.
Turbidity:- Turbidity was measured by an electronic turbidity meter.
Total Dissolved Solids: T.D.S. was recorded with the help of a digital T.D.S. meter (OAKTON).
Dissolved Oxygen:- Dissolved oxygen was estimated by modified Wrinkler’s method, Azide modification (APHA, 1998).
Nitrate,Ammonia and Chloride:- The Nitrate,Ammonia and Chloride were estimated by (Boyd, 1979) method.
Results
Air and Water Temperature
The air temperature (°C) ranged between 3°C to 30.1°C at all the six sampling stations during the present research time. The water temperature (°C) ranged between 1.9°C and 19.6°C. At site 1, the water temperature was 1.9°C and 16.3°C, with a mean±SD of 9.10±1.27, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 2.92, 12.67, 13.13 and 12.43 respectively. At site 2, the water temperature was 1.9°C and 18.0°C, with a mean±SD of 9.95±1.66, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 2.88, 12.83, 13.36 and 12.08 respectively. At site 3, the water temperature was 2.5°C and 18.2°C, with a mean±SD of 10.35±1.40, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 3.43, 12.85, 14.07 and 13.03 respectively.
At site 4, water temperature was recorded as 1.9°C and 18.5°C, with a mean±SD of 10.20±1.97, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 3.85, 12.35, 14.06 and 13.05 respectively. At site 5, water temperature was recorded as 2.1°C and 19.5°C, with a mean±SD of 10.80±1.96, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 4.03, 13.63, 14.82 and 13.03 respectively. At site 6, water temperature was recorded as 2.3°C and 19.6°C, with a mean±SD of 10.95±8.02, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 4.08, 13.87, 14.68 and 12.85 respectively.
The pH ranged between a minimum of 7.2 to a maximum of 8.5 during the study period from November 2014 to June 2016. At site 1, pH was recorded as 7.2 and 8.5, with a mean±SD of 7.85±0.55, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 7.55, 7.78, 8.31 and 7.75 respectively. At site 2, pH was recorded as 7.2 and 8.2, with a mean±SD of 7.70±0.38, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 7.59, 7.65, 7.75 and 7.55 respectively. At site 3, pH was recorded as 7.5 and 8.4, with a mean±SD of 7.95±0.12, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 7.65, 7.95, 7.50 and 7.65 respectively.
At site 4, pH was recorded as 7.4 and 8.5, with a mean±SD of 7.95±0.59, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 7.72, 7.79, 7.50 and 8.11 respectively. At site 5, pH was recorded as 7.2 and 8.4, with a mean±SD of 7.80±0.11, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 7.72, 7.67, 7.93 and 8.02 respectively. At site 6, pH was recorded as 7.3 and 8.5, with a mean±SD of 7.90±0.22, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 7.56, 7.62, 7.78 and 7.68 respectively. Acidification of stream water, one of the major problems of stream ecosystems worldwide, can result from anthropogenic stresses such as acid mine drainage (Herlihyet al., 1990) or the atmospheric deposition of nitric and sulfuric acids (Angelier, 2003). However, naturally acidic streams can also be found in areas with considerable humic inputs (Allan, 1995). pH has been recognized as a regulating factor in aquatic systems and the biological components are severely affected at extremes of their pH tolerance. The Kishanganga stream is completely alkaline with pH variance between 7.5 and 8. The alkaline nature of the Kishanganga stream is an obvious situation in terms of the freshness of water, which have chances of acidification later on after the sedimentation and organic mineralization.
Conductivity:
The conductivity ranged between a minimum of 98 to a maximum of 402 during the study period from November 2014 to June 2016. At site 1, conductivity was recorded as 98 and 320, with a mean±SD of 209.00±20.18, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 265.5, 116.50, 145.17 and 103.83 respectively. At site 2, conductivity was recorded as 99 and 329, with a mean±SD of 214.00±85.41, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 216.5, 114.83, 138.21 and 106.55 respectively. At site 3, conductivity was recorded as 106 and 398, with a mean±SD of 252.00±78.80, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 202.67, 106.33, 122.65 and 92.50 respectively.
At site 4, conductivity was recorded as 105 and 392, with a mean±SD of 248.50±79.49, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 200.5, 103.55, 127.55 and 85.33 respectively. At site 5, conductivity was recorded as 109 and 402, with a mean±SD of 255.50±24.64, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 325.6, 139.56, 143.33 and 169.00 respectively. At site 6, conductivity was recorded as 112 and 402, with a mean±SDof 257.00±21.59, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 325.9, 134.83, 156.67 and 165.00 respectively.
Transparency:
The transparency ranged between a minimum of 0.09 to a maximum of 1.56 during the study period from November 2014 to June 2016. At site 1, transparency was recorded as 0.09 and 1.40, with a mean±SD of 0.74±0.20, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.65, 0.93, 0.37 and 1.09 respectively. At site 2, transparency was recorded as 0.18 and 1.34, with a mean±SD of 0.76±0.18, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.74, 1.02, 0.53 and 0.78 respectively. At site 3, transparency was recorded as 0.13 and 0.85, with a mean±SD of 0.49±0.25, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.64, 0.56, 0.60 and 0.51 respectively.
At site 4, transparency was recorded as 0.15 and 1.56, with a mean±SD of 1.71±0.21, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.65, 0.62, 0.62 and 0.52 respectively. At site 5, transparency was recorded as 0.13 and 0.88, with a mean±SD of 0.50±0.19, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.69, 0.65, 0.62 and 0.65 respectively. At site 6, transparency was recorded as 0.25 and 1.5, with a mean±SD of 0.87±0.32, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 1.1, 0.42, 0.32 and 0.66 respectively
Dissolved oxygen:
The dissolved oxygen ranged between a minimum of 6.2 to a maximum of 12.9 during the study period from November 2014 to June 2016. At site 1, dissolved oxygen was recorded as 6.5 and 12.0, with a mean±SD of 8.94±1.48, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 10.88, 9.00, 7.50 and 8.42 respectively. At site 2, dissolved oxygen was recorded as 7.2 and 12.9, with a mean±SD of 9.20±1.60, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 11.92, 9.62, 7.83 and 8.26 respectively. At site 3, dissolved oxygen was recorded as 7.0 and 12.8, with a mean±SD of 9.45±1.49, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 11.23, 9.67, 8.10 and 8.80 respectively.
At site 4, dissolved oxygen was recorded as 6.5 and 12.5, with a mean±SD of 9.80±1.67, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 11.72, 10.27, 7.86 and 9.43 respectively. At site 5, dissolved oxygen was recorded as 6.20 and 11.8, with a mean±SD of 9.34±1.49, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 10.55, 10.00, 7.73 and 9.10 respectively. At site 6, dissolved oxygen was recorded as 7.3 and 11.0, with a mean±SD of 9.36±1.14, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 10.55, 9.85, 7.90 and 9.20 respectively.Welch (1952) pointed out that under natural conditions the running waters typically contain relatively high concentration of dissolved oxygen tending towards saturation. According to the author, the levels of dissolved oxygen in the rivers are perhaps of the greatest importance to the survival of the aquatic organisms.
Nitrate:
The nitrate ranged between a minimum of 0.009 to a maximum of 0.073 during the study period from November 2014 to June 2016. At site 1, nitrate was recorded as 0.012 and 0.072, with a mean±SD of 0.032±0.018, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.020, 0.022, 0.060 and 0.028 respectively. At site 2, nitrate was recorded as 0.011 and 0.062, with a mean±SD of 0.031±0.016, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.016, 0.026, 0.055 and 0.029 respectively. At site 3, nitrate was recorded as 0.012 and 0.073, with a mean±SD of 0.030±0.018, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.015, 0.023, 0.065 and 0.029 respectively.
At site 4, nitrate was recorded as 0.009 and 0.066, with a mean±SD of 0.029±0.018, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.027, 0.021, 0.056 and 0.028 respectively. At site 5, nitrate was recorded as 0.014 and 0.057, with a mean±SD of 0.024±0.014, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.020, 0.020, 0.038 and 0.028 respectively. At site 6, nitrate was recorded as 0.011 and 0.061, with a mean±SD of 0.029±0.014, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.027, 0.024, 0.042 and 0.029 respectively.
Ammonia:
The ammonia ranged between a minimum of 0.01 to a maximum of 0.23 during the study period from November 2014 to June 2016. At site 1, ammonia was recorded as 0.05 and 0.22, with a mean±SD of 0.11±0.05, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.17, 0.08, 0.07 and 0.12 respectively. At site 2, ammonia was recorded as 0.01 and 0.23, with a mean±SD of 0.10±0.05, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.17, 0.09, 0.07 and 0.11 respectively. At site 3, ammonia was recorded as 0.05 and 0.10, with a mean±SD of 0.07±0.01, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.16, 0.08, 0.06 and 0.12 respectively.
At site 4, ammonia was recorded as 0.12 and 0.02, with a mean±SD of 0.08±0.03, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.17, 0.08, 0.06 and 0.11 respectively. At site 5, ammonia was recorded as 0.04 and 0.14, with a mean±SD of 0.09±0.02, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.20, 0.08, 0.07 and 0.11 respectively. At site 6, ammonia was recorded as 0.04 and 0.19, with a mean±SD of 0.10±0.03, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 0.14, 0.09, 0.07 and 0.13 respectively.
Chloride:
The chloride ranged between a minimum of 3.0 to a maximum of 25.03 during the study period from November 2014 to June 2016. At site 1, chloride was recorded as 3.00 and 23.4, with a mean±SD of 10.11±4.26, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 6.67, 12.72, 11.63 and 9.41 respectively. At site 2, chloride was recorded as 4.0 and 25.03, with a mean±SD of 11.72±4.79, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 8.87, 13.68, 14.96 and 8.87 respectively. At site 3, chloride was recorded as 4.0 and 21.02, with a mean±SD of 11.53±6.00, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 6.67, 16.33, 13.02 and 9.76 respectively.
At site 4, chloride was recorded as 3.9 and 10.6, with a mean±SD of 7.67±2.49, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 6.69, 7.32, 8.75 and 9.65 respectively. At site 5, chloride was recorded as 3.20 and 12.0, with a mean±SD of 7.20±3.27, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 7.01, 6.92, 8.05 and 8.55 respectively. At site 6, chloride was recorded as 4.0 and 16.02, with a mean±SD of 9.83±3.42, the Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn averages were 7.26, 12.91, 11.01 and 8.15 respectively.
Disscussion
Air and Water Temperature
The annual thermal regime of a river, according to Smith (1981), is one of the important water quality parameters and most of the physical, chemical and biological properties of water are dependent on it. Several observers have kept a stretch of stream under observation for a period and have found, that superimposed upon the seasonal changes, there are diurnal cycles in temperature. These may amount to 6ºC in small streams in summer time (Edington, 1966), with lower values in large rivers. The present research revealed the air temperature in Kishanganga river stretch between 16.20 to 17.00 °C. In winter time, however, ice and snow form an insulating layer, and even in extreme climates such as that of Alaska, the water temperature does not fall below 0ºC (Sheridan, 1961). In spring time snow melt water may keep the temperature below that of the air for quite some time (Sheridan, 1961). Streams flowing underground or through man-made culverts may be cooled or warmed in the process according to the season, and wind or shade may cause considerable changes. In contrast to lakes, rivers normally show little stratification because of their turbulent flow (Hynes, 1970).
Reports of the air temperature needed to cause its formation vary from -15.6ºC to -23ºC (Needham and Jones, 1959). Stream temperature is spatially and temporally variable (Hynes, 1960; Biggs et al., 1990) and is a function of the source water temperature and its transport time (Angelier, 2003). During the present research period, the Kishanganga River witnessed the water temperatures range between 9.10 to 10.95°C. Temperatures may be relatively stable in large rivers with low flow velocities, but can fluctuate quickly in steep shallow streams. Seasonal variation also results from changes in the hydrologic regime (Angelier, 2003) and air temperature (Smith, 1981). Smith (1981) found that stream temperatures in Great Britain were highly correlated to air temperature. In addition, other studies show that elevation, riparian vegetation, and channel width influence stream temperature (Osborne and Wiley, 1988; Gregory et al., 1991). These results indicate that readily available landscape variables, such as elevation, air temperature, and riparian condition (Platts, 1979; Vannote and Sweeney, 1980), may explain some variability in stream temperature.
Conductivity:
Conductivity is a good major of concentration of charged ions in waters and is strongly influenced by landscape scale conditions. The geology in the catchment is the source of the ions that act as conductors of electricity (Golterman, 1975). The Kishangangariver has high conductivity ranging between 214.00 to 257.00, owing to the turbulent nature of water and rocky stream texture. Urban and agricultural land uses have been shown to increase conductivity levels (Gray, 2004). It has been established that there are seasonal differences in conductivity that generally result from a negative relationship with discharge volume (Caruso, 2002; Gray, 2004).
Transparency
Streams are slightly turbid even at times of very low discharge (Hynes, 1970). Dorriset al. (1963), who made a long series of measurements, found a good relationship between the discharge and the turbidity, and this is a fairly general phenomenon (Hynes, 1970). We recorded a transparency of 0.49 to 1.71 at different study sites of Kishanganga River, which is purely a stream water.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO), a regulating parameter in stream ecology, is related to the biological oxygen demand in the stream (Hynes, 1960; Daueret al., 2000). During the present research periods, the overall dissolved oxygen in Kishanganga river system ranged from 8.94-9.80 mg/l. The modest levels of dissolved oxygen in Kishanganga river water explain the good water quality condition, which is optimum for the livelihood of the aquatic fauna. Microbial biomass increases in response to the addition of nutrients and more oxygen is consumed. Oxygen is slowly replenished by atmospheric uptake, photosynthetic additions, and the turbulent mixing of oxygen and water and in unpolluted headwater streams, DO is inversely related to water temperature (Hynes, 1960). In small turbulent streams the oxygen content is normally near or above saturation. In fact, even in torrential stream the oxygen content varies seasonally and from source to mouth. In many streams there is also a diurnal variation in oxygen content. In large rivers like the Mississippi and the Amazon, high water is accompanied by lowered oxygen concentrations, and these are brought about by the wash-in of organic matter and the decrease of photosynthesis caused by turbidity (Gessner, 1961).
Nitrate
Natural concentrations of NO3 in stream water are low compared to streams affected by anthropogenic inputs (Meybeck, 1982), which are generally responsible for elevated NO3 levels in stream water (Chapin et al., 2002). In the present study, the nitrate levels in Kishangangariver were moderate, owing to negligible anthropogenic pressure till date. In near future to come, the anthropogenic pressure may increase and may cause deterioration in water quality. Agricultural fertilizers may be flushed from fields during storm events and are a source of NO3-N in stream water. Feedlots also act as agricultural point sources because animal manure contains NO3 (Sheets, 1980). Urban areas contribute NO3 rich municipal waste water (Allan, 1995) that comes from residential fertilizers, septic systems, and garbage dumps (Sheets, 1980; Osborne and Wiley, 1988; Herlihyet al., 1998. NO3-N has been found to exhibit higher concentrations under storm-flow conditions in certain rural catchments, suggesting diffuse (catchment) sources, possibly derived from agricultural runoff (Jarvieet al., 1997). Wakida and Lerner (2006) believed that there are nitrate sources, other than agricultural fertilizer additions, related to urban development that can increase nitrate concentrations in water. The available literature on the streams and rivers in Kashmir shows that the waters are generally alkaline and hard water type with the tributary streams to Rivers and the cation dominance pattern is Ca2+> Mg2+> Na+> K+ (Vass et al., 1977; Qadriet al., 1981; Rishi, 1982; Wanganeoet al., 1984; Panditet al., 2001, 2002, 2007; Yousufet al., 2006, 2007).
Chloride:
Chlorides occur naturally in all types of waters. High concentration of chloride is considered to be the indicator of pollution due to organic wastes of animal or industrial origin. In Kishangangariver, the chloride content varied according to different seasons of the year, with maximum values in Summer and that too in the dammed areas. This can be attributed to the decomposition activities going on in the sedimented area. According to Vitousek (1977) most of the chlorine in steams comes from precipitation. Juang and Johnson (1967) noted that chlorine is deposited in particulate form during summer and washed away by autumn rains. Kishangangariver witnessed chloride ranging between 7.20 to 11.72 during the present research period. Tripathi (1982) and Shuklaet al. (1989) reported the seasonal trend of chloride concentration fluctuations with highest values in summer, lower in rainy and intermediate value were recorded in winter season. Jana (1973) and Govindan and Sundaresan (1979) observed that
higher concentration of chloride in the summer period could be also due to sewage mixing, increased temperature and higher runoff from catchment
Conclusion.
The study of limnological parameters give us an idea about the condition of water before and after discharge and their impact on the icthyofauna of river kishanganga. It also give us an indication how much water parameters are changed after passed through the impoundment.
Acknowledgement:
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
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