Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411014EnglishN2018July18HealthcareEntrapment of the Plantaris Tendon - A Rare Anomaly English0103Krishna Kanta BiswasEnglish Pradipta Ray ChoudhuryEnglish Bijon Chandra DuttaEnglish Introduction: The plantaris muscle originates from the lower part of the lateral supracondylar ridge of the femur, passes between the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, and inserts by a long slender tendon into the calcaneus. It is a vestigial muscle in humans and may vary in its origin, insertion, number of muscle belly and course of the plantaris tendon. These variations may influence the surgical outcome of the operations around the knee joint and the posterior compartment of leg. Aim: The aim of the present study is to report a case of plantaris muscle, where the tendon of the muscle was entrapped between the tibial nerve and the nerve to the soleus. Case Report: During routine dissection of the popliteal fossa and the posterior compartment of leg for the first year MBBS students, a plantaris muscle was reported with abnormal course of the plantaris tendon. The dissection was performed following Cunningham’s manual of practical anatomy. The tendon of the plantaris muscle passed between the tibial nerve and the nerve to the soleus on the right side of a 60 year old male cadaver. Discussion: The present variation has been reviewed and discussed with the previous studies. Conclusion: The pull of the plantaris tendon may press upon the nerve to the soleus thereby causing compression neuropathy.. EnglishTibial nerve, Nerve to the soleus, Compression neuropathyINTRODUCTION The plantaris muscle has a small fusiform belly, which originates from the lower part of the lateral supracondylar ridge and adjacent popliteal surface of the femur. It ends in a long slender tendon that passes between the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles and inserts into the calcaneus, medial to the calcaneal tendon. It is a vestigial muscle in humans1. During its course, the plantaris tendon passes posterior to the tibial nerve and popliteal vessels. Distal to the popliteal fossa, the tibial nerve gives off a branch to the soleus, which supplies the muscle through its superficial and deep surfaces2. The plantaris muscle is subjected to many variations. It may vary in its origin, insertion, number of muscle belly and course of the plantaris tendon. The plantaris muscle may originate from the lower part of the linea aspera; the lateral condyle of the femur above the origin of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius; the posterior ligament of the knee joint; the fascial covering of the popliteus; the oblique line of the tibia, under cover of the soleus and the fibula, between the flexor hallucis longus and peroneus longus3-5. The plantaris tendon may also insert into the soft tissues between the muscle bellies of the gastrocnemius and soleus; the flexor retinaculum; the fascia of the leg; the inner border of the calcaneal tendon; the bursa between the calcaneal tendon and the calcaneus; the dorsomedial surface of the calcaneal tendon at its insertion; the fibrous and fatty tissues situated in front of the calcaneal tendon and the plantar aponeurosis1,3-5. The plantaris muscle may be double or absent6,3. The plantaris tendon may also pass between the tibial nerve and nerve to the soleus, thereby causing entrapment of the tendon7-9. The aim of the present study is to report a rare variation of the entrapment of the plantaris tendon between the tibial nerve and the nerve to the soleus. CASE REPORT During routine dissection of the popliteal fossa and the posterior compartment of leg for the first year MBBS students, a plantaris muscle was reported with abnormal course of the plantaris tendon. The dissection was performed following Cunningham’s manual of practical anatomy and the course of the plantaris tendon was observed, and photographed10. The ethical clearance for the study has been obtained from the Institutional Ethical Committee. The plantaris muscle took origin from the lateral supracondylar ridge and the adjacent popliteal surface of the femur, in the right side of a 60 year old male cadaver. The muscle then formed a long slender tendon, which passed between the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles and inserted into the calcaneus, medial to the calcaneal tendon. The plantaris tendon passed between the tibial nerve and the nerve to the soleus, thereby causing entrapment of the tendon. DISCUSSION In humans, the plantaris acts along with gastrocnemius to help in plantar flexion, due to common insertion into the calcaneus. But, in many mammals, it inserts directly or indirectly into the plantar aponeurosis1. This is due to the evolutionary changes towards the erect posture of man, where the insertion of the plantaris muscle gradually shifted to the calcaneus3.   The different variations of the plantaris muscle regarding origin, insertion, number of muscle belly and course of the plantaris tendon may help the surgeons during surgeries of the popliteal fossa and the posterior compartment of leg. The knowledge of such variations may also help the clinicians during diagnosis of a posterior knee injury and/or tennis leg7. Das et al8 reported a case in which the plantaris tendon took origin from the lateral supracondylar line and the oblique popliteal ligament, and its tendon passed between the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, and inserted into the medial border of the calcaneal tendon. Here, the plantaris tendon passed between the tibial nerve and the nerve to the soleus. Nayak et al7 reported a case in which they found an additional tendon of the plantaris muscle arising from the fascia covering the popliteus, which then joined the original tendon of the plantaris to form a single tendon and inserted into the calcaneal tendon. During the course, the plantaris muscle was entrapped between the tibial nerve and its branch to the soleus. Saha et al9 reported a case, in which they observed a plantaris muscle with double bellies, of which the inner belly originated from the fascia covering the politeus and the outer belly originated from the lower part of the lateral extension of the linea aspera, above the origin of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius. Both the bellies then fused to form a common tendon and inserted into the calcaneal tendon. During their passage, the muscle bellies were entrapped between the tibial nerve and the nerve to the soleus. In the present case, similar to Das et al8, Nayak et al7 and Saha et al9, the plantaris tendon passed between the tibial nerve and the nerve to the soleus, thereby causing its entrapment. No other associated anomaly in relation to its origin, insertion and number of muscle belly were observed in the present case. Such an anomaly of entrapment of the plantaris tendon is relatively rare, which, if misdiagnosed may lead to severe complications. CONCLUSION The pull of the plantaris tendon may press upon the nerve to the soleus, thereby causing compression neuropathy. Also, such an entrapment may complicate the surgical exploration of the structures of the posterior compartment of leg and interpretation of MRI scans and ultrasounds during evaluation of muscle tears surrounding the knee joint. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Conflict of interest: None. Source of funding: None. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2503http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2503 Standring S. Leg. In: Tubbs RS, editor. Gray’s Anatomy The anatomical basis of clinical practice. 41st ed. Elsevier; 2016. p.1410. Rosse C, Gaddem-Rosse P. Limbs. In: Hollinshead Textbook of Anatomy. 5th ed. Philadelphia:  Lipincott-Raven; 1997. p.372-4. Daseler EH, Anson BJ. The plantaris muscle: An Anatomical Study of 750 Specimens. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1943;25:822–7. Henle J. Muskellehre. In: Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen. Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn; 1871 [cited 2018 July 22]. Available from: https://archive.org/details/handbuchdersyste58henl Le Double AF. Tome II. In: Traite des variations du systeme musculaire de l’homme et de leur signification au point de vue de l’anthropologie zoologique. Paris: Schleicher Freres; 1897 [cited 2018 July 21]. Available from: https://ia800302.us.archive.org/15/items/traitdesvariat01ledo/traitdesvariat01ledo.pdf Rana K, Das S, Verma R. Double plantaris muscle: a cadaveric study with clinical importance. Int J Morphol. 2006;24(3):495-8. Nayak SR, Krishnamurthy A, Prabhu LV, Madhyastha S. Additional tendinous origin and entrapment of the plantaris muscle. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2009;64(1):67-8. Das S, Vasudeva N. Entrapment of plantaris tendon between the tibial nerve and its branch: a case report. Eur J Anat. 2006;(10):53–5. Saha S, Mahajan A. An unilateral rare variant of plantaris muscle belly and its entrapment: a clinic-anatomical study. Int J Health Sci Res. 2015;5(10):343-6. Romanes GJ. The leg and the foot. In: Cunningham’s manual of practical anatomy.15th ed. Oxford university prsss; 2011. p.160-5.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411014EnglishN2018July18Life SciencesControl of Infectious Diseases in Livestock Farms: Strategies to be Adopted Under Indian Perspective - Review English0408Jahnabi J. KalitaEnglish Rajat BuragohainEnglishLivestock farming is livelihood to nearly 80% population generating employment to about 8.8% of total population in India. Of the factors, diseases play major role in economic sustainability of livestock enterprises. Many factors predispose diseases in animal farms. While adopting strategies for control and eradication of livestock diseases, a holistic approach is required with technical and financial supports from government organisations, and government with active involvement of farmers. EnglishInfectious disease, Livestock, Control strategy, Holistic approachINTRODUCTION Livestock farming is important for livelihood to nearly 80% of the rural population in India. Livestock keeping is also a tradition in rural India and regarded as the pride as well as prestige by some tribal communities particularly of hilly states. Livestock related economic activities are generally affordable, successful and sustainable for rural poor farmers throughout India. Of the total animal population in India, livestock and poultry comprises of 512.06 and 729.2 million, respectively. With 37.28% cattle, 21.23% buffaloes, 12.71% sheep, 26.40% goats, 2.01% pigs and 0.37 % of mithun, yaks, horses, ponies, mules, donkeys and camels of total livestock, this sector contributes 14% of income of rural households and provides employment to about 8.8 % of the population in India. Livestock sector also ensures 4.11% GDP and 25.6% of the total agriculture GDP of the country [13]. Livestock production is affected by many factors. Of which diseases play major role in decreasing immunity, reproduction, feed efficiency etc. adversely affecting productivity. In recent years, occurrence of emerging and re-emerging diseases is causing havoc in livestock production. Numerous cases of vector-borne and other zoonotic diseases have been emerged or re-emerged with major health issues [9] resulting in great economic losses to the farmer. Emerging livestock diseases are those diseases which are newly identified because they are previously not known as infectious [17]. The emerging diseases cause a good number of public health problems either locally or internationally. Whereas, the re-emerging disease are those diseases which have been known for sometimes, but for low incidence levels they are no longer considered as public health problems, but presently they are showing upward trends in incidence or prevalence. Highly contagious diseases of livestock, for their wide host range, plurality of immunological types, and short duration of immunity, may cause severe economic losses. Effective bio-security and managemental practices can play a major role for control and elimination of livestock diseases under Indian farming situation. FACTORS PREDISPOSING DISEASES IN RURAL INDIA One of the major predisposing factors for occurrence of diseases in livestock is improper feeding management without any scientific standards. This invariably leads to per-acute nutritional deficiencies and in long run results in immune suppression increasing susceptibility to diseases. Improper housing, inappropriate floor space, improper bio-security measures, inadequate health management and sanitary interventions cause occurrence of diseases in farm animals. In spite of vaccinations, animals suffer for inappropriate time, dose, and method of vaccination. Unavailability of vaccine at proper time and improper storage facility are also responsible for vaccination failure. Besides and more importantly, farmers in the rural areas usually follow the traditional treatment methods instead of consulting a veterinarian. But, when the condition of the animal severely deteriorates, they approach a veterinarian for whom it is too late to revive the animal. Another ignored aspect of livestock rearing in rural India is farm waste management and disposal. Animal excreta are good sources of nutrients for the plants and can be utilised for generation of energy. However, the disposal of these wastes continues to be a challenge from the standpoints of cost, environmental safety, and bio-security [15]. In rural areas, there is no proper drainage system and it is also becoming a great concern for polluting the environment for improper disposal of farm wastes. It adversely affects the health of the animals and results diseases or makes the animals more susceptible to diseases. BIO-SECURITY FOR DISEASE PREVENTION Bio-security helps in effective control of infectious diseases of animals. Bio-security practices are to be designed in such a way that it effectively prevents the entry and spread of disease-causing agents into and from a livestock and poultry farm. Bio-security reduces the risk associated with the management of poultry and livestock farming. Eradication of pathogenic agents is the safest way to prevent the occurrence of infectious diseases. Effective tool for eradication process is based upon good monitoring and surveillance systems, reliable diagnostic techniques, good diagnostic laboratory facilities with adequate technical infrastructure [3].  There are three main elements of bio-security protocol – Segregation and traffic control, cleaning and disinfection [18]. Potentially infected animals should be quarantined to prevent pathogenic agents from entering into the farm and contaminated objects such as clothing, foot wares, vehicles, equipments etc. should be kept away from healthy poultry and livestock flocks. This can be done by the following ways. Locking the entry and exist point, providing fence and gate at distance. Time break in between farm’s visits. Washing hands and feet, changing foot wares and outer clothes, vehicles kept off the farm. Risks of disease transmission can be minimised by preventing unauthorized people from entering into the farm premises. Screened walls and windows are very essential to prevent contact of poultry and livestock of farm with wild and domestic animals and birds of the outside. Workers or visitors must clean hands and feet with sanitizer or disinfectant before entering the farm premises. It should be mandatory for workers or visitors to change clothes and foot wares before entering into the farm. They should have different neat and clean wares for the farm. It is essential for workers or visitors to clean and disinfect foot wares between sheds in foot-bath or change foot wares. Farm workers should be prevented to contact outsiders and only the essential visitors such as veterinarian and service man should be allowed to enter into the farm. INNOVATIONS IN ANIMAL HEALTH STRATEGY FOR CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES With the emergence and re-emergence of fatal animal diseases, it becomes pivotal for the veterinary health sector to adopt new disease preventing strategies. Treatment strategies or protocols generated in veterinary clinics can be shared among clinics and researchers. It will help in finding out the common diseases of a particular area or region and to adopt appropriate prevention strategies for them. Veterinarian can also make animal owners aware about the dates for vaccination or advance medications and provide instructions for healthy feeding regimes. It is very much essential particularly during the natural calamity and thereafter. The human and animal health sectors should work in cohesive manner for increased transfer of knowledge both ways avoiding slow regulatory processes or communication hindrance. As animal health directly affects human health, there should be deeper collaborations and the animal health sector needs to explain and emphasise the channels through which diseases transmits from animals to human beings and vice versa. Many zoonotic and vector-borne diseases may emerge as a result of changing social habits, habitat modification, exotic vector introduction and climate change.  In recent times, rapid movement of people and transportation of goods have resulted in the introduction and establishment of several novel vector species not previously prevalent in some areas (e.g. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) in swine and Nipah infection in recent times in some parts of India). There are significant concerns of impacts on public health and economics of farmers which necessitates collaboration between the animal and human health sectors in preparing for emergencies. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AND EMERGENCE OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES Infectious animal diseases significantly lower animal productivity thereby causing financial losses to the farmers. It also has significant impact on environment, affect human health, and tend to increase poverty particularly in developing countries. Livestock sector, as the economic avenue, is extremely important for the rural livelihood and national economy. The burden of animal diseases is extremely high in developing countries like India and is responsible for losses of around 20% of ruminants and more than 50% of poultry every year. Climate change is one of the important factors which affect the occurrence of infectious diseases in livestock and out of 65 important animal diseases, 58% are found to be highly climate sensitive to climate change [8]. The weather patterns define the climate change of a particular geographical area. This change has been found to extend for millions of years or over a period of time in a particular geographical location which can be identified by using different statistical tests [2].The changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties over a period of time can be used to identify the climate change. For an infectious disease to occur, a relation between host environment and the infectious agent or pathogen has to exist. This relationship is termed as the disease triangle or epidemiological triad. The role of the environment becomes more pronounced to those organisms which have to spend some time period outside the host in the environment, in the form of spore, vegetative organism, larvae or as a developmental stage in the intermediate host. Diseases which are transmitted by vectors and introduced into other susceptible hosts are highly influenced by climatic factors. The spores of Bacillus anthracis, causing Anthrax, a highly fatal disease, survive outside the host [16]. Environmental factors such as suitable temperature, humidity and moisture play definite role in successful germination of the spores. Certain bacteria, such as Dermatophilus congolensis (causative agent of Dermatophilosis) and Pasteurella multocida (Haemorrhagic septicaemia in bovines) survive well outside the host in moist environment. Occurrence of both the diseases is associated with high humidity and rainy seasons [6]. On the other hand, rinderpest virus survives best at extremely low or high humidity and least at humidity between 50-60% [1]. Similarly, trematodes like Fasciola requires environmental conditions suitable for its intermediate host, the snails, which include very moist and wet conditions of pasture and soil. Vector-borne infectious diseases like blue tongue, African horse sickness, Rift valley fever etc. require suitable environment conducive for their vectors including mosquitoes, midges, flies, ticks etc. to thrive and multiply the organisms and complete the external incubation period (EIP) successfully, with EIP lengthening in the colder periods and shortening in the high temperatures [12]. HOW CLIMATE PREDISPOSES THE DISEASE OCCURRENCE? The climate of a particular region/state has both the direct and indirect influences on the transmission of diseases affecting either occurrence of an outbreak or the intensity of an outbreak. Thus, there are temporary linkages between occurrence of infectious diseases and their geographical distribution in human and animals. Ecosystem can be linked with disease transmission through its biodiversity. Many arthropod vectors require warm weather and thus they are noticed during summer season. Lengthening of the warm season may increase or decrease the number of cycles of infection within a year. Heavy rainfall, primarily following drought, can increase insect population by enhancing larval habitats. Flood may increase water-borne diseases (cholera or leptospirosis). Storms can increase transport of waste water to groundwater thereby pollutes the environment. Water contamination following heavy rains may result many diseases (particularly of giardia and E. coli infestations).The outbreaks of a number of viral diseases is linked to unusual rainfall patterns and disruption of seasonal rainfall patterns. Increased rodent population is also known for increasing rodent-borne diseases [2]. The disease transmission between livestock and wildlife and also between livestock and human has been found to be greatly influenced by drought conditions. Due to limited water resources, livestock and wildlife tend to congregate resulting in pathogen transmission [10]. Proliferation of bovine tuberculosis occurs in such a manner. Restricted food availability due to limited vegetation growth leads to stress and thereby immune-suppression which predisposes diseases of different kinds in animals. Forced migration of animals also increases the probability of introduction of novel pathogens. The increased and random movement of animals during drought in search of food also plays an important role in disease transmission. The water resources and vegetation cover are highly dependent on climate change and are subsequently altered due to changing climate patterns, thus forcing animals to migrate to different geographical locations. Host distributions are altered due to climate change. Increased exposure of hosts to harmful UV-radiations for ozone depletion may cause immune suppression increasing susceptibility to infectious diseases [4].High temperature and humidity may reduce restrictions on insect distribution, thereby allowing them to flourish in areas previously not fit for them to survive. Temperature changes may also affect vectors by altering biting rates or alter the length of transmission period. Arthropod vectors are more active at higher temperatures. Therefore, they feed more regularly to sustain the increase of their metabolic functions enhancing chances of infections being transmitted between hosts. Small changes in vector characteristics can also produce substantial changes in disease pattern [19]. The climate of India varies from region to region and from season to season within a region. India is having varied topography from below mean sea level to more than 3000 m above mean sea level. It precipitates a wide range of weather conditions throughout India. This significantly affect the natural ecosystems and thereby flora and fauna. The annual mean surface temperature of India will rise from 2.50 C to 50 C by the end of the century. The rate of warming is more pronounced in the northern parts of India [11]. More than about 20% rise in summer monsoon rainfall is projected over all states except Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. The maximum temperature range in any one season is predicted to be varied more widely (27°C - 44°C to 26°C - 45°C). The variations in minimum temperature are also expected to increase in the same way. The hydrological cycle is likely to be altered and intensity of droughts and floods in various parts of India is likely to increase. Under such circumstances, there is every likelihood for abrupt climatic changes which may affect the physiology of the every livestock species, their immune status and thereby leading them vulnerable to many infectious diseases. DISEASE SITUATION IN INDIA During 1992-2009, at least 11 pathogens have emerged or re-emerged in India and majority of them are of animal origin. In recent years, incidence of new/unknown etiologic animal diseases are increasing at an alarming rate in India (Bird flu/avian influenza, swine flu/swine influenza virus, PRRS, nipah virus infection etc.). The outbreak of Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever was occurred in Gujarat and Ahmadabad during 2011. Vector borne diseases like Japanese encephalitis, Dengue, West Nile virus, Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) etc. are also spreading to much wider rates in different states/regions of India. After a long gap of 20 years, chikungunya fever reappeared in several countries including India. KFD is a tick-borne Flavi virus infection in which monkeys act as reservoir/amplifier and it has been reported from certain parts of Karnataka [2]. An outbreak of leptospirosis was also reported in Mumbai in the year 2002 because of the prolonged water logging due to heavy rainfall [5]. The first report of Avian Influenza (H5N1) outbreaks were reported in the South East Asian region in the year 2003.Sporadic outbreaks are still continuing in many countries including in Bangladesh (2007), India (2006-2007) and Indonesia (2004-2007). The swine flu (H1N1) is a viral infection that originates from pigs and was first isolated during 1930s.The recent outbreak of swine flu were reported from many parts of India including Jammu and Kashmir [14]. CONTROL AND ERADICATION OF PRIORITY DISEASES Total eradication of diseases is one of the toughest jobs and it requires holistic approach as well as huge financial supports. However, developed nations can overcome these constraints and attain total control over diseases by adopting proper treatment, vaccination, timely culling and most importantly by reducing transmission of diseases. There are many control technologies which are potential to improve the control of climatic conditions to prevent climate sensitive disease, mainly of multiple vector borne diseases. There are some vaccines which are effective against multiple diseases (Multivalent vaccines), which can confer immunity to multiple infections. Similarly, ‘Thermo-tolerant vaccines’ which do not require any cold-chain facility can effectively be helpful under rural conditions and situations without any storage facility. Insecticides like pyrethroids which are effective against several multiple vectors can be utilised to control vector borne diseases. For the improvement of the resilience of livestock production systems, the following changes in livestock production practices are the needs of hour to help livestock farmers. Diversification of livestock and livelihood. Integrating livestock farming with agriculture. Identifying and improving the breeds for better adoptability to harsh environment and less susceptible to diseases. Adopting farming practices that limit greenhouse gas emissions i.e. better manure management; replacing fertilizers with biological/nitrogen fixing legumes, soil conservation tillage etc. Another important tool for combating any future disease is its prediction and forecasting. Since traditional knowledge is no longer reliable for these purposes, more stress has to be given for better linking between human, animal and environmental health (One Health and Eco health).   MITIGATION APPROACHES Rural livestock farmers of India are very poor. They try to utilise the available resources (including locally available unconventional feed resources) to manage their animals. For lack of knowledge and/or unawareness on their parts, they usually ignore the important aspects of animal management like sanitation and hygienicity of the farm, scientific feeding of the animals, disease preventive measures and proper disposal of manure etc. These are responsible for deterioration of immunity and health of the animals increasing susceptibility to infections manifold. Thus, the extension personnel of different organisations still have much to do towards sustainability of livestock enterprises and profitability. In this regards, extensive awareness programmes are required with financial as well as technical supports from the government and government organisations. The mitigation approaches should aim at reducing the agents/factors that tend to increase the phenomenon of climate change. This requires international agreements and commitments for implementation of environmental policies by respective nations. These may include - Reducing fossil fuel consumption, especially of coal to lessen the release of greenhouse gases. Promotion of biodegradation and recycling procedures. Saving of energy and utilization of alternative energy resources/methods like energy saving stoves, hydroelectric power, wind energy, solar energy, biogas energy etc. CONCLUSION The emerging and re-emerging diseases are becoming the major threats towards livestock productivity in recent decades. Unscientific managemental practices, lack of awareness regarding effective bio-security and disease control measures results quick spread of the diseases causing tremendous morbidity and mortality of farm animals. Finding out cost-effective control strategies based on history of occurrence of diseases, climatic conditions of the region should be the priorities. A holistic approach with active involvement of farming communities supported by technical and financial avenues from government organisations and government can ensure economic sustainability of livestock farming/enterprises in India. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Conflict of interest: Non Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2504http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2504 Anderson J, Barrett T, Scott GR. Manual of the Diagnosis of Rinderpest, FAO Animal Health Manual - I, 2nd Edition, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1996. Ashraf A, Darzi Mohammad M, Wani Basharat M, Shah, Showkat Ahmad, Shabir Mir, Shafi M. Climate change and infectious diseases of animals: A review. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2017; 5(5): 1470-77. CPDO.General Guidelines for Bio-security at Central Poultry Development Organizations (Basic Tenets can be applied to State Poultry Farms and Private Poultry Farms) Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, Government of India, 2015. De Gruijl FR, Longstreth J, Norval M, Cullen AP, Slaper H, Kripke ML. Health effects from stratospheric ozone depletion and interactions with climate change. Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences 2003; 2:16-28. Dubal ZB, Barbuddhe SB, Singh NP. Important Zoonotic Diseases: Prevention and control, Technical Bulletin No. 39,ICAR Research Complex for Goa (ICAR), Old Goa- 403 402, Goa, India, 2014. Hall HTB. Diseases and parasites of livestock in the tropics, Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, Essex, 1998. IPCC. Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change. In: Climate Change (2007), the Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (Solomon S., Qin D., Manning M., Chen Z., Marquis M., Averyt K.B., Tignor M. and Miller H.L. (eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007. (http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/contents.html). Islam  MM, Anjum S, Modi RJ, Wadhwan KN. Scenario of livestock and poultry in India and their contribution to national economy. International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology 2016; 5(3): 956-65. Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, Storeygard A, Balk D, Gittleman JL. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 2008; 451:990-93. Kuldeep D, Ruchi T, Sandip C, Amit K, Karikalan M, Rajendra S. Global warming and emerging infectious diseases animals and  humans: current scenario, challenges, solutions and future perspectives – a review. International Journal of Current Research 2013; 5:1942-58. Kumar RK, Sahai AK, Krishna KK, Patwardhan SK, Mishra PK, Revadekar JV. High-resolution climate change scenarios for India for the 21st century. Current Science 2006; 90(3):334-45. Lines J. The effects of climatic and land-use changes on insect vectors of human disease. In: Harrington, R. and Stork, N.E. (Eds.): Insects in a Changing Environment, Academic Press, London. 1995; 157-75. Livestock Census. The 19th Livestock Census, 2012, published by Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, 2012. Neelam S, Singh VP. Effect of climatic changes on the prevalence of zoonotic diseases. Veterinary World 2010; 3(11):519-22. Ogbuewu IP, Odoemenam VU, Omede AA, Durunna CS, Emenalom OO, Uchegbu MC et al. Livestock waste and its impact on the environment. Scientific Journal of Review 2012; 1(2):17-32. Parker R, Mathis C, Looper M, Sawyer J. Anthrax and livestock. Guide B-120. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture and Home Economics, University of New Mexico, Las Cruces, New Mexico, 2002. Peter B, Mike N. Impact of climate change and environmental change on emerging and re-emerging animal diseases and animal production. In proc. Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Conf. OIE, 2009:15-25. Sharma B. Poultry production, management and bio-security measures. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment 2010; 11:120-25. Wittmann EJ, Baylis M. Climate change: Effects on Culicoides transmitted viruses and implications for the UK. The Veterinary Journal 2000; 60:107-17.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411014EnglishN2018July18Life SciencesNatural Language Processing and Unsupervised Learning: It’s Significance on Biomedical Literature English0915Kanika GuptaEnglish Ashok KumarEnglishThere is massive information hidden in the biomedical literature in the form of scientific publications, book chapters, conference reports, etc. This information is growing exponentially with the speed exceeding Moore’s Law i.e. observations double in every two years. It is therefore not possible for researchers and practitioners to automatically extract and relate information from different written resources. Also the data present in the written recourses is unstructured i.e. free-text therefore it becomes very arduous and exorbitant to obtain annotated material for its literature. So in order to overcome these problems Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Unsupervised Learning approaches are used. Natural Language Processing approach is the part of text mining which is the discovery by computer of new, previously unknown information by automatically extracting and relating information from different written resources to reveal the otherwise ‘hidden’ meanings. The Unsupervised Learning approach is the part of machine learning where no annotated training is necessary and it is more about exploring the data to find insights. Both these approaches can be used to find knowledge from written textual data in the form different interactions like protein-protein, gene-gene, gene-protein, etc. These approaches could also be used to develop classifiers, databases, tools or softwares which in future would automatically extract the knowledgeable information from literature, answering questions arising in the biomedical research and would also help in the development of new hypothesis. So here we discuss 53 softwares, tools and databases developed using Natural Language Processing (NLP) and unsupervised learning approaches, which are involved in plain texts analyzing and processing, categorizes current work in biomedical information and entities extraction. EnglishText Mining, Natural Language Processing (NLP), Unsupervised Learning and Biomedical LiteratureIntroduction Textual data is considered as the building block upon which any research thrives. The extent of details and the rush of data providing information through the advancements in technologies and internet have increased tremendously. The exponential growth in research for biomedical sciences has led to an increase in its publications. The textual data in the published literature is unstructured or free-text. The unstructured data either does not have a pre-characterized information model or is not sorted out in a pre-characterized way. The information is commonly text-heavy, but may contain critical information in the form of dates, numbers, and facts like protein-protein interactions, gene-disease associations, etc. as well. As the data both communicated and hidden up in biomedical writings are developing exponentially and the composed content is unstructured information so it isn't workable for analysts and experts to naturally extricate and relate data from various compositions (1) (2). Therefore manual effort to transform unstructured text into structured is a laborious process and automatic techniques are the solution (3). There are various automatic techniques for solving the above mentioned issue viz. supervised and unsupervised machine learning, text mining, semantic analysis, artificial intelligence etc. In the current work we will discuss the importance of two automatic techniques i.e. unsupervised machine learning and natural language processing and the softwares, tools and databases developed using these techniques, so that these techniques could be implemented on any biomedical corpus. Natural language processing (NLP) is the ability of a computer program to comprehend human language as it is spoken. The progress in Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications is provocative because computers commonly require humans to "speak" to them in a programming language that is accurate, explicit and highly organized, or through a limited number of clearly articulated voice commands. Most of the research being done on Natural Language Processing (NLP) rotates around search i.e. keyword search or searching relationship entities. This Natural Language Processing (NLP) method enables users to query data sets in the form of a question that they might pose to another person. The machine elucidates the critical components of the human language sentence, such as those that might correspond to specific features in a data set, and returns an answer. Natural Language Processing (NLP) can be utilized to interpret free text and make it analyzable (51). The unsupervised machine learning approaches are generally beneficial on the unstructured data i.e. the data where no labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. This kind of learning can be a goal in itself by finding hidden patterns in data or a means towards an end i.e. feature learning used for the development of textual classifiers. The unsupervised learning problems can be further grouped into clustering which is problem is where you want to find the inherent groupings in the data (52). Many researchers have utilized these approaches for information extraction from biomedical literature, especially for discovery of protein–protein interactions, gene-protein interaction, gene-drug interaction, etc. In this paper we will discuss few softwares, databases or techniques which use Natural Language Processing (NLP) and unsupervised learning approaches for classification and entity recognition from biofilm literature. Brief Description of Techniques This section presents a brief discussion on the Natural Language Processing (NLP) and unsupervised techniques and its general method for linguistics analysis to find different interactions (4). Natural Language Processing (NLP) methods. Knowledgeable discovery from unstructured text utilizes computational linguistics and philosophy, like syntactic parsing or semantic parsing to analyze sentence structures. Methods of this category define grammars to describe sentence structures and utilize parsers to extract syntactic information and internal dependencies within individual sentences. Approaches in this category can be applied to different knowledge domains after being carefully tuned to the specific problems. But, there is still no guarantee that the performance in the field of biomedicine can achieve comparable performance after tuning. Until recently, methods based on computational linguistics still could not generate satisfactory results (5) (6). Unsupervised Machine learning. Machine learning broaches to the potentiality of a machine to grasp from experience to extract knowledge from data corpora. As opposed to the aforementioned technique which needs laborious effort to define a set of rules or grammars, machine learning techniques are able to extract protein–protein interaction patterns without human intervention. Statistical approaches are based on word occurrences in a large text corpus. Significant features or patterns are detected and used to classify the abstracts or sentences containing protein–protein interactions, gene-protein interaction and characterize the corresponding relations among genes or proteins. They also define a set of rules for possible textual relationships, called patterns, which encode similar structures in expressing relationships. When combined with statistical methods, scoring schemes depending on the occurrences of patterns to describe the confidence of the relationship are normally used. Similar to computational linguistics methods, rule-based approaches can make use of syntactic information to achieve better performance, although it can also work without prior parsing and tagging of the text (7) (8). The Figure 1 shows the general outlook of information extraction system from any Biomedical Literature. In this the data is collected from various sources like published articles, scientific journals, books and technical reports, etc and the collected data is in unstructured format. Then using automatic techniques like text mining, text units i.e. words, sentences, paragraphs containing relevant information are generated which needs to be analyzed to get knowledgeable data. Then these text units are further processed and analyzed using unsupervised learning and natural language processing which are used for text classification or clustering on certain textual features and entity recognition like gene-protein interaction, protein-protein interaction, gene-disease interaction, gene-drug interaction, etc. This gathered information can be used for the development of databases, classifiers, softwares, tools or pipelines for future use. Discussion The softwares, tools, databases and pipelines which are involved in information extraction in the form of relationship entities in biofilm literature using Natural Language Processing and Unsupervised Learning approaches are shown in Table 1. The above mentioned softwares, tools, databases and pipelines can be used for information extraction by initially identifying an item or concept in textual resource and then detecting links between the concepts obtained from the text. By linking the concepts together additional context is given to the concepts, which results in valuable knowledge that can be used for downstream analysis like genome and gene expression annotation, drug-target discovery, drug repositioning, protein-protein interactions, construction of ontologies etc (9). These techniques also help researchers in formulating hypothesis of their future studies as they could find new concepts while analyzing text. Conclusion The importance of natural language processing and unsupervised learning depends on the fact that it not only extract information hidden in the biomedical textual data but could also be used for the development of new servers, softwares, databases, etc. These approaches could be used on any biomedical literature. If the above mentioned tools meet all the challenges like specific ontologies describing single disease at various levels, individual pathways and genes for particular diseases, appropriate gene-disease interactions, quality of tool to distinguish between false negative results, etc. being faced in analysis of textual data they will continue to be an indispensable asset for researchers in the biomedical domain (9). Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the support provided by the online servers, tools and softwares for the compilation of this review. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Source of Funding: None Conflict of Interest: None Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2505http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=25051. Jensen LJ, Saric J, Bork P. Literature mining for the biologist: from information retrieval to biological discovery. Nature reviews Genetics. 2006;7(2):119-29. 2. Ananiadou S, Kell DB, Tsujii J. Text mining and its potential applications in systems biology. Trends in biotechnology. 2006;24(12):571-9. 3. Cusick ME, Yu H, Smolyar A, Venkatesan K, Carvunis AR, Simonis N, et al. Literature-curated protein interaction datasets. Nature methods. 2009;6(1):39-46. 4. Zhou D, He Y. Extracting interactions between proteins from the literature. Journal of biomedical informatics. 2008;41(2):393-407. 5. Krallinger M, Erhardt RA, Valencia A. Text-mining approaches in molecular biology and biomedicine. Drug discovery today. 2005;10(6):439-45. 6. Cohen AM, Hersh WR. A survey of current work in biomedical text mining. Briefings in bioinformatics. 2005;6(1):57-71. 7. Rinaldi F, Schneider G, Kaljurand K, Hess M, Andronis C, Konstandi O, et al. Mining of relations between proteins over biomedical scientific literature using a deep-linguistic approach. Artificial intelligence in medicine. 2007;39(2):127-36. 8. Huang M, Zhu X, Hao Y, Payan DG, Qu K, Li M. Discovering patterns to extract protein-protein interactions from full texts. Bioinformatics. 2004;20(18):3604-12. 9. Fleuren WW, Alkema W. Application of text mining in the biomedical domain. Methods. 2015;74:97-106. 10. Baral C, Gonzalez G, Gitter A, Teegarden C, Zeigler A, Joshi-Tope G. CBioC: beyond a prototype for collaborative annotation of molecular interactions from the literature. Computational systems bioinformatics Computational Systems Bioinformatics Conference. 2007;6:381-4. 11. Chen H, Sharp BM. Content-rich biological network constructed by mining PubMed abstracts. BMC bioinformatics. 2004;5:147. 12. Doms A, Schroeder M. GoPubMed: exploring PubMed with the Gene Ontology. Nucleic acids research. 2005;33(Web Server issue):W783-6. 13. Hoffmann R, Valencia A. A gene network for navigating the literature. Nature genetics. 2004;36(7):664. 14. Fontelo P, Liu F, Ackerman M. askMEDLINE: a free-text, natural language query tool for MEDLINE/PubMed. BMC medical informatics and decision making. 2005;5:5. 15. Lewis J, Ossowski S, Hicks J, Errami M, Garner HR. Text similarity: an alternative way to search MEDLINE. Bioinformatics. 2006;22(18):2298-304. 16. Fontaine JF, Barbosa-Silva A, Schaefer M, Huska MR, Muro EM, Andrade-Navarro MA. MedlineRanker: flexible ranking of biomedical literature. Nucleic acids research. 2009;37(Web Server issue):W141-6. 17. States DJ, Ade AS, Wright ZC, Bookvich AV, Athey BD. MiSearch adaptive pubMed search tool. Bioinformatics. 2009;25(7):974-6. 18. Huang KC, Chiang IJ, Xiao F, Liao CC, Liu CC, Wong JM. PICO element detection in medical text without metadata: are first sentences enough? Journal of biomedical informatics. 2013;46(5):940-6. 19. Hokamp K, Wolfe KH. PubCrawler: keeping up comfortably with PubMed and GenBank. Nucleic acids research. 2004;32(Web Server issue):W16-9. 20. Plikus MV, Zhang Z, Chuong CM. PubFocus: semantic MEDLINE/PubMed citations analytics through integration of controlled biomedical dictionaries and ranking algorithm. BMC bioinformatics. 2006;7:424. 21. Becker KG, Hosack DA, Dennis G, Jr., Lempicki RA, Bright TJ, Cheadle C, et al. PubMatrix: a tool for multiplex literature mining. BMC bioinformatics. 2003;4:61. 22. Douglas SM, Montelione GT, Gerstein M. PubNet: a flexible system for visualizing literature derived networks. Genome biology. 2005;6(9):R80. 23. Brancotte B, Biton A, Bernard-Pierrot I, Radvanyi F, Reyal F, Cohen-Boulakia S. Gene List significance at-a-glance with GeneValorization. Bioinformatics. 2011;27(8):1187-9. 24. De S, Zhang Y, Garner JR, Wang SA, Becker KG. Disease and phenotype gene set analysis of disease-based gene expression in mouse and human. Physiological genomics. 2010;42A(2):162-7. 25. Li C, Jimeno-Yepes A, Arregui M, Kirsch H, Rebholz-Schuhmann D. PCorral--interactive mining of protein interactions from MEDLINE. Database : the journal of biological databases and curation. 2013;2013:bat030. 26. Glynn RW, Kerin MJ, Sweeney KJ. Authorship trends in the surgical literature. The British journal of surgery. 2010;97(8):1304-8. 27. Xuan W, Dai M, Mirel B, Wilson J, Athey B, Watson SJ, et al. An active visual search interface for Medline. Computational systems bioinformatics Computational Systems Bioinformatics Conference. 2007;6:359-69. 28. Fleuren WW, Verhoeven S, Frijters R, Heupers B, Polman J, van Schaik R, et al. CoPub update: CoPub 5.0 a text mining system to answer biological questions. Nucleic acids research. 2011;39(Web Server issue):W450-4. 29. Tsuruoka Y, Miwa M, Hamamoto K, Tsujii J, Ananiadou S. Discovering and visualizing indirect associations between biomedical concepts. Bioinformatics. 2011;27(13):i111-9. 30. Raja K, Subramani S, Natarajan J. PPInterFinder--a mining tool for extracting causal relations on human proteins from literature. Database : the journal of biological databases and curation. 2013;2013:bas052. 31. Plake C, Schiemann T, Pankalla M, Hakenberg J, Leser U. AliBaba: PubMed as a graph. Bioinformatics. 2006;22(19):2444-5. 32. Soldatos TG, O'Donoghue SI, Satagopam VP, Jensen LJ, Brown NP, Barbosa-Silva A, et al. Martini: using literature keywords to compare gene sets. Nucleic acids research. 2010;38(1):26-38. 33. Franceschini A, Szklarczyk D, Frankild S, Kuhn M, Simonovic M, Roth A, et al. STRING v9.1: protein-protein interaction networks, with increased coverage and integration. Nucleic acids research. 2013;41(Database issue):D808-15. 34. Liu CC, Tseng YT, Li W, Wu CY, Mayzus I, Rzhetsky A, et al. DiseaseConnect: a comprehensive web server for mechanism-based disease-disease connections. Nucleic acids research. 2014;42(Web Server issue):W137-46. 35. Pletscher-Frankild S, Palleja A, Tsafou K, Binder JX, Jensen LJ. DISEASES: text mining and data integration of disease-gene associations. Methods. 2015;74:83-9. 36. Tseytlin E, Mitchell K, Legowski E, Corrigan J, Chavan G, Jacobson RS. NOBLE - Flexible concept recognition for large-scale biomedical natural language processing. BMC bioinformatics. 2016;17:32. 37. Tao C, Song D, Sharma D, Chute CG. Semantator: semantic annotator for converting biomedical text to linked data. Journal of biomedical informatics. 2013;46(5):882-93. 38. Noy NF, Shah NH, Whetzel PL, Dai B, Dorf M, Griffith N, et al. BioPortal: ontologies and integrated data resources at the click of a mouse. Nucleic acids research. 2009;37(Web Server issue):W170-3. 39. Stokes TH, Wang MD. SimplevisGrid: grid services for visualization of diverse biomedical knowledge and molecular systems data. Conference proceedings :  Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Annual Conference. 2009;2009:4178-81. 40. Gupta S, Ross KE, Tudor CO, Wu CH, Schmidt CJ, Vijay-Shanker K. miRiaD: A Text Mining Tool for Detecting Associations of microRNAs with Diseases. Journal of biomedical semantics. 2016;7(1):9. 41. Lee K, Lee S, Park S, Kim S, Kim S, Choi K, et al. BRONCO: Biomedical entity Relation ONcology COrpus for extracting gene-variant-disease-drug relations. Database : the journal of biological databases and curation. 2016;2016. 42. Blank CE, Cui H, Moore LR, Walls RL. MicrO: an ontology of phenotypic and metabolic characters, assays, and culture media found in prokaryotic taxonomic descriptions. Journal of biomedical semantics. 2016;7:18. 43. Mahmood AS, Wu TJ, Mazumder R, Vijay-Shanker K. DiMeX: A Text Mining System for Mutation-Disease Association Extraction. PloS one. 2016;11(4):e0152725. 44. Wei CH, Leaman R, Lu Z. SimConcept: A Hybrid Approach for Simplifying Composite Named Entities in Biomedicine. ACM-BCB   : the  ACM Conference on Bioinformatics, Computational Biology and Biomedicine ACM Conference on Bioinformatics, Computational Biology and Biomedicine. 2014;2014:138-46. 45. Finch DK, McCart JA, Luther SL. TagLine: Information Extraction for Semi-Structured Text in Medical Progress Notes. AMIA  Annual Symposium proceedings AMIA Symposium. 2014;2014:534-43. 46. Sharma VK, Kumar N, Prakash T, Taylor TD. MetaBioME: a database to explore commercially useful enzymes in metagenomic datasets. Nucleic acids research. 2010;38(Database issue):D468-72. 47. Kuo CJ, Ling MH, Lin KT, Hsu CN. BIOADI: a machine learning approach to identifying abbreviations and definitions in biological literature. BMC bioinformatics. 2009;10 Suppl 15:S7. 48. Shtatland T, Guettler D, Kossodo M, Pivovarov M, Weissleder R. PepBank--a database of peptides based on sequence text mining and public peptide data sources. BMC bioinformatics. 2007;8:280. 49. Kim S, Shin SY, Lee IH, Kim SJ, Sriram R, Zhang BT. PIE: an online prediction system for protein-protein interactions from text. Nucleic acids research. 2008;36(Web Server issue):W411-5. 50. Hakenberg J, Plake C, Leaman R, Schroeder M, Gonzalez G. Inter-species normalization of gene mentions with GNAT. Bioinformatics. 2008;24(16):i126-32. 51. TechTarget (2017). Available at: http://searchbusinessanalytics.techtarget.com/definition/ natural-language-processing-NLP [Accessed 08 Feburary 2018]. 52. Machine Learning Mastery (2016). Available at : https://machinelearningmastery.com/ supervised-and-unsupervised-machine-learning-algorithms/ [Accessed 07 Feburary 2018]

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411014EnglishN2018July18Life SciencesLarvicidal Activity of Crude Solanum Nigrum Leaf and Berries Extract Against Dengue Vector-Aedesaegypti English1621Mithun Kumar PatelEnglish Aishwarya TiwariEnglish Vijay Laxmi SaxenaEnglishMosquitoes are the most vital single gathering of creepy crawlies as far as general wellbeing. They transmit various illnesses, for example, jungle fever, dengue fever, chikungunya, filariasis, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile infection and yellow fever and so on prompts a large number of passings consistently. The aim of this study is to investigate the impacts of various parts of Solanum nigrum unrefined concentrate tried against fourth instars hatchlings of dengue vector, Aedes-aegypti, under the research facility conditions. New Solanum nigrum plants were gathered from professional flower bed D.G.P.G College in Kanpur, U.P.  India, and washed completely 2-3 times with running faucet water. 20 gm of new leaves and 10-10gm green and dark berries was gathered and quickly ground utilizing a pestle and mortar independently. All ground material was sifted through a Buchner pipe with What-man number 1 channel paper and independently put away in glass bottle till additionally utilize. Research centre raised fourth instars hatchlings of Aedes-aegypti were treated with various centralization of fluid arrangements all things considered. The tests were directed at room temperature (24°C-29°C). Fixations (1-5%) of the all concentrate were set up in de-chlorinated water. At each the given fixation, 100 hatchlings were uncovered. Mortality was watched for 24, 48 and 72 hours. Leaves and dark berries extricate displayed most noteworthy larvicidal movement with a LC50 estimation of 2.47, 1.67, 0.98 and 1.54, 1.14 0.99% following 24, 48 and 72 hours individually. No mortality was seen in the control gathering. This is another eco-accommodating methodology for the control of Aedes-aegypti mosquito as target species. The present outcomes propose that the viable rough leaf extricates can possibly be utilized as a perfect eco-accommodating methodology for the control of mosquito vectors. EnglishAedes-aegypti, Solanum nigrum, Larval mortality, Dengue vectorIntroduction: There are many forms of mosquito living in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world, we can roughly them divide into two groups Culex and Aedes, but perhaps one of the most important is Aedes-aegypti. According to the World Health Organization, the virus for Dengue fever is the most important arbovirus to man in the world, and since Aedes has been found to transmit this virus, it has been widely studied and blamed as the vector. The males of all species of mosquitoes do not bite humans or animals of any species, they live on fruit. Only the female bites for blood because she requirements to mature her eggs. The eggs of most species are laid together in a raft form, but Aedes lays her eggs separately thus allowing them to spread over large surfaces of water if conditions permit, this way the eggs stand a better chance of survival. When freshly laid the eggs are white but soon turn black in color. The young larvae feed on bacteria in the water and soon cast their skins as they rapidly grow. Here, I must point out the fact that most species lay their eggs in any type of water, mainly dirty or even polluted. Not Aedes, she only lays her eggs in clean water which contains no other living species1. This mosquito is small in comparison to others, usually between 4-5mm in length discounting leg length. It is totally black apart from white 'spots' on the body and head regions and white rings on the legs. The thorax is decorated with a white 'Lyre' shape of which the 'chords' are two dull yellow lines (Fig 1-E). Its wings are translucent and bordered with scales2. Aedes-aegypti bites primarily during the day. This species is most active for approximately two hours after sunrise and several hours before sunset, but it can bite at night as well. This mosquito can bite people without being observed because it approaches from behind and bites on the ankles and elbows. Aedes aegypti prefers biting people but it also bites dogs and other domestic animals, mostly mammals3. To find a host, Aedes-aegypti is fascinated to chemical compounds that are discharged by mammals. These compounds include ammonia, carbon, lactic acid, and octanol. Scientists at the Agricultural Research Service have studied the specific chemical structure of octenol in order to better understand why this chemical attracts the mosquito to its host4. One primary vector of yellow fever, chikungunya fever, dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome, is Aedes-aegypti5. However, Dengue fever has become an important public health problem as the number of reported cases continues to increase, especially with more severe forms of the disease, dengue hemorrhagic fever, and dengue shock syndrome, or with unusual manifestations such as central nervous system involvement6. Mosquito control, in view of their medical importance, assumes global importance. In the context of ever increasing trend to use more powerful synthetic insecticides to achieve immediate results in the control of mosquitoes, an alarming increase of physiological resistance in the vectors, its increased toxicity to non-target organism and high costs are noteworthy7. Most of synthetic chemicals are expensive and destructive to the environment and also toxic to humans, animals and other non-target organisms. Besides, they are no selective and harmful to other beneficial organisms. Some of the insecticides act as carcinogenic agents and are even carried through food chain which in turn affects the non-target organism. Therefore alternative vector control strategies, especially effective and low cost are extremely imperative8, 9, 10. The plant based herbal insecticides are found to more efficient, safe and best substitute for chemicalInsecticides11. Natural products of plant origin are safe to use than the synthetic insecticides12. Therefore biological and eco-friendly natural resources are broad search area for the control of vector of medical importance13. In recent years use of environment-friendly and easily biodegradable natural insecticides of plant origin has received renewed importance for disease vector control. Interest in this field has increased more so, as they are least phytotoxic and do not accumulate chemical residues in flora, fauna andsoil14. The present communication deals with the laboratory studies carried out to ascertain the larvicidal properties of different parts of Solanum nigrum (Figure 1) in Aedes-aegypti. This plant is widely distributed in the wild in many parts of India. Taxonomic position of this plant is as follows: Division – Embryophyta; Sub-division – Angiospermae; Class –Dicotyledoneae; Order – Tubeflorae; Sub-order – Solanales; Family – Solanaceae; Genera – Solanum. The local names in some important vernacular languages are: Hindi – Makoi15. S. nigrum L. subsp. Nigrum- glabrous to slightly hairy with appressed non-glandular hairs. This species is reported to have many medicinal properties and is used mainly as antidysenteric, diuretic, antipyretic, anti-in?ammatory, hepatoprotective, laxative and antispasmodic16. Materials and Methods Selection of Plant: The whole plant of Solanum nigrum were collected from 2 months old mature plants growing in the Home garden of swarup nagar, Kanpur, India. The plants were identified as per method17 [S.K. Jain, A handbook of field and herbarium methods, New Delhi] and the plant was submitted to Department of Botany, D.G.P.G College, Kanpur, for taxonomic identification and confirmation of the species. Preparation of leaf extract of Solanum nigrum: 50gm fresh leaves were washed with tap water and cleaned thoroughly with a cloth. The leaves were cut into small pieces and immediately ground using a pestle and mortar. The ground material was filtered by cloth and then passing the filtered material through What-man No. 1 filter paper and filtrate of the crude leaf extract was stored in a clean brown bottle till further use. Preparation of berries extract of Solanum nigrum: Collect 40gm berries, 20gm black and 20gm green colour washed with tap water and dried on a paper towel. Both berries extract was prepared separately by grinding in a mortar and pestle and ground material was filtered by cloth and then passing the filtered material through Buchner funnel (Borosil, Mumbai, India) with What-man No. 1 filter paper. Selection of mosquito species: The eggs of Aedes-aegypti(Fig. 1-A)were procured from stagnant water of pools with the help of hand net from an around area of civil lines, Kanpur city, UP, India.  The egg rafts of Aedes-aegypti were kept in the tray containing tap water (culture medium) and maintained at 24 ± 20C temperature,  70 ± 30C relative humidity under 14 h light (L): 10 h dark (D) photo period cycle. After 24-36 hrs of incubation, the eggs were observed to hatch out into first instar larvae. Appropriate amount of nutrient (sterilized yeast powder and dog biscuit in 1:1 ratio) were added to enhance the growth of larvae. The 4th instar larvae(Fig. 1-B) were used in the study. The treated larva was mounted on a slide and examined under a microscope (Zoomstar III, Trinocular Stereozoom microscope-Dewinter Technologies, Italy) for image capture on a Dewinter digital Microscope camera (Dewinter Technologies, Italy). All stages of Aedes-aegypti were identified and take the pictures of main characters: Larval abdomen have pitch fork shaped comb scale with distinct larger median spine(Fig. 1-C), strong black hooks on side of larval thorax (Fig. 1-D), adult- scutum black or brown with a pair of submedian-longitudinal white stripes and lyre-shaped silvery-white scales (Fig. 1-E), mesepimeron with two well separated white scale patches(Fig. 1-F), clypeus has white scales (Fig. 1-G). Larvicidal bioassay A laboratory reared colony of Aedes-aegypti larvae was used for the larvicidal activity. Each of the previously made concentration of 1,2,3,4 and 5% each crude extracts of Solanum nigrum(leaf and berries extract) was transferred into a sterilized glass beakers (250 ml capacity). Hundred larvae of 4th instar per concentration were used for all larvae experiment with 100ml of tap water (8pH, checked by indicator papers-S D fine chem. Ltd., Mumbai). Larval food (sterilized yeast powder and dog biscuit in 1:1 ratio) was added in each beaker. The treatments were replicated three times, and each replicate set contained one control. Mortalities were reported after 24hr, 48hr, and 72hr of the exposure period. Laboratory room temperature was maintained at 24-+20C during the experiment period. The dead larvae in three replicates were combined and expressed as percentage mortality for each concentration. Dead larvae were acknowledged when they failed to move after probing with a needle and brush. Result Larvicidal properties of extracts from different part of Solanum nigrum: The crude extracts from different parts of Solanum nigrum were respectively prepared into five different concentrations of each part; and the mortality of the Aedes-aegypti larvae was observed. All extracts showed considerable larvicidal activity when tested against Aedes-aegypti. The effects of the leaf and berries extracts of Solanum nigrum were tested at 1,2,3,4 and 5% each extract and showed activity against the fourth instar larvae of Aedes-aegypti (Table 1). All plant extracts showed moderate larvicidal effects after 24 h; however, the highest larval mortality was found in leaf and black berries extract of 5% concentration. Larvicidal activity of crude Leaf extracts: The effects of the plant leaf crude extracts of Different concentrations (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5%) were shown in Fig. 2, respectively. At concentration of 5%showed highest mortality (100%) after 48 h, followed by extract 1, 2, 3 and 4%. The LC50 values2.47, 1.67, 0.98% and LC90 values 4.15, 3.49 and 2.64% after 24, 48 and 72h, respectively. Larvicidal activity of crude berries extracts: The larvicidal activity of different concentrations of green and black berries extracts were shown in Fig. 3 and 4, respectively. After 24 h and concentration of 5%, black berries extracts showed 86.66 % mortality and green berries extracts showed 22.33% mortality of larvae. The LC50 value in green berries extract, 8.92, 7.47, 5.14 %, LC90 values 23.21, 26.96, 45.98% and LC50 value in black berries extract, 1.54, 1.14, 0.99%, LC90 values 11.64, 7.67, 5.61% after 24, 48 and 72h, respectively. Statistical analysis: The percentage mean mortality (%) was calculated by statistic calculator and probit analysis (calculating LC50 and LC90 values) calculated by StatsDirect3 software using logit model. Discussion The transmission of mosquito-borne diseases can be interrupted by the potential insecticides of herbal origin at the individual as well as at the communitylevel18. Recently the natural insecticides of plant origin have been given importance due to their eco-friendly nature and biodegradability as a substitute of synthetic. Insecticides for the control of vectors of public health importance19. Many approaches have been developed to control the mosquito menace. One such approach to prevent mosquito-borne disease is by killing mosquito at the larval stage. The current mosquito control approach is based on synthetic insecticides. Even though they are effective, they created many problems, such as insecticide resistance20, pollution, and toxic side effects on humans21. The present study evaluatebio-control efficacy of crude extract of Solanum nigrum (different part) against Aedes-aegypti. Highest mortality was recorded after 24h in5% concentration of crude leaves extract against 4th instar larvae. In the present study, at a very low concentration of 1%, extract of leaves and black berries of S. nigrum resulted in 61.66and 55.66 per cent mortality of 4thinstar larvae after 72 h of exposure which indicates its bio-control potentiality. Conclusion: In the present study, Solanum nigrum crude extract showed larvicidal activities against mosquito probably due to the presence of active compounds such as eugenol and (E)-6-hydroxy-4,6-dimethyl-3-heptene-2-one (Kelm and Nair, 1998) which either in single form or in combination with other responsible compounds for larval death. There is no any abnormal behaviour of non-target organisms when they exposed to LC50 value so it is safe to use in natural condition. The present investigation revealed that the leaves of Solanum nigrum have a potential source of useful drugs due to the presence of phytochemicals and can be utilized in the treatment of many diseases. However further studies required to isolate the active principle from the crude extract for proper drug development. Acknowledgements: Authors thanks Ankita Sethia, Swati Srivastava, Khushboo Arya, Dolly Chauhan, Mohit Kashyap and Anjali Katiyar for their critical inputs in this manuscript. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2506http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2506 Centers for disease control. (2007). Chikungunya fever fact sheet. Division for Vector-borne infectious disease: Centers for disease control.  Roland Mortimer, Rio de Janeiro. Aedes-aegypti and Dengue fever.Onview.net Ltd, Microscopy-UK. Retrieved 2010-08-27. "Travelers' Health Outbreak Notice". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. June 2002, 2010. Archived from the original on 26 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-27. Dennis O'Brien (March 9, 2010). "ARS Study Provides a Better Understanding of How Mosquitoes Find a Host". U.S. Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 8 October 2010.Retrieved 2010-08-27. Grantz, G.N. (1993) .What must we do to effectively control Aedes aegypti. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 35, 243-251. Pancharoen, C., Kulwichit, et al., 2002. Dengue infection: a global concern. J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 85, 25–33.  World Health Organization, 1975. Manual on Practical Entomology in Malaria Part I. Who division of malaria and other parasitic diseases, pp. 160. Piyarat, S.W.K., Freed, M., Roy, S., 1974. Biologically active plant extract for the control of mosquito larvae. Mosq. News 34, 398. Kalyanasundaram, M., Das, P.K., 1985. Larvicidal and synergistic activity of plant extracts for mosquito control. Indian J. Med. Res. 82, 19–23. Jayapal Subramaniam, Kalimuthu Kovendan, et.al.(2012). Mosquito larvicidal activity of Aloe vera (Family:Liliaceae) leaf extract and Bacillus sphaericus, against Chikungunya vector, Aedes aegypti. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, Ghosh A., Chowdhury N., Chandra G., 2012, Plant extracts as potential mosquito larvicide, Indian J. Med. Res, 135: 581-598. Kishore N., Mishra B.B., Tiwari V.K. and Tripathi V., 2011, A review on natural products with mosquitosidal potentials, In: Tiwari VK, editor, Opportunity, Challenge and Scope of Natural Products in Medicinal Chemistry, Kerala: Research Signpost, pp.335-65. Singha S., Adhikari U., Ghosh A., Chandra G., 2012, Mosquito larvicidal potentiality of Holoptelea integrifolia leaf extract against Japanese encephalitis vector, Culex vishuni group, Journal of Mosquito Research, 2(4): 25-31. Thomas, T. G., Sharma, S. K., Jalees, S. and Rahman, S. J., J. Basic Appl. Biomed., 1994, 2, 53–55.) Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L. and Chopra, I. C., Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, PID, New Delhi, 1956, p. 229. Jain, R, Sharma, A, Gupta, S, Sarethy, I.P., Gabrani, R., "Solanum nigrum: current perspectives on therapeutic properties." Altern Med Rev. 2011 Mar;16(1):78-85.  S.K. Jain and R.R Rao, A handbook of field and herbarium methods, (New Delhi: Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers-1976). Campbell F.L., Sullivan W.W. and Smith L.N., 1993, The relative toxicity of nicotine, nabasine, methylanaba sine and lupinine for Culicine mosquito larvae, J. Econo. Entomol., 26: 505-509. Mousumi Kundu ; Anjali Rawani ; Goutam Chandra 2013, Evaluation of Mosquito Larvicidal Activities of Seed Coat Extract of Cassia sophera L. Journal of Mosquito Research, Vol.3, No.11, 76-81. Liu H., Xu Q., Zhang L., Liu N., 2005 -Chlorpyrifos resistance in Mosquito Culex aegypti and Culex pipiens pallens.  - J.Med. Ent. 42: 815-820. Lixin S., Huiquin D., Chongxia G., et al., 2006 Larvicidal activity of extracts of Ginko biloba Exocarp for three different strains of Culex pipiens pallens. - J.Med. Ent. 43: 258-261.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411014EnglishN2018July18Life SciencesMathematical Model on two layer Blood Flow in capillaries with context to Diabetes English2229Tarunika SharmaEnglish Rashi KhubnaniEnglish Harish ChandraEnglishIn this paper the review of mathematical modeling of two phase blood flow in capillary is done with disease Diabetes .There are two phase of blood flow, one is RBC and other one is plasma. By the Fahreaus-Lindqvist influence the blood flow in two separated layers as transient from side to side capillaries, in which one layer is Newtonian and other is consider as Non-Newtonian layer. Further Non-Newtonian power law model is applied to bio fluid mechanical system. We have collected an observation data for patient having Diabetes. On the whole arrangement is in tensorial form and key method adapted is investigative as well as arithmetical. Later the graphical representation is also given for the data used here. EnglishBlood Pressure, Hematocrit, Renal circulation, Glomerular capillary, Diabetes, Per tubular capillary, Circulatory systemINTRODUCTION  Composition of Kidney: Kidneys are bean shaped organs.  Kidney has an outer fibrous renal capsule and supported by adipose tissue. There are two main parts, inner medulla and cortex. External cortex is reddish brown, where fluid is clean from blood. Inner medulla is paler and prepared by conical formed sections call renal pyramids. [1][2] The medial edge of the kidney is called the hilus and is the part where the renal blood vessels depart and come in the kidney [3][4][5][6]. The main purpose of kidneys is giving out the blood and takes away waste and surplus water through the urine.  Both kidneys are comprised of million filter systems named nephrons. Each nephron filters little quantity of blood. It has a filter that is glomerulus, and a tubule.  Glomerulus allow fluid and waste items bypass through it, although, it prevent blood cells and big molecules, typically proteins, from passing. The clean fluid then passes from tubule, which sends out essential minerals reverse to the blood stream and eliminates waste. [7][8]   Blood contribute to kidney:   In the stomach, the renal artery stem from  abdominal aorta lower to the bigger mesenteric artery and enlarge crossways in the direction of the kidneys. Just earlier to reach the kidney, all renal artery separates keen on five segmental artery, which supply blood to the  variety of regions of  kidney.  Every segmental artery goes into the hilus of the kidney furthermore divides into quite a few interlobar arteries; get in front of the renal columns linking the renal pyramids and take blood in the direction of the peripheral of the kidney. At the link in the midst of the cortex and medulla, the interlobar arteries figure out arcuate arteries, which spin to go behind the contours of renal pyramids. Arcuate arteries form a number of branches, identified the same interlobular arteries, divide at right angles and enlarge the entire mode in the course of the renal cortex on the way to the outside of the kidney.  In latent fully developed kidney get 1.2 to 1.3 l blood per minute. The Fick principle is appropriate to find renal blood flow [9] the renal blood flow is considered by dividing by one minus the hematocrit. [10]                                                                                                                                                               2                                                                                                                                                          Strain in renal vessel: Blood is a fluid tissue consists of approximately 55% of fluid plasma and 45% of cells. It consists of three major types of cells which are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Blood plasma is made of 92% water and 8% of ions, Proteins, metabolites. The standard thickness of whole blood for a human is on 1060 kg/M3.[11] The force in glomerular capillary has been calculated directly in the rate and has been set up to be significantly lower than the predicted on the source of not direct dimension . When the mean systolic arterial force is 100 mmhg, then glomerular capillary force is about 45 mm hg. The pressure drop crossways the glomerulas is only 1 to 3 mmhg , but supplementary jump down occurs in the efferent arteriole  such that pressure in the per tubular capillary as regards 8 mm hg. Pressure in renal vein is regarding 4 mm hg. [9]  Structures of renal capillary: Renal vascular model is extraordinary in this blood flows through two capillary beds, high pressure (glomerular) and low pressure (per tubular), associated in sequence. Blood enters the kidney by means of the renal artery and, following a chain of divisions, arrives at the glomerulus. Glomerular capillaries have to first go by afferent arteriole, where blood passes all the way through a second arteriole, the efferent arteriole. After that blood flows through the per tubular capillaries, which comprise the vasa recta that enlarge into the renal medulla, after this it accumulates in gradually larger venules and veins, and then goes out of the kidney through the renal vein. [6] [12][13]                                                            Material and Methods Disease (Diabetes): Diabetes is a disease in which the body does not correctly absorb food for make use of energy. The majority of the food we eat is converted into glucose, for our body to utilize for energy. The pancreas makes a hormone named insulin to assist glucose for entering the cells of body. Body having diabetes will some time doesn't make sufficient insulin or can't take up its own insulin as how it should. This effect sugars to put up in blood. So diabetes is also referred as sugar. [14][15]  Explanation of the problem: Capillaries are very thin as well as distant from the heart, so in this situation how the blood flow is possible in these vessels. This is done by Fahreaus-Lindqvist effect. As per this effect the blood flows in two alienated layers while transitory through capillaries. The plasma layer contains more or less no blood cells. The second layer is blood cells which hang in plasma on the alignment of the capillary. In this procedure the useful blood viscosity depends upon radius of the capillary. So the effective viscosity decreases, with the radius and thus the blood flow becomes probable.[6]  Model: Blood viscosity means thickness and tackiness of blood. Usually mature blood viscosity is 40/100, unit  mill poise.[16] Blood is a dynamic organ in so far since it act as a non-Newtonian fluid,  in the sense  its viscosity changes with role of shear rate. Consider shear rate like velocity, when blood travels fast as in peak-systole, it is physically thinner; when it travels slowly during end-diastole, it is thicker and stickier, because red cells cumulate. This method is called as the shear-thinning, non-Newtonian character of whole blood. [17][18][19][20]. Here in the current paper we choose comprehensive 3- dimension orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinate arrangement, which is arranged as E3 known as three-dimensional Euclidean space. Here are some quantities related to moving blood in cylindrical vessels: blood velocity  blood pressure  and density where xi is co-ordinates of any random point in space and i-1,2,3. Hematocrit: It is the relative amount of the quantity of red cells to the quantity of whole blood. Normal array for hematocrit is dissimilar among the sexes and is roughly 44% to 51% for men and 36% to 47% for women. The hematocrit (articulated as percentage) is usually as regards three times the hemoglobin (grams per deciliter). It is denoted by H.[6] [21][22][23][24] Equation of Continuity: As there is no source or sink in the whole circuit of the human blood circulatory system, the heart behaves simply like a pumping station that is why the law of conservation of mass is applied to hemodynamic [25]. In view of the fact that, entire blood flow circuit of the kidney is known as a Renal Circulatory System. Consequently renal circulatory system is a subordinate system of human circulatory system. Blood come into kidney by arteries and out by veins and in a kidney no starting place or is submerged. Mass of enter the blood = mass of outer the blood. Hence law of conservation of mass is applied for renal circulatory system. The blood flow exaggerated in presence of blood cells. This outcome is directly relative to volume engaged by blood cells. Let X is the volume portion enclosed by the blood cells in unit volume. And X can be taken as H/100. Therefore volume portion of plasma is (1-X). If mass ratio of blood cells to plasma is r, then we have  Everywhere and  are densities of blood cells and blood plasma. Actually above mass ratio is not steady; even then it may be hypothetical to be constant in current situation. [26]. The two phase of blood, i.e., blood cells and plasma go with an ordinary velocity. In this paper we have used the model given by Campbell and Pitcher. As per this model we consider the two phases of blood separately [27]. As per the principle of conservation of mass, the equations of continuity for the two phases are as follows [28]. Here v is common velocity of two phases and  as covariant derivative of  with respect to Xi. As a result  with respect to Xi If we denote uniform density  by:      Equations can be collective together as follows, As we know that blood is incompressible liquid hence will be a content measure. Hence the equation of continuity for blood flow takes the following form: Equation of Motion: As per this principle, total momentum of every fluid system is preserved in lack of outside force. So the law of conservation of momentum is appropriate to renal circulatory system. In addition, rate of change of momentum of a fluid particle with respect to time equals to external force exerted on it, which is also known as Newton’s second law of motion. Therefore, rate of change of momentum as same as sum of regarding two mentioned forces, which could be symbolically presented as follows.  rate of change of momentum, P=Internal pressures=viscous force The hydro dynamical pressure p among phases of blood could be hypothetical to be consistent since phases i.e. blood cells and plasma is for all time in the symmetry state in blood [29]. Consider viscosity coefficient of blood cells to be  , applying the principle of conservation of momentum, we conclude the eq. of motion for phase of blood cells: Take viscosity coefficient for plasma as . Equation of motion of plasma is: On adding up eq. (2) and (3), put in relation (1), equation of flow of blood with both phases is: Where  is viscosity coefficient for blood as a combination of two phases. Special constitutive equations for blood: Normally blood is non-homogeneous combination of plasma and blood cells. Although for practical reasons it can be considered to be homogeneous two-phase mixture of plasma and blood cells. The constitutive equations planned for whole blood mixture are as follows: (i) Newtonian equation: Where  is the viscosity coefficient This hold fine in the broad blood vessels where there is low hematocrit [30]. (ii) The non-Newtonian power law equation: This is conformable for strain rate between 5 and 200; 0.68≤n≤ 0.80 [10] The non -Newtonian Herschel-Bulkley equation [10]              It holds superior when blood shows yield stress  we notice that the yield stress arise because blood cells form aggregates in the form of rouleaux at low strain rate. If  , no blood flow takes place. It is found that yield stress is given by the following formula Where, is the hematocrit below which there is no yield stress.  Boundary Conditions: (i) The velocity of blood flow on the axis of capillaries at r=0 will be utmost and finite, say V0 = maximum velocity. (ii) The velocity of blood flow on the fence blood vessel at r=R, where, R is the radius of capillary, will be zero. This state is well known as no-slip condition.  Mathematical Modeling: Consider the two layer blood flow in that one is Newtonian while other is Non- Newtonian power law flow. The layer which is close with wall of the vessels can be taken as Newtonian; reason is layer contains plasma only. The second core layer can be considering as non-Newtonian power law, reason here the ratio of blood cells is too high in comparison to plasma. Equation of continuity for power law flow will be:                            Again the equation of the motion is extended as: Where  is taken from constitutive equation of power law flow         Because blood vessels are cylindrical, the above equations should transform in cylindrical co-ordinates system. Now we have to transform equation (4) and (5) in cylindrical form. Cylindrical Co-ordinates,  Matrix for metric tensor as cylindrical co-ordinates: Matrix of conjugate, metric tensor : Christoffel’s symbols of 2nd kind as: Relation among contra variant physical components of velocity of flow of blood is:   Also physical components of   The matrix of the physical components of shearing stress-tensor: Keeping in view the above fact, the governing tensorial equation can be distorted into cylindrical form : Equation of continuity – Equation of motion R-component Z-component Considering flow of blood as axially symmetric in arteries i.e. Vθ=0 and Vr Vz and p do not depend upon θ. Also the blood flow steadily, i.e. SOLUTION: Integrating equation (6) we get, vz=v(r) because v does not depend upon θ. (11) Integrating equation of motion (7) yields: P=p (z) since p does not depend upon θ (12) Now, with the help of equation (11) and (12) the equations of motion (9) convert: The pressure gradient (dp/dz) = p of blood flow in the arteries remote the heart which is supposed to be constant and hence the equation (13) converts: On integrating equation (14),   Because velocity of the blood flow on the axis of cylindrical arteries is maximum and constant. So apply the boundary condition at r=0, v=V0 (constant), equation (15) converts: On integrating equation (15), To determine the arbitrary constant B, apply the non-slip condition on the inner wall of the arteries at r=R, V=0, where R= radius of vessel, on equation (17), Hence the equation (17) converts: Which conclude the velocity of the blood flow in the artery remote from heart. Now the formula for velocity of blood flows can be obtained by replacing ηm with ηp in Newtonian model: Where the radius of core layer. The velocity of core layer is Where, the 2nd term is the relative velocity of plasma layer with respect to core layer.                                                        Statistical Methods Observation data: Bio-Physical Interpretation: The blood flow (Flow flux) in capillary is Average systolic Pressure = 125 mmhg Average Diastolic pressure = 81.25 mmhg   Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2507http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2507[1] Structure and Function of the Kidney Essay. Submitted by: ppaul11 on March 14, 2015 [2] Reddi AS.Structure and function of the kidney. In: Reddi AS.Essentials of Renal Physiology. New Jersey: College Book Publishers, 1999:21–43. [3]. Madsen KM, Tisher CC. Anatomy of kidney. In Brenner BM, ed. Brenner and Rector’s .The kidney, 7th ed. Vol. - 1Pheladelphia: Saunders, 2004,3-72 [4] Kriz W ,Elgar M Renal anatomy .In Johnson RJ, Feehally J, eds. Comprehensive clinical nephrology ,2nd ed. Edinburgh Mosby ; 2003;1-11 [5]Cotran , RS S ; Kumar , Cotran, RS S.; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Robbins, Stanley L.;Abbas, Abul K. (2005). Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders.ISBN 0-7216-0187-1 [6] Physiology and Anatomy.  Elixir Physio. and Anatomy 89 (2015) 36723-36729 [7] Essential of Clinical Nephrology ; 1st edition ; Published by ; Dar EI Shorouk, 8 Sebawieh Al masry,Nasr City , Cairo, Egypt ; post box : 33 [8] Nutrition and Health; Nutrition Kidney disease; edited by LD Byham –Grey, JD . Burrowes and GM Chertow © Humana Press; Totowa; NJ  [9] Review of Medical physiology; 23 edition, Kim Barrett, Headwen, Brooks Scott Boitano Susan Baman ; pp-644 [10] Kapur J.N., Mathematical Models in Biology and Medicine, EWP New Delhi, 354, 1992.  [11] Shmukler, Michael (2004) “Density of the blood “The physics Factbook . Retrieved October 4 2006 [12] A.C.Guyton; Medical Physiology; Chapter 26; Urine Formation by the kidneys; I. Glomerular Filtration, Renal Blood flow and their control; PP 283-285 [13] Shmukler, Michael; Density of Blood; The Physics Factbook ; Retrieved 4 October 2006 [14]. Shoback, edited by David G Garner, Dolores (2011) “chapter 17” Greenspan’s basic and clinical endocrinology (9th Edit.). Newyork : McGraw-Hill Medical . ISBN 0-07 -162243-8 [15] Walter F. Boron (2004). Medical physiology: A cellular and Molecular Approach. Elsevier / Saunders. ISBN1-4160-2328 [16]. Sloop GD. A Unifying Theory of Atherogenesis. Med Hypothesis. 1996;47:321-5 [17] Cokelet GR, Meiselman HJ. Blood  rheology. In : Baskurt OK, et al.Handbook of Hemorheology and Hemodynamics. IOS Press, 200; 45-71 [18]. ISSN: 2277-3754 ISO 9001:2008 Certified International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology (IJEIT) Volume 4, Issue 4, and November 2014 [19]. Sherman, I.W. and Sherman, V.G.; Biology- a human approach oxford univ. press New York, oxford; 276-277; 1989.  [20] Sapna Ratan Shah; Mathematical analysis of blood flow throw atherosclerotic arterial segment having non-symmetric and mild stenosis; International journal of research in pure and applied physics; 21 april, 2011.  [21] Purves, William K.; Sadava, David; Orians, Gordon H.; Heller, H. Craig (2004). Life: The Science of Biology (7th ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. p. 954. ISBN 0-7167-98565.  [22] Stuart J, Kenny MW: Blood rheology. J din Pathol 19803:417-429 [23] Chien S: Blood rheology in hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Med 1977; 2:356-360  [24] Berkow, Robert, ed. Merck Manual of Medical Information. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Research Laboratories, 1997  [25] Fogelson, A.L.; A mathematical model and numerical method for studying platelet adhesion and aggregation during blood clotting; J.comput. Physics; 56; 1984. [26] Singh P. and Upadhyay K.S. ; A New approach for the shock propagation in two phases system; Nat.Acad.Sci.Letters, Vol 8, No 2, 1985 [27] Compbell, I.J. and Pitcher, A.S.; Shock waves in a liquid containing gas bubbles, proc.Roy.Soc; A 243, 1958.  [28] Kapur,J.N; and Gupta, R.c ; Power-law fluid flow in the inlet length of a circular pipe; The math, seminar; 3, 55-67; 1963. [29] Ruch, T.C. and H.D., Patton, (Eds); Physiology and Biophysics-volsii and iii, W.B.S.; 1973  [30] Taylor, M.G.; Hemodynamics. Ann.Rev. Physiol; 35; 87, 1973

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-52411014EnglishN2018June11HealthcareAutobiography Article of "Editor in Chief" English00Sachin B. IngleEnglishAUTOBIOGRAPHY PROF. DR SACHIN B INGLE (THE EDITOR IN CHIEF IJCRR) Professor Dr. Sachin Bhalchandra Ingle is young eminent biomedical scientist of India. He born in remote earthquake region of India in a farmer's family in the village "Sarwadi" of Latur District of Marathwada region. Dr. Sachin B. Ingle (MD Pathology Gold Medalist) is a Professor of Pathology in the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences at the Maharashtra Institute of Medical Sciences and Research (MIMSR), Medical College, Latur, Maharashtra, India He pursued Post graduate work at Dr. V.M. Government Medical College, Solapur, Maharashtra, India and received his Master degree MD pathology with a gold medal in November 2006. Dr Ingle received a specialized histomorphology training from his teacher Dr Hemant G. Murdeshwar Then he started the first special histopathology laboratory in Latur District of Marathwada region named Shri. Siddheshwar Surgical Pathology laboratory and Research centre in Jan 2007 and Simultaneously started working as academician (Lecturer) in MIMSR Medical College, Latur, Maharshtra India. Then he started reporting novel interesting cases of his surgical pathology practice both at national and international levels. His Wife Mrs Chitra Sachin Ingle MD DA (Asst. Professor) Physiology, MIMSR Medical College, Latur also an eminent scholar with 25 Research Publications in reputed indexed medical Journals. Her articles also cited in international medical journals (PubMed) From there Dr Ingle never turned back worked hard consistently and promoted as Professor in Pathology in view of his innovative contribution in Surgical pathology both at national and international levels. He has on his name 106 research publications in indexed medical Journals, 4 Medical books and more than 50 recognitions. His articles received citations in reputed indexed international medical journals(PubMed) He was supported by 15 awards, has been an invited speaker at international meetings, and is a peer reviewer for more than 50 Medical journals, Editor in chief on 3 medical journals, EBM on more than 18 indexed national/international medical journals of PubMed, Scopus etc. As an independent investigator, he has received the Award of “ICON of Indian medical Association” and his biography was published in IBC Cambridge, London and on the website of reputed PubMed indexed international medical journals Autobiography Article of “Editor in Chief” Sachin B. Ingle Professor and Surgical Pathologist, Department of Pathology, MIMSR Medical College, Shri Siddheshwar Surgical Pathology and Research Centre, Latur 413512, Maharshtra India. i Corresponding Author: Dr. Sachin B. Ingle [MD Pathology], Professor and Surgical Pathologist, Department of Pathology, MIMSR Medical College, Shri Siddheshwar Surgical Pathology and Research Centre, Latur 413512, Maharshtra India; Editor in chief “International Journal of Current Research and Reviews”, India; Telephone: +91-2382-227424; Fax: +91-2382-228939; Email: dr.sachiningle@gmail.com ISSN: 2231-2196 (Print) ISSN: 0975-5241 (Online) International Journal of Current Research and Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.31782/IJCRR.2018.10146 Int J Cur Res Rev | Vol 10 • Issue 14 • July 2018 ii Ingle: Autobiography Article of “Editor in Chief” Over recent years, Prof. Dr sachin B Ingle became the famous Surgical pathologist of Marathwada region. He is presently famous amongst medical graduates and Post Graduates in view of his academic quality in medical education and research. He is training postgraduates of MD pathology especially in Surgical pathology. He is well known recognized Post Graduate teacher in India. He reported more than 50000 surgical pathology specimens and more than 20000 FNACs in his career. His basic aim is early cancer detection and prevention of morbidity and mortality related to disease and treatment for the sake of accurate pathological diagnosis in rural India. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT He also wishes to express his deep gratitude to several investigators worldwide for their collaborations. He is grateful to Chief Patron and Executive president of his institution Hon. Prof V.D. Karad and Patron Hon. Executive director Shri Ramesh Appa Karad for their constant and strong support throughout his academic journey both at national and international levels. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2508http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2508