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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEVALUATION OF SOME QUALITY CONTROL ASSESSMENTS OF FIVE BRANDS OF AMOXICILLIN
SODIUM CAPSULES
English0510P.O. OsadebeEnglish K.M. EzealisijiEnglish M.O. AgboEnglish I.C. EzeaniEnglishThe weight uniformity, disintegration time, active drug content and bactericidal assays of five brands (A-E) of amoxicillin sodium capsules in Nsukka, Nigeria were evaluated using official methods (BP, 2001). All the five brands passed the disintegration time test with disintegration time range of 240.0-360.0 sec; all the brands passed the weight uniformity test with percentage deviation value range of 1.51-4.27 %. However, only brand D passed the active drug content test with percentage absolute drug content of 103.33%. Brand B has percentage active drug content of 107.39 % which is above the BP and USP specifications. Brands A, C and E failed the active drug content with percentage active drug content of 80.00, 72.00 and 66.67 % respectively. All the brands exhibited comparable bactericidal activity (pEnglishINTRODUCTION
Humankind has been subject to infection by microorganisms since before the dawn of recorded history. Mankind has been searching for suitable therapy for nearly as long. This was a desperately difficult enterprise given the acute nature of most infections and the nearly total lack of understanding of their origins prevalent until last century. Infectious diseases caused by bacteria accounts for over 25% cases of ailment recorded in various hospitals. Therefore there is need for a search for broad spectrum antibiotic. Nigeria is a developing country and really solely on importation for most of the drugs used in the country. This has given room for influx of fake and adulterated products in our markets.
Amoxicillin is a semi-synthetic derivative of penicillins. It is indicated chemically as (2S, 5R, 6R) -6-[(2R)-2-amino-2-(4- hydroxyphenyl) acetyl)amino]-3,3- dimethyl-7-oxothia-1-azabicyclo [3.2.0] heptane-2-carboxylate (Fig. 1). The chemical formula is C16H18N3NaO5S molecular weight of 387.4 (Fig. 1). It is a white hygroscopic powder with an intense bitter taste. It is soluble in water, but sparingly soluble in ethanol and acetone. Amoxicillin is antibacterial agent with a para-phenolic hydroxyl group in the side chain phenyl moiety.amoxicilin is used in the treatment of penicillinase producing Staphylococcal and Meningococcal infection in man (Dax, 1997). The present study is aimed at determining some quantity control parameters and bacterial status of five bands of Amoxicillin sodium capsules (coded A – E) uses in Nigeria with a view to ascertaining their interchangeability.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The following drug materials were procured; pure amoxicillin sodium powder (Juhel Pharmaceutical, Enugu), five different brands of amoxicillin code as: A – E, were randomly purchase at Ogige Market, Nsukka in June 2008. The brands under study were chosen based on frequency of prescription, use and availability in hospitals and pharmacy stores in Nsukka. Other material includes Hydrochloric acid (BDH, England), Distilled water used was freshly prepared by Science Training Centre, University of Nigeria Nsukka. The equipment used are: Electric balance (Thomas Wiley, USA) and UV-visible Spectrophometer (Model UNICO 2100).
Absolute drug content Determination
One hundred milligram (100 mg) of pure amoxicillin sodium powder was accurately weighed and dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water. This is to obtain an equivalent active ingredient concentration of 100 ppm. Then 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 and 1.25 mg were prepared accordingly from the stock by dissolving in 100 ml of distilled water. Exactly 5ml of the 0.75ppm solution of the stock was scanned into the UV-visible spectrophotometer to establish the wavelength of maximum absorption ( ). Then 5ml of the different dilutions were collected separately and their absorbance recorded at the established and the average absorbance determined. From the results obtained, Beer Lambert‘s plot was generated. The content of active ingredient of each of the five commercial brands of Amoxicillin sodium was extrapolated from the Beer‘s plot.
Disintegration time test
The disintegration time of randomly chosen five capsules from each sampled brands was determined in 900 ml of 0.10N HCl maintained at 37 2oC using Erweka disintegration apparatus set at 50rpm. The time taken for the capsule‘s shell to dissolve into solution was taken as the disintegration time (The British Pharmacopoeia, 2001).
Weight uniformity test
Twenty capsules were randomly selected and weighed singly using an analytical balance. The capsules were opened singly without loss of shell-material and the content removed. The shell was weighed again and the difference in weights represents the weight of the content. Mean weight, standard deviation and percentage deviation of the five brands of Amoxicillin sodium was calculated. Permitted percentage deviation of 15% for capsule weight 500mg was taken as the acceptable limit (Ofoefule, 2002).
Bactericidal Assay
The bactericidal assay of the sampled brands of amoxicillin sodium capsules were performed using gram positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (at 7.8125mg/ml). Agar diffusion method was used for the one-point assay (Lanani et al., 1995). The bactericidal activity of the brand and the pure sample were measured as inhibition zone diameter (IZD).
RESULTS
The features of the five branch of amoxicillin sodium used in this study are shown in Table 1. All the quality control parameters and the antibiotic assay of the five brands were done before their expiry dates. The table shows that most of the amoxicillin sodium used in Nigeria are imported from India and are all registered by the National Agency for Food Drug Administration and Control. (NAFDAC). The regression equation for the BeerLambert plot of pure amoxicillin was found to be Y = 0.015x and the correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.9972. The Beer‘s plot was obeyed in concentration range of 025 – 1.25ppm (Fig. 2). The weight uniformity tests results is shown in Table 2. All the five sampled brands passed the USP and IBP specifications. Table 3 shows the disintegration-time test results for the five sample brands. All the brands were complaint with the BP and USP specifications. The extrapolation from the Beer‘s Lambert plot gave the absolute drug concentrations for the different brands as shown in Table 5.
Table 2: Weight Uniformity of the Sample Brands of Amoxicillin Sodium Capsules
DISCUSSION
The weight uniformity test of the brands showed that the five brands fell within the allowed percentage deviation of 15% for capsules (Table 2). The disintegration time test in Table 3, showed that all the five sampled brands have a disintegration time ranging from 240.00 – 600.00 seconds. This is considered as satisfactory as compared to the acceptable upper limit of 900 seconds for capsules. Out of the five brands of amoxicillin assayed, three brands namely: A, C, and D showed a very wide and unacceptable quantity of active contents against the label claims – A: 400.00mg versus label claim of 500mg; C; 360.00mg versus 500mg label claim; and D: 362.15mg versus 500mg lable claim (Table 5). The results of the content of absolute drug content revealed that only brand D falls with the USP and BP (2001) acceptable limit of 90 – 110% active amoxicillin sodium. Brand B showed percentage active drug content of 107.39% and as result is considered as an over dose. The mean activities of the five brands against Staphylococcus aureus at 7.8125mg/ml shown in Table 4 since both brands have same activity against the bacteria. Also, brands C and E with similar bactericidal activity can be used interchangeably in the treatment of infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus.
CONCLUSION
This present study has shown that all the brands sampled showed similar variations with respect to the quality control parameters determined. Only brand D has active drug content within the acceptable limit. This poses a serious concern to the Health care providers in this country. The excess weight of active ingredient of brand B could cause poisoning.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2095http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20951. Ofoefule, S. I. (2002). A textbook of Pharmaceutical Technology and Industrial Pharmacy. Samakin, Nigeria. Pp. 57 – 66.
2. The British Pharmacopoeia (2001) Vol. 1. The stationery office Ltd, London. pp. 123 – 127.
3. Dax SL (1997). Antibacterial Chemotherapeutic Agents. Blackie Academic and Professional, New York. pp 165 – 182.
4. Lancini G, Parenti F, Gallo GG (1995). Antibiotics, A multidisciplinary approach. Plenum Press, New York. pp 1105 – 1131.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesA REVIEW ON IONIC LIQUIDS
English1120Tryambake M.U.English Kuchekar B. S.English Chabukswar A.R.English Lokhande P. D.English Kadam V.J.English Tryambake M .BEnglishIonic liquids are the salts that are liquid at the low temperature and their molten forms composed of the ions. Their usefulness can be due to favorable physicochemical properties, like the lack of vapors pressure, good thermal and chemical stability as well as very good dissolution properties regarding both organic and inorganic compounds. The review begins with a discussion of the earliest successful study of ionic liquids (ILs) for their nomenclature, preparations; effect of properties on ionic liquids, uses and potential applications in organic and analytical chemistry continues to grow.
EnglishIonic Liquids (ILs), inorganic salt, electrochemical stability, asymmetric amide1. INTRODUCTION
Particularly the ionic liquids are used as the media in various reactions including cracking, dissolution, hydrogenation, dimerization, isomerization, oligomerisation,and other reactions. They are used in catalyst systems or reactions to show better activity, selectivity and stability. They provide better yield and in some cases faster kinetics. They particularly have properties like Hydrophobicity, Viscosity, Electrochemical stability, Thermal stability. They provide greener reaction media hence provide environmentally friendly product.1 Ionic liquids have been described as designer solvents, and this means that their properties can be adjusted to suit the requirements of a particular process. Properties such as density2 , melting point3 , viscosity4 , Refractive index5 and Surface tension6 can be varied by simple changes to the structure of the ions. Nowadays ILs are applied in several areas of chemistry, like Wittig reaction7 Friedel crafts reaction8,9 , Diels- alder reaction10, Heak reaction11 , Suzuki coupling12 and (bio) catalytic reactions13 . The growing interest in molten salts is also visible in analytical chemistry, especially in LC and CE14 .
2. HISTORY
Ethanolammonium nitrate
(m.p. 52- 55°C) was reported in 1888 by S. Gabriel and J. Weiner. One of the earliest truly room temperature ionic liquids was ethyl ammonium nitrate (C2H5) NH3 + ·NO3 − (m.p. 12°C), synthesized in 1914 by Paul Walden. In the 1970s and 1980s there was interest in ionic liquids based on alkyl-substituted imidazolium and pyridinium cations, with halide or trihalogenoaluminate anions, initially developed for use as electrolytes in battery applications. In 1992, Wilkes and Zawarotko obtained ionic liquids with 'neutral' weakly coordinating anions such as hexafluorophosphate (PF6 − ) and tetrafluoroborate (BF4 − ), allowing a much wider range of applications for ionic liquids.
3. NOMENCLATURE OF THE IONIC LIQUIDS
On the basis of the anion, ILs may be divided into four groups: (a) systems based on AlCl3 and organic salts such as 1-butyl- 3-methylimidazolium chloride,[bmim][Cl]; (b) systems based on anions like [PF6] - ,[BF4] - and [SbF6] - , (c) systems based on anions such as[CF3SO3] - , [(CF3SO2)2N]- , [Tf2N]- and similar, (d) systems based on anions such as alkylsulfates1 , and alkylsulfonates15 . First group (a) called first generation. Lewis acidity can be varied by the relative amount of the organic salt/AlCl3 molar excess of the AlCl3 are Lewis acidic , excess of organic salt are Lewis basic. These are extreme hygroscopic and handling is possible on dry atmosphere. Second group (b) is nearly neutral and air stable, and they have advantage of reacting exothermically with strong Lewis acids. Third are characterized by low melting point, low viscosity, and high conductivities. [Tf2N] act as coordinating solvent, Structural studies of [Tf2N] and weak Lewis acids attribute to delocalization of the negative charge with S-N-S core 16. Alternative is to find low coordinating and non fluorinated anions such as [(CB11H12) - , (CB11H6Cl6) - , CB11H6Br6 - )] 17. Fourth are characterized by wide electrochemical window and air stability.
Cations: Generally cations of N, N dialkyl imidazolium cations give salts having low melting points 1-butyl 3-methyl, 1-ethyl 3- methyl imidazolium are most investigated structures18 .
4. EFFECT OF PROPERTIES ON IONIC
LIQUIDS 4.1.
Density In general, ionic liquids are denser than water. The molar mass of the anion significantly affects the overall density of ILs. The [Ms2N] - species have lower densities than the [Tf2N] - salts, 3 in agreement with the fact that the molecular volume of the anion is similar but the mass of the fluorine is greater2 .
4.2. Melting point and crystal structure
The melting point of ILs represents the lower limit of the liquid gap and together with thermal stability defines the interval of temperatures within which it is possible to use the ILs as solvents By examining the properties of series of imidazolium based ionic liquids found that melting point decreases when size and asymmetry of cation increases. Increase in branching of the alkyl chain increases melting point3 .
4.3. Viscosity
A high viscosity may produce a reduction in the rate of many organic reactions and a reduction in the diffusion rate of the redox species. Examining various anion–cation combinations, the increase in viscosity observed on changing selectively the anion or cation has been primarily attributed to an increase in the van der Waals forces. The symmetry of the inorganic anion has sometimes been considered as an additional parameter; viscosity decreases in the order Cl- > [PF6] - > [BF4] - >[Tf2N]- . 4
Most ILs exhibit high thermal stability; the decomposition temperatures reported in the literature are generally >4000C, with minimal vapor pressure below their decomposition temperature the thermal decomposition decreases as the ion hydrophobicity increases. It has been suggested that the stability dependence on the anion is [PF6] - > [Tf2N]- > [BF4] - > halides4 .
4.5. Refractive index
This parameter is related to polarizability/ dipolarity of the medium and the excess molar refraction is used in the least-squares energy relationship of Abraham as a predictor of solute distribution. The values found for [bmim] [X] salts are comparable to those for organic solvent5 .
4.6. Surface tension
Surface tension is one of the important properties in multiphase processes. ILs are widely used in catalyzed reactions, carried out under multiphase homogeneous conditions, that are believed to occur at the interface between the IL and the overlying organic phase. In general liquid/air surface tension values for ILs are somewhat higher than those for conventional solvents [(3.3– 5.7) -10-4Ncm-1 ], Surface tension values vary with temperature and both the surface excess entropy and energy are affected by the alkyl chain length, decreasing with increasing length6 .
5. PREPARATION OF SOME IONIC LIQUIDS
5.1. Preparation of Supported Basic Ionic Liquid
A mixture of polystyrene resin and 1- methylimidazole in toluene was refluxed for 24 h. After cooling to room temperature, the reaction mixture was filtered, and the supported ionic liquid 1 (SIL 1) was washed with toluene, HCl, water and methanol, followed by drying under reduced pressure to give SIL1 19 .
5.2. Task-Specific Ionic Liquid, 1, 8- Diazabicyclo [5.4.0] - undec-7-en-8-ium Acetate
Basic task-specified ionic liquid, 1, 8- diazabicyclo [5.4.0]- undec-7-en-8-ium acetate ([DBU] [Ac]) through the neutralization reaction of equal molar amounts of DBU and acetic acid. To a three necked flask was added DBU. Acetic acid was then added drop wise at the temperature of 65 ºC cooled by ice bath. After drop wise addition, the ice bath was removed and the reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 h. The oil residue was dried in vacuum at 60ºC for 24 h to afford [DBU] [Ac] as a light yellow, viscous liquid20 .
5.3. Synthesis of ammonium cationbased ionic liquids
The aliphatic quaternary ammonium (AQA) cation is a useful cationic component of room temperature ionic liquids, since the salts containing AQA cations and appropriate oxidation resistant anions such as ClO4, BF4 or PF6 are electrochemically stable and may be used as a supporting electrolyte. The asymmetric amide anion (CF3SO2-N-COCF3) K has an excellent ability to lower both the melting points and viscosities of room temperature ionic liquids, combining with the small aliphatic cations21 .
5.4. Synthesis of the functionalized imidazolium ionic liquids
Most of the ionic liquids are based on the 1, 3 dialkyl imidazolium, or 1-alkyl pyridinium ions and also different anions are involved, scientist Davis and Rogers have reported the synthesis of imidazolium salts with urea, thiourea, and thioether groups in one of the N-alkyl substituents22 . Quaternisation of 1-alkyl-1, 2, 4-triazoles at N-4 using polyfluoroalkyl halides under neat reaction conditions at 100–1200C gave the 1-alkyl-4-polyfluoroalkyl-1, 2, 4- triazolium halides [taz] [X]. Metathesis of these polyfluoroalkylated triazolium halides with fluorine-containing anions led to the formation of new 1, 4-alkyl (polyfluoroalkyl)-1, 2, 4-triazolium ionic liquids [R (Rf) taz] [Y].
5.5. Synthesis of the chiral ionic liquids
The first reported chiral ionic liquid was 1- butyl-3- methylimidazolium ([BMIM]) lactate III by Seddon et al. in 1999. Chiral ionic liquids are quite attractive for their potential application to chiral discrimination including asymmetric synthesis, optical resolution of racemates chiral pool synthesis23 . Gaumont and co-workers described the synthesis of a new class of chiral ILs (XI, XII) based on thiazolinium salts24. The methodology is outlined in various chiral thiazolinium ILs were obtained by alkylation of chiral thiazoline followed by metathesis of the anion.
Melting points of these new thiazolinium ILs fell in a range from 1370C to temperatures below 00C. The differences in melting points were due to the different length of the Nalkyl chains and the nature of the counter anions. Unlike the chiral oxazolinium-based ILs, the thiazolinium ILs had good stability under basic and even acidic conditions.
6. APPLICATION OF IONIC LIQUIDS IN NAME REACTIONS
6.1. Aldol condensation reaction
The self condensation reaction of propanol to form 2-methylpent2-enal has been carried out in non coordinating imidazolium ionic liquids. The most selectivity was found for [bmim] [PF6].The reaction of ionic liquid [bmim] [PF6] with proline of different aromatic aldehydes with acetone achieved good results for aldolisation products even for less concentration of the proline used as a catalyst25 .
6.2. Wittig reaction
Wittig reaction is the mainly used in organic synthesis. It is having wider application as synthesis of the alkanes. The ionic solvent [bmim] [BF4] has been used as a medium to carry out Wittig reactions using stabilized ylides allowing easier separation of the alkenes from Ph3PO and also recycling of the solvent. Further the Esteroselectivity was observed in the ionic liquid solvents, similar to that observed in organic solvents7 .
6.3. Friedel crafts reaction
This is one of the reactions used in organic synthesis which involve acylation. It was found that Friedel crafts reaction were carried out by wilkies in an [emim] [Cl]– AlCl3 system27. This was followed by the work of Seddon and Adams, who carried out the acetylation reactions of carbocyclic aromatic compounds with acetyl chloride in acidic compositions of [emim] [Cl]– AlCl3 8 . These reactions worked efficiently giving the stereo electronically favored products. Another interesting development is the use of [BMIM] [chloroaluminate] as Lewis acid catalyst for the Friedel Crafts sulfonylation of benzene and substituted benzenes with TsCl9 .
6.4. Diels- alder reaction
It has found that Ionic liquids such as [bmim] [BF4], [bmim] [ClO4], [emim] [CF3SO3], [emim] [NO3] and [emim] [PF6] were demonstrated as effective solvents for Diels–Alder reactions. The reaction between cyclopentadiene and methyl acrylate showed significant rate enhancements, high yields and strong endo selectivity‘s comparable with the best results obtained in conventional solvents10 .
6.5. Heak reaction
The first example of a Heck reaction in ionic liquids was reported for the synthesis of trans-cinnamate by the reaction of bromo benzene with butyl acrylate catalyzed by palladium salts in molten tetra alkyl ammonium and tetra alkyl phosphonium bromide salts.11 The Heck coupling of aryl halides with allylic alcohols catalyzed by PdCl2 in molten tetra alkyl ammonium bromide gave the corresponding B-acrylate carbonyl compounds28
6.6. Suzuki coupling
The Suzuki coupling reaction using pd catalyst with ionic liquids found to be excellent yield and turnover numbers at room temperature 12 . As compared to conventional Suzuki coupling reaction with ionic liquids proceed with high reaction rate. The reaction of bromo benzene with phenyl boronic acid under conventional Suzuki conditions gave 88% yield in 6h(TON, 5h-), and with [bmim][BF4] gave 93% yield in 10min.(TON, 455h-). The use of ultrasound in palladium with [bmim] [BF4] allowed the Suzuki coupling of various aryl halides with phenyl boronic acid to be conducted at room temperatures.
7. APPLICATION OF THE IONIC LIQUIDS IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
7.1. In MALDI mass spectroscopy
Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation (MALDI) mass spectroscopy is one of the soft ionisation methods for analyzing polar, non-volatile and thermally labile bimolecular and synthetic polymers with high molecular weights29, 30. Room temperature ionic liquids with a high solubilising power, negligible vapour pressure, a broad liquid range and the ability to absorb laser light have been designed to use as MALDI matrices. They have found wide applications in peptide and protein quantification, as well as in the analysis of phospholipids. Ionic liquid matrices in MALDI are found to improve the resolving power, reproducibility, and ability to quantify.
7.2. In gas chromatography
In 2007, Han & Armstrong reviewed the role of ILs in separation techniques including GC. Creating GC stationary phases with high thermal stability is very important if IL stationary phases are to compete with commercial GC stationary phases. The GC stationary phages with good thermal stability were prepared by dicationic ionic liquids31. Dicationic ILs with vinyl groups were cross-linked after being coated on a silica capillary to yield GC stationary phases with very high temperature stability and extremely low column bleed32. Also highlighted in the review is the development of chiral GC stationary phases using ILs. A chiral stationary phase based on N, N dimethylphenyl ephedrine, where the IL itself is the chiral selector, resulted in enantiomeric separations for sulfoxides, alcohols, and epoxides33 .
7.3. In liquid-liquid extraction
Recently, several hydrophilic ILs were tested for their ability to extract ethanol from a mixture of ethyl acetate and ethanol34. 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, which is used for the extraction and it, can be recycled easily. Recent studies have focused upon penicillin G35 , double-stranded DNA36. The IL trioctylmethylammonium chlorides (TOMAC) more successfully extracted penicillin G than did imidazolium-based ILs, but it was difficult to remove the penicillin from the IL. Thus the ionic liquid has found to be better application in case of the liquid liquid extraction.
7.4. Biocatalysis in ionic liquids
Ionic liquids mainly used in case of the biocatalysis.The use of enzymes in organic solvents rather than in aqueous media greatly enhance their technological applications. Biocatalysis in organic solvents having some disadvantages of reduced activity, selectivity or stability of enzyme as compared to aqueous media. Ionic liquids are used in three different methods in the enzyme systems, namely a) as a co-solvent in aqueous phase, b) as a pure solvent and c) as a two-phase system together with other solvents the use of organic solvents solved the problems. Their use in lipase-catalyzed reactions has increased the solubility of the substrate by 3-fold, and in the N-acetyl-lactosamine synthesis using b-galactosidase, the yield has been doubled by minimizing the side reactions37 . Erbeldinger et al. reported the synthesis of Z-aspartame, catalyzed by thermolysin in [bmim] [PF6], the reaction being carried out in [bmim] [PF6] containing water (5% v/v). The rate of the reaction is comparable to the conventional method38 .
7.5. Other Applications
Ionic Liquid-Derived Blood-Compatible Composite Membranes are used for Kidney Dialysis. In this method Saravanababu Murugesan et. al used room temperature ionic liquids39. In this method a novel heparin- and cellulose-based biocomposite is fabricated by exploiting the enhanced dissolution of polysaccharides in room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs). This represents the first reported example of using a new class of solvents, RTILs, to fabricate blood-compatible biomaterials. The other applications such as Electrochemistry40, Radical polymerization16 , Ionic Polymerization41 and Microwave-Assisted synthesis42 . Hamid Reza Kalhor Et.al in 2009 reported that ionic liquids are also used in inhibition of the amyloid formation43 .
8. TOXICITY OF THE IONIC LIQUIDS
The little data is available on the toxicity of the ionic liquids. Experimental studies have been helpful in establishing general guidelines for the selection of ILs with low potential for toxicity. Many ILs are similar to cationic surfactants, which are known to induce polar narcosis due to their ability to be incorporated into biological membranes many of the imidazolium and pyridinium compounds were more toxic than common high-volume solvents such as acetonitrile, acetone and methanol. Some exceptions include low alkyl chain length quaternary ammonium ILs and those ILs containing choline as the cation, which were relatively nontoxic. Antimicrobial activity increased as the alkyl chain length increased on pyridinium, imidazolium, and quaternary ammonium salts44 . Toxicity was predicted to increase slightly with the number of nitrogen atoms having two aromatic bonds and one single bond. Thus ammonium cations are less toxic than pyridinium cations, which are slightly less toxic than imidazolium cation. The IL toxicity should decrease as the number of negatively charges atoms on the cation increases. Also it was predicted that anions play role in toxicity of the ionic liquids the results indicate that the presence of positively charged atoms in the anion leads to higher toxicity than those systems with a single negative anion atom.
CONCLUSIONS
Rapid growth of interest in application of ILs in medicinal chemistry and analytical chemistry is reasonable in view of their unique properties. Ionic liquids provide chemists with the opportunity of studying reactions in a fascinating new environment. While the fundamental properties of ionic liquids are being unraveled chemists are developing new methods to handle and study them. The use of ILs as ?green chemistry? modifiers is recommended instead of the conventional environmentally harmful agents, which are currently widely employed in analytical practice.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareSTUDY OF DIABETES MELLITUS, COMORBIDITY DEPRESSION AND QUALITY OF LIFE
English2132Sivaji.MEnglish Indumathi.SEnglishAim: To examine the intriguing relationship between quality of life and depression in diabetes mellitus
Objectives: a) To estimate the prevalence of clinical depression in patients with type II diabetes mellitus, b) predictive factors associated with depression in patients with type II diabetes mellitus,c) quality of life of the depressed diabetic compared with the non-depressed diabetic.
Materials and Methods: The study population consists of patients attending the Medical OPD Kilpauk Medical College and Psychiatric OPD Madras Medical College, Chennai. A total of 185 patients were screened for the study of which 100 patients were included in this study. The control group consists of relatives and care givers accompanying the patients. A total of 105 were screened of which 50 were included in this study as control .Assessment Instruments such as socio demographic profile sheet, disease measures, Backs depression inventory, Ferrans and Power diabetic quality of life index III – 1985 were used. Results: Depressive episode as per the criteria diagnosis was present in 18% of patients with diabetes. Elevation in depressive symptoms on the
BDI scales were significantly more common and were present in 36% of patients with diabetes (p EnglishDepression, Diabetes Mellitus, Beck‘s Depression Inventory, Psychological factors, Ferrans and power diabetic quality of life.INTROCDUTION
Diabetes is a chronic condition that has reached epidemic proportions and depression is quite prevalent in patients with diabetes due to psychological distress, restricted physical activity and inability to fulfill role obligations. The reported prevalence of depression among patients with diabetes varies considerably due to differences in study design and study population. In patients with type I diabetes the prevalence of depression is probably about 30% to 40%( 1) and the prevalence of depression on cross sectional analysis appears to be about 20% (2).The patients with diabetes having an episode of major depression at some point in their lifetime appears to be about 33.1% (3). Among 3,481 patients studied of which 1897 patients revealed with major depressive disorder had more risk of developing type II diabetes (4). Younger people tend to have higher prevalence rate than do older people. Women had higher rate of depression especially those who were unmarried and with lower education. The patients who had diabetes with depression had significantly higher levels of HbA1c than who were not depressed (5). There is an established association between depression and poor glycemic control. The prevalence of depression was 28% in women compared with 18% in men(6) .There is a stronger relationship between depression and glycemic control in women compared with men and suggested that the reasons for this may be a more profound effect on women's self care behaviour (6). Depression may have an adverse effect on the HPA axis and on compliance with diabetes treatment (5). There is some speculation that serotonin dysfunction may be a factor in both depression and lack of glycemic control( 4). The younger age, female sex, previous psychiatric illness and demographic variables such as social insecurity are some of the important associations for depression to occur in any physical disease (7). The hypotheses includes: 1) depression is found in increased frequency in patients with type II diabetes, 2)the socio demographic factors disease indicators and occurrence of depression in type II diabetics are significantly correlated, 3) the quality of life in depressed diabetic individuals is poorer than non - depressed diabetic group.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study population consists of patients attending the Medical OPD Kilpauk Medical College and Psychiatric OPD Madras Medical College, Chennai. A total of 185 patients were screened for the study of which 100 patients were included in this study. The control group consists of relatives and care givers accompanying the patients. A total of 105 were screened of which 50 were included in this study as control. The inclusion criteria are those patients diagnosed with type II diabetes by the ADA criteria, aged above 18 years came with medical records, patients on regular follow up for the past 6 months and informed consent. The exclusion criteria are those patients with type 1 diabetes diagnosed by the ADA criteria, presence of other chronic medical conditions like hypertension, asthma, tuberculosis, cancer, past (or) present H/o psychiatric illness - even not fulfilling the diagnostic criteria, family H/o psychiatric illness, history of substance abuse, patients with a history of diabetic ketoacidosis in the recent 6 months and any history of hospital admission in recent 3 months.
Design of Study
Subjects were taken from the out patients department. Subjects who fulfilled the inclusion criteria were included in the study group. Informed consent was obtained from the patients. A detailed history which included present and past medical, psychiatric illness, drug abuse details was taken. Thorough MSE was done to assess the presence of any psychiatric illness. A detailed physical examination was done to exclude any physical illness. Patients medical records were reviewed to got a detailed knowledge of the present or past medical illness, drugs taken, and whether the patients is on any medication other than that for diabetics. Details of referrals to other specialty department like neurology, ophthalmology, nephrology for diabetic complications was noted. A complete record of the previous 6 months blood sugar level was obtained from the records available with the patients. Each day 2 or 3 patients were interviewed and questionnaires were administered.
Assessment Instruments are socio demographic profile sheet, disease measures, Becks depression inventory, Ferrans and Power diabetic quality of life index III - 1985.
Assessment Procedure: All subjects were informed that they have to spend a minimum of 1 hr for the study. They were also informed that it would not affect their diabetic treatment and further no medications will be prescribed to them. A detailed demographic variables regarding the patients, such as age, sex, marital status, occupation, income etc. were noted. Patient‘s records were also used to obtain more accurate data. The patient‘s diabetic status was assessed using the records available with patient. A detailed family history of diabetes, family systems and family harmony were obtained. Family harmony was graded on a 3 point scale as well adjusted, occasional quarrels and frequent quarrels.
Beck’s depression inventory: The BDI - III (5) includes 21 items with total scores ranges from 0-84. Scores of 0-9 are considered minimal 10 - 16 mild, 17 - 29 moderate and 30-63 severe. This was used in measuring the depth of depression.x
Diabetic quality of life index - Ferrans and Powers
The instrument consists of 2 parts. The first measures satisfaction with various aspects of life and the second measures importance of those same aspects. Scores are calculated for quality of life overall and in 4 domains, health and functioning, psychological spiritual, socio economic and family. The instrument takes approximately 10 min for self administration.
Reliability and validity
Reliability
Internal consistency reliability for the QLI (total scale) was supported by Cronbachs alpha ranging from : 0.82 to 0.98 across 26 studies. Temporal reliability: For the total scale support for temporal reliability was provided by test retest correlations of 0.87 with a two week interval and 0.81 with one month interval (8)
Validity : Content validity : Support for content validity was also provided by an acceptably high rating using the content validity index (F and P). Construct validity of the QLI was supported by strong correlation between the overall QLI score and measure of life satisfaction. Further evidence for construct validity was provided by factor analysis.
Statistical analysis
Chi square test is used to compare sociodemographic pattern of patient and controls. Prevalence was calculated as an aggregate mean weighed by the combined number of subjects included in the study. Chi square test was used to compare by BDI score of patients and controls. Multiple regression analysis is used to find the predictive factors correlated with depression.
RESULTS
The statistical data obtained was analyzed to answer three questions.1)The prevalence of depression in the diabetic population, the odds of depression in the diabetic group compared with the non - diabetic control group - odds ratio. 2)The independent contribution of each the three potential group of stressors Demographics :(Age, Sex, Marital Status, Occupation, Education, income),Disease Status:(Duration of illness, type of treatment, glycaemic control, presence of complications),Family Stress :(Family history of diabetic, family system, family harmony).Multiple regression equation assessed the independent contribution of each predictor on depression.3)Health related quality of life in depressed diabetic compared with the non - depressed diabetic group.
Analysis of data
Depression was assessed using the ICD - 10 criteria for depression episode and DSM IVR and quantified using the Becks depression inventory (9). Depression prevalence was equal to the percentage of subjects with scale scores above a specified threshold value. The threshold score used to identify depression cases varied across studies (10, 11,12) in which a BDI score ? 10 was used .Since a majority of studies used a cut of score of ? 10,in this study this score was used to assess the presence of depression. Depressive episode according to ICD-10 was present in 18% of patients with diabetes. However elevation in depressive symptoms on the BDI scales were significantly more common and were present in 36% of patients with diabetes (p 5 years. Patients were classified into 3 group as receiving only diet, only drugs and diet, drugs, diet and insulin. Glycemic control was assessed using the patient records of the blood sugar levels over the past 1 year. Fasting blood sugar level below 105 mgs % was taken as a criteria of good control (American Diabetes Association, 1984).Post prandial blood sugar levels above 250 mgs % and mean fasting blood sugar level above 102 mg % was taken to indicate poor control. The glycosylated hemoglobin level indicates the control of blood sugar over the past 3 months. The normal level range varies between 5 - 8% while a level below 12.5 is indicates of fair control and a level above 12.5% is indicates good control. However since the glycosylated hemoglobin levels were not available to all patients in the study the longitudinal diabetics control as included in the study. Patient‘s record was also used to assess the presence or absence of complications. The family level stressors were assessed as having a family member with diabetes, family system and family harmony .The other factors were assessed individually to find out the contribution of each of the variable separately to depression.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE:
The study shows that there are significant indicators in the demographics of patient which predict a high likelihood of depression. Of these variables are of patient (p value 0.000) marital status (p value 0.009) and occupation (p 0.000) were found to be highly significant predictors of depression in diabetics. The educational status (p value 0.03), income (p 0.02) were significant predictors and contrary to the expectation of sex and domicile were found to be not significant. There were no significant difference in the rates of likely depression between males and females. The level of depression is high in younger subjects (15).However numerous other studies in the literature find that females are at high risk for being depressed even in otherwise healthy adults (1,2,16).The reason for this difference is not known, however it may be presumed that female more readily seek help than their male counter- part which lead to better recognition and treatment of depression. Considering marital status being single, widowed or divorced had a high likelihood of been depressed (17,16). Domicile had not any significant contribution to the likelihood of depression. Being a skilled worker, with high educational status has been higher possibility of being depressed, whereas unskilled, illiterate seem to be less affected by depression (14).Although high income seem to other less chance of being depressed it is not highly significant compared to marital status and age. These finding suggest that among the demographic factors, age, marital status and occupation were the significant predictors of depression in the diabetic group. Although female sex was a significant factor in other studies, this has not been the case in the current study. Significant predictors of depression were not found in any of the disease indicators in this study (2,18).A meta analysis review of literature revealed association of depression with diabetes complication (13).However the findings of other studies have not replicated consistently. Among the family level of stress family history diabetes and family harmony were found to be significant predictors of depression. These findings were similar to the one reported by (17). However the type of family, joint or nuclear was expected to be a significant predictor of depression. Because living in a closely knit family offers to share responsibilities and provides psychological help. It is not so in the study.
On comparison the quality of life in depressed diabetic with those of nondepressed diabetics the p-value obtained was Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2097http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20971. Anderson. R.J, Freedland K.E, Clouse R.E, Lustman P.J 2001: The prevalence of co morbid depression in adults with diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 24: 1069-178.
2. Lustman. P.J, Gavard .J.A; Closue .R.E 1993: Prevalence of depression in adults with diabetes: An epidemiological evaluation: Diabetes Care 16:1167-1178.
3. Lustman.P.J, Freedland.K.E, Griffith.L.S, Clouse.R.E, 2000: Fluoxetine for depression in diabetes: A randomized double-blind placebocontrolled trial. Diabetes Care 23: 618- 623.
4. Paul Goodnick: Treatment of depression in co morbid medical illness: 2000; Exp.Opin.Pharmcotherapy:1.1367-84.
5. Jacobson.L, Sapolsky.R;1991:The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenocortical axis. Endocr. Rev. 12: 118-134
6. Lustman.P.J, Anderson.R.J, Freeland.K.E et.al; (2000);Depression and poor glycemic control; A metaanalytic review of literature. Diabetis Care 23:434-442
7. Mayou. R,Hawton .K 1986; Psychiatric disorder in the general hospital. British Journal of Psychiatry: 149;172-190.
8. Ferrans.C and Powers. M (1985). The quality of life index. Development and psychometric properties. Advances in Nursing science: 8;15-24.
9. Beck.A.T,Beamesderfer.A;1974:Assess ment of depression: The depression inventory. Mod Probl. Pharmaco - psychiatry 7:151-169
10. Songar.A, Kocabasoglu.N, Balcioglu.I, Karaca E, Kocabasoglu.C, Haciosman.M,Somay.G;1993 : The relationship between diabetics metabolic control levels and psychiatric symptomatology. Integr. Psychiatry ; 9:34-40.
11. Stone. J.E, Bluhm .H.P, White .M.I ;1984: Correlates of depression among long-term insulin-dependent diabetics. Rehabilitation. Psychology 29: 85-93.
12. Leedom .L, Meehan.W.P, Procci .W, Zeidler.A ;1991: Symptoms of depression in patients with type II diabetes mellitus. Psychosomatics 32: 280-286
13. De Groot.M, Lustman.P.J;2001: Depression among African-Americans with diabetes: A dearth of studies. Diabetes Care 24:407-408.
14. Hanninen .J.A, Takala.J.K, KeinanenKiukaanniemi.S.M; 1999: Depression in subjects with type II diabetes: Predictive factors and relation to quality of life. Diabetes Care 22:997-998.
15. Abass Yavani, Naimeh Mashinchi ;2010: Diabetes and Depression; Journal of stress physiology and Biochemistry; Vol;6 No; 3
16. Leonard E.Egede, Deyi Zheng et.al; 2002;Co morbid depression is associated with increased health care use and expenditures in individuals with diabetic care: Vol. 25; No.8;464-470.
17. Fisher.L, Chesla.C.A, Mullan.J.T, Skaff.M.M, Kanter.R.A 2001: Contributors to depression in Latino and European-American patients with type II diabetes. Diabetes Care 24:1751-1757.
18. Manjin.D.Pawsken, Roger.T, Anderson 2007;Self-reported predictors of depressive symptomatology in an elderly population with type II diabetis milletus;Prospective cohort study; Health and Quality of life outcomes 5:50;1477-75.
19. Alkens.J.E, Perkins.D.W, Piette.J;D2008:Association between depression and concurrent type II diabetis, Outcomes varies by diabetis regimen; Journal of British Diabetic Association: 25 (11):1324-9.
20. Eaton .W.W, Armerian. H.A, Gallo .J, Pratt. L, Ford D.E 1996: Depression and risk for onset of type I diabetes: a prospective population-based study. Diabetes Care 19:1097-1102
21. Kawakami.N,Takatsuka.N,Shimizu .H, Ishibashi .H 1999: Depressive symptoms and occurrence of type II diabetes among Japanese men. Diabetes Care 22:1071-1076.
22. Lloyd .C, Wilson. R, Forrest. K; 1997: Prior depressive symptoms and the onset of coronary heart disease (Abstract). Diabetes 46: 3A.
23. Peyrot M. Rubin.R.R1999: Presistence of depressive symptoms in diabetic adults. Diabetis Care: 22: 448-452.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesDETERMINING THE CONCENTRATION PARAMETERS OF QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER; A CASE STUDY IN BIRJAND, IRAN
English3336Borhan MansouriEnglish Esmail RavangardEnglish Zahra RezaaeiEnglish Ali MansouriEnglishMany of people around the world enjoy the benefits of technological and economic developments and high standards of living, however, many scientists are aware that these developments cost a lot. Developments of human societies and industry result in bioenvironmental problems; pollution put the water, air and soil resources at risk. The objective of this study is to determine the quality of water in Birjand, a city located in the east of Iran. In this context, it was determined the factors of pH, total hardness, alkalinity, calcium, manganese, potassium, sulphate, ammonium, nitrite, cyanide, chlorine at seven stations. The Results showed that the concentration of pH, total hardness and ammonium were at 7.76, 348.09 and 0.06 mg/L, respectively. The mean concentration of nitrite, magnesium and chlorine were 0.006, 56.38 and 4.95 mg/L, respectively. Also, the mean concentration of cyanide was determined as 1 mg/L. Results also indicated that there were correlations among the measured parameters. Comparing the results with drinking water standards showed that the drinking water in Birjand, based on these parameters, is desirable. However, it belongs to the very hard water. Moreover, the analysis of data displayed a significant difference among the measured parameters in different stations
EnglishChemical Parameters, Water Quality, Urban Water, Iran1. INTRODUCTION
Today the competition for scarce water resources is intense both in Iran and in many places all over the world. Many river basins do not have enough water to meet all the demands or even enough for their rivers to reach the terminal lake or sea [1]. This pressure is very severe in the arid zone of Northwest part of China, where the high demand is combined with limited resources [2]. Water pollution is a relatively new problem and increases the stress arising as a result of unprecedented population growth, urbanization, and industrialization since the 1990s [3]. The main sources of water pollution are discharge of domestic sewage and industrial effluents, which contain organic pollutants, chemicals and heavy metals, and runoff from land-based activities [4]. An important dimension of water sources that has not received due attention is its quality. Though contributed to economic developments, rapid industrialization in developing countries resulted in heavy losses to economic welfare in terms of effects on agricultural activities, human health and ecosystem at large through air and water pollution [5]. It is important to understand that chemical constituents in environmental water bodies react in an environment far more complicated than if they simply were surrounded by a large number of water molecules. The various impurities in water interact in such ways that can affect their chemical behavior markedly. The water quality parameters defined above as controlling variables have an especially strong effect on water chemistry [6]. Considering the effects of human activities on water quality and bioenvironmental rules and those problems caused by water pollutants, it is of high necessity to notice the water sources quality. This paper aims to investigate the physical and chemical properties of water in Birjand in order to discover the water quality in this city.
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
2.1 Site Description
The studied wastewater stabilization pond is located in East of Iran, Birjand, and the capital city of Southern Khorasan province. It is situated at latitude of 32? 86' N and longitude of 59? 21' E and about 1490 m above sea level. The climate of the city is semi- arid with cold winter and approximately 8 months dry season (from middle of April to December). Its average rainfall is 171 mm and unevenly distributed throughout the year. The average annual temperature is 16.5 ºC with the warmest month in July (average 28.5 ºC) and the coldest in January (average 3.5 ºC). The sunlight of the year is 255 days.
2.2 Methods
Some physical and chemical properties of Birjand water were measured from July to September 2010. These characteristics included pH measured by a Multi Parameter Analyzer (Consort, Model: C534Tand Istek, Model: pdc815), and also total hardness and some anions and cations measured by a Photometer (Palintest, Model: 8000). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate differences between the drink water quality parameters in stations of the city centre of Birjand, by Turkey‘s Honest. Pearson‘s correlation coefficients (r) were used when calculating correlations among these parameters. Data analyses were carried out using SPSS (Release 18).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Measurement of pH is one of the most important and frequently used tests in water chemistry. pH is an important factor in determining the chemical and biological properties of water. pH, also influences the degree of ionization, volatility, and toxicity to aquatic life of certain dissolved substances, such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen cyanide. As the water quality should be in the range of 5 to 9, the study results showed that the pH mean was 7.76 which is in the desirable range. Hardness is sometimes useful as an indicator proportionate to the total dissolved solids present, since Ca2+, Mg2+, and HCO3 – often represent the largest part of the total dissolved solids. No human health effects due to hardness have been proven; however, an inverse relation with cardiovascular disease has been reported. Higher levels of drinking water hardness correlate with lower incidence of cardiovascular disease [6]. High levels of water hardness may limit the growth of fish; on the other hand, low hardness (soft water) may increase fish sensitivity to toxic metals [7, 8]. The investigations in Birjand water showed that the hardness mean (CaCO3) is 348.09 mg/l, so it may be included in very hard waters.
Ammonia and other nitrogenous materials in natural waters tend to be oxidized by aerobic bacteria, first to nitrite and then to nitrate. Therefore, all organic compounds containing nitrogen should be considered as potential nitrate sources. Drinking water standards for nitrate are strict because the nitrate ion is reduced to nitrite ion in the saliva of all humans and in the intestinal tracts of infants during the first six months of life. Nitrite oxidizes iron in blood hemoglobin from Fe2+ to Fe3+. The resulted compound, called methemoglobin, cannot carry oxygen. The resulted oxygen deficiency is called methemoglobinemia. It is especially dangerous in infants (blue baby syndrome) because of their small total blood volume [6]. The results showed that the ammonia concentration mean was 0.06 mg/l and in lower level. The existence of nitrite, more than 10 mg/l causes health problems for human. The desirable level of that is 0.006 and has no sanitary risks. Using SPSS, the results showed that there was a meaningful level for methyl orange alkality, fenolfetalyn alkality pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2098http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20981. Liu C, Jun X. Water problems and hydrological research in the Yellow river and the Hai river basin of China. Hydro Proc 2004; 18:2197–2210.
2. Ma JZ, Wang XS, Edmunds WM. The characteristics of groundwater resources and their changes under the impacts of human activity in the arid North-West China– a case study of the Shiyang river basin. J Arid Environ 2005; 61:277–295.
3. Chen J. Analysis of water environment in the Xinjiang arid region. Arid Environ Monit 2002; 16(4):223–227.
4. Goldar B, Banerjee N. Impact of informal regulation of pollution on water quality in rivers in India. J Environ Manage 2004; 73:117–130.
5. Ratna Reddy A, Behera B. Impact of water pollution on rural communities: An economic analysis. Ecol Econ 2006; 58:520– 537.
6. Weiner ER. Applications of environmental chemistry: A practical guide. 2nd ed. CRC Press. Boca Raton 2007; pp. 30-70.
7. Pyle GG, Swanson SM, Lehmkuhl DM. The influence of water hardness, pH, and suspended solids on nickel toxicity to larval fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Water Air Soil Pollut 2002; 133:215–226.
8. Ebrahimpour M, Alipour M, Rakhshah S. Influence of water hardness on acute toxicity of copper and zinc on fish. Toxicol Indu Health 2010; 6:361-365.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareANALYSIS OF ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF CURCUMIN AGAINST ENTEROCOCCUS FECALIS
English3741Prasanna NeelakantanEnglish Chandana SubbaraoEnglish Chandragiri Venkata SubbaraoEnglishObjectives: To evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of curcumin against E. faecalis considering Sodium
hypochlorite (3%) as references for comparison.
Methods: The antibacterial efficacy of a 100% pure solution of curcumin was evaluated against
planktonic cells of E.fecalis using three tests: zone of inhibition, Minimum inhibitory and bactericidal
concentrations, and time taken to kill the cells, The data were statistically analysed by one-way ANOVA
and post hoc Tukey HSD test (p=0.05).
Results: The result revealed that curcumin had significant antibacterial activity against E.fecalis The
zones of inhibition of curcumin against E.fecalis was 32 ± 4 mm, which was significantly different from
the standard - vancomycin, while the zone of inhibition for sodium hypochlorite was 34 ± 5mm. There
was no significant difference between the aforementioned data for sodium hypochlorite and curcumin (P
> 0.05) Tube dilution test revealed that MIC and MBC of curcumin were 625 μg/mL and 2.5 mg/mL
respectively. While NaOCl, achieved 100% killing of E.fecalis at 2 minutes, curcumin was able to
achieve the same in 5 minutes.
Conclusions: The antibacterial activity of curcumin was similar to sodium hypochlorite . Considering the
potential for undesirable properties of NaOCl, the use of herbal alternatives in endodontics might prove to
be advantageous.
EnglishEnterococcus faecalis, irrigant, phytotherapy, curcumin, sodium hypochloriteIntroduction
Root canal treatment (endodontic treatment) involves mechanical preparation of the root canal system, in conjunction with chemical aids. Although significant microbial reduction may be achieved by this, complete eradication of intra canal microbiota is unachievable using the currently used materials and techniques. Furthermore, it is well established that microbiota are the primary cause of pulp and periradicular pathoses 1 . Enterococcus faecalis, a facultative anaerobic gram-positive coccus, is the most common Enterococcus sp. cultured from non-healing cases 2,3. E. faecalis can adhere to the root canal walls, accumulate, and form communities organized in biofilm, which enables the bacteria to become highly resistant to phagocytosis, antibodies, and antimicrobials than non–biofilm-producing organisms 4,5. E. faecalis may also survive chemomechanical preparation, colonize within the intricate anatomical niches of the root canal system and reinfect the filled root canal 6 . Although the most commonly used and most effective chemical adjunct used in endodontics is sodium hypochlorite, this material has numerous disadvantages like unpleasant taste, toxicity, and potential weakening of the tooth structure by decreasing the hardness and structural integrity of the dentin within the root canal 7 . Medicinal plants represent a rich source of antimicrobial agents. Plants are used medicinally in different countries and are a source of many potent and powerful drugs. A wide range of medicinal plant parts is used for extract as raw drugs and they possess varied Medicinal properties. Recently, there has been a growing trend to seek natural remedies as part of dental treatment 8 . Two alternatives have been studied - Triphala (an Indian ayurvedic medicine) and Morinda citrofolia (Indian Noni) 9,10. However, these are not as effective as sodium hypochlorite. Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is extensively used as a spice, food preservative and coloring material in India, China and South East Asia. It has been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of numerous diseases. Curcumin (diferuloylmethane), the main yellow bioactive component of turmeric has been shown to have a wide spectrum of biological actions, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities 11,12,13. Many studies have attributed a wide spectrum of activities to this compound 14,15, and this provides a suitable basis for exploring its applications in dentistry, particularly in root canal treatment. It was the aim of the present study to analyse the antibacterial effect of curcumin against E.faecalis considering 3% sodium hypochlorite as reference for comparison. The null hypotheses was that there is no difference in the antimicrobial activity between curcumin and 3% sodium hypochlorite.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A pure culture of E.faecalis (American Type Culture Collection 29212) was grown on Brain Heart Infusion agar. The microorganism was inoculated into tubes containing 5 mL sterile 0.9% saline solution. The suspension was adjusted spectrophotometrically at 800 nm to match the turbidity of 1.5 x 108 CFU/mL (equivalent to 0.5 McFarland standard) 16. Five hundred µL of each test microorganism suspension was used to inoculate glass bottles containing 50 mL BHI agar at 46°C, mixed and poured onto 130 mm plates containing a previously set layer of Mueller Hinton agar. The antibacterial activity of the test solution [Curcumin (Biopurify Phytochemicals Ltd.,Sichuan, China) and 3% sodium hypochlorite] was tested on planktonic cells using the antibacterial sensitivity test, tube dilution test and time to kill study. The absolute purity of curcumin (100%) was assessed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) prior to testing. Antibacterial sensitivity test: The antibacterial sensitivity test was performed by a standardised method described elsewhere 20. After drying the inocula, sterile filter paper discs (6-mm diameter) were applied using sterile forceps. One hundred microlitres of each material was pipetted onto the sterile paper disks. Ten replicates were prepared for each test solution. The plates were maintained for 2 hours at room temperature to allow diffusion of the agents through the agar and then incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours in a carbon dioxide incubator (Jouan, Saint Herblain, France) in an atmosphere of 10% carbon dioxide. A standard vancomycin disc (30 mg) was included for comparison. Tube dilution method: Double dilution was made from a higher dilution of 100 mg/mL to a lower dilution in a series of test tubes. Each tube was inoculated with bacterial suspensions and incubated at 37°C overnight. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was regarded as the lowest concentration in the series of dilutions, which did not permit the growth of the susceptible bacteria. The subcultures were made from the tubes which did not yield any visible turbidity in the MIC assay on freshly prepared Mueller-Hinton agar plates. After 24 hours of incubation at 37°C, the Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) was regarded as the lowest concentration of the test solution that allowed less than 0.1% of the original inoculum to grow on the surface of the medium. Test solutions were tested in triplicate (biological repeats) for each experiment. Analysis of time to kill: The bacteria [E. faecalis (ATCC 29212)] was exposed to the bactericidal concentration of the test solutions for 30 minutes. This was done by inoculating a loop full of the sample at regular intervals (2 minutes) on a Mueller-Hinton agar plate which was incubated at 37°C for 24 hrs, and observed for growth. The data were statistically analyzed by one-way analysis of variance and Student t test using SPSS software (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL) with a significance level of 5%.
RESULTS
The zones of inhibition, MIC and MBC of test solutions are summarized (Table 1). The result revealed that curcumin had significant antibacterial activity against E.fecalis. There was no significant difference between the aforementioned data for sodium hypochlorite and curcumin (P > 0.05). While NaOCl, achieved 100% killing of E.fecalis at 2 minutes, curcumin was able to achieve the same in 5 minutes.
DISCUSSION
The present study compared the antibacterial activity of the predominant active component of turmeric ie., curcumin, against E.faecalis, the most resistant bacteria in root canal treatment. This appears to be the first report on the endodontic applications of curcumin. This material has shown antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activity in previous studies 21,22,23. The MIC of curcumin against E.faecalis in this study was approximately 0.625 mg/mL, which is in accordance with an earlier report 24 . Components of turmeric are named curcuminoids [curcumin (diferuloyl methane), demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin]. These components are polyphenols with a strong antioxidant function 25. Curcumin, the most important fraction is responsible for the biological activities of turmeric. It has been hypothesized that curcumin inhibits the assembly of a protein - filamenting temperature-sensitive mutant Z (FtsZ) protofilaments and also increases the GTPase activity of FtsZ. The perturbation of the GTPase activity of FtsZ assembly is lethal to bacteria 26 . The results of this study showed that 3% NaOCl and curcumin achieved 100% killing of bacteria. albeit at different time intervals. However, this time difference is not significant in the clinical scenario, considering the potential drawbacks of sodium hypochlorite. The ability of 3% NaOCl to eliminate E.faecalis is in accordance with other reports 16,27. We speculate that Turmeric (curcumin) is able to eliminate the EPS matrix and the bacteria. This warrants further investigation. The concentration of curcumin that was effective against planktonic cells was 2.5 mg/mL. A higher concentration may be more relevant clinically, considering that bacteria form biofilms within the root canal system. Microbial communities in vivo are quite resistant to and difficult to eradicate with antimicrobials owing to the fact that the microorganisms to be targeted are organized in structures attached to each other and/or the root canal walls often involving a multitude of species known as microbial biofilms. The testing of antimicrobial agents against bacterial biofilms is yet to be standardized and no in vitro method accurately reflects the conditions under which microorganisms grow in vivo. So, caution should be exercised while extrapolating these results to the clinical scenario. A recent report suggested that curcumin in aqueous preparations exhibits phototoxic effect against gram positive and gram negative bacteria 28. This opens up avenues for further research on the use of turmeric in photodynamic therapy of root canal systems.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, curcumin exhibited antibacterial activity similar to sodium hypochlorite and hence may be considered a viable alternative. Further research is warranted on this substance prior to clinical application as a root canal irrigant and intracanal medicament.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2099http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20991. Siqueira JF Jr, Rôças IN, Riche FN, et al. Clinical outcome of the endodontic treatment of teeth with apical periodontitis using an antimicrobial protocol. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2008; 106:757–62.
2. Sundqvist G, Figdor D, Persson S, et al. Microbiologic analysis of teeth with failed endodontic treatment and the outcome of conservative re-treatment. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1998;85:86–93.
3. Peciuliene V, Reynaud AH, Balciuniene I, et al. Isolation of yeasts and enteric bacteria in root-filled teeth with chronic apical periodontitis. Int Endod J 2001; 4:429–34.
4. George S, Kishen A, Song KP. The role of environmental changes on monospecies biofilm formation on root canal wall by Enterococcus faecalis. J Endod 2005; 31:867–72.
5. Kowalski WJ, Kasper EL, Hatton JF, Murray BE, Nallapareddy SR, Gillespie MJ .Enterococcus faecalis adhesin, Ace, mediates attachment to particulate dentine. J Endod 2006;32:634–37.
6. Ørstavik D and Haapasalo M. Disinfection by endodontic irrigants and dressings of experimentally infected dentinal tubules. Endod Dent Traumatol 1990;6:142–49.
7. Siqueira JF Jr., Rôças IN, Favieri A, Lima KC. Chemomechanical reduction of the bacterial population in the root canal after instrumentation and irrigation with 1%, 2.5% and 5.25% sodium hypochlorite. J Endod 2002;26:331–34.
8. Little JW. Complementary and alternative medicine: impact on dentistry. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2004;98:137–45.
9. Murray PE, Farber RM, Namerow KN, Kuttler S, Garcia Godoy F. Evaluation of Morinda citrofolia as an endodontic irrigant. J Endod 2008;34:66 -70.
10. Prabhakar J, Senthilkumar M, Priya MS, Mahalakshmi K, Sehgal PK, Sukumaran VG. Evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy of herbal alternatives (Triphala and green tea polyphenols), MTAD, and 5% sodium hypochlorite against Enterococcus faecalis biofilm formed on tooth substrate: An in vitro study. J Endod 2010; 36:83 – 86.
11. Banerjee A, Nigam SS. Antimicrobial efficacy of the essential oil of Curcuma longa. Indian J Med Res 1978;68:864–866.
12. Goel A, Boland CR, Chauhan DP. Specific inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2(COX-2) expression by dietary curcumin in HT-29 human colon cancer cells. Cancer Lett 2001;172:111–118.
13. Srihari Rao T, Basu N, Siddqui HH. Anti inflammatory activity of curcumin analogues. Indian J Med Res 1982;75:574– 578.
14. Kumar V, Lewis SA, Mutalik S, Shenoy DB, Venkatesh, Udupa N. Biodegradable microspheres of curcumin for treatment of inflammation. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2002; 46:209–217. 15. Satoskar RR, Shah SJ, Shenoy SG. Evaluation of antiinflammatory property of curcumin (diferuloyl methane) in patients with postoperative inflammation. Int J Clin Pharmacol 1986;24:651–654. 16. Neelakantan P and Subbarao CV. An analysis of the antimicrobial activity of ten root canal sealers - a duration based in vitro evaluation. J Clin Pediatr Dent 2008;33: 31- 36.
17. Bauer AW, Kirby WWM, Sherris JC, Turck M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disc method. Am J Clin Pathol 1966;45:493-496.
18. Bhavani Shankar TN, Sreenivasa Murthy V. Effect of turmeric (Curcuma longa) fractions on the growth of some intestinal and pathogenic bacteria in vitro. Indian J Exp Biol 1979:17:1363–1366.
19. Araujo CAC, Leon LL. Biological activities of Curcuma longa L. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2001;96:723–728
20. Jayaprakasha GK, Negi PS, Anandharamakrishnan C, Sakariah KK. Chemical composition of turmeric oil – a byproduct from turmeric oleorsin industry and its inhibitory activity against different fungi. Z Naturforsch C 2001;56: 40–44.
21. Ç?kr?kç? S, Mozio?lu E, Y?lmaz H. Biological Activity of Curcuminoids Isolated from Curcuma longa. Records of Natural Products 2008;2:19-24.
22. Chattopadhyay I, Biswas K, Bandyopadhyay U, Banerjee RK. Turmeric and curcumin: Biological actions and medicinal applications. Current Science 2004;87:44 – 53.
23. Rai D, Singh JK, Roy N, Panda D. Curcumin inhibits FtsZ assembly: an attractive mechanism for its antibacterial activity. Biochemical Journal 2008;410:147- 55
24. Giardino L, Ambu E, Savoldi E, Rimondini R, Cassanelli C, Debbia EA. Comparative evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy of sodium hypochlorite, MTAD, and Tetraclean against Enterococcus faecalis biofilm. J Endod 2007;33:852-855.
25. Kishen A, George S, Kumar R. Enterococcus faecalis-mediated biomineralized biofilm formation on root canal dentine in vitro. J Biomed Mater Res A 2006;77:406–415.
26. Simoés M, Pereira MO, Vieira MJ. Effect of mechanical stress on biofilms challenged by different chemicals. Water Research 2005;39:5142–52.
27. Chávez de Paz LE. Redefining the persistent infection in root canals: possible role of biofilm communities. J Endod 2007;33:652– 662.
28. Haukvik T, Bruzeli E, Kristensen S, Tønnesen H. Photokilling of bacteria by curcumin in selected polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400) preparations. Studies on curcumin and curcuminoids, XLI. Die Pharmazie 2010;65: 600-6.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesAMELIORATION OF L-ASPARAGINASE PRODUCTION BY ASPERGILLUS ORYZAE USING PINE APPLE PEEL AS SUBSTRATE
English4251A.R. SoniyambyEnglish S. LalithaEnglish B.V. PraveeshEnglishThe production of enzymes by bioprocesses is a good alternative to add value to agro industry residues. The aim of this work was to utilize different agro industrial byproducts as a substrate for L-asparaginase production and optimize the fermentation condition in solid state fermentation using Aspergillus oryzae. Production parameters were optimized as incubation period (96 hours), initial moisture content of 40% with inoculum size of 3%. Incubating temperature of 30 °C and pH 6 was found to be the best for Lasparaginase production. Among different carbon source supplemented, glucose showed enhanced enzyme production (41.33 ±0.80). Addition of soy bean also increased the L-asparaginase production (45.51± 1.18). There were no reports on production of L-asparaginase by using pine apple peel as substrate.
EnglishL-asparaginase, Solid state fermentation, Aspergillus oryzae, pine apple peel.INTRODUCTION
Therapeutic enzymes have a broad variety of specific uses: as oncolytics, thrombolytics or anticoagulants and as replacement for metabolic deficiencies. A major potential therapeutic application of enzymes is in the treatment of cancer. L-asparaginase has proved to be particularly promising for the treatment of acute lympbocytic leukemia. It action depends upon the fact that tumour cells are deficient in aspartate-ammonia ligase activity, which restricts their ability to synthesize the normally non-essential aminoacid, L-asparagine. Therefore, they are forced to extract it from body fluids. The action of asparaginase does not affect the functioning of normal cells. Which are able to synthesize enough for their own requirements, but reduces the free exogenous concentration, and so induce a state of fatal starvation in the susceptible tumor cells [1]. This fact suggested that the development of this enzyme as a potent antitumor or antileukemic drug. L-asparaginase is broadly distributed among the plants, animals and microorganisms. The microbes are better sources of L-asparaginase, because they can be cultured easily and the extraction and purification of L-asparaginase from them is also convenient, facilitating the large-scale production. Wide range of bacteria, fungi, yeast, actinomycetes and algae are very efficient producers of L-asparaginase [2]. It‘s presence in guinea pig serum was first reported by Clementi [3]. Large number of microorganisms that include Erwinia carotovora [4], Pseudomonas stutzeri [5], Pseudomonas aerugenosa [6] and E. coli [7, 8]. It has been observed that eukaryotic microorganisms like yeast and fungi have a potential for asparaginase production [9, 10]. For example, the mitosporic fungi genera such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, are commonly reported in scientific literature to produce asparaginase [11- 13]. L-Asparaginase is produced throughout the world by submerged fermentation (SF). This technique has many disadvantages, such as the low concentration production, and consequent handling, reduction, and disposal of large volumes of water during the downstream processing. Therefore, the SF technique is a cost intensive, highly problematic, and poorly understood unit operation [14]. Solid-state fermentation is a very effective technique as the yield of the product is many times higher when compared to that in SF [15], and it also offers many other advantages [16]. This paper deals with the production of Lasparaginase from Aspergillus oryzae through solid state fermentation by using different agroindustrial by-products as a substrate. And also optimize the fermentation conditions to enhance the enzyme production.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Microorganism
Aspergillus oryzae sp isolated from soil sample from Nagercoil, Tamilnadu, India was used for the production of L-asparaginase.
Screening substrate for L-asparaginase production by Solid state fermentation
The basal fermentation medium contained: 0.2 % (w/v) glucose, 1% (w/v) L-asparagine, 0.152 % (w/v) K2PO4, 0.052 % (w/v) KCl, 0.052 % (w/v) MgSO4. 7H2O. 0.003 % (w/v), pH 6.2. The different substrate (collected agro industrial waste, 10 g) was washed and dried was added to flask, moistened (15%) with fermentation medium and sterilized at 121 ºC for 20 min. After cooling the flasks were inoculated 1 ml of Aspergillus oryzae spore suspension (106 spores/mL) and incubated at 30 °C for 4 days. Enzyme extraction was performed by adding 100 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer to solid mouldy in a rotatory shaker (100 rev/ min) for 60 min. the extracts were squeezed through a cloth and clarified by centrifugation at 10,000×g for 15 min. the supernatants were assayed for Lasparaginase activity. The agro industrial waste used as substrate include: Ground nut oilcake(GNOC), sugarcane bagasse (SB), cotton seed oil cake (CSOC), orange peel (OP), corn flour (CF), pine apple peel (PP), maize stover (MS), lemon peel (LP), corn cob (CC) and tamarind shell (TS).
L-asparaginase assay
L-asparaginase activity was measured following method of Imada et al. [13]. This method utilizes the determination of ammonia liberated from Lasparagine in the enzyme by the Nessler‘s reaction. Reaction was started by adding 0.5 ml supernatant into 0.5 ml 0.04 M L-asparagine and 0.5 ml 0.05 M tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane (tris HCl) buffer, pH 7.2 and incubated at 37 ºC for 30 min. the reaction was stopped by the addition of 0.5 ml 1.5 M trichloro acetic acid (TCA). The ammonia released in the supernatant was determined calorimetrically by adding 0.2 ml Nessler‘s reagent into tubes containing 0.1 ml supernatant and 3.75 ml distilled water and incubated at room temperature for 10 min, and absorbance of the supernatant was read using a UV visible spectrophotometer at wavelength of 450 nm. One unit of asparaginase is the amount of enzyme which catalyzed the formation of 1 µmol of ammonia per min at 37 ºC. The reaction mixture from each strain was assayed in triplicate.
Optimization of the culture condition for Lasparaginase production
Various process parameters that enhance the yield of L-asparaginase by Aspergillus oryzae under solid state fermentation were investigated by taking one factor at a time. The impact of incubation time (0-168 h), initial moisture content of the substrate (20-80 % v/w), inoculum concentration (1-6ml) and incubation temperature (25-50°C) pH (3-8) was studied. Moreover, the effect of incorporation of additional carbon sources (maltose, glucose, fructose, soluble starch, lactose, and sucrose at 1%w/v), nitrogen sources (peptone, yeast extract, beef extract, soy bean, sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate at 1% w/v) were also studied. All the experiments were conducted in triplicate and the mean values are considered.
Statistical analysis
All the experiments were carried out in triplicate, the values presented in the graphs are those of the mean of three independent experiments and the error bars indicate standard deviation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Screening of potential substrate for Lasparaginase production
The selection of an ideal agro-industrial residue for enzyme production in a SSF process depends upon several factors, mainly related with cost and availability of the substrate material, and thus may involve screening of several agroindustrial residues [17]. Among all the substrate, the maximum Lasparaginase production (21.29± 0.90) was observed with pine apple peel (Figure 1). Agroindustrial residues are generally considered the best substrates for the process of enzyme production. Several naturally occurring agricultural byproducts such as wheat bran, coconut oil cake, ground nut oil cake, rice bran, wheat and paddy straw, sugar beet pulp, fruit pulps and peel, corn cobs, saw dust, maize bran, rice husk, soy hull, sago hampas, grape marc, coconut coir pith, banana waste, tea waste, cassava waste, aspen pulp, sweet sorghum pulp, and starch could be used in one or the other industrial bioprocess for the production of value added products through SSF [18, 19].
Effect of Incubation period on Lasparaginase production
The results on the optimum incubation period require for maximum L-asparaginase production showed in Figure 2 that the enzyme production started after 24 h of incubation and progressively increased with time, the maximum production of 25.28±0.70 was observed after 96 h incubation. Thereafter, the enzyme production started decreasing. Decreased enzyme yield on prolonged incubation could also be due to inhibition and denaturation of the enzyme [20].
Effect of moisture content
The effect of moisture content on Lasparaginase production using pine apple peel as a substrate was examined (Figure 3). Maximum production of 29.54±0.68 was observed at 40 % of initial moisture content. Water is present in very limited amount in the SSF system and thus an optimum content is important as it determines the productivity of a SSF process [16]. Moisture content in SSF system can vary due to evaporation of the existing water through metabolic heat evolution, water consumption and liberation through fungal metabolism and also due to environmental factors. The moisture content in the substrate also depends on the type of microorganisms and the substrate used in the SSF. At the same time, the amount of moisture content also varied depending on the water binding characteristics of the substrates [21]. The optimum L-asparaginase was observed at 40 % which indicated that the water binding capacity of pine apple peel was high.
Effect of inoculum concentration
Maximum enzyme production (37.93 ± 1.02) was found at 3 ml (106 spores/mL) of inoculum size (Figure 4). Lower inoculum size required longer time for the cells to multiply to sufficient number to utilize the substrate and produce enzyme. An increase in the number of spores in inoculum would ensure a rapid proliferation and biomass synthesis. After a certain limit, enzyme production could decrease because of depletion of nutrients due to the enhanced biomass, which would result in a decrease in metabolic activity [22]. A balance between the proliferating biomass and available nutrient would yield an optimum at which the enzyme synthesis would be maximum [23].
Effect of Incubation temperature
The effect of fermentation temperature in the range of 25-50 ºC was examined on the production of L-asparaginase. Temperature plays an important role in SSF processes as it significantly affects the germination of spores. However, as the spore germinates, the optimum temperature for mycelia propagation may change [24]. The temperature shift is made more complex considering SSF generated substantial amount of heat throughout the process which will affect the water content in the SSF system. As in the case of Aspergillus oryzae, the optimum temperature was found to be at 30 ºC with the maximum L-asparaginase activity of 37.84±0.78U/mL (Figure 5). Similar result was also reported by Mishra [25] for the production of L-asparaginase at 30 ºC by Aspergillus niger. The significance of incubation temperature in development of a biological process is such that it could determine the effects of protein denaturation, enzyme inhibition, cell viability and death [26]. Incubation at lower temperature resulted in longer time to the maximum enzyme activity. Incubation at higher temperature affected the fungus harmfully, which reflected on the enzyme synthesis. Since enzyme is a secondary metabolite produced during exponential growth phase, the incubation at high temperature could lead to poor growth and thus a reduction in enzyme yield [27].
Effect of pH on enzyme production
The L-asparaginase activity at various initial pH (3-8) of the fermentation media is given in Figure 6. It was observed from Figure 6 that the maximum enzyme activity of 38.58±0.52 U/mL was obtained at the pH 6. As the initial pH was increased from 3 to 6 the L-asparaginase activity was found to increase and it was found to maximum for initial pH of 6. The activity was found to decrease for further increase in initial pH beyond 6. The optimum initial pH 6 was chosen for further studies. Similar result was reported in the literature of Baskar and Renganathan [28]. They got maximum Lasparaginase production at pH 6.
Effect of carbon and nitrogen source
L-asparaginase production depends on the availability of both carbon and nitrogen sources in the medium. Both have been shown to have regulatory effects on enzyme synthesis. Different carbon sources were used as additional carbon sources for the enhancement of asparaginase activity by Aspergillus oryzae sp (Figure 7). Additional carbon source at the level of 1 % was added to the pine apple substrate. Maximum production of asparaginase (41.33±0.80) was observed when glucose was used as carbon source. Glucose was optimized as the best carbon source for asparaginase activity. Baskar and Renganathan [28] reported maximum L-asparaginase production using glucose as best carbon source. As indicated in Figure 8, the maximum enzyme activity of 45.51±1.18U/mL was obtained when soy bean was used as nitrogen source. However, the asparaginase production was appeared to suppress in the presence of beef extract, peptone and sodium nitrate. With all the above optimized factors, the production of L-asparaginase with SSF was 45.51±1.18 U/mL. The optimum factors in the fermentation medium include pine apple as substrate, 40% moisture content, temperature 30 ºC and 96 hrs of incubation period, glucose and soy bean as carbon and nitrogen source respectively.
CONCLUSION
These studies showed that pine apple peel could be a good substrate for L-asparaginase synthesis by Aspergillus oryzae. Incubation period, initial moisture level of the medium, incubation temperature and inoculum size influenced the Lasparaginase production greatly. The optimum incubation period, initial moisture level, incubation temperature and inoculum size were 96 hours, 40%, 30 °C respectively and 3ml (106 spores/mL) of inoculum size. The supplement of glucose and soy bean favored the enzyme formation markedly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Chancellor, Advisor, Vice Chancellor and Registrar of Karpagam University for providing facilities and encouragement. We also extend our thanks to Co-ordinator and lab in charge of Karpagam University Instrument Facility Lab (KUIF).
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesEFFECT OF FOLIAR APPLICATIONS OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ON YIELD PARAMETERS AND
SENNOSIDE CONTENTS OF CASSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA VAHL.
English5261Shilpa Mohan Shitole1English K. N. DhumalEnglishThe uses of plant growth regulators have emerged as an important tool in improving agricultural production. The study was conducted to compare the effects of three PGRs on the yield parameters and sennoside (a and b) contents from leaves and pods of medicinal plant Cassia angustifolia.The PGRs viz., Gibberellic acid (GA3), Indole acetic acid (IAA) and the growth retardant Abscisic acid (ABA) were applied at the concentrations of 25, 50 and 100mg/l as foliar spray. Performances of different PGRs in C. angustifolia indicated that all the PGRs used have caused statistically significant increase in yield attributes and sennoside contents over control. Amongst the different treatments of PGRs, IAA and ABA (100mg/l) had shown maximum positive influence on yield parameters in C angustifolia. While for enhancing sennoside a and b contents from leaves and pods, IAA and ABA (50mg/l) emerged best treatments over control.
Englishsenna, foliar spray, plant growth regulators, HPLC.INTRODUCTION
Different strategies like, use of dormancy breaking agrochemicals, proper irrigation and fertilizers, hybrid seeds, plant growth regulators (PGRs) etc. are generally used to achieve vigorous growth and to enhance the flowering, fruiting, yield and production of commercially important secondary metabolites. Amongst these, use of PGRs is proven and widely used technique for different crops including medicinal plant to achieve these objectives. The term plant growth regulating substances (PGRS) include both naturally occurring and synthetic growth substances, and include both growth promoters and growth retardants. They control and regulate the growth, metabolic processes and developments in plants by physiological manipulation. The use of PGRs have emerged as an important tool in improving agricultural production and to help in removing many of the barriers imposed by heredity and/or environmental stress. The major types of plant bio-regulators are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene. Auxins is the first hormone to be discovered in plants, which regulate polar translocation, apical bud dominance, root initiation, delay in abscission, vascular differentiation, floral bud formation and fruit development. Gibberellins (GAs) are commonly used as growth enhancers because they stimulate cell division, cell growth or increase wall plasticity and the transcription of genes for α-amylase synthesis (Jones and Mac.
Millan, 1984). Gibberellins stimulate stem growth by promoting both cell elongation and cell division. Growth retardants are also used in crop improvement programs. These induce variety of morphological and biochemical responses in plants, including retarded shoot elongation, stimulated rooting and protection from various environmental stresses. Hence the study was conducted to compare the effects of three PGRs on the yield parameters and sennoside (a and b) contents from leaves and pods of medicinal plant Cassia angustifolia under natural condition. Cassia angustifolia (Family: Caesalpiniaceae), popularly known as senna, is a valuable plant drug in ayurvedic and modern system of medicine for the treatment of constipation and is used to cure a large number of intestinal diseases (Aktar et al. 2008). Sennoside A and B are the two anthraquinone glycosides that are responsible for purgative action of senna. However, the performance of this plant in salinity stress environments, and the effect of these stresses on its sennoside production have not been studied well. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of foliar application of PGRs yield parameters and sennoside contents of senna.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Plant material Authentic seeds of Cassia angustifolia Vahl were obtained from National Research Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Boriavi, Gujarat. Field culture experiments were conducted in the research field of Department of Botany, University of Pune, from October 2008 to May 2009 to determine the effect of foliar application of PGRs on the, yield parameters and secondary metabolites content i.e. sennoside a and b in senna.
Field Experimental
All experiments were conducted in a complete randomized design. The pre-soaked seeds of senna were sown in ridges and furrows cover with thin layer of soil. The distance between two plants was 30 cm and the distance between two rows was 40 cm. Each treatment had 3 replications and each replication had 10 seedlings. Light irrigation was immediately given after seed sowing. Standard inter cultivation practices were used throughout the experiment. Temperatures during the experiment were in the range of 28-300C during day and 19- 210C at night.
PGRs treatments
The plants were sprayed four times at 45, 60, 75 and 90 days after sowing with freshly prepared solutions of Gibberellic acid (GA3 ), Indole acetic acid (IAA) and the growth retardant abscisic acid (ABA) in the concentration of 25, 50 and 100mg/l using 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 litter of solution respectively for each experimental plot. PGRs were dissolved in 95% ethanol and then brought to final concentration using distilled water. The treatment was continued up to flowering stage (90DS) at the interval of 15 days. DW spread plants were considered as control.
Yield parameters analysis
Yield attributes like number of flowers per plant, number of pods per plant, pods fresh and dry weight, 100 seed weight were measured. Pod formation began at 90 DAS and therefore sampling of pods was done at 105 and 120 DAS. The fresh and dry weight of the whole plant was measured at post flowering stage (120DAS). For this randomly selected healthy plants were uprooted from each treatment and control at the stages mentioned above. After cleaning the roots fresh weight of ten plants was measured immediately with the help of electronic top pan balance and expressed in gram per plant and from this average fresh weight of each plant was determined. This plant after taking the fresh weight was kept in oven at 400C still the constant weight was obtained. The constant weight was recorded as dry weight of each plant.
For analysis of sennoside a and b contents ten randomly selected third leaf from top of each plants from control and treatment was selected at 60 DAS and green pods at 120 DAS while, kept in oven at 600C for 48 h and used for HPLC analysis.
HPLC analysis of Sennoside content
HPLC analysis was done at 60DAS from leaves and 120DAS from pods. All the chemicals used were of AR grade. Methanol and water were obtained from Merck (Mumbai). The standard for the experiment was obtained from Mehta Pharmaceuticals Pvt. Ltd. (Mumbai).The dried leaves (1.0 gm.) were finely powered and extracted with hexane (3 X 25 mL). The hexane extract was discarded and 25 ml of methanol:water (70:30, v/v) was added to mark, the suspension left overnight at room temperature (250C) and then extracted with the methanol:water mixture (2 X 25 mL). The extract was made up to 100mL with methanol: water and 10 µL samples were subjected to HPLC analysis. The extraction of pods was performed exactly as described above for leaf sample. The solution containing known concentration of range 10-100 µg/ml of sennoside was prepared in methanol, and used as standard for HPLC analysis. HPLC analysis was performed using a Water modular system consisting of two model 501 pumps, an automated gradient controller, a model U6K injector, an in-line solvent degasser, a model 996 photodiode array detector and Millennium 2010 chromatography management software. A Symmetry C18 column (150 X 406mm) was used for analysis, and spectral acquisition was performed at 285nm after scanning the standards. The solvent system consist of (A) methanol: water: acetic acid (80:20:0.1v/v/v; pH 4.0). The flow rate was maintained at 0.6ml/min for the first 20 min, while at 30 min it was 1.0ml/min. The HPLC data including height and area of the sennoside peak at particular retention time, of standard sennoside sample (with known concentration) was recorded. This data of standard sennoside sample was compared with the data obtained from plant samples and content of sennoside in the respective plant samples was calculated.
Statistical analysis
The data was presented as arithmetic means of three replicates ±standard deviation. The significance of the mean differences was explored through one-way-ANOVA statistics followed by DMRT (Duncan‘s multiple range test) at p=0.05 as a post hoc test. SPSS for Windows ver. 11.5 and Microsoft Excel 2003 were used to carry out statistical analyses and graphical data presentations.
RESULTS
Number of flowers
The influence of different PGRs on various yield parameters in Cassia angustifolia clearly indicated that the yield parameters had shown positive increase over control. The increase in number of flowers per plant was maximum in IAA 100mg/l (23.59%) recorded in Fig1. The next better treatment was GA3 100mg/l (20.53%). However the treatment of ABA 100mg/l was comparatively less effective (18.53%).
Number of pods
The impact of various growth regulators on number of pods per plant recorded in Fig 1, illustrated that all the treatments had favoured the positive increase in number of pods per plant over control. The percentage increase was ranging from 21.78% to 41.26%. The impact of ABA (100mg/l) was highly significant, as it has caused maximum increase in number of pods per plant by 41.26%. Amongst the remaining treatments IAA and GA3 with 100mg/l were following the previous one. They have caused 32.56% and 25.56% increase in number of pods per plant over control.
Pods fresh weight
The results on pods fresh weight per plant recorded in Fig 2 revealed that GA3, IAA and ABA had positively influenced the pods fresh weight per plant over control. The percentage increase over control was in the range of 24.53% to 41.56%. The maximum increase in pods fresh weight was 41.56% in ABA 100mg/l. The next better treatment was IAA 100mg/l, which had caused 37.59% increase in pod fresh weight. The GA3 100mg/g had caused 32.56% increase over control.
Pods dry weight
The impact of various growth regulators on dry weight of pods per plant recorded in Fig 2 revealed that all growth hormones used in the present studies had increased the fresh as well as dry weight of pods per plant. However the increase in yield was more significant in dry weight of pods. The increase in dry weight during field experiment was 43.26% in ABA 100mg/l. It was the highest increase over control and other treatments. While IAA 100 mg/l has caused 42.53% increase in pod dry weight and emerged as second better treatment. Even the performance of GA3 (100mg/l) was very promising over control, because it has also caused the positive increase in pods dry weight by 36.15% over control.
Dry weight of seeds
The influence of various plant growth regulators on 100 seeds‘ dry weight presented in Fig 3 revealed that the 100 seeds dry weight was positively increased by all the treatments of PGRs over the control. The percentage increase in dry weight of seeds was in the range of 11.53% to 34.26%. The treatment of IAA emerged as the best treatment for enhancing dry weight of seeds (34.26%). It was followed by ABA 100 mg/l (29.42%). The GA3 treatment had not shown so promising effect on dry weight of seeds.
Fresh weight per plant
The effects of PGRs treatment on fresh weight per plant for field grown plants of Cassia angustifolia are presented in Fig 4. From the results it was clearly seen that all the PGRs used in the present investigation had significantly and positively caused the enhancement in fresh biomass of treated plants over control. The highest increase in fresh weight per plant was recorded in ABA 100mg/g. (50.23 %). The next best treatment was GA3 100 mg/l (40.23 %). The remaining treatment i.e., IAA (100mg/l) registered 23.56 % increase over control
Dry weight per plant
The results on dry weight per plant influenced by various PGRs treatments during field experiments in Cassia angustifolia presented in Fig 4 revealed that dry weight per plant was increased in the range of 24.26% to 76.23% in field experiment. ABA 100mg/l was more effective than other treatments and control for causing the accumulation of dry matter (76.23%); it was followed by GA3 50 mg/g (51.26%). The IAA (100mg/g) treatment was less effective as compared to other treatments (30.21%).
Sennoside content
From the figure 5 and 6; it is seen that all the plant growth regulator treatments resulted in to increased sennoside content as compared to control. Amongst all the treatments, IAA (50mg/l) had a pronounced effect on the sennoside content from leaves and pods which was followed by ABA (50mg/l). The treatments of GA3 were also quite effective over control for enhancing the sennoside content (Figure No.5 and 6). The impact of GA3 on sennoside content might be due to enhanced biosynthetic pathway of sennoside. The treatments of IAA (50mg/l) emerged as best treatments for enhancing the sennoside content from leaves and pods by 37.15 % and 51.23% respectively over control. The overall results on various yield parameters such as number of flowers per plant, number of pods per plant, fresh and dry weight of pods and even dry weight of seeds were positively influenced by the treatments of GA3, IAA and ABA. Amongst the different treatments of PGRs, IAA and ABA (100mg/l) had shown maximum positive influence on yield parameters in Cassia angustifolia. While for enhancing sennoside content from leaves and pods, IAA and ABA (50mg/l) emerged best treatments over control.
DISCUSSION
Total number of flowers present on a plant is one of the important yields contributing character in various plants. The correlation between number of flowers per plant and economic yield has been well established. Singh et al. (2003) noted early flowering with IAA (100ppm) and maximum number of flowers with GA3 (100ppm) in Tagetes patula. Choudhuri and Chatterjee (1979) reported that the GA3 was responsible for inducing increase in number of flowers per plant in Solanum khasianum. Farooqui et al. (1999) had recorded the significant increase in number of flowers in GA3 treated Chrysanthymum cinerariae. The work of Gowda et al. (1986) in S. viarum treated with GA3 (1000 ppm) reported enhanced and earlier flowering. Flower induction with GA3 was observed by Warm (1980) in Hyoscyamus niger. The earliest flowering in Coriandrum sativum due to GA3 (50 ppm) was noted by Verma and Sen (2003). Similarly Verma et al. (2003) had also reported maximum number of flowers in Prunus salicina with GA3 (100 ppm) treatment. Prasad et al. (2003) registered maximum number of flowers heads due to GA3 (300 ppm) in Artemisia pallens. The positive effect of growth retardant cycocel for improving the fruit number was recorded in Solanum khasianum (Hazarika, 1985; Haleem and Thimmaraju 1983), Trichosanthes dioica (Singh et al. 2003). Most of the workers like Chakarvarty and Basu (1973), Chaudhary and Chatterjee (1979), Borse and Dhumal (2001), Barua and Hazarika (1982) have reported that growth retardant CCC was more superior than GA3, auxin and kinetin for increase in fresh and dry weight of fruits in S. khasianum. Several investigators also reported an increase in yield of different plants by application of auxins (Mandurah, 1984; Rao and Narayanan, 1997 ). Foliar spray of IAA increased number and weight of pods as well as number and weight of seeds in cowpea (Saeid et al. 2010). Similarly Kumar and Singh (2003) recorded maximum seed weight due to IAA (50mg/l) in Linum usitatissimum. The maximum grain weight per plant was recorded in chickpea (Zarrin et al. Several investigators also reported an increase in yield of different plants by application of 2008) with ABA (foliar spray). The enhanced fresh and dry weight due to growth retardants was reported by various workers in different plants like Morus alba (Mishra et al. 2001), potato (Prakash et al. 2001), Solanum khasianum (Shobhane et al. 2003), Datura metal (Gupta and Madan 1976), Sida acuta (Seal and Gupta 2001). The results of the present investigation in conformity with above results, indicating the suitability of PGRs for enhancing the fresh as well as dry weight of plants, which directly or indirectly caused the improvement in yield and productivity. Sharma et al. (2001) claimed improved growth, biomass, chlorophylls, photosynthetic rate, leaf area are responsible to enhance the production of various secondary metabolites. The results of present investigation are in agreement with the above findings. Similar results have reported an improvement in secondary metabolites through treatment of auxins in different medicinal plants. In Solanum nigrum, the positive influence of IAA on alkaloid production was recorded by Bhatt et al. (1983). Reports in Solanum jaminoides (Sahoo et al. 1999), Hyoscyamus muticus (Gamasy et al. 1978) Solanum khasianum (Borse et al. 2000),
Artemisia annua (Yaseen and Tajuddin 1998), Andrographis paniculata (Gudhate and Dhumal 2008) showed positive influence of IAA on secondary metabolite production. The influence of GA3 on biosynthesis and accumulation of alkaloid content was recorded by various workers in Solanum khasianum (Borse et al. 2000, Borse and Dhumal, 2001; Gowda, 1986). In the present studies the treatment of growth retardant ABA found to be the second best treatment for enhancing the sennoside content. Several investigators also reported an increase in secondary metabolites content by application of plant growth retardants in Solanum khasianum (Gowda et al. 1986), S. laciniatum (Antably et al. 1975; Eid et al. 1974), Datura metal (Gupta and Madan 1976), turmeric (Jirali et al. 2001), Catharanthus roseus (Choudhary and Gupta 1996).
CONCLUSION
The comparative account regarding the performance of different PGRs in C. angustifolia indicated that all the PGRs used have caused statistically significant increase in yield and sennoside content over control, but the effect of IAA and ABA was more significant and hence use of these PGRs can be recommended for commercial purpose after studying the cost benefit ratio. All the results on yield parameters and sennoside content were showing positive and significant correlations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author is thankful to UGC for awarding meritorious student fellowship. The authors sincerely thank Head, Department of Botany, University of Pune, Pune- 411007, Maharashtra, India for providing facilities in the Department.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareMALNUTRITION AMONG INFANTS BASED ON INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES AND
NEW WHO GROWTH CHART
English6265Muralidhar M.KEnglish Hemagiri KEnglish VinodKumar C.S.English Rajashri S PatilEnglishMalnutrition continues to be a Public health problem in India despite the self-sufficiency in production of food grains in addition to adequate buffer stocks. Nearly half of the under five children are underweight. Though the famines and florid forms of malnutrition have almost disappeared yet in some states/ regions the onslaught of severe malnutrition is unacceptably high. The objective of the study is to study the prevalence of malnutrition in infants attending Urban Health Training Centre and to determine the difference in prevalence based on the Integrated Child development Scheme (ICDS) and New World Health Organisation (WHO) growth charts. All the infants attending the OPD of Urban Health Training Centre, Bashanagara, Davangere were enrolled for the study. Measurement of weight was done by infant weighing scale and recorded to the nearest 50 grams. This was compared with the standard growth charts and nutritional status was ascertained. A total of 210 infants were included for the study after obtaining the consent of their parents. Among 210 infants attending the OPD from 1-1-2008 to 31-12-2008 were enrolled for the study, 110 (52.38%) were males and 100(47.62%) were females. The prevalence of mild(Grade I and II) and severe(Grade III and IV) undernutrition among male infants according to ICDS
growth chart is 30.9% and 4.6% while in female infants it is 33.0% and 4.0% respectively. The prevalence of mild and severe undernutrition among male infants according to New WHO growth chart is 23.6% and 20.0% while in female infants it is 16.0 % and 10.0% respectively. There were no overweight/obese infants in our study. There is a significant difference in the prevalence of undernutrition according to the two growth charts. The number of severely malnourished infants is bound to increase with the use of the New WHO Growth Chart.
EnglishMalnutrition, Infants, ICDS and New WHO growth chartsINTRODUCTION
Severe malnutrition may act as a direct cause of death or an indirect cause by increasing dramatically the case fatality in children suffering from common childhood illnesses, such as, diarrhoea and pneumonia. Current estimates suggest that severely malnourished children have a 10 to 20 times higher risk of dying than well nourished children1 . Eighty percent of the world's undernourished children live in 20 countries, with India being home to nearly 60 million children who are underweight.1,2 The National Family Health Survey (NFHS) in India reported the prevalence of underweight among children younger than 3 years in 2005-2006 to be nearly 46%, a figure representing only a marginal decline from the rates recorded in 1992-1993 (51%) and 1998- 1999 (47%) Three quarters of the children who die world wide of causes related to malnutrition are described by nutritionists as mildly to moderately malnourished and thus betray outward signs of problem to a casual observer. Although there is a decline in the magnitude of this condition over years, it is not to the expected levels. Over nutrition in the form of overweight and obesity is being observed in some urban and semi-urban areas. As per the Millenium development goal 1, which aims to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger the target is to halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. The indicator to assess this goal is the prevalence of underweight among infants and children.1 In our country growth charts are used to assess the nutritional status of children. But, due to the adaption of new WHO Growth Charts for monitoring the growth, there is going to be a change in the prevalence of malnutrition.2 The present study was undertaken in order to study the prevalence of malnutrition among infants and the difference between the previously used ICDS growth chart and the New WHO Growth chart.
Objectives:
1 To assess the prevalence of malnutrition in infants.
2 To study the difference in prevalence based on the ICDS and New WHO growth charts
MATERIALS AND METHODS
All the infants attending the OPD were enrolled for the study after obtaining the consent of their parents. A register was maintained and an infant was considered for the study only once. Age was recorded to the nearest completed months after verifying from birth certificates, anganwadi registers and by correlating to the nearby special events. Weight was measured meticulously with all standard procedures by using an infant weighing scale and recorded to the nearest 50 grams.3 The noted weight for age was compared with the ICDS and New WHO growth charts and nutritional status was ascertained and noted accordingly.4, 5 In both the growth Charts X- axis represents the age and y-axis represents the weight. In ICDS Growth Chart the top most curve corresponds to 80% of the median of the WHO reference standard. The lower lines represent 70%, 60% and 50% of that standard.6 The new WHO growth chart standards describe normal child growth from birth to 5 years under optimal environmental conditions and can be applied to all children everywhere, regardless of ethnicity, socioeconomic status and type of feeding. According to this chart, malnutrition is classified as mild and severe undernutrition, when weights for age values are less than -2 SD and -3 SD of the reference median respectively. 5 Study duration: Jan 2008 to Dec 2008(1 year). Statistical tests: The descriptive statistics is presented by mean, standard deviation and percentages. Analysis was done by Chi-square test, Kappa statistics and Spearman‘s Rho.
RESULTS
Among 210 infants, 110 (52.38%) were males and 100(47.62%) were females. Only 4.76% were Hindus and the rest (95.24%) were Muslims. The mean age for male and female infants was 4.9 ± 3.7 months and 5.1 ± 3.5 months respectively. The mean weight was 5.46 ± 1.74 kgs and 5.58 ± 1.74 kgs for male and female infants respectively. The weight was higher among female infants but was not statistically significant (P=0.61 NS). The prevalence of mild and severe undernutrition among male infants is more while the percentage of female undernourished infants is lesser as per new WHO growth chart in comparison to ICDS Growth chart. However, severe degree of malnutrition is higher in female infants as per the new WHO growth chart compared to the ICDS Growth Chart. Chi-square test value shows highly significant difference(X2 = 82.8 and 89.5 p< 0.001) between the prevalence of malnutrition among female infants being higher according to the new WHO growth chart than the ICDS Growth chart. The kappa statistic shows fair agreement among the two growth charts indicating moderate overlap while some difference does persist. As depicted in Table no.1 and 2 severe degree undernutrition is missed by the widely used ICDS growth charts. The Spearman‘s rho shows positive correlation as depicted in Table No. 3, which implies that both the growth charts measure the degree of malnutrition in a similar direction, but significant difference exists as depicted by the Chi-square test and the Kappa statistic.
DISCUSSION
The prevalence of undernutrition in our study is similar to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) III results.7 In a comparative study done in three countries namely Peru, India and Vietnam using the new WHO Growth Chart and the NCHS Growth Chart differences in prevalence of wasting, stunting, and underweight were observed and the direction and magnitude of difference were not consistent.8 In the Malawian study there is a difference in the prevalence of malnutrition as per the NCHS and New WHO Growth Chart, which is similar to that observed in our study .9 In a multi centric comparison study conducted among healthy breast-fed infants in Bangladesh, Dominican Republic and a pooled sample from North America and Northern Europe, WHO standards are observed to be a better tool than NCHS standards for growth monitoring .10 In a study done to compare IAP and new WHO growth standards, lower prevalence of overall underweight children was observed and provided superior growth tracking than IAP standards, especially in the first 6 months of life and among severely malnourished children.11
CONCLUSION
The prevalence of malnutrition is higher in this area in comparison to studies done in other parts of the world. 9-10 The type of growth chart used is bound to have significant impact on the prevalence of malnutrition among infants. The ICDS growth chart has a common growth chart for male and female children despite the well known fact that the growth pattern among males and females differ.3 The new WHO growth chart has two different charts which is more appropriate in tracking the growth of male and female children. 5 The recommendations of the present study is the type of growth chart used is bound to have significant impact on the prevalence of malnutrition among infants. As there could be an increase in the number of severely undernourished children, provision should be made in the programme to tackle the same.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2102http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21021. World health report, World health organization, shaping the future. 2003.
2. International Institute of Population Sciences. National Family Health Survey – 1. Mumbai: IIPS, ORC Macro; 1993.
3. Meharban Singh, pediatric clinical methods, New Delhi, Sagar publications, 2005.
4. Ghosh S. Integrated Child Development services programme - need for reappraisal. Indian Pediatr 1997; 34: 911- 918
5. Gragnolati M, Bredenkamp C, Gupta MD, Lee YK, Shekhar M. ICDS and persisting undernutrition. Econ Polit Wkly 2006; 41: 1193-201. K.Park Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine,Jabalpur, India: Banarsidas Bhanot Publishers , 20th edition 2009 , pp-423-25.
6. Planning Commission Government of India. Population projections 2001-2025. New Delhi: Government of India; 2006
7. Fenn B, Penny ME. Using the new World Health Organisation growth standards: differences from 3 countries. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutrition. 2008 Mar; 46 (3) : 316-21.
9. Prost MA, Jahn A, Floyd S, Mvula H, Mwaiyeghele E, Mwinuka V et al, Implication of new WHO growth standards on identification of risk factors and estimated prevalence of malnutrition in rural Malawian infants. Public Library of Science One. 2008 Jul 16;3(7):e2684.
10. de Onis M, Onyango AW, Borghi E, Garza C, Yang H; Comparison of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards and the National Center for Health Statistics/WHO international growth reference: implications for child health programmes. Public Health Nutrition. 2006 Oct;9(7):942-7.
11. Prinja S, Thakur JS, Bhatia SS. Pilot testing of WHO child growth standards in Chandigarh: implications for India's child health programmes: Bulletin of World Health Organisation. 2009 Feb;87(2):116- 22.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesTHE INTERACTIONS OF PH, ORGANIC MATTER AND SOIL MOISTURE ON ARBUSCULAR MYCORHIZAL FUNGI (AMF) COLONIZATION IN THE ROOTS OF Juniperus procera IN SAUDI ARABIA
English6676AL-GhamdiEnglish A. A. M.English Hasnah M. J.EnglishThe symbiosis between AMF and wild Juniperus procera was studied in the soil of Al-Baha, Saudi
Arabia. In this study, the effect of soil pH, moisture and organic matter (OM) on the colonization of AMF was investigated. J. procera infection by AMF was of the Paris type in which coarse hyphae occupied inter- and intracellular cortical cells. The spores in the soil were identified as Glomus sp, Gigaspora sp. and Acaulospora sp. Percent root colonization with AMF was positively related to pH value (r2= 0.81) and moisture value (r2= 0.75). Nevertheless, AMF colonization in the roots was lower with higher OM content (r2= 0.80). It is important to ensure that soil conditions and properties are maintained in such a way that encourages the growth of AMF and the plant. The use of AMF may be an important consideration in the replanting of this endangered plant species in the future.
EnglishArbuscular mycorrhiza fungi; soil pH; OM; soil moisture; Juniperus procera1. INTRODUCTION
Plants living in arid to semiarid ecosystems have developed various ways to combat drought stress (Bray, 1997). One of the most ancient and common plant strategies is the symbiosis of plant roots with AMF so as to improve survival under environmental stress (Brachmann and Parniske, 2006). Although not much is known on the effects of AMF on the water relations and moisture withholding capacity of soils, soil with AMF was found to have considerably more aggregates that are water stable (Augé, 2004). According to Miransari et al. (2008), a vast network of hypha and organic matter of elevated quantities are generated by AMF. In Saudi Arabia, the current population of J. procera only represents a small fragment of the woodlands that were once present (Negash, 2002). According to Hajar et al. (1991) and Al-Gamdi (2006), juniper forests in the southwest region of Saudi Arabia are exposed to more risks of deterioration because it has low natural regeneration capability and there is a lack of plantation for regeneration. Juniper trees at very low altitudes are also diminishing as a result of soil disturbances and the act of extracting young plants from juniper stands (Hajar et al., 1991). The hypothesis of this study is AMF infection is abundant in an arid environment of Saudi Arabian soil. There was scarcely any study done on the colonization of AMF in Juniperous procera and its relationship to the physical property of soil. This study was undertaken to determine the presence of AMF in the soil and roots and to study the relationship between AMF in the roots of J. procera in the southwest of Saudi Arabia Kingdom and soil pH, OM and moisture which can indirectly affect the growth and development of the trees.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 SOIL AND ROOT HAIRS SAMPLE COLLECTION
Soil and root hairs sample were collected from four areas located in AL-Sarawat (AL-Janabin, Athroub, Shakr, and Hazna) with coordinates ranging from latitude of N 19° 05' to 19° 53' and longitude of E 41° 32' to 41° 43'. At intervals of 20 m, six subareas were selectively chosen. At depths of about 30 cm, five soil samples which also include the roots were randomly collected from each subarea. The roots of J. procera trees were also removed of any soil debris and collected into plastic bags to retain its moisture. There were a total of 30 samples per area and the total soil sample for each area was 30 kg. The soil and root hairs were then brought back to the laboratory for further analysis. The soil samples were subjected to pH, OM and moisture analysis, while the roots and soil were examined for AM colonization.
2.2 CLEARING AND STAINING OF ROOT HAIRS
Clearing and staining of root hairs were done according to the methods stated by Brundrett et al. (1996) by using hydrochloric acid (HCl), 0.1%, lactoglycerol, Trypan blue stain (0.05%) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) (10%). First, the root hairs were washed with water to remove any soil particles and then treated with 10% KOH (w/v) until the root hairs were sufficiently cleared. Then, the root hairs were placed in an autoclave for about 15-20 minutes at 121°C. The roots were then rinsed with water and further washed with 0.01% HCl. Before the root hairs were transferred into the staining solution (Trypan Blue 0.05%), the roots were again rinsed with water (Brundrett et al., 1996). Acidified root hairs were left overnight in the solution to be stained. Next, the stained roots were removed from the staining solution and destained with lactoglycerol. Microscopic observations were done after the roots were destained. Stained fungal structures can now be easily recognized.
2.3 SPORE ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION
According to the method proposed by Brundrett et al. (1996), AMF spores in 50 g of soil samples were isolated by the wet sieving and decanting method and subsequently subjected to sucrose centrifugation. The supernatant after centrifugation was further sieved using a 50 um sized sieve, rinsed with water and filtered through a filter paper. Three replicates were carried out for each soil sample. Isolated spores based on morphological characters were placed on slides and stained with a mixture of Melzer‘s reagent and polyvinyl alcohol- lactoglycerol (PVLG) (Morton and Benny, 1990; Koske and Tessier, 1983). The spores were then classified to the genus level by observing the colour, size, wall structure and hyphal attachment (Morton and Benny, 1990) and if possible, the species by using a microscope (CX 41 RF, Olympus Corporation, Philippines) and images were captured with a digital camera (Exwave HAD, Sony, Japan).
2.4 SOIL PH
An amount of 10 ml distilled water was added into a flask containing 10 g of soil. The mixture was stirred well and allowed to stand for 10 minutes. The mixture was then filtered with a filter paper to separate the soil from the water. The pH meter (Mettler Toledo AG) was then placed into the solution to measure the pH level (Conklin, 2005). Before measuring the pH, the ion-sensitive electrode was calibrated using a standard buffer solution of pH 7.
2.5 ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT
A small amount of soil (5 g) was oven-dried at 110°C for 2 hours and then left to cool in a dessicator before weighing. The soil was later placed inside a furnace at 500°C for 3 hours and then left to cool overnight. The incinerated soil was again placed in the desiccator before it was weighed (Wilde et al., 1972). The estimation of OM in the soil sample was obtained by using the formula below:
2.6 SOIL MOISTURE
The moisture content was determined by oven drying 100 g of soil at 105°C for 24 hours. Then, the soil was weighed and placed back into the oven to be dried again. This method was repeated until there was no change in weight loss (Yousef, 1999; Conklin, 2005). The estimation of water content was obtained by using the formula below:
2.7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The linear relationship between soil pH, soil OM and soil moisture with the percent of AMF infection was subjected to Pearson‘s Correlation Coefficient (r2 value). The Correlation Coefficient provides information on the strength of linear relationship. Values closer to 1 indicate a strong linear relationship between combinations. The relationship between soil pH and roots with the percent of AMF infection were determined by using regression analysis. All analyses were performed using Statistix® Version 7.0 (Analytical Software, Tallahassee, Florida).
3. RESULT
3.1 MYCORRHIZAL INFECTION IN J. procera
The stained roots of J. procera were observed under the microscope and found to be heavily infected with AMF about (59-79 %) a lot of endomycorrhizae. A number of endomycorrhizal structures were observed, including hyphal coils that ramify along the root cortex which produces H branches, hyphae with characteristic branching patterns and thin walled intracellular oil-filled vesicles. Thick hyphae were also observed, penetrating the intra- and intercellular region of the cortical tissue. The morphology of the AMF found in the roots of J. procera were of the typical Paris type. It was characterized by the presence of intra- and intercellular hyphal branches. Vesicles were present terminally at the tip of the intra cellular hyphal. Arbuscules were also present in the cortical cells (Figure 1a, 2a and 3a).
3.2 AMF SPORES
The spores found in the soil sample belonged to the family of Glomaceae, Gigasporaceae and Acaulosporaceae. The spores were identified as Glomus sp., Gigaspora sp., and Acaulospora sp (Figure 2a, 2b, and 2c). Glomus was observed having three layered wall which blends with the wall of the subtending hyphae. Gigaspora was characterized by the appearance of the bulbous attachment of the hyphae an the spore. Acaulospora was identified by the presence of sporiferous saccule.
3.3 SOIL PH
Figure 3 shows a significant relationship between soil pH and the percent of AMF infection on the roots of J. procera (P < 0.05). An r2 value of 0.8909 was recorded, thus showing a strong correlation between the pH value and the AMF infection rate. The pH values in the soil samples were found to be slightly alkaline ranging from around 7.2 to 7.7. A slight increase in soil pH value showed that the AMF infection rate increased considerably. At pH 7.64, around 79% of AMF was found in the root hairs, while at pH 7.21, AMF infection was only at 59%.
3.4ORGANIC MATTER
The percent of AMF infection on the roots of J. procera were significantly correlated to the percent of soil OM (P < 0.05). As the OM in the soil increased, the percent of mycorrhiza decreased (Figure 4). The OM in the soil was relatively low, recording between 3.1-11.4% of the total soil sample. The r2 value was recorded at 0.7988, showing that the relations between the two variables are strong.
3.5 SOIL MOISTURE
Soil moisture forms a strong and positive relation (Figure 5) with the percent of mycorrhiza infection (r2 =0.7501). Soil moisture significantly influenced the percent of mycorrhiza infection (PEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2103http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21031. Abbas Y, Ducousso M, Abourouh M, Azcón R and Duponnois R (2006). Diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Masters woodlands in Morocco. Ann. For. Sci., 63: 285– 291.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesTHE EFFECTIVENESS OF LIFE SKILLS TRAINING ON AGGRESSION AND DRUG CRAVINGS IN PEOPLE
DEPENDENT ON GLASS
English7783Shohreh GhorbanshiroudiEnglish Javad KhalatbariEnglish Mahsan MoshrefiEnglish Mohammad Mojtaba KeikhayfarzanehEnglishThe present study aims to consider the impact of life skills training on aggression and drug cravings in people dependent on glass. The statistical community of the present consists of all men drug users referred to the addiction center who were 200 people and 132 ones are randomly chosen based on the Morgan table. The aggression and craving to using drugs were implemented on them and then a sample of 30 addicts who had a high level of aggression and drug craving were selected are randomly involved in two groups of 15 people ( one test group and one control group). The moment drug questionnaire and aggression questionnaire were used for collecting data. The life skills training program was implemented in 10 sessions of each 45 minutes in a test group which received no kind of life skill and training. Then the life skills of the two groups were analyzed in post test after the training is finished. The results of statistical analysis using Mancova Analysis showed that the first hypnoses of life skills on people‘s aggression dependent on glass are effective in 99 %. Life skills training on those craving to drugs dependent on glass are effective with 90% confidence. The effectiveness of life skills training program on aggression and craving to drugs is confirmed with 99% confidence.
Englishlife skills, aggression, craving to drugs, glassINTRODUCTION
The history of opium abuse and dependence to it has historical roots by cultural and geographical reasons in our country. But in the past decade the use of stimulants, particularly crustal methamphetamine or the glass has become a serious issue in public health. Using drugs in Iran is changing from mere using drugs to continuous using of stimulants and drugs in this condition (Ekhtiari, 2009). When methamphetamine enters the central nervous system of CNS, the intermediate chemical dopamine is released suddenly from the brain which stimulates brain cells and increasing mood, aggressive, uncontrollable state and also physical movements. The symptoms and sings of disgruntle and depression and motor impairment as Parkinson‘s is appeared in person after a long time continuous use (Chang L, 2005). The impact of glass is different in various individuals as any other substance and depends on factors such as size, weight, health, dosage, method, history of using and whether it is combined with any other substance or not. The environmental factor overshadows the impact of using this substance in individuals. Of the factors affecting this experience is whether the person use drugs alone or with others. Crystal or glass is a strong stimulus that accelerates the central nervous system activity. For patients who use crystal as amphetamine for tolerating pain, similar symptoms can be seen similar to individuals with paranoid mental disorders and schizophrenia (Rippeth J. D, 2004). Using high dose glass can have a fatal effect on brain vessels and eventually cause death. Other physical effects commonly arising from using glass include: dry mouth, increased respiratory rate, severe headaches, nausea, high sweating of the body, dizziness, elevated blood pressure, elevated body temperature, heart palpitations, dryness, burning and cracking of the lips, enlarged pupil, lightheadedness, trembling hands and fingers. The glass has also an effect on individual‘s behavior including increasing physical movements, a kind of euphoria feeling, unrest, anxiety, aggression, violence and aggressive behavior, severe insomnia, sudden attack, panic, paranoia (dementia of suspicion) with hallucinations, vitality and high happiness, talkativeness, repeating words and simple tasks, sudden change in behavior, disorder in understanding, disorder and chaos in the kidney and lung functions, anorexia, malnutrition and extreme underweight and cardiac disorders (heart attack and heart failure due to excessive use). Due to the dependent nature of this substance, individuals are easily addicted to in terms of psychological and physical dimensions. A person who is psychologically dependent on the glass is more seeking towards it more than anything else. When an individual‘s body is accustomed to drugs and the physical dependency is occurred, the person‘s body are gradually habited to drug function in body system. The fast increasing of toleration power and dependence to glass and using high dose for achieving the desirable effect are the common reasons for using it. Feeling composure and unlimited rapture which are appeared after using the methamphetamines in individuals causes creating too much desire for more use of this material in person (2006, NIDA).
Life Skills
Life skill means the courage, competence and expertise in an activity. One of the fundamentals of each skill is the ability to perform a number of options to achieve a desirable goal. For example, if a person wants to be decisive or control aggression, he must make choice in these areas, or if someone, for instance, wants be a manager, he must make choices among management skills as establishing a good relationships among a group of people and have a dominant speaking in an audience (Nelson, 1992). People need functions in dealing with stress, different situations and conflicts in life for their capabilities to be optimized. These functions are very fundamental and are formed in transformation process. Some functions are appeared as cognitions, emotions and the behaviors constructed by self-esteem, selfefficacy, problem-solving ability, coping, selfunderstanding, social skills and style of documents (Ghasemabadi, Muhammad khani, 1998). Celark mentioned in 1991 that the functions in preparation for adult life simply describe this term. What can be seen in different definitions and is a similar theme in all definitions is a description taken by a set of skills or tasks that is given to the individual situations in adulthood (Cronin, 1996).
Reconversion and transgression
Reconversion is the time when the addicted one returns the old behavior in using the material. It is possible that they return to the stage of the cycle after their returning, though the return is when the addicted one completely back to old behavior concerning the use of drugs and then the goes along the changed cycle again from the first. How is it possible to help addicted ones in reconversion and transgression stage? The suitable support for the addicted one to reduce the damages resulted from using drugs and helps them re-treatment to the amount that a retreat does not lead to reconversion. What kind of actions to be taken when a member of family continues to use drugs despite all efforts in preventing him? (Loiness and Dana, translated by Khademi and Roushan, 2006). Having feelings of impotence and despair is normal in this situation. There are many people who are suffering from the problems the same as yours already and have found their way to save. Finding a way to help yourself is the best thing you can do for your families (Saiedi, 2002). Marie and colleagues (2009) has considered and investigated the ways for preventing the recurrence of the disease in addicted ones. This experiment shows that training skills such as coping, controlling the aggression, enhancing the self-sufficiency are effective in treating the recurrence of the disease of individual‘s disease. The cognitive and behavioral treatments have the main impact on recurrence of the disease and aggression. Rawson and colleagues (2009) considered the strategies for preventing the recurrence of the disease of drug-dependent patients. This study shows that cognitive and behavioral techniques are effective in treating the people addicted to alcohol, cocaine, marijuana and heroin. The evidences showed that increasing the level of self-sufficiency has the main effect in preventing the recurrence of the disease. Gilbert (2008) considered the ways for preventing recurrence of the disease of drug abuse and training life skills. This study was empirically implemented on several test and control group. The groups are influenced under life skills. These groups include people with drug and glass abuse. The evidences showed that life skills are effective in preventing the individual‘s recurrence of the disease in all three experimental groups. Carina (2010) had an study on the effect of life skills program on drug abuse. This study was conducted on addicted adolescents in school. The design was quasiexperimental and the data were analyzed by MANCOVA. The data analysis showed that life skills are more significant on girls than boys and have significant effects on preventing the recurrence of the disease of the disease. Sharon. F (2008) conducted a study concerning the functions of life skills programs on preventing the drug use. The life skills training program was implemented in 432 schools and the analysis factors showed that life skills training are effective in following drug use and the rate of using. Lev L.Mandel (2006) and colleagues considered the effects of life skills training in preventing drug use among school students. In this study, the prevention has had been based on test and control group in schools of the region. The collected findings showed that life skills training deals with public skills and how to deal with others. This way makes a major impact on reducing drug use.
Aggression
In one division, aggression is divided into two types: hostile aggression and instrumental aggression. Hostile aggression are the behaviors by which it aims for hurting others and are basically performed for hurting or harming people, such as one who are insulted or attacked, and or harmed. But aggression is not a means for hurting others but it is merely done for achieving aim or aims. Thus aggression is a means for achieving specific goal not to damage or physical injury to others. Although no exact definition was proposed by psychologists, most psychologists believe that aggression is a personality trait which determines individual‘s behavior in threatening and anguishing situations. Generally speaking, psychologists believe that aggression is a behavior aimed for hurting or making injury in others. The range of aggressive behaviors can be spurning, biting, humiliation, offence and violating other‘s rights. In other words, any physical and verbal behavior lead to hurting others and performed purposely is a part of aggressive behaviors ( Robin. S, Navako, 1999). Mona Goldman and colleagues (2006) had an analysis about life skills on managing disease in schizophrenia patients. She found out that drug therapy along with behavioral training is necessary in identifying the skills in these individuals. The cognitive techniques are also implemented in preventing patience recurrence including training coping, problem solving and social skills. This practice is performed in 20 sessions of one hour each. They found out that social skills are effective in decisiveness and volition. Kelly Champion and colleagues (2003) configured that life skills (social skills) have a major impact on aggression by considering the 54 adolescents convicted to being in jail. The self-report questionnaire is used in this study and they concluded that there is a relationship between life skills, self-control and decisiveness. They also mentioned that there is a mutual relationship between intrapersonal skills and conflict management.
METHOD
The research methodology is experimental and the research design is the kind of pre test – post test with control group. The research participants include 200 male addicted people referred to Raha Addiction Center in the years 2010-2011. The aggression test and drug use craving is firstly implemented on overall statistical people (200 people) in which 132 people had the concerned characteristics in all the three tests. After a clinical interview, 30 people were chosen as a simple which are randomly involved in the two groups of 15 people.
Instrument:
The moment using craving assessment questionnaire
This questionnaire has been designed for considering drug use craving as a motivation state in which 13 questions are designed by Franken and colleagues and three factors are have been analyzed and assessed. The first factor includes the inclination for using drugs (including questions 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12 and 13). The second factor considered the negative strengthening and includes questions 5, 8, 10 and 11. The third factor is control one which includes questions 3 and 7. It is worth mentioning that the question raised by Franken and colleagues and was eliminated from the questionnaire was again added to and was considered because of increasing the internal group establishment which that question was in.
Aggression questionnaire
The new version of aggression questionnaire, by which the old version was entitled as hostility questionnaire, was reviewed by Bas and Perry (1992). This questionnaire is a self-report instrument that contains 29 words and 4 subscales which include physical aggression (PA), verbal aggression (VA), anger (A) and hostility (H). Those who are tested answered to a 5 range grading as 5- it is completely similar to me, 4- it is similar to me to some extent, 3- it is similar to me and it is not similar to me, 2-It is not similar to me to some extent and 1- it is completely not similar to me. The two items of 9 and 16 are conversely marked and the general mark of aggression is achieved by the general sub-scale marks. The aggression questionnaire has an acceptable validity. The retest results obtained for the four subscales (within 9 weeks) 72% to 80% and the coefficient results among four subscales as 38% to 49%. For assessing the internal validity of the scale, the Cronbach‘s alpha was used. Which the results indicated that the internal consistency of physical aggression subscale was 82%, verbal aggression was 81%, and hostility was 80%. Implementation After choosing the sample and assigning them randomly in control and experiment group, the pre test was implemented for both groups and then life skills training was taught in 10 sessions 45 minutes each and one session each week randomly in experiment group. After the training program, the post test administered to both groups, and finally the data were analyzed using covariance analysis.
Findings The covariance analysis was used for analyzing data
Life skills training is effective on drug craving of those who addicted to glass. As the results can be seen in Table 1, there is a significant difference between adjusted averages in experiment and control groups in reducing aggression variable (ETA=0.906, P=0.001, F(1,24)=230.337). Therefore, life skills training have had an effect on reducing aggression. Life skills training is effective on drug craving of those who addicted to glass. The results in covariance table show that there is a significant relationship between the two groups in drug use craving variable. F(1,24)=125.704, P=0.001, and ETA=0.840. Therefore, life skills training has had an effect on drug use craving of those who addicted to glass.
Life Skills Training Is Effective on Aggression of Those who Addicted to Glass.
Life skills training is effective on drug craving of those who addicted to glass. The results in covariance table show that there is a significant relationship between the two groups in drug use craving variable. F(1,24)=125.704, P=0.001, and ETA=0.840. therefore, life skills training has had an effect on drug use craving of those who addicted to glass.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
the present experiment aimed to examine the impact of life skills training on aggression and drug use caving and it is concluded, based on the data resulted from this study, that the addicts who have no life skills are more interested in using drug and therefore they are inefficient in coping with it. The results of this study suggest that life skills training is effective on aggression, decisiveness and drug use craving of those who addicted to glass. Thos who communicate with hostility try to express their views, but in the meantime, they disregard the feelings of others. Although they may achieve to what they want in short time, the long-term effects of aggression is often negative. Aggressive people often make others angry or hurt their feelings by rejecting their requests. One instance of aggressive response is when the person imposes his views loudly contrary to what others want. Life skills train them how to manage their behaviors by recognizing a range of feelings including anger. Recognizing his aggressive behaviors and also those of others, Recognizing possible consequences of his aggressive behaviors and also those of others., Recognizing the behaviors cause to harm himself, Recognizing the thoughts and feelings prior to aggressive behavior, Recognizing the inner signs of anger, Practicing and learning the coping mechanisms to control anger, Appearing anger without losing control. The results of this experiment are compatible with those of Champon and colleagues (2003), Ani. A and colleagues (2008), Marios and colleagues (2008), Mary. A and colleagues (2009), Johans (2009), Gilbert (2008), Arnold (2006), Radi (2001), Ganji (2003), Sadeghie and colleagues (2004) Mehrabi and colleagues (2004) and Torki and colleagues (2005). Life skills training make possible for the referents to control their stimulus to achieve the ways for changing the temptations by stopping or directing the temptation before making it applicable. They can use opposing conditioning through replacing desires and motives by the thoughts and actions free from drug use, and finally the positive results of avoiding using drug boost the efforts of patients to manage cravings and motivation to use it in future. Because the desires and craving for using drug seems strong while appearing, it is necessary to take an attention. Because of the fact that they are occurred only in a limited time, they will be weakened and then disappeared if they are insisted. The unhealthy thoughts are appeared after facing the person with temptations and these temptations and desires are occurred just after the unhealthy thoughts. However, the referents are sometimes able to find a specific temptation or desire and then experience those unhealthy thoughts. In other cases, unhealthy thoughts cause the temptations and motives for using drugs and make more problem in facing to them. The results of this experiment are compatible with those of Mona Goldman and colleagues (2006), Reiner and colleagues (2004), Mary. E and colleagues (2009), Botoyen and colleagues (2005), Karina (2010), Sharon (2008), Lomandel and colleagues (2006), Soisher (2004), Trel and colleagues (2003), Ellen and colleagues (2002).
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2104http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21041. World Health Organization, Life Skills Training Program (1998), translated by Nouri, Ghasemabadi and Muhammad Khani, Tehran, Cultural and Prevention Affairs of Welfare Organization Press.
2. Saidi, Tehereh, (2002), ? the study of personality, family and social relations factors effective on recurrence to addiction about improved addicts, MA thesis, Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences University.
3. Luis Joudit; Dana, Robert and Blowiness, Gregori. A(1939), ? consulting with addicted ones with personal viewpoints, Translated by Khademi, Abolfazl, Roushan and Rasoul (1385), Tehran, Roshd Press.
4. Chang L .(2005). The role of psychiatric disorders in predicting drug dependence treatment out comes. The American Journal of psychiatry, vol. 160, Iss. 5
5. Cronin.M.E.(1996). "Life skills curricula for student with learning disability
6. Gilbert J. Botvin and Kenneth W. Griffin.(2008). Prevention science, drug abuse prevention, and Life Skills Training: Comments on the state of the science The centrality of critical rational reasoning in science: A response and further comments on the Life Skills Training program, the Seattle Social Development Project, and prevention studies
7. ities…" Journal of Learning disabilities .29(1).16-53
8. Karina Weichold.(2010). Do Girls Profit More? Gender-Specific Effectiveness of a Life Skills Program Against Alcohol Consumption in Early Adolescence
9. Kelly Champion, Eric Vernberg, Kimberly Shipman.(2003). No bullying victims of bullies: Aggression, social skills, and friendship characteristics Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, College of Arts and Science, Arizona State University West, P.O. Box 37100, Phoenix, AZ 85069- 7100, USA
10. Lev L.Mmandel. (2006 ).avoid truth tobacco industry promotion life skills training
11. Mary E. Larimer, Ph.D., Rebekka S. Palmer, and G. Alan Marlatt, Ph.D..(2009). Relapse Prevention. An Overview of Marlatt‘sCognitive-Behavioral Model
12. Mona Goldman, Ph.D. and Nancy Mann, RN (2006) Evaluation of Life Skills, a Model Illness Management and Recovery Program 13. Nelson- Jones- R. (1992). Life skills helping , USA: Books/cole Publishing Company.
14. NIDA (2004). Sensation seeking, puberty, and nicotine, alcohol and marijuana use in adolescence. J Am Acad child Adolescents psychiatry. Dec; 41(12): 1495-502.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesHOW RISK, COMPLEXITY AND UNCERTAINTY OVERSHADOWED BY INNOVATION: STRATEGIC
PLANNING REVIEW
English8488Vijaykumar R.SalkuteEnglishWhen starting a business, entrepreneurs take a substantial amount of risk and uncertainty. In recent times, how we can find a clue to deal with a world that is a complex which is still unanswered. Thus dealing with uncertainty and complexity are becoming increasingly important. Risk refers to situations in which the outcome of an event is unknown but the decision maker knows the range of possible outcomes and the probabilities of each such that anyone with the same information and beliefs would make the same prediction. Uncertainty, by contrast, characterizes situations in which the range of possible outcomes is unknown. Strategic management theory helps provide knowledge into the empire of uncertainty i.e. strategic planning. One of the key to make the future manageable despite its complexity might be due to future developments based on past and present experiences.
Englishrisk, complexity; uncertainty; strategic entrepreneurship; strategic planning; small business;1 INTRODUCTION
The question as to how to deal with a world that is complex which is still difficult to answer. According to Marx (1852) – we can learn from the past but we need to be aware of the changes from our models of the past at the same time. Change opens opportunities for exploitation through entrepreneurship and innovation. It also correlates with a decrease in certainty about the direction of change and the right choices to make, which is usually reduced through negation of uncertainty and counterarguments by specific schools of thought or practices (Lefebvre and Letiche, 1999) thus leading to ?competing‘ alternative options and perspectives. This is usually perceived as uncertainty and risk from the outside – particularly so for young and notyet-established players( Ball, S., Eckel, C., and Heracleous, M. (2010). The entrepreneurial ?change agents‘ in the process of ?creative destruction‘ (Schumpeter, 1934) contribute themselves to increasing change and complexity: ?(t)he entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to it and exploits it as an opportunity‘(Drucker, 1986). Drucker (1986) argues that entrepreneurship and innovation should not be based in intuition but in the organised and systematic search for opportunities. ?Entrepreneurship is ?risky‘ mainly because so few of the so-called entrepreneurs know what they are doing (Daruvala, D., 2007). They lack the methodology‘ (Drucker, 1986). However, as entrepreneurs shift resources from areas of low productivity and yield to areas of higher productivity and yield it should actually be less risky than optimizing existing products, services and processes(Neilson, W. S. (2010). To be less risky in practice, entrepreneurship needs to be ?systematic,… managed (and) above all it needs to be based on purposefull innovation‘(Drucker, 1986). Drucker (1986) further argues that innovation stems from the unexpected, where assumptions about developments and their causes deviate from reality – which entails the major risk for management of established and entrepreneurial ventures(Wakker, P. P, 2008). At first we discuss certainty and uncertainty based on Knight and Blau followed by complexity based on Schumpeter, then research into strategic planning in entrepreneurial ventures, followed by implications to be drawn.
2 Certainty and uncertainty
Uncertainty characterizes situations in which the range of possible outcomes is unknown. Thompson (1967) regards uncertainty appears as the fundamental problem for complex organizations and coping with uncertainty as the essence of the administrative process. Knight discussed strategies of business organizations in relation to issues of planning certainties. Knight (1921) argues that modern dynamic economic societies do not meet this premise. ?With uncertainty absent, man's energies are devoted altogether to doing things; it is doubtful whether intelligence itself would exist in such a situation. With uncertainty present, doing things, the actual execution of activity, becomes in a real sense a secondary part of life; the primary problem or function is deciding what to do and how to do it‘ (p.268). Knight‘s (1921) premise is that we are in a world of dynamics and related uncertainties. If we want to understand the economic system adequately, we have to arrive at a better understanding of uncertainties and corresponding zones of complexities. Expectations and certainties are separated by the issue of uncertainty. Langlois and Everett (1992) are convinced: ?by contrast, genuine uncertainty may be best dealt with by a large number of small organisations who can try out different paths. This genuine uncertainty calls for system-wide trial-and-error learning. To put it another way, genuine uncertainty is best dealt with by entrepreneurs capable of imaginative leaps when the structure of the problem is unknown.
3 Uncertainty and the Entrepreneur
Entrepreneurs are treated as agents to introduce new inputs into the economy. Schumpeter defined an entrepreneur as a person who comes up with ?new combinations‘ (new goods, new methods of production, new markets, new sources of supply, new organizations of any industry or combinations between these items), which are commonly called innovation. The activity of entrepreneurs is fundamental for economic development. Entrepreneurship is regarded as an institution, which has to carry out the function to provide innovations. According to Schumpeter, the economic function of entrepreneurship is to initiate and to continue the process of creative destruction as the ?permanent storm of capitalist development‘. In this view, entrepreneurs act as personifications of economically necessary functions of economic change. Schumpeter‘s definition is remarkable since he considers only those economic actors as who create ?new combinations‘ and this almost risk taking with credited capital. In this sense, entrepreneurial being is ?not a profession and as a rule not a lasting condition‘ (Schumpeter, 1963).
4 Entrepreneurial change and managerial challenge
Change opens opportunities for exploitation through entrepreneurship and innovation. It also correlates with a decrease in certainty about the direction of change and the right choices to make, which is usually reduced through negation of uncertainty and counterarguments by specific schools of thought or practice (Lefebvre and Letiche, 1999), thus leading to a proliferation of ?competing‘ alternative options and perspectives. This is usually perceived as uncertainty and risk from the outside – particularly so for young and not-yet-established players. The entrepreneurial ?change agents‘ in the process of ?creative destruction‘ (Schumpeter, 1934) contribute themselves to increasing change and complexity: ?(t)he entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to it and exploits it as an opportunity? (Drucker, 1986). In the following we argue that the creation of a business plan is a learning process that requires a planner/strategist to systematically think through the elements of his business concept and alternative developments. In the process he becomes aware of the assumptions on which scenarios rest. However, the actual record of planning seems mixed at best as argued by Mintzberg (1994) for large organizations. The record for more agile and flexible organizations might be better, but a deeper analysis reveals that it is not.
5 Strategic planning as learning tool
Strategic planning can be used as a systematic approach to conquer uncertainty and complexity. Large parts of the academic literature understand planning as a key to business success (CrawfordLucas, 1992). However, several scientific studies stress the fact that planning is rarely prevalent in SMEs. Smaller businesses often prepare formal plans only on an irregular basis, and behaviour and decisions often are based rather on intuition than thorough planning. Even though the relationship between planning and performance has been in the centre of interest of numerous scientific studies, it has been widely dealt with in a black-box way and no consistent results have been presented up to now: Researching the relationship between planning and business success, some studies present a positive relation [e.g., Schwenk and Shrader (1993), and others find mixed results Shrader et al. (1989)] or even fail to identify any relationship (e.g., Robinson and Pearce, 1983). Thus, the planning-performance relationship in small businesses has stayed inconclusive. Even though a number of studies failed to identify a positive effect of planning for small and young ventures, we highlight the indirect contribution to management, as formal strategic planning enhances management skills through the process of business planning. With an increase in size, strategic planning gets more formal and elaborate in keeping with Blau‘s (1974) arguments and Chandler‘s observations. A business plan provides information on key questions about the vision a young enterprise strives to realise, and the operational details about how it plans to get there (Honig and Karlsson, 2004). We understand written business plans as a systematic ?summary‘ of all strategic activities and assumption-based plans in a company. In that respect they follow Drucker‘s (1986) call for a systematic approach to innovative, entrepreneurial activities. In this vein, we assess business plans as a systematic learning device for dealing with uncertainty and complexity and their catalytic effect on success. Drawing up a business plan promotes critical thinking, group decisions (Baker et al., 1993) and forces the management to actively deal with and explicitly formulate goals, strategies and plans of the enterprise. Thus, the management learns more about possible alternatives, its environment and discovers logic flaws in planning based solely on thinking from step to step.
6 DISCUSSIONS
If complexity and speed of planning do not match the dynamics and the complexity of the environment, then planning might not have the desired results or even do harm – transferring the requisite variety lesson from systems science (Ashby, 1956). Planning marks successful companies as it aids the enterprise to better understand the circumstances of its business and prepare for the future. Accordingly, planning can be helpful for coping with the insecurities of business, and thus brings a beneficial value for the future for young companies above pure capital acquisition. Strategic planning especially helps saving time and enhances management professionalism after a company‘s start-up. Producing a business plan may facilitate entrepreneurs‘ recognition of the breadth and complexity of their business. Therefore, a business plan should not be limited to the start-up of an enterprise, but instead also used as a continuous working document for planning (Hormozi et al., 2002).
7 CONCLUSION
Since the situation of SMEs, and here particularly young enterprises, is often less ?proven‘ and their ?strategies‘ are less explored over time, tools useful to them will have to enable young and small organisations to deal with external uncertainty and complexity. Such tools need to enable them to build their vision, find and expand their niche (while larger organisations need strategic tools often to deal with their internal complexity). To conclude: SMEs are challenged particularly by the uncertainty of future developments. Planning can help to make uncertain developments more ?controllable‘. The tool to do so is a business plan, as it requires entrepreneurs/managers to start thinking and learning about potential future conditions and developments. Despite practical shortcomings of this tool, and some gaps in the literature, business plans can serve as a particularly relevant element in entrepreneurial success.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2105http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21051. Ashby, W.R. (1956) An Introduction to Cybernetics, Chapman and Hall, London.
2. Ball, S., Eckel, C., and Heracleous, M. (2010). Risk aversion and physical prowess: prediction, choice and bias. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 41(3), 167–193.
3. Baker, W.H., Addams, H.L. and Davis, B. (1993) ?Business planning in successful small firms‘, Long Range Planning, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp.82–88.
4. Crawford-Lucas, P.A. (1992) ?Providing business plan assistance to small manufacturing companies‘, Economic Development Review, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.54– 58.
5. Daruvala, D. (2007). Gender, risk and stereotypes. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 35(3), 265–283.)
6. Drucker, P. (1986) Innovation and Entrepreneurship, HarperCollins, New York.
7. Honig, B. and Karlsson, T. (2004) ?Institutional forces and the written business plan‘, Journal of Management, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp.29–48.
8. Hormozi, A.M., Sutton, G.S., McMinn, R.D. and Lucio, W. (2002) ?Business plans for new or small businesses: paving the path to success‘, Management Decision, Vol. 40, No. 8, pp.755–763
9. Knight, F.H. (1921) Risk, Uncertainty and Profit, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
10. Langlois, R. and Everett, M. (1992) ?Complexity, genuine uncertainty, and the economics of organization‘, Human Systems Management, Vol. 11, pp.67–75.
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13. Mintzberg, H. (1994) ?The fall and rise of strategic planning‘, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 72, No. 1, pp.107–114.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEFFICACY OF DEEP TRANSVERSE FRICTION MASSAGE ON SUPRASPINATUS TENDINITIS - A
RANDOMIZED PILOT TRIAL STUDY
English8995H.KarvannanEnglish R.D.ChakravartyEnglish V.PremEnglishBackground Deep transverse friction massage (DTFM) is a technique popularized by Dr. James Cyriax for pain and inflammation relief in musculoskeletal conditions. The study aimed to assess the efficacy of DTMF on treating patients with supraspinatus tendinitis (SST) of the shoulder joint.
Methodology A total 20 participants‘ (n=20) were met the inclusion criteria and were randomly allocated into the study and the control group in this pilot trial. A Pretest and Posttest measurement of Visual Analog Scale and Active Pain free shoulder Range of Motion was documented before and after the trial , Study group underwent DTMF , Therapeutic ultrasound, shoulder stabilization and strengthening exercises, the Control group underwent therapeutic ultrasound , shoulder stabilization and strengthening exercise. Dependent ‘t‘ test was used to show the effectiveness of interventions between groups.The data were analysed using SPSS 16.0 version (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA)
Results Both the groups showed the significant reduction in the intensity of pain and increase in Active pain free Range of Motion of the shoulder Joint. The obtained ?t‘ value with independent ?t‘ test shows the study group is effective than control group.
Conclusion Our results showed improvements on pain severity, and ROM of the patients SST with DTMF, therapeutic ultrasound and exercise. This study concludes DTMF are the valuable components in
the comprehensive rehabilitation of participants with SST of the shoulder joint.
EnglishDeep Transverse Friction Massage, Therapeutic ultrasound, Supraspinatus tendinitis, Visual Analog scale, Range of MotionINTRODUCTION
Conditions causing shoulder pain are common and contribute substantially to the musculoskeletal morbidity of the community1 . Moving the shoulder allows placement of the hand, hence compromised shoulder mobility impacts substantially on the performance of tasks essential to daily living (e.g. dressing, personal hygiene, eating and work). In addition, shoulder pain is often associated with impaired ability to sleep, so affecting mood and concentration. People with shoulder pain have been shown to score substantially less than normal values on the SF-36 (a standardised measure of general health) for physical function, social function, physical role function, emotional role function and pain2, 3 . Supraspinatus tendon of shoulder joint is particularly vulnerable to degenerative change, particularly in the elderly 4 . Codman 5 suggested the presence of a ?critical zone‘ of relative avascularity close to the point of insertion of the supraspinatus tendon. This may be affected by the position of the shoulder 6 and increase with age 7 . Moseley and Rothman and Parke reported the 'critical zone' at the supraspinatus tendon where the vasculature of this structure could be affected during movement. Chronic irritation of this poorly vascularized region may lead to an inflammatory response which in turn may cause tendinitis8, 9 . There are ample treatment used in the management of tendon disorders like Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, Corticosteroid injections and various Physical therapy interventions ( cryotherapy , therapeutic ultrasound ,LASER, Manual therapy techniques like deep transverse friction massage, soft tissue mobilization, and Extra corporeal shock wave therapy ).10 Deep transverse friction massage (DTFM) is a technique popularized by Dr. James Cyriax for pain and inflammation relief in musculoskeletal conditions11,12. DTFM may be part of a physiotherapy program offered in the treatment of various musculoskeletal conditions. DTFM is a technique that attempts to reduce abnormal fibrous adhesions and makes scar tissue more mobile in sub-acute and chronic inflammatory conditions by realigning the normal soft tissue fibers 13, 14. It has been indicated that DTFM also enhances normal healing conditions by breaking cross bridges and preventing abnormal scarring. Its mechanical action causes hyperaemia, which results in increased blood flow to the area13 . There were only two randomized controlled trials on DTFM one on the treatment of extensor carpi radialis tendinopathy (lateral epicondylopathy) and the other on the iliotibial band friction syndrome15 . Studies could not be retrieved on DTFM on supraspinatus tendinitis, Hence the current Randomized pilot trial aimed to study the effectiveness of Deep Transverse Friction Massage on Supraspinatus tendinitis.
METHODOLOGY
A Randomized Pilot Trial study was conducted at Manipal Hospital Bangalore, Ethical approval has been taken from the Institutional review board and Informed consent was taken from the participants. Participants presenting with clinical signs and symptoms indicating supraspinatus tendinitis are recruited in this study. The inclusion criteria was age group between 18 and 75 years, and has a symptom of more than four weeks, main complaints in the glenohumeral joint region or the proximal arm, presence of one of the following signs indicating supraspinatus tendinitis: Neer impingement test, Hawkins-Kennedy impingement test, painful arc with active abduction or flexion, pain with one of the following resistance tests: external rotation, internal rotation, abduction, or flexion. Exclusion criteria was participants with diagnosed instability or previous history of dislocation, primary scapulothoracic dysfunction due to paresis, adhesive capsulitis (frozen shoulder), substantial shoulder weakness or loss of active shoulder function, shoulder surgery in the last 12 months on the involved side, reproduction of symptoms with active or passive cervical movements, neurological involvement with sensory and muscular deficit, Randomization and allocation concealment was performed to either study group or control group using block randomization, following informed consent and baseline assessment of participants.
Procedure
All participants had undergone a clinical examination process starting with a thorough history taking, followed by a physical examination of the cervical spine, the shoulder girdle, and the shoulder joints. All joints are manually assessed with passive, active, and combined angular movements, and with translatory tests according to the description of Maitland 16. Isometric resistance tests are used to judge shoulder strength and pain. Integrity of the rotator cuff is assessed with the external rotation lag sign 17, the lift off test 18, and the horn blowers' sign 19 involvement of the neural system with upper limb tension tests described by Butler 20. Contributing factors such as a slouched posture, forward head position, thoracic kyphosis, or protracted shoulders are noted and if necessary also assessed in detail. Both groups received therapeutic ultrasound, stabilization exercise and supraspinatus strengthening exercise (full can exercise, horizontal abduction). Therapeutic ultrasound a common physical treatment for tendon disorders. Ultrasound waves are transmitted from a transducer to a patient via a coupling Medium (such as a gel). Ultrasound has a thermal effect on tissues, causing local heating, although this may be attenuated by the use of a pulsed (intermittent) process. Despite the popularity of therapeutic ultrasound there is little clinical evidence demonstrating its efficacy 21-23 .Therapeutic ultrasound was administered in 1 MHZ for 10 minutes with an intensity of 0.8 W/cm2 with a total of 12 sessions, 4 times in a week for 3 weeks. Study group underwent DTMF in addition to the control group treatment procedure and was administered to the participants in sitting with the arms placed behind his or her back .In this position the tendon is bent through a right angle and exposed in the sagittal plane ( brings the tendon out from the acromion ). The Physical therapist finger?s directed to the lesion and transverse to the direction of the muscle fibers in circular movements with the tendon receveing the DTMF appropriately tensioned and the friction applied over the site of lesion, and the depth of friction was administered tolerable to the patient11, 12, and the treatment duration is about 15 minutes and given a total of 12 sessions with 4 sessions a week for about 3 weeks‘ time. Pain intensity was recorded in a 10 cm Visual Analog Scale (VAS) with 0 indicating no pain and 10 indicating more severe pain, and the active pain free shoulder Range of Motion (ROM) was assessed in a standard goniometer. A pretest measurement of pain Active pain free shoulder ROM was measured and documented before the commencement of the treatment and the participants was assessed at the end of twelve sessions of treatment and posttest measurement was documented for analysis.
Outcome measure
Selection criteria for the outcome measures used in this study were their reliability and validity in relation to the study population, the main focus is on pain and ROM. The primary outcome measure used in this study is Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and the secondary outcome measure is Active pain free Range of Motion (ROM).
Data Analysis
In this Randomized pilot trial the statistical method used to show the effectiveness of the study and the control group was dependent?t‘ test. And the combined standard deviations values of both groups was obtained and the independent?t‘ test is performed to show the effectiveness.
RESULTS
A total of 42 participants were visited our physical therapy department with shoulder pain out of which 20 participants were met the inclusion criteria( n=20) irrespective of gender and age they randomly allocated in to the study and control group .The pretest and posttest VAS in cms is shown in (Table 1). The dependent?t‘ value of study group is 8.9 and control group is 8.3 the obtained?t‘ value for both groups is compared with the two tailed table value with 9 degrees of freedom 2.26 while comparing it shows both the group decreases pain effectively, using the independent?t‘ test?t‘ value is 2.640 this ?t‘value is greater than one tail table value 2.10 with 18 degrees of freedom at p=0.05 respectively. This shows the treatment given in study group decreases pain effectively than the control group. The pretest and posttest Active pain free shoulder range of motion in degrees is shown in (Table 2) for study group and (Table 3) for control group. The shoulder ROM (flexion, extension, abduction, internal rotation, external rotation , were analyzed with dependent ?t‘value .The dependent ?t‘value in flexion, extension, abduction, internal rotation, external rotation in study group was 6.40,8.44,,7.3,8.0,9.5 and the control group was 2.36,6.3,5.7,6.4,8.0 respectively. The obtained ?t‘value for both the groups is compared with the two tailed table value with nine degrees of freedom 2.26 while comparing it shows the both the groups shows a significant increase in range of motion. Using the independent ?t‘ test the ?t‘ value is 2.37,4.08,2.87,3.02,3.27 in flexion ,extension ,abduction ,internal rotation and external rotation respectively ,the obtained ?t‘ values is greater than the one tail table value 2.10 with 18 degrees of freedom at p=0.05 respectively. Hence the treatments given in the study group increases shoulder Range of Motion effectively than the treatment given in the control group.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study indicated that both DTMF combined with therapeutic ultrasound and exercise showed significant improvements in pain severity, ROM measurements. Both groups showed improvements in pain severity, ROM measurements. Improvements in both groups may be due to additional application of therapeutic ultrasound and exercise program. Deborah Swan Downing and Arthur Weinstien24 in his double blind trial shown both Ultrasound and exercise can be considered to contain certain properties that might lead to an eventual reduction of pain and increase in range of motion. Exercise, however, possibly has such a profound beneficial effect that it masked any minor benefit from Ultrasound. But Ultrasound and exercise usually are prescribed together for the treatment of adhesive capsulitis, tendinitis, or bursitis of the shoulder and, thus, the above concern is more theoretical than practical. Nagrale et al 25 in his study demonstrated that Cyriax physiotherapy is superior to treatment approach compared to phonophoresis and exercise in management of lateral epicondyalgia, this study with the obtained independent ?t‘ test value demonstrates the DTMF combined with therapeutic ultrasound and exercise shown effectiveness than the therapeutic ultrasound and exercise, however the small population size ,small follow up duration a Randomized Pilot trial limits the study. Further studies with large samples, longer follow up durations were required to demonstrate its efficacy, frequency and duration.
CONCLUSION
Both groups showed a significant improvement in pain and Range of Motion, however study group showed detectable changes than the control group. Our results showed improvements on pain severity, and ROM of the patients with SST with the therapy program of DTMF, therapeutic ultrasound and exercise. Finally this study concludes DTMF are the valuable components in the comprehensive rehabilitation of participants with supraspinatus tendinitis of the shoulder joint.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2106http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21061. Bjelle A. Epidemiology of shoulder problems. Balliere’s Clinical Rheumatology 1989; 3:437–451.
2. Beaton D, Richards L. Measuring Function of the Shoulder. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 1996; 78-A: 882–90.
3. Gartsman GM, Brinker MR, Khan M, Karahan M. Self-assessment of general health status in patients with five common shoulder conditions. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery 1998; 7(3):228–237
4. Rees J, Wamuo I, Jan W, Gibson T. Ultrasound evaluation of shoulder pain and restriction in the elderly. British Society for Rheumatology Annual Meeting, April 2004; 43(Suppl 2):ii73
5. Codman EA. The shoulder: rupture of the supraspinatus tendon and other lesions in or about the subacromial bursa. Boston, MA: Thomas Todd, 1934.
6. Rathbun JB, Macnab I. The micro vascular pattern of the rotator cuff. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1970; 52:540–53.
7. Ling SC, Chen CF, Wan RX. A study on the vascular supply of the supraspinatus tendon. Surg Radiol Anat 1990; 12:161–5.
8. Moseley, H.F. The vascular supply of the rotator cuff. Surgical Clinics of North America 1963; 43, 1521-1522
9. Rothman, R.H. and Parke, W.W. The vascular anatomy of the rotator cuff. Clinical Orthopaedics 1965; 41, 176-186.
10. J. D. Rees, A. M. Wilson and R. L. Wolman. Current concepts in the management of tendon disorders. Rheumatology 2006; 45:508–521.
11. Cyriax J. Diagnosis of soft tissue lesions. In: Cyriax J editor(s). Textbook of Orthopaedic Medicine. 9th Edition. Vol. 1, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1975.
12. Cyriax J. Treatment by manipulation, massage and injection. In: Cyriax J editor(s). Textbook of Orthopaedic Medicine. 9th Edition.Vol. 2, Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1975.
13. Schwellnus MP, Mckintosh L, Mee J. Deep Transverse Frictions in the Treatment of Iliotibial Band Friction Syndrome in Athletes: A Clinical Trial. Physiotherapy 1992; 78(6):564–568.
14. Walker JM. Deep transverse frictions in ligament healing. JOSPT 1984; 6(2):89–94.
15. Brosseau L, Casimiro L, Milne S et al. Deep transverse friction massage for treating tendinitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; 4: CD003528.
16. Maitland GD: Manipulation der Wirbelsäule. 2nd edition. Berlin: Springer Verlag; 1994.
17. Hertel R, Ballmer FT, Lombert SM, Gerber C: Lag signs in the diagnosis of rotator cuff rupture. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery 1996, 5:307-313.
18. Gerber C, Krushell RJ: Isolated rupture of the tendon of the subscapularis muscle. Clinical features in 16 cases. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 1991, 73B:389-394.
19. Walch G, Boulahia A, Calderone S, Robinson AHN: The 'dropping' and 'Hornblower‘s' signs in evaluation of rotatorcuff tears. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery Br 1998, 80:624-628.
20. Butler DS: Mobilisation des Nervensystems. Berlin: Springer Verlag; 1995
21. Speed CA. Therapeutic ultrasound in soft tissue lesions. Rheumatology 2001; 40:1331–6.
22. Van der Windt DA, van der Heijden GJ, van der Berg SG, Ter Riet G, de Winter AF, Boulter LM. Ultrasound therapy for musculoskeletal disorders: a systematic review. Pain 1999; 81:257–71.
23. Robertson VJ, Baker KG. A review of therapeutic ultrasound effectiveness studies. Phys Ther 201; 81:1339–50.
24. Deborah Swan Downing and Arthur Weinstein. Ultrasound Therapy of Sub acromial Bursitis. A Double Blind Trial. Phys Ther Volume 66 / Number 2, February 1986 194-199.
25. Nagrale AV, Herd CR, Ramteke G. Cyriax Physiotherapy versus Phonophoresis with supervised exercise in subjects with lateral epicondyalgia. A Randomized controlled Trial. J Man Manip Ther 2009; 17(3):171-8.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareTHE EFFECTIVENESS OF REPETITIVE BILATERAL LEG TRAINING IN IMPROVING LOWER EXTRIMITY MOTOR FUNCTION OF HEMIPARETIC ACUTE MIDDLE CEREBRAL ARTERY STROKE PATIENTS.
English96102Sasidharan TapanEnglish N. RajeevEnglishObjective: The objective of the study was to find the effectiveness of repetitive bilateral leg training on improving lower extremity motor functions of hemi paretic patients in the geriatric age group
Methods: An experimental approach, with pre test and post test control group design was used. 30 acute middle cerebral artery(MCA) stroke patients were conveniently selected and randomly distributed in to group A and Group B. Group A received conventional physiotherapy and group B received repetitive bilateral leg training in addition to conventional physiotherapy. Groups were assessed on first and the sixth week .Tool used for outcome measurement was Fugl-Meyer lower extremity physical performance scale(FMA) for measuring lower extremity motor function . Statistical analysis of data was done using student t test with SPSS software package.
Result: It was found that lower extremity function and ADL improved significantly more in the experimental group (Group A) in comparison to control group (Group B).
Conclusion: Repetitive bilateral leg training is a clinically simple and cost effective method for improving lower extremity motor and ADL functions of post MCA stroke hemi paretic geriatric patients .
EnglishRepetitive bilateral leg training, Middle cerebral artery stroke, Geriatric population.INTRODUCTION
Stroke is defined as a neurological deficit of cerebro vascular cause that persists beyond 24 hours or is interrupted by death within 24 hours1 . It is one of the most common causes of death and disability worldwide and leaves the survivors with significant physical and mental disability thus creating a major social and economical burden. The incidence of stroke increases dramatically with age , doubling every decade after 55. For the American white men aged 65-74 the incidence is about 14.84% , above 75 it is 24.6% and for 85 and older it is 27%.Incidence of stroke dramatically increases with age and increase in age is the single most powerful risk factor for stroke2 .By 2025 the world population is expected to include over 830 million people above 65 and most will live in developing countries like India, making it a major concern for the nation3 . The middle cerebral artery (MCA) is the single most common site of stroke. The term cardio vascular accident(CVA) is used interchangeably with stroke very often. Stroke can be of either ischemic or hemorrhagic variety. MCA stroke is characterized by common features such as contra lateral spastic hemi paresis or hemiplegia and sensory deficit of face, arm and leg with face and arm more involved than the leg. Lesions of the parieto-occipital cortex of the dominant hemisphere can produce aphasia .Motor deficits are characterized by either hemiplegia or hemi paresis typically on the side of body opposite to the site of lesion4 . Stroke is the largest consumer of rehabilitation services. Stroke is the third leading cause of death and there is a great need of physical rehabilitation in the initial phase after stroke5 . Physiotherapists have a major role in the hospital based ?inpatient‘ rehabilitation setting and in the community based rehabilitation settings6 . Re education of motor and functional abilities are the main targets of treatment by the physiotherapist. However the traditional methods have shown to improve the function only minimally and bilateral leg training was found to be an effective method in improving upper limb motor function7 . So in this study the investigator checks the effectiveness of repetitive bilateral leg training in improving the lower extremity motor function in post stroke hemi paretic patients of geriatric age group.
MATERIALS
Knee hammer
Standard 2 inch and .5 inch straps Static cycle Fugl Meyer Lower Extremity score Data collection sheet Essential stationary materials METHODOLOGY Prior sanction was obtained from the authorities, including ethical clearance, to conduct the study under the supervision of a consultant neurologist in PVS hospital, Calicut. Subjects were informed about the purpose of proposed research study .Referred patients with either left or right hemi paretic stroke were conveniently selected for the study on the basis of inclusion and exclusion criterias. Using random sampling subjects were then divided in to Group A or control group and Group B or experimental group. Both groups were assessed on the first day of treatment and after completion of their course of treatment. The control group was given 40 minutes of conventional physiotherapy for 6 days a week for 6 weeks. Outcome measures used were Fugl Meyer scale for assessing lower extremity motor performance. Experimental group was given 40 minutes of bilateral leg training in addition to conventional physiotherapy and a rest period of 1 minute was provided after each single group of exercises. Conventional physiotherapy group underwent 4 different types of exercises. Each single movement was repeated 10 times in patient‘s comfortable speed. First group of exercises were Active assisted range of motion(ROM) exercises for both upper and lower limbs which included 1)Elevation-depression, protraction- retraction of shoulder girdle.2)Abduction-adduction , Flexion-extension of glenohumeral joint.3)Flexion extension of elbow joint.4) supination-pronation of radio-ulnar joints.5) Flexion-extension and radial-ulnar deviations of wrist joint.6)Flexion- extension of metacarpophalangeal joint.7)Flexion-extension exercises of interphalangeal joint. In the lower limb following exercises were performed in patient‘s comfortable speed. 1) Flexion-extension in side lying, abduction-adduction and internal-external rotation in supine lying of hip joint.2) Flexionextension of knee joint.3) Dorsi-plantar flexion of ankle joint.4) Inversion-eversion of sub talar joints. Second group of exercises were Functional mobility exercises which included 10 repetitions of following movements. Third group was functional mobility exercises which included 1) Bed mobility exercises including rolling to affected side, rolling to un affected side, bridging of pelvis, prone on elbows, prone on hands, supine lying to sitting.2)Sitting to standing without assistance.3) Walking on parallel bar,4)Walking without support/assistive devices,5)Stair climbing exercises(five steps with assistance or support rails).Third group of exercises included Peg board activities for upper limb .Fourth group was balance training exercises including forward back ward steeping on wobble board ,braiding, manual perturbations sideways forwards and back words. The experimental group received bilateral leg training in addition to conventional physiotherapy. Bilateral leg training was given on supine lying, sitting positions and on a bicycle. The movements were started as active assisted movements and then progressed to active movements and to resisted movements depending on the improvements shown by patients. Each treatment session lasted for around 40 minutes and a rest period was provided after a single joint movement. Bilateral training consisted of two segments; ROM exercise and static cycling. ROM exercises included both symmetrical and asymmetrical movements of flexion-extension, abductionadduction, and medial-lateral rotation of hip joint. Both symmetrical and asymmetrical movements were repeated for 20 times and static cycling performed for 15-20 minutes. Statistical methods Statistical test used was students t Test. With in groups Pre and post test scores were compared using paired t test and between groups pre and post test scores were compared using unpaired t test. Level of significance was kept at .05. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 17.
RESULTS
Pre test scores didn‘t show significant difference between two groups proving the homogeneity of the groups (t=2.010, sig=.145).Group A did show significant difference between pre and post test scores (t=7.858 sig=.05).Similarly group B also did show significant difference between pre and post test scores (t=11.1847, sig=.05). On comparison of post test scores between two groups also there was significant difference (t=2.4772, sig=.05).
DISCUSSION
Statistical tests proved that there was significant difference between pre test and post test groups of both experimental and control groups. But post test score of experimental group was found to significantly higher than that of control group proving that bilateral leg training is a superior method to conventional physiotherapy in improving lower limb motor function in acute hemi paretic MCA stroke patients. The better results obtained in the experimental group may be justified by the following findings. Practicing bilateral movements in synchrony and in alteration may result in facilitation effect from non paretic limb to paretic limb. When bimanual movements are initiated simultaneously, the limbs act as s unit that supersedes the individual limb action indicating that both limbs are strongly linked as coordinated unit in the brain8,9.Another proposed mechanism that is relevant here is neural plasticity. It refers to the fact that brain is malleable like plastic than being bare wired as previously thought. Researches shown that even a simple novel thumb movement sequence repeated over a time induced lasting cortical representation changes and these changes enlarge as learning occurs10- 12. Similarly other task specific repetitive practice regimens like constraint induced movement therapy too produced such kind of improvements. Another factor known as ?entraint‘ is suggested to be an important factor behind the effectiveness of bilateral training. It is better demonstrated by an example. Imagine signing ones first name on a chalk board using the non dominant hand at normal speed, but moving in direction opposite to normal. Even with practice this is very difficult to master. When attempting the task again with simultaneously writing using the dominant hand, it becomes easier. More importantly two hands appear to be locked together as the experiment demonstrates our limb; both upper and lower are indeed locked in what is commonly termed as entrainment13 . Related research suggested that limbs are spatially and temporally entrained that may be reason bilateral training is useful in relearning activities that are mutually bilateral such as walking14,15 . Role of contra lateral hemisphere is another important factor behind the effectiveness of bilateral training. Functional MRI studies had shown that damaged hemisphere had increased blood flow when bilateral movements were made. These data are consistent with the idea that activity of undamaged hemisphere might support damaged hemishere16.Similarly proprioceptive and visual feedback from the unaffected side is a very important factor in stroke rehabilitation. When performing bilateral training a patient can use the unaffected extremities neurologically intact afferent and efferent signals and look and feel of that movement within that limb, to promote similar movement in the affected limb17 . This study Suggests that a bilateral training program for the lower extremities of post stroke hemi paretic patients leads to significant gain in motor functions. This method appears simple and so it will be a useful training method in home for many stroke patients. What aspects of bilateral training lead to brain changes are still not very clear. So the future goal should be to systematically determine the most effective protocol for each patient.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2107http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21071. World Health Organization (1978). Cerebrovascular Disorders (Offset Publications). Geneva: World. ISBN 9241700432. OCLC 4757533
2. O‘Sullivan S B, Schmitz Thomas J , Physical rehabilitation-Assessment and treatment. 5th Ed. New Delhi: Jaypee brothers; 2007.PP 705-707,711-713.
3. Beers M.H, Berkow R, editors. The Merck manual of geriatrics.3rd Ed. White house station ( Nj): Merck research laboratories ;2003.
4. Carr J.H, Shepherd R B. Motor relearning program for stroke. 1st Ed .Woburn (MD): Butterworth and Heinman; 2000.
5. Gordon Mcir Gites, Jo Clarck Wilson. Brain injury rehabilitation-A neurofunctional approach. London: Chapman and Hall; 1993.
6. Harrison M. A, Ashburn. Physiotherapy in stroke management.1st Ed. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1995. PP 273-74.
7. Myers RS. Saunders manual of physical therapy practice. 1st Ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 1995. PP 385-392.
8. Classen J. Liepest J et al. Rapid plasticity of human cortical representation induced by practice. J Neurophysiol .1998; 79(2):117- 1123.
9. Colleen A, Hanton B.S et al. New brain networks are active after right MCA stroke when moving the ipsilateral arm. Neurology.Jan2005:114-120.
10. Crammes SC, Bastings EP. Mapping clinically relevant plasticity after stroke. Neuropharmacology. 2000:39; 842-851.
11. Joachim L, Heike B et al. Treatment induced cortical reorganization after stroke in humans. Stroke. 2000:31; 1210.
12. Lenois GN, Wagner A et al. Experimental stroke therapy linked to brain changes. Stroke. June2005.
13. Neurophysiological and behavioural adaptations to a bilateral training intervention in individuals following stroke. Clinical Rehabilitation: Vol 18, Feb 2004; 48-59.
14. SJ Page, P Levine et al.A randomized efficacy and feasibility study of imagery in acute stroke. Clinical rehabilitation. 2001.
15. Jong SH, Kin Y et al. Cortical reorganization induced by task oriented training in chronic hemiplegic stroke patients. Neuro report. 2003:14(1) 137-141.
16. Staines WR, Mclloy WE et al. Bilateral movement enhances ipsilateral cortical activity in acute stroke- A pilot functional MRI study. Neurology 2001:56(3); 401-404.
17. Paje SJ, Peter Levine. Bilateral training aids rehabilitation progression. Biomechanics.Sept 2005.
18. Paje sJ, Johnson M, Levin P et al. Modified constraint induced therapy after sub acute stroke. A preliminary study. Neurorehabil neurorepair. 2002:16(3); 290-295.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareROLE OF EXISTING BASIC HEALTH UNITS IN FULFILLING THE COMMUNITY HEALTH OBJECTIVES
OF DISTRICT JAIPUR
English103108Sandesh Kumar SharmaEnglish S. S. ChowhanEnglish Kiran SharmaEnglishObjective: Importance of Role of Management to improve working of Basic Health Units at gross root level which include Primary Health Care Centres (PHC) and Sub-Centers in deliverance of Quality Health Services through practical measures.
Design: A qualitative study
Place and Duration: Study was conducted in Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Methodology: The Basic Health Units of Jaipur were taken as a model for Study and was
carried out in following steps
Survey: Physical survey was carried out at PHC and Sub-Centers. ?Interviews: Interviews through personal interaction with all stake holders of basic health units of Jaipur involving health care providers which included Doctors, ANM and Dispensers.
Results: As a result of these surveys and interviews it was observed that the Service Providers lacked required degree of training, awareness and commitment.
Conclusion: At Jaipur, Health Care Facilities are far from perfection in terms of Quality. The effective and efficient health care system at basic health units is dependent on the introduction of quality management and is considered the essence of its success which is possible through training and creating awareness about its benefits.
EnglishWHO (World Health Organization), PHC (Primary Health Care Centre), ANMs (Auxilliary Nurse Midwives), LHVs Lady Health Visitors.INTRODUCTION
Health Care System in Country has been designed on the model of World class Health Care Standards adopted Universally under W H O. India has an extensive public sector service delivery infrastructure based on three tiered healthcare delivery system that is Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. Jaipur district consists of 13 Tehsils spread over vast land, with a population of 4,390,531 approximately. To provide Basic Health Services to the people of rural area of Jaipur, both Government and Private sectors have been striving hard. For this purpose the public sector has 5 primary health care centres and 36 sub-centres (Table 01). The Primary Health Centre (PHC) is looked after by a Medical Officer, Block Extension Educator, one Female Health Assistant, a Dispenser, a driver and laboratory technician. PHC is equipped with necessary facilities to carry out small surgeries (Table 02 and 03). In private sector, NIMS University is the major player to provide Health Care services to the residents of Jaipur. NIMS University has established a Health Care Service Centre in Achrol Jaipur. In Today‘s world, developing countries face serious issues of Equity and fairness in health care delivery management with even a greater need to transform the management systems and practice.2 For this purpose following steps are inevitable. (i) Training: intensive and vide spectrum of training programme in Health Care System to all the stake holders at different tiers need to be started. (ii) Qualification: Job preference for those who attend the programme and qualify for delivery and management. (iii) Benefits: Attractive salary and incentive package for medical staff combined with improved working and living conditions to those fulfilling above two conditions. Other important aspects to look into are Preservice orientation programme and regular in-service training, a supportive monitoring and supervisory mechanism.3 The stress must be on proper training of support staff which includes Auxilliary Nurse Midwives (ANMs) / Lady Health Visitors (LHVs). The Support Worker role is highly effective therefore proper training and adequate supervision is experienced and the support worker is entrusted with a considerable degree of freedom to act.4 Once the trained people come up and perform all the assigned goals, the difference will also be seen in the health statistics and in turn diminish the ever growing pressure of population in the region that has allowed rapid transmission of communicable diseases like malaria, tuberculosis (TB), leprosy, and HIV/AIDS.5 The present trend of Public Private Partnership with proper guidelines can give better results but it has to be without any political interference. Public-private interfacing in the absence of locally established principles, legislative frameworks, policies and operational strategies have been contributing to the adhoc nature of public-private engagement within the country, which has lead to skew powered relationships and lack of clarity in combined models of governance.6 Decentralization without any political influence in Health System may improve the health status. All efforts have to be concerted to support and facilitate the new system, which will mature into Institutionalization of the Health Services at the District Level. Most importantly, it will help in strengthening the Primary Health Care Services catering to the major fraction of the population.7 Assessment of the available resources, their proper allocation and efficient utilization are important considerations for providing efficient health care services. The basic resources for providing health care are:
1. Health Manpower\
2. Money and Material; and
3.Time.8
It was observed from the record and during the visit that most of PHCs and Sub-Centers staff were not trained to perform basic function like health promotion, health education for prevention of diseases and offering antenatal, postnatal services, family planning services and immunization. Out of 41 centres 5 are PHC and 36 are SubCenters of Health Department were observed most of them are without basic amenities due to carelessness resulting in faults or damage and needed repair. Record keeping an important component of any organization was also missing. The targeted goals of Health Care for the benefit of people are achievable through trained health care workers. The benefits of health care system depend ultimately on the knowledge, skills and motivation of people responsible for delivering services.9
It was observed that poverty is the root cause of poor health status and thus it is safely assumed that for a low income segment of country, improving health is all that matters.10
METHODOLOGY
A qualitative study was conducted using focus group discussions interviews to understand the quality of health services providers which included health care managers. In all, 48 interviews were conducted from health service providers comprising doctors, nurses, Auxiliary Nurse Mid-Wives (ANMs)/ Lady Health Visitors (LHVs). All participants were recruited based on convenient sampling and their availability for group discussions. The concept of Primary Health Care Centres, basic health units and its management were discussed to understand their perception about the system. Focus group interviews and in-depth discussions during the project visits to Government sector dispenseries and sub centres, it was analyzed thatmost of the health workers felt dissatisfied about the working conditions specially adequacy of man power in terms of strength, training and awareness about the system to take the fruits to the gross root level. They opened that they are forced to handle cases for which they are not trained. We gathered data from the record of different centres and modelled it for qualitative analysis which has produced the following results. Qualitative data analyses produced the following results.
RESULTS
To analyse and assess the working of Towns of Jaipur basic health units, during the period September 2009 till January 2010 total 48 interviews were conducted from health care providers. To maintain the quality service at primary health care, trained personnel is the need of the hour both in terms of professional as well as in managerial capacity, Record keeping is an important component of any organization was also noted lacking. To involve private sector in providing basic health facilities to the community because as this uphill task cannot be overcome by public health sector alone. Total health budget escalated from Rs.4,000 Crores to Rs.21,113.33 Crores ($4.35 billion) with special emphasis on rural healthcare and health for all, The budget allocation for the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) increased by Rs.2,057 Crores. Government must involve private sector by providing health care infrastructure such as land and / or tax holidays for the construction of much needed health facilities in rural area like Achrol. Staff should be taught to keep a holistic approach, for the reason that persons coming to PHC were not necessarily sick, he / she might have come for any other service offered at PHC. Political influence was described as serous issue on appointment, postings and the people who were absents from their duties. Political influence must be abandoned. Community consultation be made important in primary health care centers. With out any biases sar-panch from community should take notice of the problem of absenteeism and report it to the authorities concerned and ensure action as needed. Government should pay attention to improve facilities in primary health care setting in all B.H.U‘s, PHC‘s, Sub Centers, MCH Centers and dispensaries. Bring significant reduction in infant and maternal mortality through immunization coverage. There should be proper screening of high risk pregnancies during antenatal visits. Proper counselling on the use of any contraceptive. Training course in management and professional subjects for doctors, nursesand paramedical staff for better understand of primary health care is all about. Incentives and job preference to qualified and trained manpower only. Maximize the effectiveness and efficiency of worker by financial incentives. Supportive supervision, performance appraisal, career development and transparent promotion should be prioritized for improving the services and efficiency. By achieving above shall enable the people to take more control over their own health and other factors such as environment, social and personal which effect their health. Drugs alone will not solve the problem of disease, without health education
DISCUSSION
Study was carried out on the of the residents of Jaipur Rajasthan, one of the largest rural area of the State. We observed high population growth rate coupled with poor health status of the major percentage of the people and thus need extensive health care services, which unfortunately, is not available/accessible at the door steps of the common people of the area. One of the factors leading to the non availability of the health care services is the expensive and lengthy training process of doctors and nurses resulting in acute shortage of health care service providers, especially women.11 The research also showed that there is a need of proper training of employees in public health management to improve the health of the community due to the fact that more than 70% of population of the country lives in the rural area. This rural population of the country has peculiar social and cultural gender related values. Therefore, the Government of India must make the health care system more gender sensitive through appropriate training programs for the service providers along with wide community participation in decision-making processes.12 This study has shown that if we want to improve the health of our nation then we have to improve our basic health units i-e the infra structure, the facilities and most importantly the services. Services can be improved with human resources and that can be done by proper educating doctors, nurses and paramedical staff through educational programs working in primary health care centres. Incentives in terms of salary raise and job benefit must be given to service providers working in remote areas in order to motivate and encourage them to work in competitive and critical environments. In this process, the LHVs (Lady Health Visitors) are the first tiercontact of the health care system. Therefore, they care, teach, and train traditional birth attendants as they (LHVs) have to come across the underprivileged women of the rural area.13 This study also reveals the issue of maternal morbidity and mortality, in the area for the reason that it has less number of female trained staff which includes doctors, nurses and LHVS‘. So the staff should be increased, and the knowledge of the existing female staff should be upgraded. The organization and delivery of health care services in the last decade of the 20th century have been heavily influenced by two themes. First, the proposition delivered from high – volume providers can favourably affect the health status of patients served. The second theme is associated with the growing importance of quality of health care.14 To improve the effectiveness and efficiency of health care system in basic health units it is important to improve the quality of services. One way to achieve this is to have a team approach. This effort should not be one-sided on the part of top management only but also include the people who are working in basic health units (employee) and the community representative (sarpanch). Public private partnership is also important; in this type of partnership Private institution provides human resource for health units and in return government provides land and other incentive like tax relaxation etc. Everyone has to give hundred percent to improve the quality of services and the health of people. The objective of healthcare management is to accomplish the organizational puproses. The healthcare organization‘s purposes are ?to provide the community with the services it needs, at a clinically acceptable level of quality, at a publicly responsive level of amenity, at the possible cost? but doing so is its that simple?15 Largely the study is all about proper Training, Management, improved infra structure and incentives for the employees. With the Involvement of community, public private partnership is required to improve the health of nation. The management issues that need to be addressed on priority in the towns of Jaipur include improved monitoring and supervision, filling of vacant positions and training of staff must be the top priority of government. The health facilities require enhancement in terms of its services delivery system.
CONCLUSION
This is a small scale model study on the Management, Staff, Community and Public Private Partnership with emphasis on reducing constraints in order to improve the health of people. A health strategy has to be based on a determination of which are the leading health problems in the population, and what are the principal requirements to make the health care delivery system more effective. One major task of improving the health of the population is the development of human resources and educating health service providers. Equipping individuals and health service providers with the necessary knowledge will be a major step towards advancement of the health system. Sufficient number of Health teams and workers at all levels should develop a caring ethos and commit themselves to the improvement of the health status of their communities. Every effort should be made to ensure the improvement in the quality of services at all levels. Emphasis should be placed on reaching the poor, the underserved, the aged, women and children, who are amongst the most vulnerable and incentives must be given to health service providers for motivational purposes.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2108http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21081. Shaikh BT, KadirMM, PappasG. Thirty years of Alma Ata pledges: is devolution in Pakistan an opportunity for rekindling primary health care? J Pak Med Assoc. 2007 May;57(5):259-61
2. Javad TA, Amin S. Health sector reforms programme in Punjab: a primary healthcare initiative. Clin Med. 2007 JanFeb;7(1):19-22.
3. Smith S, Kelly A, Randhawa G.The provision of primary care interventions by community health support workers in Pak.Community Pract. 2007 Apr;80(4):18-22.
4. Mir NS. Health promotion in South East Asia. Health Millions 1998 Jul-Aug : 24(4):10-12
5. Nishtar S. The Gateway Paper--proposed health reforms in Pak--interface considerations. J Pak Med Assoc. 2006 Dec;56(12 Suppl 4):S78-93
6. Shaikh BT, Rabbani F. The district health system: a challenge that remains.East Mediterr Health J. 2004 JanMarch: 10(1-2):208-14
7. Park.K. Park‘s Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine. Jabalpur:M/s Banarsidas Bhanot, Jan 2005, 18th Edition page :693.
8. The World Health Report 2000. Health System Improving Performance. Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2000, page 77.
9. The World Health Report 2000. Health System Improving Performance. Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2000, page 08.
10. MajumdarB, AmarsiY, CarpioB. Pak community health workers Can Nurse. 1997 May;93(5):32-4.
11. Islam A. Health sector reform in Pakistan: future directions. J.Pak Med Assoc. 2002 Apr:52(4) 174-82
12. Hezekiah J. The pioneers of rural Pakistan: the Lady Health Visitors. Health Care Women Int. 1993 NovDec;14(6):493-502.
13. Tabish. A. Hospital and Health Services Administration Principles and Practice. New Delhi: Manzar Khan Oxford University Press, 2001, Page 85.
14. Nowicki. M. The Financial Management of Hospital and Healthcare Organizations, Washington, D.C.: AUPHU Press, 2001, page 03-04.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesFRACTAL DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF TAMIL NADU RAINFALL
English109113R. Samuel SelvarajEnglish Raajalakshmi AdityaEnglishIn this paper, we use fractal dimensional analysis to investigate the Tamil Nadu rainfall dynamics. We analyze the time series data of Tamil Nadu rainfall (annual, south west and northeast) using Hurst exponent. We use the rescaled range (R/S) analysis to estimate the Hurst exponent for 110 years rainfall data. The result shows a varying degree of persistence over shorter and longer time scales corresponding to distinct values of the Hurst exponent. Our studies suggest that Hurst exponent(H) of the annual rainfall of Tamil Nadu is H=1 which predicts its periodic motion, for the southwest rainfall H=0.725 i.e. the time series covers more ?distance‘ than a random walk and is a case of persistent motion and for the northeast rainfall H=0.5 the time series is purely random. Further we analysis the fractal dimension for the Tamil Nadu rainfall; however, the fractal dimension of the annual and southwest rainfall of Tamil Nadu decreases to 1, the process becomes more and more predictable as it exhibits ?persistence? behavior. The northeast rainfall fractal dimension D for the time series is 1.5, which indicates that there is no correlation between amplitude changes corresponding to two successive time intervals. Therefore, no trend in amplitude can be discerned from the time series and hence the process is unpredictable.
EnglishFractal dimensional, Hurst exponent, Persistent, Random, Unpredictable.INTRODUCTION
Tamil Nadu formerly known as Madras state is the only sub-division of the Indian union which receives more rainfall in the northeast monsoon (October-December) season than in the southwest monsoon (June- September) season. In the previous study based on 80 years rainfall data from 1891, it was found that the southeast and northeast monsoon seasons contribute about 34% and 47% respectively to the mean annual rainfall of this region1 .Thus the rainfall received in Tamil Nadu during the northeast monsoon season is of great economic value. Major agricultural operations are normally undertaken during that season. It has, however, been noted that the rainfall during northeast monsoon is highly variable2 . Therefore, if its behavior could be predicted in advance, it would go a long way toward helping the agricultural and industrial activities of the region. The southwest monsoon is a part of the equatorial westerly, and as such it is humid, unstable and of considerable vertical extent. On the other hand, the northeast monsoon is a part of the northeast trades and is comparatively dry, stable and of lesser vertical extent, about 1 to 2 Km. As a result of the fundamental differences in the origin and structure of these two monsoons, Tamil Nadu receives varying amounts of rainfall during the two rainy periods. Rao3 observed that in the same year, there is an indication that a good northeast monsoon rainfall over Tamil Nadu is generally associated with deficient or normal southwest monsoon rainfall and vice versa. Raj et al4 and Raj5 have identified a few upper air parameters that have predictive potential for northeast monsoon rainfall over Tamil Nadu and the southern region. The annual variability of Indian summer monsoon and northeast monsoon rainfall is determined by external forcings and nonlinear internal dynamics. Surface air temperature is one of the factors that influence monsoon variability. The distribution of surface air temperature over land and sea determines the locations of heat source and sink which in turn affect circulation pattern through thermal and latent heat energy exchange between atmosphere and the surface beneath. The Hurst exponent is a parameter that quantifies the persistent or anti-persistent (past trends tend to reverse in future) behavior of a time series. It determines whether the given time series is completely random or has some longterm memory. Fractal dimensional analysis of geophysical time series is a well established investigative tool for exploring the dynamics. This was initiated by Mandelbrot and Wallis in their series of seminal papers6-8 on this subject. This has been followed up by application of the techniques to various geophysical phenomena9-12 . Fractal dimensional analysis is particularly well suited to analyze the variability of a given time series.
Data
For the present study more than 110 years Tamil Nadu rainfall data is collected from the Indian meteorological department. The raw data of rainfall for the annual and seasonal months over Tamil Nadu are considered.
METHODOLOGY
To calculate the Hurst exponent, we estimate the dependence of the rescaled range on the time span w of observation. A time series of full length N is divided into a number of shorter time series of length w= N, N/2, N/4 ... The average rescaled range is then calculated for each value of n. For a (partial) time series of length n, the rescaled range is calculated as follows:
Calculate the mean;
Create a mean-adjusted series;
Calculate the cumulative deviate series Z;
Compute the range R for Z;
Compute the standard deviation S for the data;
Calculate the rescaled range R/S and average over all the partial time series of length n.
The Hurst exponent is estimated by fitting the power law to the data. To estimate the value of the Hurst exponent, R/S is plotted against w on log-log axes. The slope of the linear regression gives the value of the Hurst exponent. If the Hurst exponent (H) is 0.5, then the time series is purely random. If H>0.5, the time series covers more ?distance‘ than a random walk, and is a case of persistent motion, while if HEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2109http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21091. Dhar, O.N., Rakhecha, P.R. and Mandal, B.N., Some facts about Indian rainfall- A brief appraisal from hydrological consideration, Indian J. power river Val. Dev., (1981) 117-125.
2. Dhar, O.N., and Rakhecha, P.R. Foreshadowind northeast monsoon rainfall over Tamil Nadu, American meteorological society.,(1983) 109-111.
3. Rao, P. R. K., Rainfall of Madras state with special reference to Tamil Nadu and Rayalaseema, Indian meteor. Dept., (1953) 1-60.
4. Raj, Y.E.A., Sen, P.N and Jamadar, S.M., Outlook on northeast monsoon rainfall of Tamil Nadu, Mausam (1993) 19-22.
5. Raj, Y.E.A., A scheme for advanced prediction of northeast monsoon rainfall of Tamil Nadu, Mausam(1998) 247-254.
6. Mandelbrot, B.B., and Wallis, J.R., Some long-run properties of geophysical records, Water Resour Res (1969) 321
7. Mandelbrot, B.B., and Wallis, J.R., Noah, Joseph and operational hydrology, Water Resour Res (1968) 909
8. Mandelbrot, B.B., and Van Ness, J.W., Fractional Brownian motions, fractional noises and applications, SIAM Rev (1968) 422
9. Flugeman, Jr.R.H., and Snow, R.S., Fractal analysis of long-range paleoclimatic data: oxygen isotope record of pacific core, pure Appl Geophys (1989) 131
10. Hsui, A.T., Rust, K.A., and Kein, G.D., A fractal analysis of Quarternary, CenozoicMesozoic, and Late Pennsylvanian sea level changes, J Geophys Res (1993) 98
11. Turcotte, D.L., Fractals and chaos in geology and geophysics. New York, Cambridge University press (1992)
12. Theiler, J., Non linear forecasting measurements of multichannel EEG dynamics, Phys Rev(1986)2427
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesSTRUCTURAL AND OPTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THERMALLY EVAPORATED BI2S3 THIN FILMS
English114121Usha Rajalakshmi P.English Rachel OommenEnglish Jessy Mathew N.EnglishBismuth sulphide (Bi2S3) thin films are deposited on microscope glass slides by single source thermal evaporation technique. The properties of the films are analysed by X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and UV-Vis. spectrophotometry. The effect of post deposition vacuum annealing and thickness on the properties of the films are investigated. The X-ray diffractograms revealed the polycrystalline nature of annealed films which exhibited orthorhombic crystal structure. The films exhibited characteristic Raman peaks at 238 and 260 cm-1. The as-deposited films are found to have nano-sized particles through AFM measurements. The calculated direct optical band gap of the films thickness is in the range of 2.5-1.7 eV.
EnglishBismuth sulphide, Thin film, Microstructure, Band gap1. INTRODUCTION
Identification of suitable materials for solar energy conversion and performance enhancement of the already available materials and devices are in the forefront of research in recent times. Chalcogenide thin films are widely used for the fabrication of solar energy conversion devices. Bismuth trisulphide in thin film form is a particularly challenging material because of its midway band gap (Eg=1.7 eV), absorption coefficient of the order of 104 -105 cm-1 , reasonable conversion efficiency and stability together with low cost [Mane et al 1999]. Several deposition techniques have been adopted for the deposition of Bi2S3 thin films such as chemical bath deposition [Biljana Pejova et al 2006], spray pyrolysis [Benramdane et al 1999], electrodeposition [Atanu Jana et al 2009], SILAR method [Ubale et al 2008], thermal evaporation [Rincon et al 1998] and reactive evaporation [Jolly Lukose et al 1991]. The properties of the film vary significantly with deposition techniques and post deposition treatments. Several results are available for the properties of Bi2S3 thin films deposited by chemical method but for physical methods. And hence the present work is an attempt to explore and understand the properties of physically deposited Bi2S3 thin films. The report describes the deposition of Bi2S3 thin films on glass substrates by thermal evaporation and characterization of the films using X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and UV-Vis. spectrophotometry.
2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
2.1 Film Deposition
Bi2S3 thin films are deposited by single source thermal evaporation technique. Commercially available high purity bismuth sulphide powder (99%, Sigma) is used as the source without further purification. The material is transferred into a molybdenum boat attached to the copper feed through inside the Hind-Hivac vacuum coating unit (Model 12A4D). Vacuum of the order of 10-6 mbar is established, before the source temperature is raised to 800-900°C. Chemically cleaned microscope glass slides are used as substrates. The substrates are mounted on a custom-made aluminium substrate holder. The source-substrate distance is maintained constant at 11 cm. During deposition, the substrate holder is rotated using an externally controlled rotating drive at a constant speed of 12 rpm, in order to get uniform film thickness. The films of different thickness are deposited by varying the evaporation time. The as-deposited films are vacuum annealed at 200°C for an hour.
2.2 Film Characterization
The as-deposited and annealed Bi2S3 thin films are characterized using X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and UVVis spectrophotometry. X-ray diffraction measurement is carried out at room temperature using Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer operating at grazing incidence mode with Cu Kα radiation. Room temperature Raman spectrum of the films is recorded at room temperature using Jobin Yuon LABRAM-HR Visible micro Raman system. A Perkin Elmer (Lambda 950) double beam spectrophotometer is used for recording the optical transmittance of the films. The surface morphology of the films is analysed using Veeco Atomic Force Microscope (Nanoscope-E) from Digital Instruments.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Thickness of the film Thickness of the film is most quoted attributes of its nature. The in-situ measurement of thickness is done using a digital thickness meter interfaced with a crystal monitor and the measured thickness of films is in the range of 50-300 nm.
3.2 Microstructural Characterization
X-ray diffraction pattern of thermally evaporated Bi2S3 thin film is shown in fig. 1. No significant peaks are observed in the case of as-deposited films, thereby indicating amorphous nature of the films. On vacuum annealing at 200°C for an hour, amorphous Bi2S3 thin films transformed to polycrystalline, which is evidenced by the appearance of prominent peaks in the XRD pattern. Jolly Lukose et al 1991observed that the crystallisation of Bi2S3 thin films is partial at 150°C and complete at 200°C. The peaks are indexed by comparing the peak positions with the standard data. The XRD pattern of vacuum annealed Bi2S3 thin films matched well with the standard powder diffraction data of Bismuthinite (JCPDS-84 0279). The Bi2S3 thin films are found to exhibit orthorhombic crystal structure and the calculated value of lattice parameters are a=3.980 Å, b=11.158 Å, c=11.382 Å. Estimation of particle size (t) based on the X-ray diffraction peak broadening is done using Scherrer formula [Cullity 1956], t = 0.9 λ / (βhkl cos Θ hkl) (2) where, λ is the wavelength of X-rays used (1.5406 Å), βhkl is the angular width of the peak at half maximum intensity for the (hkl) plane and θ hkl is the Bragg angle corresponding to (hkl) plane.
The average size of the particles in the annealed films of different thickness range from 20-30 nm. It is also observed that thicker films consisted of larger particles and vice versa. From the knowledge of ?t‘ and ?βhkl‘ the micro strain (ε) developed in the Bi2S3 thin films is calculated using the relation [Poulomi Roy et al 2006]
Laser Raman Spectroscopy is an effective method for the microstructural investigation of the materials. Raman spectrum of the typical asdeposited Bi2S3 film of thickness 103 nm is shown in fig. 2. The film exhibits characteristic Raman peaks at 69.88, 100.4, 238.3, 260.1 cm-1 and the peak positions agree well with the reported values in the literature [Chunjuan Tang et al 2010]. The peak at 260.1 cm-1 is attributed to the vibration of Bi-S bond [Chalermchai
Pilapong et al 2010]. The Raman spectrum of the film with characteristic peaks proves the definite phase formation in vacuum evaporated Bi2S3 thin films.
3.3 AFM Analysis
The atomic force micrographs of the asdeposited Bi2S3 thin films are shown in fig. 3. The as-deposited films consisted of nanosized particles and their aggregates. The software ?Nanoscope Control 6.13? is used to determine the size of particles from the atomic force micrographs. The estimation of RMS roughness is an added tool for the analysis of thin film surface, which is calculated, in the present study using the above said software. The observed RMS roughness and particle size of the asdeposited films are given in Table 2.
3.4. Optical properties
The optical transmittance spectra of the asdeposited and annealed samples are shown in fig. 4. The films are highly transparent at longer wavelengths. The transmittance of the films decreased with annealing but the film of thickness 51 nm became more transparent upon annealing. The optical constants such as absorption index and absorption coefficient are calculated from the transmittance data. The absorption coefficient (α) is determined from transmittance (T) values using the following relation [Subramanian et al 2010] α = (1/t)*ln(1/T) (5) where ?t‘ is the thickness of the film. The optical band gap energy of the films is calculated using the classical relationship [Tauc et al 1966] for near edge optical absorption in semiconductors αhν= K (hν-Eg) n/2 (6) (6) where K is a constant, hν is photon energy, Eg is the optical band gap and ?n‘ is a constant equal to 1 for direct band gap and 4 for indirect band gap compounds.
An extrapolation of the linear region of the plot of (αhν) 2 vs. hν gives the value of optical band gap, Eg when (αhν) 2 =0. The direct allowed transitions taking place in the film are confirmed by the linear nature of the (αhν) 2 vs. hv plot as shown in fig. 5. The band gap of the annealed films is lower than the band gap of the asdeposited films which may be attributed to the improvement of particle size after annealing. Similar results are obtained by Mane et al 1999 for the Bi2S3 thin films deposited by chemical method. Sonawane et al 2007 obtained a band gap of 1.717 eV for stoichiometric Bi2S3 thin film while the Eg value changed to 3.657 and 1.408 eV respectively for bismuth rich and sulphur rich films prepared by chemical bath deposition method.
In the present study, the band gap values of the films of different thickness varied from 2.55- 1.76 eV and 1.86-1.71 eV respectively for asdeposited and annealed films. The calculated band gap values are listed in Table 3. Ublae 2010 obtained a band gap of 1.84-2.66 eV for the nanostructured Bi2S3 thin films, having thickness in the range of 201- 45 nm.
4. CONCLUSION
Polycrystalline Bi2S3 thin films are deposited by single source thermal evaporation technique and the microstructural and optical properties of films are analysed. Post deposition vacuum annealing of the films at 200°C improved the structural and optical properties of films. The microstructural parameters of the Bi2S3 thin films exhibiting orthorhombic crystal structure are evaluated and are found to be dependent on thickness. The Raman spectra of the film exhibited relevant peaks thereby indicating definite existence of Bi2S3 material. The optical transitions taking place in the material are found to be direct and allowed. The band gap value of as-deposited and annealed films of different thickness is in the range of 2.55-1.71 eV.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge Prof. Ajay Gupta, Centre director, UGC-DAE CSR, Indore Centre, for providing characterization (XRD, SEM, AFM, UV-Vis. and Raman) facilities and Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India for the financial support.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2110http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21101. Atanu Jana, Chinmoy Bhattacharya, Subrata Sinha, Jayanti Datta, 2009, J. Solid State Electrochem., 13, 1339
2. Benramdane N., Latreche M., Tabet H., Boukhalfa M., Kebbab A., Bouzidi A., 1999, Mater. Sci. Eng., B 64, 84
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4. Chalermchai Pilapong, Titipun Thongtem, Somchai Thongtem, 2010, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 71, 712
5. Chunjuan Tang, Changqing Wang, Fengjian Su, Chunhe Zang, Yanxin Yang, Zhengjun Zong,Yongsheng Zhang, Solid State Sci. (2010),doi: 10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2010.05.007
6. Cullity B.D., 1956, Elements of X-ray diffraction,USA , Addison-Wesly, 261
7. Jolly Lukose, Pradeep B., 1991, Solid State Commun., 78, 535 8. Mane R.S., Sankapal B.R., Lokhande C.D., 1999, Mater. Chem. Phys., 60, 196
9. Poulomi Roy, Suneel Kumar Srivastava, 2006, Thin Solid Films, 496, 293
10. Richards D.W., De Angelis R.J., Kramer M.P., House J.W., Cunard D.A., Shea D.P., 2004, Adv. X-ray Analysis, 47, 351
11. Rincon M.E., Sanchez M., George P.J., Sanchez A., Nair P.K., 1998, J. Solid State Chem.,136,167
12. Subramanian S.,Chitra lekha P., Pathinettam Padiyan D., 2010, J. NonCryst. Solids, 356,1173
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15. Ubale A.U., Daryapurkar A.S., Mankar R.B., Raut R.R., Sangawar V.S., Bhosale C.H., 2008, Mater. Chem. Phys., 110, 180 16. Ubale A.U., 2010, Mater. Chem. Phys. 121, 555
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareIMMEDIATE EFFECT OF MUSCLE ENERGY TECHNIQUE AND ECCENTRIC TRAINING ON
HAMSTRING TIGHTNESS OF HEALTHY FEMALE VOLUNTEERS - A COMPARATIVE STUDY
English122126Cheraladhan E. SambandhamEnglish Jagatheesan AlagesanEnglish Shilpi ShahEnglishBackground and Objective: The Hamstring muscles are found to be the most prevalent for the tightness in the body. Tightness of these muscles produces decrease range of motion and reduced flexibility of the pelvis, hip and knee joints. Muscle stiffness of the lower extremities and the consequential decrease in joint flexibility are considered to be major aetiological factors in musculoskeletal injuries. The purpose of this study is to compare the immediate effect of Muscle energy technique and Eccentric training on hamstring tightness of healthy female volunteers.
Methods: Sixty healthy female volunteers in the age group of 18 to 22 years with bilateral hamstring tightness without any previous musculo skeletal injuries were randomly divided in to Muscle energy technique group and Eccentric training group with 30 each. A total of 120 hamstrings were treated as pre the intervention plan in both groups. The outcome measure was active knee extension range of motion measured in supine lying with hip flexed to 90 degrees by using universal goniometer.
Results: The mean ± SD values in muscle energy technique group before intervention is 128.13±5.33 and after intervention is 138.07±5.51 with pEnglishHamstring Tightness, Muscle energy technique, Eccentric training, Knee ExtensionINTRODUCTION
Muscle stiffness of the lower extremities and the consequential decrease in joint flexibility are considered to be major aetiological factors in musculoskeletal injuries.1 The Hamstring muscles are found to be the most prevalent for the tightness in the body. Tightness of these muscles produces decrease range of motion and reduced flexibility of the pelvis, hip and knee joints. Muscle tightness is a limiting factor for optimal physical performance including daily activities and an important intrinsic factor for sports injuries.2 Flexibility is the ability to move a single joint or series of joints smoothly and easily through an unrestricted pain free range of motion. Benefits of increased flexibility include a decrease in injury rate and an increase in athletic performance. Flexibility exercises are designed to increase tissue elasticity, thereby increasing range of motion of specific joints. There are many successful ways3-8 of treating Hamstring tightness like mechanical, thermal, ice, stretch and spray, ultrasound, soft tissue massage, short wave diathermy, myo fascial release therapy, and muscle energy technique. Muscle energy technique (MET) is a manual technique developed by osteopaths that is now used in many different manual therapy professions. MET is direct active post facilitating technique (also called as postisometric relaxation technique – PIRT) which follow different principles individually.7 Muscle energy is used to lengthen a short or spastic muscle, to strengthen a physiologically weak muscle or group of muscles, to reduce localized oedema and relieve passive congestion and to mobilize an articulation with restricted mobility. Eccentric training refers to muscular action in which muscles lengthen in a controlled manner. It is also called as negative resistance training. The study is aimed to compare the flexibility of the tight hamstring muscle by improving the range of motion of the knee joint using Muscle energy technique and Eccentric training for individuals with hamstring tightness.
METHOD
An experimental study was done to compare the Muscle energy technique (MET) and Eccentric training in Hamstring flexibility of healthy female volunteers. The study was conducted in a physiotherapy college in Vadodara, India and ethical clearance was obtained from Institutional Review Board. Sixty healthy female volunteers after signing informed consent form within the age of 18 - 22 years having hamstring tightness bilaterally were included in the study. Subjects were screened for any previous neuro musculo skeletal injuries or disorders may produce hamstring tightness and not for their physical activity before inclusion. Subjects were randomly divided into 2 groups with closed envelopes method. Group A consist of 30 subjects who received Muscle energy technique9-11 with six repetitions for five seconds bilaterally and group B consist of 30 subjects who received Eccentric training12-14 exercise for 6 times, with no rest between repetitions, thereby providing a total of 30 seconds of stretching at the end range bilaterally. In both groups right side was treated first and then the left side irrespective of individual‘s dominancy, so a total of 120 hamstrings were treated with 60 in each group. Outcome measure used was Active knee extension test done before and after intervention with subject in supine lying with hip in 90 degrees of flexion using universal long arm goniometer.15 The data were analysed by using SPSS 17 for windows for significant improvement and difference between groups. The paired t-test and independent t-test were used.
RESULTS
The table-1 shows age distribution of the subjects participated in the study and Table-2 shows the values of comparison of before and after intervention in Muscle Energy Technique Group by paired t-test. The mean ± SD before intervention is 128.13 ± 5.33 and after intervention is 138.07 ± 5.51 with p value less than 0.001 proves that there is significant improvement in the hamstring muscle flexibility measured by active knee extension after muscle energy technique. Table-3 shows the values of comparison of before and after intervention in Eccentric Training Group by paired t-test. The mean ± SD before intervention is 132.27 ± 6.73 and after intervention is 137.33 ± 6.63 with p value less than 0.001 proves that there is significant improvement in the hamstring muscle flexibility measured by active knee extension after eccentric training. Table-4, shows inter group comparison of Muscle Energy Technique and Eccentric Training groups by independent t-test before and after intervention. The p value of independent ttest at baseline is 0.173 which is more than 0.05 proves homogeneity of groups at baseline. The p value after intervention is more than 0.05 shows that there is no statistically significant difference between both groups in improving hamstrings flexibility.
DISCUSSION
This study compared the immediate effects of Muscle energy technique (MET) and Eccentric training in increasing knee ROM of subjects with bilateral hamstring tightness and the results shows that there is significant improvement in hamstring length followed by both techniques and no significant difference between two techniques. The results of this study are in line with some previous studies. The major limitations of this study are dominant side was not differentiated and physical activity of the subjects were not considered. Long term and follow up effects were not studied. Waseem and Nuhmani, in their study ?comparative study of the impact of muscle energy technique and eccentric training on popliteal angle: hamstring flexibility in Indian collegiate male? indicated more significant hamstring flexibility in MET than ECC but the improvement level decreased in the follow-up measurement.6 ?A comparison of two muscle energy techniques for increasing flexibility of the hamstring muscle group? by Smith and Fryer concluded that both techniques appeared to be equally effective in increasing hamstring extensibility, and there appeared to be sustained improvement 1 week following the initial treatment.16 Ballantyne and Fryer concluded that the Muscle energy technique produced an immediate increase in passive knee extension.9 Nelson and Bandy, in their study? Eccentric Training and Static Stretching Improve Hamstring Flexibility of High School Males? study reveal that one session of eccentrically training through a full range of motion improved hamstring flexibility better than the gains made by a static stretch group or a control group.12 Brockett, C. L., D. L. Morgan, And U. Proske, in Their Study ?Human hamstring muscles adapt to eccentric exercise by changing optimum length? showed that a sustained shift in the optimum angle of human muscle occurred as a protective strategy against injury from eccentric exercise.13
CONCLUSION
This study concludes that Muscle energy technique and Eccentric training are effective in lengthening the tight hamstring muscles of healthy females and there is no difference between the immediate effects of both techniques.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2111http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21111. Halbertsma JP, Van Bolhuis AI, Goeken LN., Sport stretching: Effect on passive muscle stiffness of short Hamstring. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 1966; 77: 688-692.
2. Carolyn Kisner; Lynn Allen Colby, Therapeutic Exercise: Foundations and Techniques, 5 th edition. Philadelphia, F.A.Davis company. 2007.
3. Leon Chaitoe, Muscle energy technique, 3rd edition, Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier 2006.
4. Arnheim DD and Prentince WE: Principles of athletic Training, 9th edition, Boston, WCb/McGraw-Hill, 1997.
5. Azadeh Shadmehr, Mohmmad Reza Hadian, Hamstring flexibility in young women following passive stretch and muscle energy technique, Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal rehabilitation, 2009; 22(3): 143-148.
6. Mohd. Waseem, Shibili Nuhmani, comparative study of the impact of muscle energy technique and eccentric training on popliteal angle: hamstring flexibility in Indian collegiate male, Calicut Medical Journal, 2010; 14: 13-17.
7. Basmajian, JV, Nyberg, McClure, Part b: Flexibility training. Rational Manual Therapies, Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1993 p-359.
8. Robertson VJ and Baker KG, A review of therapeutic ultrasound: Effectiveness studies, Phys Ther, 2001; 81: 1339-1350.
9. Ballantyne F, Fryer G, Mclaughlin P. The effect of muscle energy technique on hamstring extensibility: the mechanism of altered flexibility. J Osteopathic Medicine. 2003; 6(2): 59-63.
10. McHugh MP, Magnusson SP, Gleim GW, Nicholas JA. Viscoelastic stress relaxation in human skeletal muscle. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1992; 24(12): 1375-1382.
11. Greenman P. Principles of Manual Medicine. 2 nd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1996: 93-98.
12. Nelson, R., and Bandy, W., Eccentric training and static stretching improve hamstring flexibility of high school males. Journal of Athletic Training, 2004; 39(3): 254-258.
13. Brockett CL, Morgan DL, and Proske U., Human hamstring muscles adapt to eccentric exercise by changing optimum length. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2001; 33: 783–790.
14. Kaminski TW, Webberson CV, and MurphyRM. Concentric versus enhanced eccentric hamstring strength training: Clinical implications. J Athl Train, 1998; 33: 216–221.
15. Oajdosis KR and Lusin, Hamstring muscle tightness reliability of an active knee extension test Physical therapy. 1983; 63: 1086-1090.
16. Smith Madeleine, Fryer Gary, A comparison of two Muscle energy techniques for increasing flexibility of the hamstring muscle group, Journal of Body work and Movement Therapies, 2008; 12 (4): 312-317.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEVALUATION OF THE CONTAMINATION AND EFFECTIVE DISINFECTION OF TOOTHBRUSHES USED
BY CHILDREN
English127133Auxilia Hemamalini Tilak English Stanica Prasath English Lakshmi.TEnglishIntroduction : Previous studies have indicated that a S. mutans is the most common bacteria implicated in the causation of dental caries. It has also been documented that S. mutans can easily colonise tooth brushes. S. mutans count as high as 106 has been recovered few minutes after brushing and a count as high as 104 is being retained after 24 hours after storage. The retention and survival of S. mutans poses a threat of reinfection. Numerous studies has been done to evaluate the effectiveness of 12% chlorhexidine, 1% sodium hypochlorite and normal saline as toothbrush disinfectants and research personnel have shown that chlorhexidine and sodium hypochlorite are very effective in disinfection. None have established the effective time for complete disinfection. None have addressed the question if the disinfected toothbrushes can be used again. We have in this study tried to standardize a time frame for effective disinfection and the effective concentration using a highly affordable and easily available disinfectant and most importantly with the Indian mother in mind. The purpose of this present investigation is to study the
1) In vivo contamination by mutans streptococci (MS) of toothbrushes after use on 72 children (6- 12years old) visiting a single physician.
2) To evaluate .9% normal saline as a toothbrush disinfectant.
3) To standardize the time for effective disinfection .
4) To prove that .9% normal saline when used as a toothbrush disinfectant for the right time is much superior than .12% chlorhexidine and 1% sodium hypochlorite in many ways.
Materials & Methods: The in use toothbrushes(less than 3 months of use) of 72 children whose DMFT indexes are already in record were submitted for S. mutans count and they were provide with new toothbrushes. The new toothbrushes were to be put to use for a month and then submitted to the physician‘s office at the stipulated date within an hour after the routine morning brushing. They were immediately analyzed for S.mutans count after 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1hour and 8 hours of being treated with .9%NS. There was no reduction in the CFU after 15min, 30 min and 1 hour but there was an absolute reduction in the cfu after 8 hour disinfection in .9% NS. All these brushes were returned to the children after a routine tap water rinse and were put to regular use in the night. The parents have not reported any problem with putting them to reuse after disinfection with .9%NS.
Conclusion: These results have addressed the concept of cheap, effective and user friendly routine house
based toothbrush disinfection between use.
EnglishDental caries ,Streptococcus mutans ,Tooth brush, Disinfection, Colony count, Children, DMFT index.INTRODUCTION
Dental caries is widely recognised as an infectious disease induced by diet. The main players in the aetiology of the disease are; a) cariogenic bacteria( especially S mutans), b) fermentable carbohydrates, c) a susceptible tooth and host and d) time. However, in young children bacterial flora and host defence systems are in the process of being developed, tooth surfaces are newly erupted and may show hypoplastic defects, and their parents must negotiate the dietary transition through breast/bottle feeding, first solids and childhood tastes. Thus it is thought that there may be unique risk factors for caries in infants and children .It is disconcerting to see rampant caries in young children.The pattern of decay is typically that many teeth are affected, with caries developing rapidly, often soon after the teeth have erupted. Surfaces usually at low risk of developing caries are the buccal surfaces of maxillary incisors with the obvious consequence of affecting the child‘s facial appearance. Dietary habits such as increased consumption of carbohydrates and junk food increases the incidence of caries in the deciduous molars with subsequent loss of the most important natural space maintainers of a young child resulting in malocclusion in permanent dentition. Hence, keeping in mind age old adage ?prevention is better than cure? every precautious step should be taken to minimize the occurance of caries. The continuous accumulation of oral bacterial plaque is the most important forerunner of dental caries1. Hence the mechanical disruption by brushing with a tooth brush is the most favoured method for disruption of the plaque in children2 However certain bacteria such as S.mutans may colonise toothbrushes and recontaminate the oral cavity when used again. Several bactericidal agents have been tried as prospective candidates for routine toothbrush disinfection such as chlorhexidine3,brushtox4, UV light activated tooth brush sanitizer5 and several dentrifices6, 7,8. But none has been approved so far as a home based routine between use toothbrush disinfectant . The reasons may be that they may be expensive, time consuming, needing equipment and procedures not suitable for routine use not to mention the after taste due to product residues.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample 1:
100 children between the age group 6-12 years visiting a single physician cum dentist and whose DMFT indexes were on record, were enrolled in the study. They were healthy children with no other local or systemic disorders and who were on a routine twice a day oral hygiene maintenance. The parents of the 72 children brought their child‘s toothbrush which was in use for less than 3 months and within 1 hour of use after a routine dental cleansing in the morning. They were immediately processed. Brand new toothbrushes were given to the parents in exchange and the second date of sampling(after a month) was preset.
Sample 2: The second set of 72 toothbrushes used by the same children were again submitted after 1 month, after routine morning cleansing and within 1 hour of usage and were immediately put in .9% saline and processed.
Bacterial Culture
Sample 1:
Methods employed for bacterial culture followed standard techniques9 . Media included tryptose soya broth and Mutans sanguis agar. For bacterial extraction the toothbrushes were individually placed in pre-labelled sterile 50 ml test tubes containing 10ml of tryptose soya broth (TSB) to completely immerse the bristles and vortexed vigorously for 1 minute squeezed against the sides of the test tube to drain. Then 1µl of this was plated on to Mutans sanguis agar in triplicate and incubated for 37°C for 24 hours. The number if colonies were measured as colony forming units per ml.
Sample 2:
The toothbrushes were placed individually in prelabelled sterile 50ml test tubes containing 10 ml of .9%NS vortexed vigorously for 1 minute and kept aside at room temperature.1µl of the resulting disinfectant was subjected to bacterial counts on Mutans sanguis agar after 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour and 8 hours.
RESULT
According to several authors 11-14, the presence of decayed teeth increases significantly the S. mutans counts in saliva. The above tabular column shows the correlation of a high DMFT score with increase in the bacterial count before disinfection. But after 8 hours of disinfection in normal saline, the bacterial count is completely eliminated irrespective of the DMFT score. Thus, the above study clearly indicates that saline is one of the most effective yet easily available disinfectant for the Indian Mother, who plays a pivotal role in maintaining the overall health of her children
DISCUSSION
Every parent keeps their finger crossed until the first sign of tooth eruption. Teeth are important not only for mastication, but also for aesthetics and phonetics. Deciduous teeth are especially important, as they are the best natural space maintainers15. Any premature loss of primary teeth , especially deciduous molars will result in mesial migration of permanent 1st molars, thereby resulting in impacted premolars, and also various malocclusion problems16,17 necessitating orthodontic treatment later on in life. Caries in primary anteriors affects the psychology of children. Children hesitate to smile and talk properly because of the carious primary incisors, thereby becoming the victim of unnecessary bullying and pranks. Hence every care should be taken to prevent the progression of dental caries. Dental caries is one of the most common causes of premature loss of deciduous teeth 17. The beginning and progression of dental caries are influenced by several risk factors, including bacterial, dietary, environmental and socioeconomic factors. The most significant indicators of caries risk are past caries experience, concentration of S. mutans and Lactobacilli, and the presence of protective factors like the buffering capacity of saliva. Any unbalance between protective and risk factors results in growth of specific microorganisms (S. mutans and Lactobacilli), which are part of the human dental biofilm18 and are considered the main acidogenic andaciduric organisms associated with dental caries.18-20 Dietery habits of children facilitate the progression of dental caries. Frequent intake of chocolates, junk foods, improper brushing technique , consumption of milk before bedtime, and the morphology of deciduous teeth are the various other common factors of dental caries 21. One of the most common and simple methods of preventing caries is mechanical method of removal, i.e., using a tooth brush. Every child dreads to brush everyday in the morning and so just pass the brush around the teeth in a fraction of second, and put it away even without rinsing the brush properly, inadvertently, contaminating the tooth brush with S mutans, and facilitating its growth.22. When in use the next day, the teeth are further contaminated by the brush, hence the need to disinfect the brush to prevent reinfection23. This study ensure that a simple, home product, economical, easy to use yet effective disinfectant is made available to parents, to ensure that proper oral hygiene is maintained for children. The timings for disinfection were chosen keeping in mind the purpose of the study. 15minutes, 30 minutes and 1hour were chosen as they would be ideal timings in case the mother contemplates disinfecting the child‘s toothbrush early in the morning before the child performs his morning toothbrushing act. 1 hour was chosen, as this period of time would be ideal for an overnight disinfection after a routine bedtime brushing. While after 15 min, 30 min and 1 hour of immersing in normal saline there was no considerable drop in Streptococcus mutans count, there was absolute disinfection after 8 hours of immersion in normal saline.
CONCLUSION
This study has addressed the concept of disinfection between use. The toothbrushes were put to routine use after disinfection in normal saline for 8 hours. They were washed in tap water to remove the salinity. There was no bad taste or odour that could adversely affect the use by children. Most importantly a bottle of normal saline costing about 30 rupees is going to hold good for a month. Hence in this study we have proven that simple, economical methods of disinfection can be advocated in our day to day lives to contribute to better dental hygiene for children.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2112http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21121. Holst D. Causes and prevention of dental caries: A perspective on cases and incidences. Oral Health Prev Dent 2005;3: 9-14
2. Franzman MR, Levy SM, Warren JJ, Broffitt B. Tooth-brushing and dentifrice use among children ages 6 to 60 months.Pediatr Dent. 2004 JanFeb;26(1):87-92.
3. Sato S, Pedrazzi V, Guimaraes LEH, Panzeri H, Ferreira del Albuquerque R, Ito IY. Antimicrobial spray for toothbrush disinfection: An invivo evaluation. Quitessence Int 2005: 36 :812-816
4. Neal PR, Rippin The efficacy of a toothbrush disinfectant spray. An in vitro study. J Dent 2003: 31: 153-157
5. RobertBoylan, Yihong li, Lidia Simeonova, Gene Sherwin, Judith Kreisman, Ronald G. Craig, Jonathan A. Ship, Jane A. McCutcheon. Reduction in bacterial contamination of toothbrushes nusing ultraviolet light activated toothbrush sanitizer. Am J Dent 2008: 313-317
6. Nelson-Filho P, Isper AR, Assed S, FariaG, Ito IY. Effect of triclosan dentrifice on toothbrush contamination. Pediatr Dent 2004:26:11-16
7. Quireynen M, de Soete M, Pauwels M, Goosens K, Teughels W, van Eldere J, van Steenberg D. Bacterial survival rate on tooth and interdental brushes in relation to the use of toothpaste. J Clin Periodontol 2001:28: 1106-1114
8. Warren DP, Goldschmidt MC, Thompson MB, Adler-Storthz K. The effect of toothpastes on the residual microbial contamination of toothbrushes. J Am Dent Assox 2001: 132:1241-1245
9. Isenberg HD, Baron EJ, D‘Amato RF, Johnson RC, Murray PR, Rodgers FG, vonGraevenitzm A. Recommendaitions for the isolation of bacteria from clinical specimens. Manual of clinical microbiology 5th edition Washington DC: American society for microbiology, 1991: 216-221
10. Sánchez-Pérez L, Acosta-Gío AE, MéndezRamírez I. A cluster analysis model for caries risk assessment. Arch Oral Biol. 2004; 49:719-25.
11. Zoitopoulos L, Brailsford SR, Gelhier S, Ludford RW, Marchant SH, Beighton D. Dental caries and caries-associated microorganisms in the saliva and plaque of 3- and 4-year old afro-caribbean and caucasian children in south London. Arch Oral Biol. 1996; 41:1011-8.
12. Petti S, Pezzi R, Cattaruzza MS, Osborn JF, D‘Arca AS. Restoration-related salivary Streptococcus mutans level: a dental caries risk factor? J Dent. 1997;25:257-62.
13. Seibert W, Farmer-Dixon C, Bolden T, Stewart JH. Streptococcus mutans levels and caries prevalence in low-income schoolchildren. J Tenn Dent Assoc. 2002; 82:19-22.
14. Laing E, Ashley P, Naini FB, Gill DS. space mainteinance. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2009 May; 19(3):155-62.
15. Craddock HL. Consequences of tooth loss: 2. Dentist considerations--restorative problems and implication .Dent Update. 2010 Jan-Feb; 37(1):28-32.
16. Hoffding J, Kisling E. Premature loss of primary teeth: part I, its overall effect on occlusion and space in the permanent dentition. ASDC J Dent Child. 1978 JulAug; 45(4):279-83.
17. Loesche WJ. Clinical and microbiological aspects of chemotherapeutic agents used according to the specific plaque hypothesis. J Dent Res. 1979; 58:2404-12.
18. Zickert I, Emilson CG, Krasse B. Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacilli and dental health in 13-14 year old Swedish children. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1982; 10:77-81.
19. Kingman A, Little W, Gomez I, Heifetz SB, Driscoll WS, Sheats R, et al. Salivary levels of Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacilli and dental caries experiences in a U.S. adolescents population. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1988;16:98-103
20. Moynihan PJ. Dietary advice in dental practice. Br Dent J. 2002; 193:563-8.
21. Filho PN, Macari S, Faria G, Assed S, Ito IY: Microbial contamination of toothbrushes and their decontamination. Pediatric Dentistry. 2000 22(5) 381-384.
22. Fratto G, Nazzicone M, Ortolani E. Disinfection of toothbrushes. Experimental research] Prev Assist Dent. 1990 Jan-Feb; 16(1):7-10.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesBIODEGRADATION OF METHYLENE BLUE BY ENTEROBACTER SP. FROM PALK STRAIT, SOUTHEAST
COAST OF INDIA
English134140Govindasamy. CEnglish Ruban. PEnglish Arulpriya. M.EnglishMethylene blue is a heterocyclic aromatic chemical compound; it has many uses in a range of different fields, such as biology, chemistry, textile industries, etc. Colour stuff discharged from these fields poses certain hazards and environmental problems. Marine sediment samples were collected from Palk Strait, southeast coast of India. A total of 10 morphologically different bacterial strains were isolated and enrichment method using as screening medium supplemented with methylene blue (0.01%). All the strains were tested by their ability to degrade methylene blue at different concentrations (10 -150 mg/ml of screening medium). Of these ten isolates, strain M10 degraded maximum of 100 mg/ml of methylene blue (plate method). The potential strain was identified as gram negative, rod shape, non-motile bacteria. Based on the biochemical test it may be confirm as Enterobacter sp. This bacterium inoculated in Methylene blue, Malachite Green, Eosin Yellow dyes in different concentration, the percentage of degradation after 48 hours viz., 67.30%, 53.01%, and 72.30%. Present investigation, resulted that rapid microbial degradation of textile dyes this type of bacterium may be degrade the any type of synthetic dyes
in variable and extensively may be used in the textile industry.
EnglishBiodegradation, Marine Sediment, Methylene blue, Malachite Green, Eosin Yellow, Enterobacter sp.INTRODUCTION
Dyes are organic compounds used as coloring agents in chemical, textile, pulp and paper, printing, cosmetic, leather and food industries (Gulanz et al., 2004; Kumar and Porkodi, 2007). In process of washing and finishing colored products, waste water contaminated with dyes is generated. The contaminated waste waters are hazardous which is great to threat to environment (Zhao et al., 2008; Ugurlu, 2009). The removal of textile dyes from waste water is a one of the most important environmental issues to be solved today discharge of hazardous waste water without additional treatment can seriously damage the environment. The colored discharged effluents inhibit penetration of sunlight and oxygen which are crucial requirements of aquatic life (Vadivelan et al., 2007). Biodegradation of dyes is not an easy process due to their toxic and complex aromatic structure (Ozer et al., 2007 ;Yasin et al.,2007). In typical dyeing processes, 50-100% of the dye is fixed on the fiber, and the unfixed dyes are discharged in spent dye-baths or in the wastewater from subsequent textile-washing operations (Jiraratananon et al., 2002). Methylene blue (MB) is commonly used in textile and paper industries it may deleteriously affect humans, fish, algae, and submerged plants in various ways Bana et al.,2007; Nilratnisakorn et al., 2008). MB is a heterocyclic aromatic compound with the molecular formula C16H18ClN3S. At room temperature, it appears as a solid, odorless, dark green powder, which gives a dark blue color when dissolved in water. Various methods, such as membrane filtration, ion exchange, chemical coagulation, oxidationreduction, and adsorption onto activated carbon, are available for removing or decolorizing dyebearing wastewaters. However, these methods are very expensive (Crini, 2006; Kumaret al., 2007). The utilization of alternative low-cost materials with high adsorption activity to solve environmental problems has received considerable attention over the recent years.
MATERAIAL AND METHODS
Chemicals (Dyes)
Methylene Blue (MB), Malachite green, Eosin yellow was obtained from Sisco Research Laboratories Pvt Ltd, Mumbai, India. The chemicals used were of the highest purity available and of an analytical grade.
Sediment Sample Collection
Present study, for the isolation of dye degrading bacteria, soil samples were collected from Thondi cost, southeast cost of India. Sediment samples were collected in the clean polyethylene bags and transported to the laboratory by keeping them in ice box and processed within 3 hours and microbial analysis were carried within 4 hours.
Screening of dye degrading bacteria
5 grams of sediment sample was diluted to 50% seawater and homogenized thoroughly and store at 40C. Simultaneously screening agar medium was prepared supplemented with Methylene blue at minimal concentration (0.01%). After preparation 0.1ml of sample were inoculated into the plate and spreaded sterile L-road. After then all the plates were incubated at room temperature for 48-72hrs. One uninoculated plate was kept as a control.
Screening Medium Composition (Chen et al., 2003)
Yeast extract-10gm/lit; NaCl- 5gm/lit; Peptone- 5g/lit; Agar-10gm/lit; Methylene Blue- 0.1gm/lit; pH-7.0.
Recovery and preparation of Stock Culture
After inoculation, morphologically different colonies were observed on screening medium and then colonies with zone of clearance on screening medium were selected as dye degrading strains (Chen et al., 2003). All the selected colonies were transferred into nutrient agar plates. After the inoculation all the strains were subcultured and maintained as stock culture on nutrient agar slants for further.
Degrading of Multi-dye degradation by potential strain in shake flask method
The screening medium was prepared with increasing concentration of Methylene blue, Malachite green, Eosin yellow (10 to 150mg/100ml) in conical flask. After the sterilization 1 ml broth culture of potential strain was inoculated and placed on rotary shaker at 120 rpm for 24-48 hours at room temperature.
Assay of Methylene Blue decolorization by the potential strains: (Suneja et al., 2004)
Decolorization was expressed in terms of percentage of decolorization. Dye decolorization by the potential isolates in the broth cultures was assayed by using colorimetric method. Prior to this, the absorption maximum of the Methylene blue supplemented broth was determined. The absorption maxima were 540 nm for dye incorporated broth and hence decolorization was assayed at 540 nm. The culture broth was centrifuged at 1000rpm for 10 minutes in and the bacterial cells were removed in pellets. The supernatant was analyzed calorimetrically at 540nm to measure the percentage of dye decolorization. Then the percentage of dye degradation was calculated by applying the absorbance value below formula described by Sani and Banerje, 1999.
Identification of potential strain Phenotypic characteristic such as microscopic appearance (grams staining, motility), cultural and biochemical characteristics of potential strain was studied by adopting standard procedures. Then the potential strain was identified based on the studied phenotypic properties.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Synthetic dyes are artificially produced by which a large group of organic chemicals which encountered in practically all spheres of our daily life. In this the usage of organic chemical may be have on undesirable effect not only on the human being as well as environment, in this correlation several researchers has studied about the many physical and chemical methods, including adsorption, photodegradation, precipitation, filtration and processing units have been used for the treatment of dye-containing effluent. Currently, microbial biodegradation has become a promising approach or dye treatment because it is cheaper effective and more environmentally friendly but this study related with biological degradation by using microbial culture is to restricted (Zhou and Zimmermann, 1993). In view of this the present study was made on attempt to identify the possible biodegradation of industrial dyes by using marine associated bacterial isolates. The colony morphology was observed after five days of incubation total of ten morphologically different colonies were observed on isolation medium. A clear zone of decolorization was observed around the colonies and named as strain M1, M2, M3 till M10. All the strains were recovered using nutrient agar plates and transferred to the nutrient agar slants as stock for further studies. After the incubation of screening medium plates with increased concentration of selected dye Methylene blue the following results were obtained (Table 1)
Characterization and identification of potential strain
There are many methods for identifying bacteria. Traditionally an observational and biochemical approach has been used. Simply looking at a bacterial colony growing on an agar plate can give an experienced researcher clues to a bacterium's identity. Bacteria are categorized as "Gram Positive" or "Gram Negative" according to whether or not they are stained by a chemical dye, a common biochemical techniques (Mahalakshmi et al., 2011). All the phenotypic and biochemical characteristics of strain M10 were given in Table 2. Based on the characteristics the Potential strain M10 was comes under Enterobacter sp.
Degradation of Multi-dyes by potential Strain M10 flask method and assay of decolorization
There are many reports on decolorization of textile dyes in flask method by microorganisms (Suneja et al., 2004). Present experiments focus, after incubation of screening medium with increased concentration of Methylene blue, Malachite Green, Eosin Yellow in shake flask method, the following results were obtained. From this observation, the strain M10 can able to degrade at the maximum viz., 34.29%, 40.12%, 54.50% in dye (0.13) concentration. But the percentage of degradation was decreased when increase the concentration of dyes (Table. 3). In optimum pH 7.0 the Enterobacter sp. was degraded Methylene blue, Malachite Green, Eosin Yellow the percentage viz., 67.30%, 53.01%, 72.30% (Table. 4). The results suggest that the optimum pH for the biodegradation of methylene blue, malachite green, and eosin yellow was degraded maximum at the pH of 7 that may be due to the bacteria and caused release of enzymes or redox mediators to cause dye reduction, or the dye may be reduced by alkaline hydrolysis.
The decolorization mechanism of Enterobacter sp. involved dye adsorption and dye reduction. Its decolorization depends on dye concentration, glucose, and pH of the dye medium (Forgacs et al., 2004). These bacteria may decolorize the dye under reduction either by electron transport from the cellular metabolic pathways of flavins or quinines, or by external redox mediators as well as by azoreductase enzymes (Pandey et al., 2007) Therefore, Enterobacter sp. was the best decolorizer It may remove dye by initial adsorption together with decolorizing by electron transport under aerobic conditions and by azoreductase enzymes. It‘s concluded from the presence findings that the isolated Enterobacter bacterial species from the sediment samples, Thondi cost southeast cost of India showed potential biodegradation effect on textile dye degradation. Further studies are highly required to identify the chemical constitution for the biodegradation is highly necessary.
CONCLUSION
The present study revealed the ability of Enterobacter sp. to decolorize Methylene blue, Malachite Green, and Eosin yellow. Results obtained this work showed that this Enterobacter sp. possessed high decolorization efficiency against multi-dyes. In conclusion this type of bacterium may be degrade the any type of synthetic dyes in variable and extensively may be used in the textile industry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank Alagappa University and the University authorities for facilities and encouragement
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2113http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21131. Banat, F., Al-Asheh, S., Al-Ahmad, R. and Bni-Khalid, F. 2007. Bench-scale and packed bed sorption of methylene blue using treated olive pomace and charcoal, Bioresour. Technol., 98, 3017–3025.
2. Chen, K.C., Wu, J. Y., Liou D. J. and Hwang, S.C.J. 2003. Decolorization of textile dyes by newly isolated bacterial strains. J. of biotechno., 101, 57-68.
3. Crini, G. 2006. Non-conventional low-cost adsorbents for dye removal: A review, Bioresour. Technol., 97, 1061–1085.
4. Gulanz, O., Kayar, A. and Arikan, B. 2004. Sorption of basic dyes from aqueous solution by activated sludge. J. Hazarard Mater., 108, 183-188.
5. Kumar, K. V. and Porkodi, K. 2007. Mass transfer, kinetics and equilibrium studies for the biosorption of methylene blue using Paspalum notatum, J. Hazard. Mater., 146, 214–226.
6. Mahalakshmi. M., Srinivasan, M., Murugan, M., Balakrishnan, S. and Devanathan. K. 2011. Isolation and identification of total heterotrophic bacteria and human pathogens in water and sediment from Cuddalore fishing harbour after the tsunami. Asian. J. Biolol. Scie., 4(2),148- 156.
7. Nilratnisakorn, S., Thiravetyan, P. and Nakbanpote, W. 2007. Synthetic reactive dye wastewater treatment by narrow-leaved cattails (Typha angustifolia Linn.): Effects of dye, salinity and metals, Sci. Total Environ., 384, 67–76.
8. Ozer, D., Dursun G. and Ozer, A. 2007. Methylene blue adsorption from aques solution by dehydrated peanut hull. J. Hazard. Mater., 144, 171-179.
9. Jiraratananon. R., Sungpet. R. and Luangsowan, P. 2002. Performance evaluation of nanofilteration membranes of effluents containing reactive dye and salt, Desalination, Water Resear., 130, 177-183.
10. Sani, R. K. and Banerjee, U.C. 1999 Decolourization of triphenyl methane dyes and textile dye stuff effluent by Kurthia sp. Enzy. Microbiolol. Technol., 24 (7), 433- 437.
11. Suneja, S., Kukreja, R., Gera, R., Yadav, K. S. and Laxshminarayan, K. 2004. Decolorization of triphenlmethane dyes by Azotobacter Chroococcum. J. Poll Res, 23, 643-647.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareBIOCHEMICAL STUDIES ON BIODEGRADATION OF COPPER ON INDIAN MAJOR CARP CATLA CATLA BY
PSEUDOMONAS PUTIDA
English141148Ruckmani Devi SEnglish Jayamathi GovindarajEnglishCopper is an essential trace element that is vital to the health of all living things (humans, plants, animals, and microorganisms). Copper ions are quite toxic to fish when concentrations are increased in environmental exposures often resulting in physiological, histological, biochemical and enzymatic alterations in fish, which have a great potential to serve as biomarkers. Pseudomonas putida has the unique ability to transform a toxic pollutant into a biodegradable product. The objective of this study was to examine the copper toxicity in Catla Catla, and the efficiency of Pseudomonas putida on copper biodegradation was assessed by biochemical parameters such as total protein, carbohydrate, phosphatase, protease, lipase, transaminases, lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione and copper content and histopathology of muscle tissues of Catla Catla. To conclude that Pseudomonas putida effectively reduced the copper toxicity on Catla Catla.
EnglishLipid peroxidation, Transaminases, Oxidative stress, HistopathologyINTRODUCTION
The discharge of industrial effluents and urban wastes into aquatic system leads to contaminate the environment and physiological activities of living things in it1 . Copper is an essential trace metal for several fish metabolic functions such as for the activation of variety of enzymes involved in physiological processes which includes cellular respiration, free radical defense, neurotransmitter function, connective tissue biosynthesis etc2,3. This metal can exert adverse toxicological effects, when the concentration exceeds the capacity of normal physiological level in the body4 . High concentration of this heavy metal was detected in some aquatic ecosystems collecting vineyard run off water and it is also highly concentrated in ground water. Heavy metal contamination has been reported in aquatic organisms5 . Fishes are widely used to evaluate the health of aquatic ecosystems and the associated physiological changes serve as biomarkers of environmental pollution6 . Common Carp (Cyprinus Carpio), Prussian Carp (Carassius gibelio) and peppered Cory (Corydoras Palaeatus) were evaluated as target species to perform genotoxicity and other tests for assessing the heavy metal toxicity. Among this, Common Carp (Catla Catla) is an important commercial species around the world to feed the population. So we have chosen this variety to assess the copper toxicity in aquatic system7 . Copper is a required trace element for many organisms, yet it can exert an inhibitory effect on bacterial growth at relatively low concentrations. However, there are some bacterial species that can tolerate high levels of copper. It also has been reported that copper resistance is plasmid-encoded in Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris and a Pseudomonas syringae isolate. It is not known if copper is effluxed from the cell, detoxified by binding to copper-binding proteins, or binds to cell-surface components. Actual data on copper transport in bacteria is also lacking, indicating that this area of research deserves serious attention8 . Pseudomonas putida induces plant growth and protects the plants from pathogens. Because Pseudomonas putida assists in promoting plant development, researchers use it in bioengineering research to develop biopesticides and to the improve plant health. There is of great interest in sequencing the genome of Pseudomonas putida has the unique ability to transform a toxic pollutant into a biodegradable plastic9,10 . The bioremediation of heavy metals using microorganisms has recieved a great deal of attention in recent years, not only as a scientific novelty but also for its potential application in industry11 . A novel attempt is made to study the copper toxicity in Catla Catla, and the efficiency of Pseudomonas putida towards bioremediation by assessing various biochemical parameters and copper toxicity in different concentration was also studied.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study material, Catla Catla was collected from the local ponds near Pattukkotai, Tanjore District, Tamilnadu were acclimatized to the laboratory conditions and feeding schedule during 2009-2010.
Feed
Feed was given to the fishes daily 1hr from 10 am -11am, after that the left over fish meals were removed. The experiments were conducted for the period of 20 days. Water was changed in alternated days. Triplicate of the control and experimental ones were conducted simultaneously.
Heavy Metal
Copper was prepared at 2ppm concentration.
Acute toxicity study
Different concentrations of copper (1ppm/l, 2 ppm/l, 3 ppm/l, 4 ppm/l, 5ppm/l) were taken in a cylindrical aquarium containing 20 l of water. The fishes were observed for behavioral changes and mortality percentage was observed at different durations of exposure such as 24h, 48h, 72h, 96h etc. After the experimental period the mortality percentage of Catla Catla was assessed in different concentrations of copper on different exposure time. Pseudomonas putida was cultured and harvested according to12
Experimental design and protocol Group 1( n = 10) : Control (Aquarium tank containing 20 l water + 1 kg of sterilized soil) Group 2 ( n = 10) Fishes were introduced in the aquarium tank containing 20 l of copper (2 ppm/l) treated water + 1 kg of sterilized soil Group 3 ( n = 10) : Fishes were introduced in the aquarium tank containing 20 l water + 1 kg of sterilized soil + 50ml of Pseudomonas nutrient broth Group 4 ( n = 10) : Fishes were introduced in the aquarium tank containing 20 l of copper (2 ppm/l) treated water + 1 kg of sterilized soil + 50ml of Pseudomonas nutrient broth. After the 20th day of experimental period, the fish muscles were dissected out according to the method of Lockwood et al, (1977) and the efficiency of Pseudomonas putida towards bioremediation was assessed by assaying various biochemical parameters such as total protein13 and carbohydrate14, the enzyme assays includes phosphatase15, protease16, lipase17, aspartate transaminases (AST)18, alanine transaminases (ALT)19, lipid peroxidation20 and reduced glutathione21, and also the copper level22 in muscle tissue.
Histological manifestations
Fish liver was dissected and the histopathological manifestations were carried out.
RESULTS
Effect of different concentration of copper on mortality percentage of Catla Catla as a function of different exposure time was given in Figure 1. The mortality percentage decreased with decreased concentration of heavy metals of copper. Figure 2 (a,) showed the mass culture of Pseudomonas Putida nutrient broth . Table 1. represented the biochemical levels of total protein, carbohydrate content, phosphates, protease, lipase, AST, ALT, lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione and copper. Total protein content of Catla Catla treated with 2ppm /l concentration of copper (Group 2) was reduced (12.8 mg/g) when compared to Group 1 (24.7 mg/g) and Group 3 (15.9 mg/g) was observed closer to normal. Pseudomonas treated groups (Group 4) showed significant increase of total protein (22.3 mg/g). Carbohydrate content of Catla Catla treated with 2ppm /l concentration of copper (Group 2) was reduced (9.2mg/g) when compared to Group 1 (10.5 mg/g) and Group 3 was observed to be normal. Pseudomonas treated groups (Group 4) showed significant increase of carbohydrate content (10.4 mg/g) Activities of enzymes such as phosphatase, protease, lipase, ALT and AST levels were found to be reduced (Group 2), compared to control (Group 1) and was reverted back to normal in Group 4. No such alterations were found in Group 3. Phosphatase levels in Pseudomonas treated groups (Group 4) was (16.6mg/g) closer to Group 1 (18.7mg/g) whereas it was reduced in Group 2 (15.5 mg/g). Protease levels were found to be reduced (4.5 mg /g) in Group 2, compared to control (6.8 mg /g) and was reverted back to normal in Pseudomonas treated groups (5.9 mg /g), in Group 4. No such alterations were found in Group 3. Lipase levels were found to be increased (2.05mg /g) in Group 2, compared to control (1.08 mg /g) and was reverted back to normal in Pseudomonas treated groups (1.5 mg /g), in Group 4. No such alterations were found in Group 3. AST levels were found to be reduced in Group 2 (3.36mg /g), compared to Group 1 (4.52 mg /g) and was reverted back to normal in Group 4 (3.8 mg /g). No such alterations were found in Group 3 (4.2 mg /g) whereas, ALT levels were found to be increased in Group 2 (0.69 mg /g), compared to Group 1 (0.44 mg /g) and was reverted back to normal in Group 4 (0.5 mg /g). No such alterations were found in Group 3 (0.4 mg /g). Lipid peroxidation was observed in group 2 (0.75 mg /g) by decreased levels of lipid peroxides and the Pseudomonas treated groups (Group 4) showed significant increase (0.8 mg /g) in lipid peroxidation levels. An imbalance encountered between oxidant antioxidant ratio, reduced glutathione showed significant reduction in group 2 (0.52 mg /g) than control fishes (Group 1 (0.78 mg /g)). Pseudomonas treated groups (Group 4 (0.6 mg /g)) showed significant reduction. Copper was stagnant in group 2, and the Pseudomonas treated groups showed reduction in copper levels due to Pseudomonas.
Figure 3 (a,b,c,d) represented the histopathological observation of liver tissue. Control (Group1) individuals showed normal architecture. Group 2 showed irregular shaped nuclei, nuclear hypertrophy, nuclear vacuolation and the presence of eosinophilic granules in the cytoplasm. Since Pseudomonas putida is very similar to strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an opportunistic human pathogen, liver tissue of Group 3 was slightly to moderately damaged but Group 4 showed regeneration of liver cells
DISCUSSION
The fishes showed marked change in their behavior when exposed to different concentrations of copper. In lower concentration of copper (2& 4ppm/l), the fishes showed rapid swimming than control. At highest concentration (6,8 &10 ppm/l) showed lethargic and erratic swimming due to loss of equilibrium. At the time of death transient hyperactivity was also observed23. Mortality percentage was maximum at highest concentration of copper (5ppm/l) at highest exposure time (96 h). It might be due to cumulative action of copper at various metabolic sites. 24observed the alterations in protein content , ALT and AST levels, and explained that the fishes were responding to various stressors by a series of biochemical and physiological stress reactions. Enzymes responsible for proteincarbohydrate metabolism (ALT and AST) showed low levels than control group due to its sharing in transforming proteins to glycogen. 25explained the cytotoxicity of excessive copper accumulation in the liver of sheep and showed high copper status might have induced lowest levels of GSH.A wide variety of xenobiotics including aromatic carcinogens, heavy metal ions were sequestered by enzymes. When the load of foreign material exceeds the efficiency of detoxication, the integrity of cell membrane could be affected adversely cause leakage of enzymes. In copper toxicity, the copper subsequently transformed the enzymes to biologically inactive state. The present study was in agreement with this report. 26Histopathological report showed structural dearrangement in group 2 due to copper toxicity (exposed to copper) and Group 3 (Pseudomonas treated) due to Pseudomonas putida since it was an opportunistic human pathogen, Group 4 showed regeneration of liver tissues due to Pseudomonas putida has the unique ability to transform a toxic pollutant into a biodegradable product. The metal ions as transition metals cause cellular damages which in turn leads to the production of lipid peroxide radicals27. To counteract the deleterious effects produced by the free radicals antioxidant are utilized and leads to cause oxidant antioxidant imbalance. Pseudomonas putida has been a pivotal instrument for studies on the bioremediation of soils contaminated with xenobiotic compounds. The findings of the present study suggested that P. putida is also adapted to thrive in environments with copper toxicity28 .
CONCLUSION
Heavy metal toxicity resulted in adverse effect on muscle tissue components and altered metabolic changes served as a marker for the toxicity of sublethal concentrations of metals as well as pollutants. However, complementary studies are necessary for better understanding of the deleterious effects.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2114http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21141. Shakoori. A. R, and Muneer.B,[2011] Copper-resistant bacteria from industrial effluents and their role in remediation of heavy metals in wastewater.Folia Microbiologica, 47, (1): 43-50.
2. Saxena. D, Joshi. N and Srivastava. S[ 2002] Mechanism of Copper Resistance in a Copper Mine Isolate Pseudomonas putida Strain S4. Current Microbiol,45,( 6).
3. WHO[1998] Copper: Environmental Health Criteria 200. IPCS- International Programme on Chemical safety, World Health Organisation, Geneva.
4. Pelgrom,S.M.G.J, Lock.R.A.C, M.Balm and S.E.Wendelaar Bonga[1995]Integrated physiological response of tilapia, Orechromis mossambicus to sublethal copper exposure. Aquat. Toxicol,32:303- 320
5. Olojo. E.A, Olurin. K.B, Mbaka.G and Oluwemimo. A.D[2005] Histopathology of the gill and liver tissues of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus exposed to lead, Afr. J. Biotech., 4: 117-122.
6. Kock,G, Triendl.M and Hofer.R[1996]seasonal patterns of metal accumulation in arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) from an oligotropic alpine lake related to temperature. Can.J. fish.Aquat.Sci.53:780-786
7. Li. X, Liu.Y, Song. L, Liu. J[ 2003] Responses of antioxidant systems in the hepatocytes of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) to the toxicity of microcystin– LR. Toxicon,; 42: 85-89
8. Smith.S.R[2009] A critical review of the bioavailability and impacts of heavy metals in municipal solid waste composts compared to sewage sludge. Environ Int. Jan;35(1):142-56
. 9. Chen X, Shi J, Chen Y, Xu X, Xu S, Wang Y[2006] Tolerance and biosorption of copper and zinc by Pseudomonas putida CZ1 isolated from metal-polluted soil. Can J Microbiol. 52(4):308-316.
10. Espinosa-Urgel,M, Salido.A, Ramos.J[2000]Genetic Analysis of Functions Involved in Adhesion of Pseudomonas putida to Seeds. J Bacteriol. 182: 2363-2369.
11. Doenmez. G and Aksu. Z [2001] Bioaccumulation of copper(II) and Nickel (II) by the non adapted and adapted growing Candida sp. Wat. Res, 35: 1425- 1434.
12. Carhart. G and Hegeman.,G[1975] Improved method of selection for mutants of Pseudomonas putida, Appl Microbiol, 30:1046-1047.
13. Lowry. O.H, Rosebrough. N.J, Farr. A.L and Randall. R.J[1951] Protein measurement with the Folin‘s phenol reagent, J Biol Chem, 19: 265-275
14. Black. D and Malcolm Love R,[1988] Estimating the carbohydrate reserves in fish, J Fish Biol 32: 335–340
15. Reis. J.L[1961] Phosphatase activity in the ocular tissues, Brit. J. Opththal., 35: 149- 152
16. Blanchard. P, Ellis. M, Maltin. C, Falkous. G, Harris. J.B and Mantle. D[1993] Effect of growth promoters on pig muscle structural protein and proteolytic enzyme levels in vivo and in vitro, Biochimie,75: 839-847.
17. Oser. B.L[1965] Hawk's Physiological Chemistry, 14th Edn. McGraw Hill Book Company,NewYork, 1113.
18. Hood.J and Middleton.J.E[1970] False elevation of serum aspartate aminotransferase in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis during administration of sodium aminosalicylate, Tubercle 51 :313-315
19. Matsuzawa. T and Katunuma. N[1966] Colorimetric assays for serum alanine transaminase and lactic dehydrogenase using diazonium zinc salt , Anal Biochem 17: 143-153.
20. Yagi. K,[1984] Assay for blood, plasma or serum, Meth Enzymol, 105: 328.
21. Moran. M.S, Depierre J.W and Mannervik B[1979] Levels of glutathione, glutathione reductase and glutathione –S- transferase activities in rat lung and liver, Biochim Biophys Acta, 582: 67-78.
22. Balwant Singh, S. S, Sahota and Narang, A.S,[1961] Complexometric estimation of copper, J Anal Chem, 182: 241-244.
23. Taylor. D, Maddock. B.G and Manace.G[1985] The acute toxicity of nine ?grey-list? metals to two marine fish species, Limanda limanda and Chelon labrosus. Aquatic.Toxicol., 7:135-144.
24. Abou EL-Naga,E.H, EL-Moselhy, K.M and Hamed,M.A,[2005] Toxicity of cadmium and copper and their effect on some biochemical parameters of marine fish mugil seheli, Egyptian J Aqua Res. 31:2 ; 60-71.
25. Sansinanea.A.S, Cerone. S.I, Streitenberger.S.A, García, C and Auza,N[1997] Superoxide dismutase activity and reduced glutathione levels in cu-overload liver from sheep. Nutrition Res, 17 :1; 115-123.
26. Christensen.G.M[1971] Effects of metal cations and other chemicals upon the in vitro activity of two enzymes in plasma of the white sucker Catostomus commerson, Che. Biol Interact.4:351-359.
27. Halliwell,B and Gutteridge.J.M.C[1985] Lipid Peroxidation:A Radical Chain Reaction. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 139- 189.
28. Canovas.D, Cases.I And Víctor de Lorenzo[2003] Heavy metal tolerance and metal homeostasis in Pseudomonas putidaas revealed by complete genome analysis Environmental Microbiology. Environ Microbiol , 5(12), 1242–1256.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEFFECT OF CARDIAC REHABILITATION ON MYOCARDIAL CONTRACTILITY IN CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE PATIENTS: A TRIAL FROM IRAN
English149158Mohammad H HaddadzadehEnglish Arun G MaiyaEnglish Bjan ShadEnglish Fardin MirboloukEnglish R Padmakumar English Vasudeva GuddattuEnglishObjective: However Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) is the leading cause of death worldwide, there is a
scarcity of data on effectiveness of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation programs on myocardial
contractility as predictor of long term prognosis and so the present study aimed to investigate the same in
post coronary event patients.
Methods: In a Single blinded, Randomized controlled trial, Post-Coronary event CAD patients with age
group of 35 to 75 years, surgically (CABG or PTCA) or conservatively treated were recruited from
Golsar Hospital; Iran. Exclusion criteria were high risk group (AACVPR-99) patients and any
contraindication to exercise testing and training. Recruited patients were randomized either into Hospitalbased,
Home-based cardiac rehabilitation or Control by means of block randomization (block size of 6)
and concealed envelope method. Patients in the study group [Hospital (HsCR) and Home-based(HmCR)]
underwent 12 weeks individually tailored exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation according to the ACSM-
2005 guidelines. Control group only received the usual cardiac care without any exercise training.
Myocardial contractility in terms of LVEF was measured by echocardiography before and after 12 weeks
of exercise training in both groups as well as control. Differences between and within groups were
analyzed using one way ANOVA keeping level of significance at 0.05.
Results: 42 patients having given written, informed consent with mean age of 59.8± 9.0 enrolled. There
was a significant increase in LVEF in both study groups (48.2±5.0 to 60.5±4.0 in HsCR and 47.2± 6.3 to
60.5±3.4 in HmCR) group compare to control (48.4± 6.8 to 48.6±7.4) group (pEnglishExercise training, Cardiac Rehabilitation, Myocardial Contractility, Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)INTRODUCTION
Middle Eastern countries such as Iran are joining the global obesity pandemic and its consequences such as CAD. [1] Coronary Artery disease (CAD) is one of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in different communities worldwide [2,3,4]. Despite the lack of accurate data, there is some evidence to indicate that CAD is increasing in magnitude in Iran[2] and accounts about 50% of all deaths per year.[5] While age-adjusted mortality from CAD is gradually falling in developed countries, [3,6] the rate has increased by 20%–45% in Iran.[7,8] Myocardial contractility in terms of Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction (LVEF) is an clinical index of pumping action of heart,[9,10] and is a well-established predictor of mortality and long term prognosis in acute myocardial infarction.[10,11] However exercise training is the core component of cardiac rehabilitation and secondary prevention of CAD, there is less body of evidence on effectiveness of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation on LVEF in CAD patients. Previous published studies mainly studied this outcome in heart failure patients or they used a heterogeneous groups of patients with respect to the time gap between coronary event and start of exercise training or total duration of the program. The purpose of this study was to find out the effect of early (within one month post discharge) structured individually tailored exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation on (LVEF) in post- Coronary event patients. As to our knowledge, this study was the first of such trial in the country.
METHODS
Study Design. Study procedure was designed in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration new revision 2000. Ethical committee of Golsar Hospital approved the study. This was a single blinded randomized controlled trial in which the effectiveness of early structured individually tailored exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation on myocardial contractility was studied. Eligible patients who given a written informed consent were allocated into study or control groups by means of block randomization (block size of 6) using concealed envelope method. The assessor of main outcome who was a cardiologist was unaware of allocation of patients. (Figure1)
Subjects. Post-coronary event patients whom were treated surgically (CABG or PTCA) or conservatively were recruited between July to November 2009 at Golsar Hospital, Rasht; Iran. Golsar Hospital is a general hospital and offers outpatient Cardiac Rehabilitation program under department of Physiotherapy.
Inclusion criteria. Patients of both sexes were screened for eligibility criteria including age group of 35 to 75 years who were post-event (within one month post discharge) coronary artery disease patients treated either surgically (CABG or PTCA) or conservatively.
Exclusion criteria. High risk group patients (AACVPR-99)[12] or any systemic, orthopedic or neurological conditions which restrict participating in aerobic exercise and patients who were contraindicated for exercise testing and training were excluded from the study.
Procedure. After approval from Ethical Committee of Hospital, all eligible patients were explained about the procedure and written informed consent was obtained from them before allocating them into different groups. Eligible and consenting patients were randomized into Hospital-based Cardiac Rehabilitation, Home-based cardiac rehabilitation or Control group by means of block randomization (block size of 6) and concealed envelope method. Base line data included the Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction (LVEF) measured by echocardiography, and demographic and clinical evaluation was taken. Patients in study groups underwent a 12 weeks structured individually tailored exercise training either in the form of Hospital-based cardiac rehabilitation (HsCR) or Home-based program (HmCR). After 12 weeks of exercise training subjects were reassessed clinically for the primary outcome and results were compared pre and post-intervention with control group. All patients underwent a Graded exercise test (GXT) with Bruce protocol at base line in order to risk stratify the patients (AACVPR-99) and the results of the test included MET and achieved HRPeak were used as baseline for exercise prescription according to Karvonen formula.
Exercise Training Group Authors used ACSM-2005[13] guidelines as principle for exercise prescription for study groups. The intensity of prescribed exercise calculated based on Heart Rate Reserve achieved during graded exercise test (Bruce protocol) as well as Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE). Target Heart Rate Range (THRR) using Karvonen formula was applied to prescribe exercise intensity. All recruited subjects were given orientation to the program. A session of informal health education about their condition was given by the physiotherapist to the patients and to their family members. Risk factors modifications advice according to the risk factors of each patient, life style modification, and smoking cessation advice were given prior to the start of rehabilitation program. Awareness about cardiac rehabilitation, exercise program, adherence to the program and its benefits which they attend explained to the study group to increase the rate of the attendance and compliance.
Group IA. Hospital-Based Group This group underwent a structured, supervised exercise training program for a period of 12 weeks. They attended a minimum of three days exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation in the hospital set up. The exercise program consisted of 5-10 minutes warm up (Breathing exercise, stretching exercise and walking on treadmill) followed by graded aerobic training and 5- 10 minutes cool down. Graded aerobic training was mainly treadmill walk 3-5 times per week, with Intensity of 40-70 % of HRR achieved in exercise test applying Karvonen formula, and RPE of 11 to 14 for a duration of 20 to 40 minutes. (ACSM guidelines)[13]
Group IB. Home-based Group
Exercise component of cardiac rehabilitation program for home-based group was an individualized tailored program of aerobic exercises; preferably brisk walking as it is shown in the literature that brisk walking provide an activity intense enough to increase aerobic capacity in healthy sedentary as well as cardiac patients.[14] Initial session of exercise prescription and training were given in the department under physiotherapist supervision, and then the program protocol was given to the patient to do at home for 12 weeks. Intensity of exercise converted to a safe range of speed of walk which patient achieved on treadmill to use as a base for brisk walking. Patients were also trained in palpating the pulse and calculating the heart rate, and to rate the Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) of 11 to 14. The exercise program consisted of 5-10 minutes warm up including Breathing exercise, stretching exercise and gentle active exercise to larger muscle groups like lower limb and trunk muscles followed by graded aerobic training and cool down. Graded aerobic training was mainly brisk walking for 3-5 times per week with intensity of 40-70 % of HRR achieved in exercise test applying Karvonen formula, converted to speed of walk, and RPE of 11-14 for duration of 20 to 40 minutes. (According to ACSM guidelines)[13] Patients in HCR group were regularly contacted by phone every two weeks to find out their adherence to the program and advice or changes in program if necessary and to monitor the progress. The exercise log was reviewed every 15 days. Subjects also were advised to contact the physiotherapist if any advice or help needed. Trained physiotherapist gave them detailed awareness of signs and symptoms to be monitored while doing exercise program, do and don‘t and the criteria for the termination of exercise were well explained to them.
Exercise intensity progression As the conditioning effect of exercise training, progression of the exercise intensity was done as needed. As the RPE falls with improving fitness the intensity of exercise was increased at 5 to 10 percent of the maximum heart rate and by maintaining RPE of 11 to 14 throughout the 12 weeks of duration. For the first four weeks patients did exercise training for 15 to 20 min., from 5th to 8th week increased to 20 to 30 minutes, and the final 9th to 12th week duration was increased to 30 to 40 minutes.
Monitoring
Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE): RPE provides a subjective means of monitoring exercise intensity. HR-VO2 relationship could be evaluated further in relation to individuals RPE which is helpful in monitoring the exercise intensity. This method is appropriate for setting exercise intensity in persons with low fitness, cardiac patients and those who are under medication that affect HR response to exercise; taking into account personal fitness level, environmental conditions and general fatigue level.[14] Light to moderate intensity (RPE of 11 to 14) is suitable for cardiac patients. It is important to use standardized instruction to reduce problems of misinterpretation of RPE. The following instruction is recommended by ACSM guidelines:[13] ?During the exercise we want you to pay close attention to how hard you feel the exercise work rate is. This feeling should reflect your total amount of exertion and fatigue, combining all sensations and feeling of physical stress, effort and fatigue. Do not concern yourself with any one factor such as leg pain, shortness of breath or exercise intensity, but try to concern on your total inner feeling of exertion. Try not to underestimate or overestimate your feeling of exertion. Be as accurate as you can.? Other symptomatic complaints such as degree of chest pain, angina, burning sensation discomfort, and dyspnea collected from the patients routinely.[13]
Indications for termination of exercise: Detailed awareness of signs and symptoms to be monitored while doing exercise program and subjective symptoms and criteria for the termination of exercise were well explained to the subjects.
Group II: Control Group In the control group, subjects underwent baseline assessment, and these patients were instructed to follow medical treatment advised by their physician and only education program were given to them. They were not advised any extra formal exercise training program.
RE-ASSESSMENT After 12 weeks, post-intervention re-evaluation was done by echocardiography in both; study as well as control group.
DATA ANALYSIS Sample size was determined by using a pilot study of 10 patients. Within group improvement of 5 % in LVEF was considered as clinically significant. At alpha= 0.05 and power of 90% authors determined a sample size of 42 subjects. Analyses were performed by using intention to treat approach. Statistical software SPSS v17 was used to infer the data. One way ANOVA was used to compare mean of changes between groups.
RESULTS A total of 42 (33 Male, 9 Female) subjects with mean age of 59.8± 9.0 years enrolled in the study. In Hospital-based group one patient discontinue the program because of Time and Scheduling difficulties. And in control group 2 patients lost to follow up due to far distances. Summary flowchart of study according to CONSORT guidelines is shown in Figure 1.
Rest of subjects in study groups completed their course of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation with a minimum of 70% attendance in the exercise sessions. Both study groups and control group had similar demographic and clinical characteristics at base line with respect to the LVEF, risk stratification, number of diseased vessels, life style, educational level, and diet habits and age. (Tables 1and 2) Base line LVEF was 48.2±5.0 in Hospital-based group, 47.2± 6.3 in Home-based group and 48.4± 6.8 in Control group. There was a significant improvement in LVEF after 12 weeks of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation in both study groups compared to control. (Table 3) Post hoc Tucky HSD revealed no significant difference in changes in LVEF between Hospital-based and Home-based cardiac rehabilitation. (Figure 2)
DISCUSSION
However decreased left ventricular systolic function is a well-established independent predictor of mortality in coronary artery disease patients, few data are available regarding the effect of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation on LVEF.[11] The existing literature either focus more on heart failure patients or they have lack of methodological uniformity regarding the type of patients, time gap between post-discharge to start of exercise training in post-event patients or the intensity and type of exercise given to the patients. Koch, Duard and Broustet (1992) in a randomized clinical trial studied the effect of graded physical exercise on EF and they found no significant effect. But their study was conducted on chronic heart failure patients. [15] Adachi, Koiket, Obayshi (1996) reported improvement in cardiac function (such as stroke volume), both at rest and during exercise only with high intensity exercise training. [16] The present study demonstrated two important findings. First, an early (within one month postdischarge) 12 weeks structured exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation in post-event coronary artery disease patients significantly improved the myocardial contractility in terms of LVEF. Second, a structured individually tailored Homebased exercise training could be as effective as Hospita;-based programs and safely used not only in low risk but also in moderate risk (AACVPR-99) coronary artery disease patients. These programs could be started as early as 2 weeks post discharge in uncomplicated patients. These findings are in consistent with results from Haddadzadeh, Maiya et al. in their recent study in India who found a similar effect in a RCT.[17] Giallauria et al., also found a favorable remodeling from six months exercise training program in patients with moderate left ventricular dysfunction.[18] Since evidence shows there are many difficulties and barriers to long term Center based exercise training and only 25 % to 30 % of eligible patients attend exercise based Cardiac rehabilitation programs, individually tailored home based exercise training programs could be an alternative method in improving myocardial contractility without affecting the efficacy of programs.
Limitation One of the limitations of present study was in order to randomize the patients in Hospitalbased-based group authors had reimbursed the expenses of Cardiac Rehabilitation program to convince those patients who randomized to Hospital-based group and were not willing to continue because of its expenses or far distances to continue the program. As to our knowledge, this was the first RCT in Iran to investigate the effectiveness of structured exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation on LVEF. Applying the finding into practice, amplifies the importance of secondary prevention and effectiveness of early exercise based cardiac rehabilitation programs on overall and cardiac condition of patients. Keeping in mind the increasing number of cardiovascular disease in Middle East countries including Iran, forwarding the message to the policy makers, insurance companies for covering the cardiac rehabilitation expenses, hospital administrative for necessity of such programs and adjusting the need of the common people with the available resources in the form of Home-based programs without losing the efficacy is must.
CONCLUSIONS Authors concluded that 12 weeks structured Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation programs significantly improved myocardial contractility in terms of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) in post coronary-event patients. Authors also concluded that an individually tailored structured Home-based cardiac rehabilitation was as effective as Hospital-based program in improving LVEF. Thus, Home-based cardiac rehabilitation program if individually tailored for each patient is an effective alternative to Hospital-based programs to improve myocardial contractility.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors would like to thank the primary funding agency; Armaghan Educational Institute, through Ministry of Education of Iran, as a part of larger multicenter study, Prof Sreekumaran Nair; Head of Dep. of Biostatistics; Manipal University for his suggestion and support, Dep. of Physiotherapy, Angioplasty and Exercise Test Unit of Golsar Hospital for their complete support.
Conflict of Interest Authors agree that there was no source of conflict of interest.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2115http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21151. Bahrami H, SadatSafavi M, Pourshams A, et al. Obesity and hypertension in an Iranian cohort study; Iranian women experience higher rates of obesity and hypertension. Public Health. 2006; 6:158-166.
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3. Castelli WP. Epidemiology of coronary heart disease: the Framingham study. American journal of medicine, 1984, 76(2A):4–12.2.
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6. Sytkowski PA et al. Sex and time trends in cardiovascular disease incidence and mortality: the Framingham heart study. American journal of epidemiology, 1996, 143(4):338–50.
7. Prevention and control of cardiovascular disease. Alexandria, World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, 1995:24.
8. Zali M, Kazem M, Masjedi MR. [Health and disease in Iran]. Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran, Deputy of Research, Ministry of Health, 1993 (Bulletin No. 10) [in Farsi].
9. Andria M, et.al. Attendance and graduation patterns in a group model health maintenance organization. Alternative cardiac rehabilitation program. J Cardiopul Rehab. 2004; 24: 15-156. International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 09 September 2011 155
10. Johnson N, et al. Factors associated with referral to outpatient cardiac rehabilitation services. J Cardiopul Rehab. 2004;24: 165- 170.
11. Dutcher JR, Kahn J, Grines C, Franklin B. Comparison of left ventricular ejection fraction and exercise capacity as predictors of two and five-year mortality following acute myocardial infarction. Am j Cardiol. 2007; 99:436-441.
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18. Giallauria F, Cirillo P, Lucci R, Pacileo M, De Lorenzo A, D'Agostino M, et al. Left ventricular remodelling in patients with moderate systolic dysfunction after myocardial infarction: favourable effects of exercise training and predictive role of Nterminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2008 Feb;15(1):113-8.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyEFFECT OF FRICTION FACTOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF ADIABATIC CAPILLARY TUBE
English159166Rahul GulatiEnglish R.C.GuptaEnglishIn this paper analysis the performance of capillary tube under the different condition. The following
condition are : condensing temperature 40-55?c , subcooling 0-5?c , capillary tube diameter 1.2 – 2.4mm ,
mass flow rate 5 – 50 g/s , various friction factor given by different authors is used to predict the
performance of capillary tube with R-22 , R-134a , R-410A refrigerant.
EnglishCapillary tube; Adiabatic; Alternative refrigerant; Friction factor.1.INTRODUCTION
A typical residential air conditioner consists of a compressor , evaporator , condenser and expansion devices. Capillary tubes is one of the expansion devices has been extensively used for the past flow decades. Now a day electronic expansion valves and / or short tube orifices are considered as future expansion devices for some what large size air- conditioners heat pump. HCFC 22 has been used superior as the working fluid in residential air conditioners due to its excellent properties and fit for combining with various materials. HCFC 22 contains hydrogen and chlorine atoms and its ozone depletion potential is 0.05. Since HCFC 22 has the ozone depleting chlorine it is to be phased out eventually according to the montreal protocol amendments adopted by the participating countries [1]. The alternative of HCFC 22 are HFC 134a , R-407C (23% R-32/25% R- 125/52% HFC-134a) and R-410A (50%R- 32/50%R-125).
4.CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the performance of adiabatic capillary tubes used is predicted for R-22, R- 134a , R-410A. The following conclusions can be drawn.
(1)Duckler‘s equation is not better than McAdams‘ equation for two -phase viscosity calculation.
(2) Kinetic energy term in energy conservation equations is not impacting on the final results.
(3) pressure drop due to area contraction is impacting on the model so it needs to be considered in the model.
(4) Refrigerant R-134a show the optimum length as compare to others refrigerant for the given condition.
(5) From the above analysis for predicting the performance of capillary tube Hopkins [5] friction factor gives optimum result under the all conditions.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2116http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2116 1. United Nations Environment Programme, Decisions of the Fourth Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer, Copen-hagen, Denmark ,1992.
2. Stoecker WF , Jones JW. (1982) Refrigeration and air conditioning. 2nd ed. McGraw Hill. p.260±72.
3. Melo c, Ferreira RTS, Boabaid Neto c, Goncalves JM, Thiessen MR. (1994) Experimental analysis of Capillary tubes for CFC-12 and HFC-134a. p.347±52.
4. Hopkins NE. (1950) Rating the restrictor tube method of determining flow capacities for Freon-12 and Freon-22. Refrigerating Engineering 58(11) : 1087± 95
5. Collier Gj ,Thome JR. (1996) Convective boiling and condensation. 3rd ed. UK : Oxford University press, p.110±11
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesBACOPA MONNIERI L. (HIGHLY ENDANGERED SPECIES): AN IMPROVED MICROPROPAGATION PROTOCOL AND RAPD ANALYSIS OF GENETIC VARIABILITY OF NATURAL AND MICROPROPAGATED
PLANTS FOR GERMPLASM PRESERVATION.
English167179Renu SharmaEnglish Moinuddin KhanEnglishBacopa monnieri has been used in ayurvedic system of medicine for centuries. It is great neurotonic,
immuno-modulator, adaptogen, tranquilizing, memory and learning enhancing, cerebral activator, antiulcer,
anti-asthmatic ayurvedic herb. Thus the micro-propagation of this plant is very necessary to
maintain the commercial demand and to preserve the germplasm of this endangered plant. The objective
of this study is to determine the easy and cost effective micro-propagation protocol. Direct shoot
regeneration was obtained on MS basal medium supplemented with different PGRs. Highest no. of
micro-shoots (128) produced on BAP (0.1 mg/l) using leaf explant which had been previously inoculated
on BAP (2.0 mg/l) i.e. shoot initiation medium. However nodal segment gave 88.2 shoots on BAP (0.5
mg/l), longer shoots (13.0cm) obtained on BAP (1.0 mg/l) + Kn (0.5 mg/l) using leaf explants. Best
response in in vitro rooting (13.1) achieved on MS ½ + IBA (1.5 mg/l) and longest roots (6.4) occurred on
MS ½ + NAA (1.0 mg/l). Rooted plantlets after acclimatization were transferred to green-house
conditions they show 100% survival rates. A key step in the analysis of plant DNA restriction fragments
is the purification of sufficient quantity of good quality DNA from fresh and healthy plant tissues, this
technique is ideal for isolation of DNA from Bacopa plants and the isolated DNA was used for RAPD
analysis. We used six primers in this analysis, all the profiles of DNA for all the smaples, were gave
similar results. This indicates that the abscence of intraspecific polymorphism among the samples.
EnglishBacopa monnieri, ayurvedic herb. , micro-propagation, RAPD analysisINTRODUCTION
Bacopa monnieri (Coastal Waterhyssop, Brahmi, water hyssop) belongs to the Scrophulariaceae . This is a perennial , creeping herb whose habitat includes wetlands and muddy shores. It commonly grows in marshy areas throughout India, Nepal, Sri lanka, China, Taiwan and Vietnam, and is also found in Florida and other southern states of the USA where it can be grown in damp conditions by the pond or bog garden. The leaves of this plant are succulent and relatively thick. Leaves are oblanceolate and are arranged oppositely on the stem. The flowers are small and white, with four or five petals. Its ability to grow in water makes it a popular aquarium plant. It can even grow in slightly brackish conditions this plant has a number of uses in Ayurveda. It is a traditional treatment for epilepsy and asthma, Rajani et al., (2004). It has been used for centuries in folklore and traditional system of medicine as a memory enhancer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, sedative and anti-epileptic agent (Stough et al.,2001). It has antioxidant properties, reducing oxidation of fats in the bloodstream. However, anti-epilepsy properties seem to be in very high toxic and near lethal doses, so it's only used at much lower non-toxic dosage as a (cognitive) additive to regular epilepsy medication. Studies in humans show that an extract of the plant has antianxiety effects Rajani et al., (2004). Bhrami extract is known to also have anti-cancer and antioxidant properties (Elangovan et al., 1995; Tripathi et al., 1996). The saponins present in the plant, namely Bacosides A and B, have been indicated for memory-enhancing properties (Sing et al., 1988). It is listed as a nootropic, a drug that enhances cognitive ability. In India, this plant has also been used traditionally to consecrate newborn babies in the belief that it will open the gateway of intelligence. Laboratory studies on rats indicate that extracts of the plant improve memory capacity and motor learning ability Rrajani et al.,(2004). Recent studies suggest bacopa may improve intellectual activity. Stough et al.,(2001), Roodenrvs et al., ( 2002), Stough et al., (2008), Dhanaskheran et al., (2007) .This mechanism of action may explain the effect of Bacopa monnieri extract in reducing beta-amyloid deposits in mice with Alzheimer's disease. The multiple uses of this important medicinal plant have led to its indiscriminate collecting and use. It is estimated that about 100000 tonnes of brahmi material is collected from the wild every year for commercial use in India (Ahmad 1993; Mathur 1999). Due to its great medicinal value there is an urgent need to develop alternative, rapid, simple and efficient protocol for the in vitro microprogation of B. monnieri. Through micropropagation of Brahmi has been reported by various authors (Ali et al.,1999; Mathur and Kumar 1998; Srivastava and Rajani 1999; Tejavathi and Shailaja 1999; Tiwari et al., 1998, 2000; Misra et al., 2003; George et al.,. 2004).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
1. Collection of explants and surface sterilization:- Bacopa monnieri plants were collected from botanical garden of Quila at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. Nodal segments, intermodal segments, shoot tips, leaf were selected as explants for direct regeneration, The explants were washed thoroughly under running tap water for 30 minutes followed by 4-5 drops of mild liquid detergent Lavolene (Qualigens Fine Chemicals , Bombay India) for 10 minutes . After that explants were soaked in an aqueous solution containing 0.2 % (w/v) Bavistin (BASF , Mumbai India Limited) for 10 minutes. The explants were then washed repeatedly with distilled water and finally treated with HgCl2 0.1 % (w/v) (Hi Media , Mumbai India) for 5 minutes in a laminar air flow chamber and washed at least five times with sterile distilled water to remove any traces of HgCl2. Then washed in 70 % alcohol for 1 minute after that rinsed properly with sterile double distilled water for at least two times . 2. Culture media:- Murashige and skoog (1962) medium were used as basal medium supplemented with 3 % (w/v) sucrose (Hi Media, Mumbai India). Ph of this medium was adjusted to 5.8 by using 1 N NaOH/ HCl before adding 0.8 % (w/v) agar (Hi Media, Mumbai India). Based on the experiment , different concentration of different plant growth regulators were added separately or in combination. Then this medium was autoclaved at 1210 C for 20 minutes.
3. Initiation of cultures :- Sterilized explants were transferred to aseptically to sterilized glass plate in the laminar air flow chamber , cut the top portion of explant to remove dead portion after surface sterilization. The forcep and the blade were earlier rinsed in the 70 % alcohol and flamed and cooled , were used . Each explant placed in an erect position on the media ant these jars were sealed with kiln film. After each inoculation the forcep and blade wre rinsed in 70 % alcohol to reduce the contamination . These glass bottles or jars or culture tubes were incubated in growth chamber / room at 25± 2 0 C with a photo- period of 16 hrs and 8 hrs dark period under fluorescent light (2500 lux ) and relative humidity of 50-60 % . Each experiment had three replicates with ten cultures.
4. Multiple shoot regeneration:- From various inoculated explants multiple shoots were produced after 10-15 days . These microshoots needs sub-culturing after two / three weeks for proper growth.
5. Root induction:- Micro shoots were transferred to a rooting medium . Under laminar air flow chamber micro shoots up to 2 cm long were cut with the help of sterile forcep and scalpel and placed on rooting medium and finally incubated in growth room.
6. Acclimatization:- Rooted plants were removed from culture tube and washed under tap water to remove agar , transferred to plastic cups containing sterile soil rite +soil mixture . The plantlets were covered with polythene bags to maintain high humidity 90± 5 % and irrigated after every 2 days with half-strength MS salt solution (without vitamins) for 2 weeks. Polythene bags were removed after 2 weeks. When new leaves appeared, the plants were transferred to earthen pots containing garden soil and vermin-compost (1:1), the plants were transferred to green-house conditions for two weeks and finally brought in natural sun light.
RAPD Analysis:- Random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis was carried out to check the polymorphism between mother plants and in vtro generated plants. In this protocol firsty DNA was isolated from different in vitro generated plants whose medium supplemented with different types of plant hormones alone or in combinations , were screened for 6 primers. These primers were used as GBP-01, GBP-02, GBP-03, GBP-04, GBP-05 and GBP-06 respectively. Each RAPD reaction mixture comprised of 25 ng of genomic DNA, 20 pMoles of the appropriate RAPD primer; 200 pM of dATP, dCTP, dGTP and dTTP; and 1.0 U of Taq DNA polymerase and 1XPCR buffer (provided in the kit). Reaction products were analyzed by electrophoresis through 1.5% (wt/vol) agarose (Promega Corporation, Madison, WI 53711 USA) gel slabs (10 cm by 16 cm by 6 mm) with 0.5 x Trisborate- EDTA as the resolving buffer. Gels were stained with ethidium bromide, placed over a source of UV light (260 nm), and then photographed using a BIORAD Gel documentation system. The molecular sizes of DNA fragments were determined using GeneRuler 1kb Ladder (Fermentas International Inc, Canada) DNA size standard. Statistical analysis:-All the experiments were conducted with a minimum of ten replicates per treatment and repeated two times.
RESULT
Bacopa monnieri plant were efficiently regenerated from different explants eg. Shoot tips, nodal segments, inter nodal segments, leaf. All the explants highly capable of develop micro-shoots directly on MS basal media containing various plant growth regulators alone or in different combinations. Explants were extremely sensitive to Hgcl2 therefore we used the 0.1 % (w/v) for 2 minutes only not for 5 minutes because explants showed browning with contamination .Before using Hgcl2 solution we used a fungicide bavistin 0.2 % (w/v) for 10 minutes for the prevention of fungi and bacteria. Shoot induction and multiplication:- In control medium explants did not show any new bud formation but it remained healthy and fresh. We used BAP and Kn (alone or in the combination). The explants respond to all the treatments but the no. of shoots and shoot length varied. When we used MS + BAP (1.5 mg/l), the highest no. of shoots i.e. (23.7) occurred within three weeks (Table 1.) figure- A. but MS +BAP (2.0 mg/l) showed slightly less results i.e. (22.6) less no. of multiple shoots. In case of Kinetin treatment, MS +Kn (1.5 mg/l) gave again less no. of shoots i.e. (18.9). Therefore in our study BAP combinations were superior over Kn combinations (Table-1). To examine the combined effect of cytokinins and auxins on explants, MS +BAP (1.5 mg/l)+ NAA(0.5 mg/l) gave best response i.e. 29.4 shoots whereas IBA added to this treatment i.e. MS+BAP (1.5 mg/l)+IBA(0.5 mg/l) gave less no. of shoots i.e. 26.3. Therefore NAA was more superior than the IBA in combination treatment on nodal segment and leaf explants (Table-2). When two cytokinins i.e. BAP and Kn added to MS basal medium, MS+BAP (1.0 mg/l)+ Kn (0.5 mg/l) average no of shoots (20.8) were developed but when we used the higher concentration of both cytokinins, less no. of shoots were developed (Table-2). We observed it this study that lower concentration of PGRs gave better response than higher concentration. Leaf explants gave best response on MS+ BAP (2.0 mg/l), highest no. of shoots were developed i.e. 45.2 shoots (Table-1). Firstly we sub-cultured the new shoots to the same treatment, approx same results were observed but when we sub-cultured to lower concentration of BAP i.e. MS+BAP(0.5 mg/l) gave best response .When we sub-cultured micro-shoots from MS+BAP(1.5 mg/l) to MS+BAP(0.1 mg/l) 78 shoots were produced within 3 weeks forming a cluster. However, micro-shoots from cytokinins and auxins combination i.e. MS+BAP (1.5 mg/l) +NAA (0.5 mg/l), sub-cultured on MS+BAP (0.1 mg/l), 92.4 new shoots were produced within 3 weeks in case of nodal segment explants. The explant which gave the most response and producing highest no. of shoots (128), was leaf explant on MS+BAP(0.1 mg/l) which had been subcultured from MS+BAP (2.0 mg/l) medium (Table-3). figure-C
Whereas the micro-shoots from other treatments did not gave the same results in comparison to above treatment. The elongation of shoots and proliferation of nodes were achieved on MS+BAP (0.5 mg/l) medium, produced shoots having nice shoot lenght . In all above treatments after four weeks highest shoot length was 12.1 cm found on the medium MS+BAP(0.5 mg/l) in case of leaf explant but in case of nodal segment this was 13 cm on MS+ BAP(1.0 mg/l)+ Kn (0.5 mg/l), (Table-2). In our studies highest no. of shoot produced in lower concentration of BAP. In present study, the BAP combination was found to be the best for regeneration and multiplication of micro-shoots production. Root induction and proliferation:- After three cycles of multiplication sub-culturing all the in vitro shoots 6-7 cm in length were separated and subculture individually on the medium Half strength and full strength containing auxins in different concentration. Root induction was observed in all treatment. MS+IBA (1.0 mg/l) was found to be the best medium for highest no. of roots (9.2) in case of full strength whereas the least no. roots i.e 4.8 occurred on higher concentration of IBA i.e. MS+IBA (2.0 mg/l). Half strength MS + IBA (1.5 mg/l) gave best response i.e. 13.1 roots. However, half strength MS medium IBA (1.0 mg/l) gave 12.5 no. of roots. Higher concentration of auxins did not gave the better responses. Highest root length i.e. 6.4 and 5.8 cm was achieved on half strength MS +NAA (1.0 mg/l) and half strength MS+NAA (0.5 mg/l) respectively. NAA combination with half strength MS medium was superior over IBA combination with half strength MS medium in case of root length. In our studies, very fast rooting was achieved on half strength MS + NAA (0.5 mg/l) figure-D within a week with nice root length. Thick rooting was found on Half strength MS+ IBA (1.0 mg/l) figure-F and more thick, branched rooting was found on half strength MS+IBA (1.5 mg/l) figure-E. Thus in present study NAA is best suitable for very fast rooting while IBA was suitable for thick and branched rooting (Table- 4).
RAPD Analysis:-The RAPD analysis was performed with mother plants and in vtro generated plants using six different RAPD primers. Image show the profiles generated with primers GBP-01, GBP-02, GBP-03, GBP-04, GBP-05 and GBP-06 respectively against DNA from both type of plants. For a given primer, the profiles of DNA fragments found for sample A (mother plant) was similar to sample B (in vitro generated plants). With each of the primers, DNA fragment length polymorphisms were observed; several amplicons were of identical size and hence were considered to be the same allele. The reproducibility of the RAPD profiles was confirmed by generating identical DNA fragments from re-extracted DNA, as well as ultra diluted (1:100) RAPD product solution generated from previous reactions. These results suggest the absence of intraspecific polymorphism among two samples for RAPD analysis. The RAPD profiles using GBP-01, GBP-02, GBP-03, GBP-04, GBP-05 and GBP-06 primers were not able to detect DNA polymorphisms among both samples in this study. However primer GBP-01 generated a single, low-intensity, polymorphic band but the similarity coefficient depicted by this primer was found to be 0.95. The overall mean genetic distance between the two samples was computed to be 0.0083. The mean similarity coefficient was found to be 0.9917. From this result it may be concluded that the two samples in question are highly similar in terms of their genetic complexity as deduced by DNA fingerprinting experiments using a definite set of RAPD primers.
DISSCUSSION
In various explants cultured on growth regulator free MS medium did not exhibit any regeneration response however, when MS medium was supplemented with diffenent cytokinins alone or in combination, multiple shoots formation occurred within three weeks. In all treatments best response occurred in leaf explant which gave highest no. of micro-shoots with 100% response. Many earlier reports on shoot bud initiation in Bacopa monnieri plant supports our studies (Tiwari et al., 1998, 2000, 2001, Srivastva and rajni 1999). They reported the leaf explant was more responsive than other explants and gave best results. Among two cytokinins BAP showed better results than Kn. In our studies, MS+BAP (1.5mg/l) gave 23.7 shoots whereas MS+Kn (1.5 mg/l) gave only 18.9 shoots in case of nodal segment (Table-1). Tiwari et al., (1998, 2001) reported that shoot bud induction on different cytokinins & TDZ supplemented medium. He reported that BA (8.9 DISSCUSSION In various explants cultured on growth regulator free MS medium did not exhibit any regeneration response however, when MS medium was supplemented with diffenent cytokinins alone or in combination, multiple shoots formation occurred within three weeks. In all treatments best response occurred in leaf explant which gave highest no. of micro-shoots with 100% response. Many earlier reports on shoot bud initiation in Bacopa monnieri plant supports our studies (Tiwari et al., 1998, 2000, 2001, Srivastva and rajni 1999). They reported the leaf explant was more responsive than other explants and gave best results. Among two cytokinins BAP showed better results than Kn. In our studies, MS+BAP (1.5mg/l) gave 23.7 shoots whereas MS+Kn (1.5 mg/l) gave only 18.9 shoots in case of nodal segment (Table-1). Tiwari et al., (1998, 2001) reported that shoot bud induction on different cytokinins & TDZ supplemented medium. He reported that BA (8.9 µM) was more effective than Kn in shoot bud regeneration but in our studies, we did not use TDZ to minimize the cost of protocol. Banerjee and Shrivastava (2008), reported that MS+Kn 1.5 gave 12 shoots MS+BA (1.5 mg/l) gave only 11 shoots thus the condition is just reverse in this study. In many earlier reports, TDZ has been used more frequently for shoot regeneration in Bacopa monnieri (Tiwari 2001, Antony et al., 2010, mok et al., 2005, Thomas and Katterman 1986). In our studies very higher concentration of PGRs produced less no. of shoots. This has been confirmed by earlier reports ( Tiwari et al.,1998, Banerjee and Shrivastava 2008, Shrivastava and rajni1999). MS+BAP (0.1 mg/l) was proved best medium for shoot multiplication and differentiation as it gave highest no .of shoots i.e. 128 using leaf explant but in case of nodal segment it gave 92 shoots . This concentration increased the no. of shoots as well as shoot length. In earlier studies Tiwari et al., (2006) reported 81 and 98 shoots from inter node and leaf respectively. In other report shoot clump obtained from shoot induction medium were sub-cultured in the multiplication medium containing lower concentration of BAP, produced 135 shoots from leaf explants (Antony et al., 2010). On sub-culturing when we used lower concentration of cytokinins more no. of shoots produced. Praveen et al., (2009), proves that the Kn is better than the BAP for formation of multiple shoots in bacopa monnieri, he used MS+Kn (2 mg/l) which gave hightest no. of shoots from leaf explants. Addition of auxin (NAA, IAA and IBA) to cytokinins had significantly enhanced the frequency of shoot induction.NAA produced more shoots over IAA/ IBA when either added to cytokinins (Antony et al., 2010). Many other reports suggests the use of auxins to cytokinins for better shoot production ( Dimitrov et al., 2003, Skala and Wysokinska 2004). In present study we used BAP (1.5 mg/l) + NAA (0.5 mg/l) and BAP (1.5 mg/l)+ IBA(0.5 mg/l) for shoot formation, they produced 29.4 and 26.3 shoots respectively. Present study validates the 100% response in rooting of bacopa monnieri plant. Tiwari et al., (2000) reported that the highest rate of rooting (90%) on MS full strength medium containing 2.46 mM IBA. Tiwari et al., (1998) reported that higher no.of roots in bacopa produced on IBA medium than NAA medium however Banerjee and Shrivastava (2008) reported that NAA showed more no.of roots. Half strength MS medium with IBA/ NAA produced more roots in Bacopa monnieri than full strength MS medium (Antony et al., 2010), in Tylophora indica (Faisal and Anis 2005), in Rhodiola fastigiata (Liu et al., 2006). In our investigations , MS half strength medium gave 100% response ( no. of roots 13.1) while MS full strength medium gave less no. of roots i.e. 9.3 thus MS half strength medium was superior to MS full strength medium producing more no. of roots and this is supported by many earlier reports. IBA (1.5 mg/l) gave best results in present study however in other studies, Antony et al., (2010) reported that IBA was superior to IAA for the root induction of Bacopa monnieri. Similar results found IBA (4.9 µM) gave higher no. of roots in this plant (Tiwari 2001). In this study it was proved that the DNA profiles of mother plants and the in vitro generated plants were same and did not show any polymorphism. This clearly indicates that the micropropagated plants which are the clones of the mother plants having same DNA or same genetic makeup because they did not showing any genetic diversity in RAPD analysis. This method is very easy,quick, less time taking and very efficient . RAPD has been proven to be a suitable molecular technique to detect the variation that is induced or occurs during in vitro International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 09 September 2011 173 regeneration of plant species (Shu et al.2003). a number of workers done this method for several plants to identify the genetic makeup and detect polymorphism as Curcuma amada (Prakash et al. 2004), Plumbago zeylanica (Rout and Das 2002), Drosera anglica and Drosera binata (Kawiak and Lojkowska 2004), Musa paradisiacal (Venkatachalam et al. 2007), Zingiber officinale (Rout et al. 1998), Curcuma longa (Selvi et al.2002).
CONCLUSION
MS medium augumented with different PGRs , explants of Bacopa monnieri showed positive response in the sense of microshoots and roots production. When MS medium supplemented with BA (1.5), highest no. of shoots (23.7) developed. In our study BA proved to be better than Kn in shoot initiation treatments . Whereas Cytokinins and auxins treatments BA(1.5)+ NAA(0.5) showed best results i.e. 29.4 no. of shoots produced. But in comparison to NAA , IBA produced less no. of shoots . Thus NAA is superior to IBA combinations. However, when we used two cytokinins BA & Kn, BA showed better response than the Kn but one thing is common in both treatments i.e. Lower concentrations of both gave satisfactory results than the higher ones. In case of shoot multiplication treatments, BA(0.1) gave excellent results i.e. 128 no. of shoots produced by leaf explants when subcultured from BA(2.0) (shoot initiation medium). Similarly BA(0.5) gave 111 shoots. Thus here , leaf explants and lower concentrations of BA gave best respone. But N.S. Explants also gave satisfactory results i.e. 92.4 no. of shoots developed on BA(0.1) after subculturing from BA(1.5)+ NAA (0.5)(shoot induction medium).In case of rooting, MS ½ +IBA(1.5) produced higher no. of roots i.e.13.1 and MS +IBA(1.0) gave 9.2 no. of roots but MS ½ + NAA (0.1)gave 11.8 no. of roots & MS+NAA(0.1) gave 7.9 no. of roots. Therefore IBA and MS½ medium showed good results than NAA and MS medium respectively in rooting.The plants were successfully acclimatized in green-house at 95-100% survival rates.
Plant samples analyzed using RAPD techniques in this study suggest that the pattern obtained for Sample A was similar with respect to RAPD banding patterns of other sample B analyzed in the experiment.The RAPD profiles using GBP-01 to GBP-06 primers were not able to detect DNA polymorphisms among these samples . However primer GBP-01 generated a single, low-intensity, polymorphic band but the similarity coefficient depicted by this primer was found to be 0.95. The mean similarity coefficient was found to be 0.9917. From this result it may be concluded that the two samples in question are highly similar in terms of their genetic complexity as deduced by DNA fingerprinting experiments using a definite set of RAPD primers. Since Bacopa monnieri is being indiscriminately exploited because of its great medicinal valueand urgent methods for its replenishment and cultivation, preferably through tissue culture , bocome highly desirable.The methodology adopted can ensure a regulate supply of Bacopa monnieri plant to pharmaceutical industries.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author is thankful to the Prof. Moinuddin Khan (Dean ) School of life science, Singhaniya University, for providing the necessary facilities and giving valuable suggestions and time.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyCOMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VAPOUR JET REFRIGERATION SYSTEM WITH WORKING FLUID
R134A & R410A
English180185Sandeep KashyapEnglish R.C. GuptaEnglishThis paper discuss, the performance of vapor jet refrigeration system with working fluid R410a and
R134a.The analysis based on one dimensional mathematical model. A performance comparison is made
on various operating condition and ejector area ratio. These operating conditions are boiling temperature
(333 to 353K), Condenser temperature (300 to 313K) & evaporator temperature (268 to 278K) and area
ratio 4.0 & 5.67.The result shows that performance of jet refrigeration mainly depends on boiling
temperature and ejector geometry, the performance R134a is better than R410a.
EnglishEjector, simulation program, ejector geometry, performance1) INTRODUCTION
At present, most of conventional refrigeration system based on vapours compression cycle which are driven by the high grade electrical energy. The most attractive feature of Vapour jet refrigeration system over the conventional refrigeration system that it can driven by the low grade thermal energy such as solar energy, waste industrial heat and geothermal energy. Compared to other renewable energy operated refrigeration system, ejector refrigeration system has more simplicity, reliable, long life, low initial and running cost. The main disadvantage of Vapour jet refrigeration system has lower COP compare to other refrigeration cycle such as absorption refrigeration cycle (1). The performance of ejector refrigeration system mainly depends on the thermodynamic property of working fluid. At initial stage ejector refrigeration cycles utilized the water as working fluid but other refrigerant may also provided the better performance for Vapour jet refrigeration cycle. In this study eco friendly refrigeration‘s are taken for different area ratio.
2) SYSTEM DESCRIPPTION
The Vapour jet refrigeration cycle is shown fig (1) which consists of boiler, condenser, evaporator, ejector, pump, expansion valve. Low pressure primary fluid enters into boiler where it absorbs low grade heat and converts into high pressure vapour. This high pressure saturated vapour moved into ejector where it expanded in the convergent- divergent nozzle and convert into high velocity stream, the pressure difference produce by primary fluid cause the suction of secondary saturated vaporized fluid from evaporator. Primary and secondary fluid mixed into the mixing chambered section and pressure increased due to shock waves by flow through the diffuser. High pressure fluid condensed into condenser by rejecting heat. A part of fluid pumped into boiler by the pump, remaining fluid entered into evaporated while passed though the expansion valve and produced the refrigeration effect.
5) CONCLUSION
Comparative analysis were made on Jet refrigeration cycles with working fluid R410a and R134a in same ejector geometry and same operating condition using one dimension modal. On based of study COP of ejector refrigeration cycle depends on ejector geometry, operation condition and property of working fluid. COP of system increased as boiler temperature increased while Cop is decreased when Compression ratio and condenser temperature increased. For different ejector ratio the performance of system are different but ejector ratio Ø= 564 at 353K have higher COP comparative other ejector ratio. For all area ratio and operating Condition the performance R134a is better than R410a.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2118http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=21181. Kim DS. Infant Ferreia CA review- solar refrigeration option –a state of the art review (2008). 2.
K . Cizunga, A Mani, M. GRoll : Performance compression of vapour jet refrigeration system with environment friendly working fluids 2000).
3. A. selvaraju, A. Mani: Analysis of a vapour ejector refrigeration system with environment friendly refrigerants (2004).
4. Latra Boumaraf, Andre Lallemand: Modeling of an ejector refrigeration system operating in dimensioning and off dimensioning condition with the working fluids R142b and R600a (2008).
5. Jianlin Yu, Zhenxing Du: Theoretical study of a transcritical ejector cycle with refrigerant R143a.
6. JJ Henzier; Design of ejectors for single phase material system (1883).
7. J Fabri, R Siestrunk: Supersonic air ejector, 1998.
8. K Matsuo, K. Tasaki, K. Sasaguchi, H. Mochizuki: Investigate of supersonic air ejectors. Part 1: performance in the case of Zero secondary flow.
9. K Matsuo, K. tasaki, K. Sasaguch, H. Mochizuki: Investigate of supersonic air ejector. Part 2 Effect of throat area ratio in ejector performances.
10. L.T Lu, J. c Champoussin, E. Nahdi: Performance optimal et Utilisation Du systeme a ejecteur en production de froid.
11. H. P Schlag, Experimentelle und theoretische Untersuchungen Zur Berechung der Kennvon gasbetribenen Einphaseninjektoren und Gutaufgabeninjektoren.
12. B. J uang , et al, A 1-D analysis of ejector performance (1999)
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524139EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesINCREASING PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY FROM FLY ASH THROUGH VERMICOMPOSTING
EMPLOYING EISENIA FOETIDA
English186192Manjari BarsainyaEnglish Assadullah SheikhEnglish A.K.GiriEnglishThe increasing environmental problems are created by large-scale production of fly ash (FA), attention
is now been paid to the recycling of FA as a good source of nutrients. An important component of
recycling effort is using FA to improve low fertility soils. The study explored the possibility of increasing
phosphorus availability in FA through vermicomposting. Present investigation showed that pH of the
treated and controlled series was decreased with increase in FA concentrations and the biomass
production of the earthworm was increased in the progression of 0% > 5% > 10% > 25% > 50%. The
different combinations of FA and cattle dung (CD) showed that phosphorus availability in FA due to
vermicompost was significantly increased in the 5%, 10% followed by 25% and 50% combinations. The
concentration of nutrients was found to increase in the earthworm treated series of cattle dung and FA
combinations. The increase in available phosphorus may be attributed to direct action of worm gut
enzymes and indirectly by stimulation of micro flora.
EnglishFly ash, environmental problems, cattle dung, vermicomposting, Eisenia foetida, biomass.INTRODUCTION
Fly ash a finely divided solid residue carried out in air, regarded as amorphous ferroaluminosilicate minerals, containing the naturally available elements i.e. similar to that of soil except humus and nitrogen (Wong and Wong, 1986). Combustion of coal in thermal power stations produces a variety of residues fly ash, bottom ash, flue gas desulphurization waste and fluidized bed boiler waste and coal gasification ash and creates various environmental problems such as air, water and soil pollution. Over 225 million tonnes of coal is produced annually in India and over 100 thermal power stations generate more than 110 million tonnes of fly ash every year (Jamwal, 2003) which is expected to double within the next 5-6 years. Annual production of fly ash is generated from thermal power plants during combustion of coal is around 90 million tons and is likely to increase to 140 million tons by 2020 ( Kalra et al., 1997) Fly ash is a serious type of air pollution since it remains air born for a long period of time and causes health hazard. Fly ash interferes with the photosynthesis of plants and thus disturbs the food chain. The magnitude of the problem is evident from the fact that fly ash generated during 2000-2001 was about 150 million tones in India. To prevent fly ash from being air born, the dumping ground needs to be kept wet all time. Thermal power plants in India are reportedly spending seven billion rupees annually on this activity. The major problem is handling and disposal of fly ash. Disposal of fly ash has been increasingly expensive since the landfill space is limited. In view of the environmental problems generated by large scale production of fly ash, more attention is being paid on recycling of fly ash as a good source of nutrients (Gupta et al., 2005). The major problem faced by the coal/lignite thermal power stations all over the world is the handling and disposal of ash. Several workers have tried mixtures of fly ash with organic waste. Mixed applications, fly ash and organic compost on soil and availability and uptake of elements by various plant species was studied (Menon, 1993). Presently, the disposal of such huge amounts of fly ash is done either by dry or wet methods and has become a serious environmental quandary. All methods ultimately lead to the deterioration of the soil and environment problems (Jala and Goyal, 2006). On the other hand fly ash has been also reported for various uses, raw material in building making and in agricultural land reclamation, quarry restoration (Kriesel, et al., 1994). A vast potential for use in agronomy as an amendment, but such use is only accounted for 38% of the fly ash produced by electric power facilities each year (Stevens and Dunn, 2004). However little information is available on the use of fly ash as amendment to agriculture lands for crop production. In recent years, there has been growing interest in using fly ash for crop production, especially for reclamation of wastelands (Adriano et al., 1980; McMarty et al., 1994; Schutter and Fuhrman,1999). Fly ash contains both macro and micro nutrients which can sustain plant growth (Negi and Meenakshi, 1991). It contains several nutrients including P, S, Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn which are beneficial for plant growth, as well as toxic heavy metals such as, Hg, Cr, Pb, Ni, As, Se etc (Dalmau, et al., 1990). Sustainable use of fly ash to treat agricultural soils tends to conjure concern over long term effects on dynamics and functions of soil biota such as earth worms on which there is least information available. Earthworms may also enhance the fertility of soil treated with coal fly ash by increasing solublization of mineral nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium in the ash (Bhattacharya, et al., 2001). Vermicomposting is one of the recycling technologies, which improves the quality of products. It involves using earthworms to increase the microbial population in vermicasts and help to produce high quality compost from different organic wastes in a lesser period of time (Edwards and Lofty., 1972). With this backdrop present study has been undertaken to work out on the increasing phosphorus availability from fly ash employing earthworms (Eisenia foetida) to know the efficiency of said worm to convert the fly ash into vermicompost and to determine the phosphorus bioavailability and phosphorus solubility in fly ash by using cattle dung as the source of energy through an adoption of vermicomposting technology.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was performed in the laboratory in plastic containers (2-L volume), which were inert in nature. The parameters and methodology adopted are given in Table-1. Triplicate of five combinations of fly ash (FA) and cattle dung (CD) and cattle dung alone as 0%(T1), 5% (T2), 10% (T3), 25%(T4) and 50%(T5) fly ash were used with a total weight of 1 kg material (sample size) in each pot and a set of control in each combination was also maintained without the earthworms. Seven days old, cattle dung was collected from dairy farm, Shivaji Nagar, Jhansi.
The moisture content of the cattle dung was recorded as 66.7%. Each of the experimental treatments were replicated thrice and incubated with and without epigeic earthworm 5 worms kg-1 material. The Eisenia foetida worms were brought from Hisar University, Haryana and unweathered fly ash was obtained from Parichha thermal power plant, Jhansi, India. The materials under each treatment were incubated under moist laboratory conditions for 90 days (February – April 2010) with temperature range of 21.4 to 32.6°C. Samples were drawn periodically at 30 days intervals from each of the combination and were analyzed for pH, biomass, available phosphorus and total phosphorus. In each sample 60-66% moisture was maintained for vermicomposting. Contributions of FA to availability of phosphorus under different treatments were determined by calculating the contribution of CD to availability of phosphorus from the CD treatment and subtracting the respective amount from the different FA + CD contributions. The values were expressed in g/kg. The preparations of different mixtures (CD and FA) were performed as following.
1. Pure cattle dung =1000gm CD = 0% Flyash
2. Cattle dung + Fly ash(950gm CD + 50gm FA)= 5% Flyash
3. Cattle dung + Fly ash(900gm CD +100gm FA)= 10% Flyash
4. Cattle dung + Fly ash(750gm CD +250gm FA)= 25% Flyash
5. Cattle dung + Fly ash(500gm CD +500gm FA)= 50% Flyash
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Changes in pH, biomass, available phosphorus and total phosphorus in different combinations of fly ash are presented and discussed as follows. The results depicted that the earthworms play an important role in processing fly ash into organic manure. The earthworm‘s activity accelerated the decomposition of the fly ash and stablizes the waste. The pH of the compost samples in the earthworm treated series (E) ranged from 5.3- 7.8 while as in case of controlled series (E 0 ) it ranged from 6.4-7.8 as given in Fig.-1. The lower pH in vermicompost may be due to the production of CO2 and organic acids by microbial activity during process of bioconversion of organic matter present in the feed (Haimi and Hutha, 1986, Albanell et al., 1988). In all treatments, earthworm reduced the pH value, which is in accordance with (Atiyeh et al., 2000 and Ndegwa et al., 2000). It was observed that in absence of earthworms, the pH also decrease with increase in length of composting. The slight decrease of pH value in all treatments without worms in comparison to combinations with earthworms refers to less microbial activity than in presence of worms. Biomass of earthworms in different treatments at the time of inoculation ranged from 3.16-3.25 g/kg (fresh weight) whereas after 90 days of composting, earthworm biomass production was found to vary in different treatments from 1.04- 7.66 g/kg. The highest earthworm biomass production was recorded of 137.15% in 0%(T1) followed by 92.61% in 5%(T2) and minimum production 26.47% in 10% (T3) as given in Table-2. Interestingly, in treatments 25%(T4) and 50%(T5) concentrations, negative growth of earthworm production was observed, which may be due to the toxicity of fly ash on earthworms (Tripathi and Bhardwaj, 2003). From biomass production of earthworms it is was observed that vermicompost of fly ash amended cattle dung may be suitable at 5% fly ash and permissible up International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 09 September 2011 189 to 10%. Addition of cattle dung with fly ash had a positive impact on biomass gain, was observed in the present investigation. Evidently cent percent cattle dung showed maximum earthworm biomass gain (0.0492 g/day) with minimum production at 10% FA (0.0094 g/day) as in accordance with Hartenstien et al., (1979) that less than 10% FA is not supporting biomass production as revealed in the present study. However, in 25% and 50% FA treatment showed negative biomass production. Normally phosphorus is found in unavailable forms like calcium phosphate or potassium phosphate. The present study revealed that earthworms have ability to convert insoluble phosphorus in soluble forms. The increase in total phosphorus content after 90 days of composting may be attributed to enhance mineralization process. Vermicompost proved to be the efficient technology for providing better phosphorus nutrition from organic and inorganic wastes. The total phosphorus content in all the treatments was observed to increase after three months of composting. The highest and lowest content of total phosphorus with earthworm treated series (E) before incubation was recorded as 0.70 g/kg in 0% (T1) and 0.67 g/kg in 50%(T5) however similar with that of without earthworm treated series (E0 ). While maximum and minimum content of total phosphorus in earthworm treated series (E) was observed as 1.21 g/kg in 5%(T2) and 1.02 g/kg in 0% (T1) and in case of without earthworm series (E0 ) was observed as 1.13 g/kg in 0% (T1) and 0.98 g/kg in 50%(T5) on 90th day of incubation respectively. This observation may be referred to less mineralization activity in absence of earthworms than presence of earthworms in the treatments. The phosphorus content of all the treatments showed an increasing concentration with increasing period of composting which may be due to the multiplication of the phosphate solublizing microbes in the casts. The total phosphorus content in the present investigation is in accordance with findings of Suthar and Singh (2008). The minimum and maximum content of available phosphorus with earthworm treated series (E) before incubation was recorded as 0.039 g/kg in 50% (T5) and 0.086 g/kg in 0%(T1) however, same as in case of without earthworm series (E0 ). Whereas highest and lowest content of available phosphorus was observed as 1.56 g/kg in 0%(T1) and 0.06 g/kg in 50% (T5) but in case of without earthworm series (E0 ) it was observed as1.418 g/kg in 0% (T1) and 0.054 g/kg in 50%(T5) on 90th day respectively as shown in Figure.-3. It was interesting to observe that adopting vermicomposting technology through the use of earthworms helped to increase the available phosphorus content. Improvement in the amount of extractable phosphorus during vermicomposting and also in absence of earthworm similar findings was observed by Ghosh et al., (1999). They reported that vermicomposting can be an efficient technology for the transformation of unavailable form of phosphorus to easily available forms for plants. It is well established that the release of phosphorus in available form is partly by earthworm gut phosphatase enzymes (Le Bayon et al., 2006) and further release of this may be phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms in casts (Vinotha et al., 2000). Organic materials pass through the gut of earthworms then some of the phosphorus being converted to such forms that are available to plants. The increase in available phosphorus was attributed to direct action of worm gut enzymes and indirectly by stimulation of micro flora. The increasing effect of vermicomposting may be due rich microbial populations in the earthworms gut (Edwards and Lofty, 1972) which may have played the International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 09 September 2011 190 significant role in the solublizing phosphorus from unavailable forms.
CONCLUSION
Based on present study, it may be concluded that the rate of mineralization could be decreased due to the increasing concentration of fly ash. The higher concentration of fly ash may affect the population of earthworms and microbes. It is also clear that the use of Eisenia foetida, increases phosphorus availability seems to be feasible technology and 5% fly ash combination can be used for sustainable vermicomposting, without showing any toxicity on earthworms. The concentration of nutrients was found to increase in the earthworm treated series of cattle dung and fly ash combinations. The increase in available phosphorus was attributed to direct action of worm gut enzymes and indirectly by stimulation of microorganisms that is available to plants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Head, Institute of Environment and Development Studies, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, for providing the laboratory facilities for the work undertaken.
Figure-3: Available phosphorus availability in different combinations of fly ash and cattle dung with (E) and without (E0 ) earthworm after 30, 60 and 90 days of incubation
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