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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyGREEN IT BASED ENERGY EFFICIENCY MODEL FOR DATA CENTERS TO REDUCE ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
English0518Mueen UddinEnglish Azizah Abdul RahmanEnglish Asadullah ShahEnglishProblem Statement: The advancement of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
based business and social practices in the last few decades has transformed many, if not most,
economies into e-economy and businesses into e-businesses. For economies, ICTs are
increasingly playing critical roles in transforming and generating ortunities. On the other hand,
global warming and climate change coalescing with limited availability and rising cost of
energy are posing serious challenges for the sustainability of the global digital (or otherwise)
economy. Technology has a potential to create sustainable business and society both in grim
and green economic times. Especially, the recovery from the current economic crisis is going to
need and lead to more Greener and energy efficient industries. As corporations look to become
more energy efficient, they are examining their operations more closely. Data centers provide
capabilities of central storage, backups and networking, recovery. Data centers are found major
culprits in consuming too much energy in their overall operations and generating too much
CO2. In order to handle the sheer magnitude of today‘s data, data centers have had to use much
more power and servers have become larger, denser, hotter and significantly more costly to
operate. This study determine the properties and attributes of green IT infrastructures and
determines the way it will be helpful in achieving green sustainable businesses. The proposed
Green IT model will be drafted using Virtualization technology for data centers to make them
more energy efficient and green, hence reducing the emission of green house gases so that the
overall effect on global warming can be reduced or even eliminated. Results and Conclusion: The
proposed model would reveal the qualities of green IT to enhance the proper utilization of
hardware and software resources available in the data center. It helps data center managers to
come up with a new environment friendly and sustainable green IT strategy making
environment greener and sustainable. The heart of this strategy is to reduce global warming
effects by using green and energy efficient data centers.
EnglishVirtualization complements, server consolidation, environmental considerations, data centers, energy efficiency, reduce energy, environmental issues, energy efficient, environmental impact, resource allocationINTRODUCTION
Seldom does a day pass in which we don‘t hear or read about sustainability or ?going green.? Environmental concerns are constantly in news headlines and the impact of technology on our environment is significant. Large technology organizations such as Dell, HP, ISM, Sun, Hitachi and Fujitsu have introduced green and sustainable initiatives. ?Green? is generally understood to mean ?Friendly to the environment and energy efficient.? Sustainable implies planning and investing in a technology infrastructure that serves the needs of today as well as the needs of tomorrow while conserving resources and saving money. Organizations are quite concerned with environmental issues, but they have also come to realize that sustainable business practices can significantly enhance the bottom line. Data centers are changing at a rapid pace; more than any other industry in history. Yet with all the change, data center facilities and IT professionals face numerous challenges in unifying their peers to solve problems for their companies. Sometimes you may feel like you are talking different languages or living on different planets. The data centers have become an increasingly important part of most business operations in the twenty-first century. With escalating demands and rising energy prices, it is essential for the owners and operators of these mission critical facilities to assess and improve their performance. In contexts ranging from large-scale data centers to mobile devices, energy use is an important concern. In data centers, power consumption in U.S has doubled between 2000 and 2006 and will double again in the next five yearsn (EPA, 2006). Server power consumption not only directly affects a data center‘s energy costs, but also necessitates the purchase and operation of cooling equipment, which can consume one-half to one Watt for every Watt of power consumed by the computing equipment (Suzanne, 2008). As new servers are being added continuously into data centers without considering the proper utilization of already installed servers, it will cause an unwanted and unavoidable increase in the energy consumption, as well as increase in physical infrastructure like over-sizing of heating and cooling equipments. This increased consumption of energy causes an increase in the production of green house gases which are hazardous for environmental health. Hence it not only consumes space, energy, but also cost environmental stewardship (Mueen and Azizah, 2010). The continued growth of data center power consumption impacts everything from the business enterprise to the power supply companies to the environment. With more efficient energy use in data centers, power supply companies will face less demand and the possibility of excess power, which could help limit blackouts, reduce carbon dioxide output and cut other green house gases. In addition, energy use has implications for reliability, density and scalability. As data centers house more servers and consume more energy, removing heat from the data center becomes increasingly difficult (Chandrakant and Patel, 2003). Since the reliability of servers and disks decreases at high temperatures, the power consumption of servers and other components limits the achievable density of data centers, which in turn limits their scalability. Furthermore, energy use in data centers is starting to prompt environmental concerns of pollution and excessive load placed on local utilities (Chandrakant and Ranganathan, 2006). These concerns are sufficiently severe that large companies are starting to build data centers near electric plants in cold-weather environments (John and Hansell, 2006). For the business enterprise, an increase in data center efficiency can save significant energy costs. However, even with the global presence of many companies, these metrics are often not applied consistently at a global level. All of these factors are increasing the public‘s awareness and global concerns of these current power consumption trends. We‘re in the biggest data centre construction boom in history. The U.S. is spending $16 billion a year building out additional data centers, with another $6 billion on refurbishing existing ones. Experts say we should be spending $3 billion a year to build new electrical power plants to meet the supply needs of these data centres-except we‘re not (EPA, 2009). The Smart 2020 report published by the Climate Group and GeSI revealed that in 2002, the global data centre footprint, including equipment use and embodied carbon, was 76 MtCO2e and this is expected to more than triple by 2020-259 MtCO2e, making it the fastest-growing contributor to the ICT sector‘s carbon footprint, at 7 per cent per annum in relative terms. If growth continues in line with demand, the world will be using 122 million servers in 2020, up from 18 million today (Smart, 2020). With energy prices increasing worldwide the operational costs of data center continues to increase steadily. Besides the cost, availability of electrical power is becoming a critical issue for many companies whose data centers have expanded steadily. Enterprises, governments and societies at large have a new important agenda: tackling environmental issues and adopting environmentally sound practices. Over the years, the use of IT has exploded in several areas, improving our lives and work and offering convenience along with several other benefits. We are passionate about advances in and widespread adoption of IT. However, IT has been contributing to environmental problems, which most people don‘t realize. Computers and other IT infrastructure consume significant amounts of electricity, placing a heavy burden on our electric grids and contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, IT hardware poses severe environmental problems both during its production and its disposal. IT is a significant and growing part of the environmental problems we face today. We are obliged to minimize or eliminate where possible the environmental impact of IT to help create a more sustainable environment. To reduce IT‘s environmental problems and to create a sustainable environment, we call upon the IT sector as well as every computer user to green their IT systems, as well as the way they use these systems (Murugesan, 2008). We are legally, ethically and socially required to green our IT products, applications, services and practices. Green IT benefits the environment by improving energy efficiency, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, using less harmful materials and encouraging reuse and recycling. Factors such as environmental legislation, the rising cost of waste disposal, corporate images and public perception give further impetus to the green IT initiative. Green IT is a hot topic today and will continue to be an important issue for several years to come. To foster 3 green IT, we should understand: What are the key environmental impacts arising from IT? What are the major environmental IT issues that we must address? How can we make our IT infrastructure, products, services, operations, applications and practices environmentally sound? What are the regulations or standards with which we need to comply? How can IT assist businesses and society at large in their efforts to improve our environmental sustainability? This study will highlight some of these issues and then presents a holistic approach to greening IT in e businesses especially data center industry. We propose a green IT strategy for data centers and outline specific ways to minimize IT‘s environmental impact.
Challenges of Data Center Industry Power outage has been mentioned as one of the most experienced and perceived risks by various types of businesses and organizations. Thus, reducing the impacts of power outage has become a key agenda in business continuity planning. Back-up or stand-by generators are among the most well known measures taken by power consumers to tackle the power outage problem (Asgary A., and Jahromi). There‘s no single bad guy that can be blamed for IT inefficiency. Worse, inefficiency seems to grow incrementally over time as environment becomes older and more complex. Each new application being added seems to require another server, which requires administrative time to keep running, while it consumes power, space and expensive network ports in your data center. The data center industry has a number of related problems such as:
1. Inconsistent Measuring Metrics and Benchmarks It is significantly important for data center managers to measure the performance of their data centers regularly so that efficiency measures should be performed to make data centers energy efficient and green. But unfortunately there is no industry standard metric available acceptable worldwide to measure the performance in terms of energy efficiency and CO2 emissions. Data center managers are currently equally split between using external benchmarks, home grown tools, financial analysis and commercial asset/financial management tools, with no clear leader and metric. It is evident from different discussions that measuring IT performance is difficult.
2. Outsized Number of Underutilized Servers Servers are the major components responsible for performing most of the processing being performed in data centers. There number is continuously increasing as the demands from businesses grow. Due to their increased number they are the leading consumer of IT power in any data center. Data centers are plagued with thousands of the server‘s mostly underutilized, having utilization ratio of only 5-10% consuming huge energy and generating huge amount of green house gases (Mueen and Abdul Rahman, 2010).
3. Power Efficiency of IT Equipment Data center comprises many types of equipment like servers, UPS, PDU‘s, chillers, Cracks. All of these components consume enormous amount of power to provide services to end users. Most of the data managers think that IT equipments are significant source of electrical waste. Proper efficiency measures can reduce these consumptions and help data center managers implement environment friendly and green data centers.
Establishing Performance Requirements and Maximizing IT Operations Effective application service delivery requires a continuous understanding of end-to-end application performance requirements. In a data center environment, with rapidly changing dynamic workload and resource allocation, continuous measurement to establish performance 9 International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 requirements is especially vital. This understanding should start when the applications are still in development, so that IT can avoid any surprise performance problems during and immediately after production deployment. As application usage changes, continuous measurement is required to adapt workload and resource allocation and maintain service levels. When application changes are made, or new features are added, performance requirements will need to be re-established to again avoid potential disruption.
Environmental Issues and Problems The growing accumulation of greenhouse gases is changing the world‘s climate and weather patterns, creating droughts in some countries and floods in others. It‘s slowly pushing global temperatures higher, posing serious problems to the world (http://egj.lib.uidaho.edu/index.php/egj/arti cle/view/3205/3175). For instance, 2005 was the warmest year on record and the 10 warmest years have all occurred since 1980. Global data shows that storms, droughts and other weather-related disasters are growing more severe and more frequent. To stop the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, global emissions would have to stop growing. Electricity is a major cause of climate change, because the coal or oil that helps generate electricity also releases carbon dioxide, pollutants and sulphur into the atmosphere. These emissions can cause respiratory disease, smog, acid 4 rain and global climate change. Reducing electric power consumption is a key to reducing carbon dioxide emissions and their impact on our environment and global warming. With this in mind, let‘s focus on what each of us as IT professionals, members of the IT industry and IT users can do individually and collectively to create a sustainable environment. Let‘s examine IT‘s environmental impact and consider green IT measures that we can adopt.
PROPOSED WORK
Greening Data Centers The continued rise of Internet and Web applications is driving the rapid growth of data centers. Enterprises are installing more servers or expanding their capacity. The number of server computers in data centers has increased six fold to 30 million in the last decade and each server draws far more electricity than earlier models. Aggregate electricity use for servers doubled between 2000 and 2005, most of which came from businesses installing large numbers of new servers (Pritchard, 2007). One problem with the greening of IT is that it forces organizations to buy more. Plans usually call for things like more energy efficient servers, intelligent sensors for data center cooling, server virtualization software, low power monitors and devices that turn off dormant computers (Baines, 2007). The social, financial and practical constraints involved will force businesses and IT departments to reduce energy consumption by data centers. We can improve data center efficiency by using new energyefficient equipment, improving airflow management to reduce cooling requirements, investing in energy management software and adopting environmentally friendly designs for data centers and new measures to curb data centers energy consumption. Three key areas identified for improvement in achieving energy efficient data center are:
Revising processes and metrics
Optimizing efficiency of existing IT assets
Revamping architecture and infrastructure
Revising Processes and Metrics Changing organizational processes and measurements is a subtle but vital part of any transformation effort. Changes in processes and metrics will drive changes in behavior, which in turn will underpin all the other technology or architecture changes that a data center makes. By focusing on processes and metrics, data center managers must ensure that green does not become a ?bolt-on? to the business, but rather is integrated into employees work. Process changes will extend beyond the IT organization; in fact, one of the principal goals of these activities is to foster closer collaboration among IT leadership, sourcing and vendor management and facilities or real estate functions. A policy should be drafted to revise procurement criteria to favor green suppliers, products and sustainable business practices. Benchmarking should be done for energy consumption and CO2 emissions of prospective equipment purchases using standards like Energy Star, EPEAT, Green Grid and others. Favor products with longer potential life cycles and with smaller total carbon footprint. It is also very important to emphasize on recycling programs for both consumable and durable IT assets. Performance goals should be set for teams and individuals to conform to green practices and principles. It is also necessary to implement an energy monitoring and management system to benchmark the performance of data center from time to time so that new techniques and measures should be implemented to make them green and environment friendly. Green criteria should be built into existing performance management systems, balanced scorecards and measurement metrics, data center managers are already using to measure, incant and reward performance. Revise the employee competency or maturity model to include sustainability competencies and skills.
Optimizing Efficiency of Existing IT Assets A data center consists of many types of equipment and devices needed to accomplish the business needs and to provide services to the end users. These services vary depending on the different optimization priorities depending on its green IT goals, appetite for change and current infrastructures. It is pertinent here to note that data center managers must reconfigure data center equipments so that green initiatives can implemented and energy efficiency goals should be achieved. Some of the proposed initiatives are:
Move to hot aisle/cold aisle arrangement
Reposition and unblock air vents
Simplify cabling systems
Moving to overhead configuration if possible
Group equipment with similar power and cooling requirements together in modular fashion
Instrument equipment with temperature and power consumption sensors
Upgrade power supplies, converters, UPS systems and CRAC systems
Optimize data center thermals via precision cooling and other techniques
Implement server and/or storage virtualization, tiring and consolidation
Implement networked PC power management system
Lengthen PC life cycle
Revamping Architecture and Infrastructure Revising processes and optimizing assets will yield significant green and cost benefits for most of the data centers. Green initiatives will create an opportunity to go further and delve into revamping IT infrastructure and architectures. Data center managers must implement thin client systems to replace desktop PC populations. Upgrade older server and storage gear with more . energyefficient models. Consolidate, relocate, or outsource data centers. Reduce energy usage with building automation systems and evaluate alternative energy technologies and suppliers. New improved infrastructures using green metrics should be adopted and implemented to save the overall cost of ownership of data centers.
Proposed Green IT Model for Data Centers This study highlights the importance of green IT for data centers and proposes a model that provides data center managers with guidelines and steps to be followed to make data centers energy efficient and green. The proposed model comprises of five optimization steps. The proposed green IT model specifies that energy consumption, underutilization, emission of green house gases, environmental concerns, global warming issues and intensive administrative labour that contribute towards data center inefficiency can be tackled by following the proposed green IT model. The proposed model is an effort to help data center industry specially tier level data center managres to apply green IT initiatices in their data centers to achieve efficiencies in terms of energy utilization, energy consumption and reduction of emission of green house gases very hazardous for enevironmental health and global warming. The proposed Green IT model compriess of five key steps to be followed by data center managers to apply the model in their respective environments so that efficiency can be achieved. The model consists of follwing five key elements:
Baseline your current environment
Implement Virtualization (Server Virtualization)
Consolidate IT Processes
Improve data center efficiency
Update IT processes
The proposed model highlights top IT improvements in data center spanned across data center energy efficiency, infrastructure consolidation, reduced administrative labor, better IT process, improved service time and reduces green house gases to reduce the effects of global warming hazardous for environmental health. These benefits may vary significantly across businesses of different types. In particular, companies with less than $1 billion in revenue said that they benefited more from physical consolidation of IT assets, whereas companies with $5 billion or more in revenue benefited the most from improving the energy efficiency of their data centers.
1. Baseline your Environment The first step in greening the data center is to baseline all the requirements to get the maximum value out of data center greening program. Now more than ever, energy efficiency seems to be on everyone‘s minds. Faced with concerns such as global warming and skyrocketing energy costs, more and more companies are considering if and how to increase efficiency. E businesses that rely on data centers must make hard decisions to accommodate growing demands without creating a negative impact on their finances or the environment. The data center baseline Study report must be based on in-depth interviews with engineers and data center managers. These professionals represent a cross-section of companies in terms of industry, size, number of servers, storage capacity, age, geography. The baseline study provides measures to boost efficiency, as well as the incentives for making changes data center energy efficient. The growth in IT demand is among the most common obstacles to becoming more energy efficient. Data centers must contend with constant expansion in data volume, along with new and extended application requirements. The study also gets awareness about how to calculate the power load of individual IT devices. The data center baseline report also outlines helpful strategies for approaching energy efficiency in the data center. The discussion covers virtualization, air-flow management, server decommissioning, equipment upgrades, storage consolidation and optimization and use of fresh-air cooling and renewable energy sources. The report also includes tips on how to improve energy efficiency in the data center so that other data center professionals can evaluate their options and identify the most appropriate steps for their particular organizations.
1.1IT Discovery Process The process of creating the baseline of your data center starts by creating an inventory of all resources including servers, resources they require, available resources and their associated workloads, this process is called discovery process. The inventory process includes both utilized and idle servers. It also includes information related to (Mueen and Abdul Rahman, 2010):
Make and Model of the Processor
Types of processors (socket, Core, Threads, Cache)
Memory size and speed
Network type (Number of ports,
speed of each port) Local storage (number of disk drives, capacity, RAID)
Operating system and their patch levels (service levels)
Applications installed
Running services
1.2Inventory It is very important for an organization to know in advance the total content of its infrastructure before implementing green IT techniques. This is the most important step in Greening IT project. There are many tools available from different vendors for performing initial analysis of an organization. Microsoft Baseline Security Analyzer (MBSA) tool provides different information like IP addressing, Operating System, installed applications and most importantly vulnerabilities of every scanned system. After analyzing, all generated values are linked to MS Visio, which generates a complete inventory diagram of all components and also provides details about each component being analyzed. Microsoft Assessment and Planning toolkit (MAP) is another tool for the assessment of network resources. It works with windows management instrumentation (WMI), the remote registry service or with simple network management protocol to identify systems on network. VMware, the founder of X-86 virtualization, also offers different tools for the assessment of servers that could be transformed into virtual machines. VMware Guided Consolidation (VGC) a powerful tool assesses network with fewer than 100 physical servers. Since VGC is an agent less tool it doesn‘t add any overhead over production server‘s workload.
1.3Categorize Server Resources After creating server inventory information, the next step is to categorize the servers and their associated resources and workloads into resource pools. This process is performed to avoid any technical political, security, privacy and regulatory concern between servers, which prevent them from sharing resources. Once analysis is performed, we can categorize each server roles into groups. Server roles are categorized into following service types:
Network infrastructure servers
Identity Management servers
Terminal servers
File and print servers
Application servers
Dedicated web servers
Collaboration servers
Web servers
Database servers
1.4Categorizing Application Resources After categorizing servers into different resource pools, applications will also be categorized as:
Commercial versus in-house
Custom applications
Legacy versus updated applications
Infrastructure applications
Support to business applications
Line of business applications
Mission critical applications
1.5Utilization data Aggregate utilization data helps initially to target particular servers and storage devices as candidates for consolidation. But it doesn‘t tell the whole story, since many servers are busy for short periods of time on a periodic basis. In that case system management tools should be used to collect trends for the entire cycle of systems with applications s that run on a weekly, monthly, or quarterly basis. Some capacity or consolidation planning tools can simplify this task by superimposing historic data for multiple systems to simplify analysis.
1.6Performance Modeling and Consolidation Plan
To optimize the consolidation scenarios, consider using performance modeling and consolidation planning tools to analyze different consolidation and virtualization scenarios. Different consolidation strategies can be y between dissimilar systems or those that will compete for resources at the same time.
2. Implement Virtualization Virtualization promises to dramatically change how data centers operate by breaking the bond between physical servers and the resource shares granted to customers. Virtualization can be used to ?slice? a single physical host into one or more Virtual Machines (VMs) that share its resources. This can be useful in a hosting environment where customers or applications do not need the full power of a single server. In such a case, virtualization provides an easy way to isolate and partition server resources. The abstraction layer between the VM and its physical host also allows for greater control over resource management. The CPU and memory allocated to a virtual machine can be dynamically adjusted and live migration techniques allow VMs to be transparently moved between physical hosts without impacting any running applications.
2.1 Server Virtualization In order to minimize the overall network traffic in a multiserver system, the number of users served by each server (and hence the group size) should remain constant. As the underlying traffic fluctuates, a split and merge scheme is implemented in a physical server to achieve load balancing (R. Sukumar and V. Vasudevan, 2009). Server virtualization has become popular in data centers since it provides an easy mechanism to cleanly partition physical resources, allowing multiple applications to run in isolation on a single server. It categorizes volume servers into different resource pools depending on the workloads they perform and then server consolidation is applied. This technique decouples software‘s from hardware and splits multi processor servers into more independent virtual hosts for better utilization of the hardware resources, allowing services to be distributed one per processor. In server consolidation many small physical servers are replaced by one large physical server to increase the utilization of expensive hardware resources, reducing the consumption of energy and emission of CO2 (Mueen and Abdul Rahman, 2010). Server virtualization complements overall IT consolidation projects by allowing firms to share capacity across multiple underutilized systems and shrink the hardware footprint of applications that cannot be completely eliminated.
2.2 Use Virtualization to Improve Service Levels Data center managers should focus on reducing hardware and operational costs with virtual servers, yet overlook significant improvements to disaster recovery and faster time to market for applications. By offering improved service levels for virtualized servers, we can accelerate internal customers‘ migration to virtual infrastructure, while improving overall satisfaction with IT services.
2.3 Physical to Virtual Live Migration (P2V) This is the most critical, time-consuming and painful operation when performed manually, since it includes cloning existing operating system and restoring it on an identical machine, but at the same time changing the whole underlying hardware, which can lead to driver reinstallation or possibly the dreadful blue screen of death. To avoid these ambiguities, virtualization vendors started to offer different Physical To Virtual (P2V) migration utilities. This utility software speeds up the movement of operation and solves on the fly driver incompatibilities, by removing physical hardware dependencies from server operating systems and allowing them to be moved and recovered. Instead of having to perform scheduled hardware maintenance at some obscure hour over the weekend, server administrators can now live migrate a VM to another physical resource and perform physical server hardware maintenance in the middle of the business day. Virtuozzo for Windows 3.5.1 SWsoft itself introduced a Physical To Virtual (P2V) migration tool called VZP2V. This tool can remotely install P2V knowing machine administrative username and password.
2.4 Proper Management To Increase Utilization Server consolidation increases the utilization ratio of underutilized volume servers from 10% to 50% or even more by proper management of workloads to be virtualized to increase the productivity of data center and reduces the total cost of ownership. There is always a room for improvement, however, as many data centers leave a substantial amount of headroom on their virtual server hosts. Today, some data centers are consolidation the load of 5-10 Virtual Machines (VMs) on single server, while more experienced organizations are putting 25-30 VMs on a single server. Many administrators are reluctant to run servers at maximum capacity because they are concerned about the possibility of performance problems that could affect multiple applications simultaneously. In order to get to higher levels of hardware utilization, it is important to improve the administrators‘ visibility into the performance and availability of the virtual infrastructure with management tools designed for virtual servers. Active power management software can be used to help power your server infrastructure up and down depending on the demand for applications. This is particularly useful in virtual environments where live migration is used to consolidate VMs onto as few physical servers as necessary to maintain service levels, shutting down the rest.
3. Consolidate IT Processes The best way to reduce hardware, software, labour and facilities costs is to unplug unneeded infrastructures. But it‘s a complex task that requires a lot of legwork and detailed information on your assets to do it right. You need to assess data center from all aspects and then categorize it into measurable units so that, consolidation can be applied and then benchmarking can be set properly to reduce the consumption of energy and emission of green house gases. IT consolidation involves the consolidation of servers, storage devices, applications running, operating systems.
Focus on Reducing Operational Cost Virtualization increases the capability of already installed equipments by increasing their utilization ration and thus reduces the overall operational costs. Many data center managers tend measure the consolidation success rate by the percentage reduction in their IT budget, while it is important to note that consolidation success rates should be measured from percentage reduction in operational costs. Virtualization complements IT consolidation but cannot replace it. Even after virtualizing, you‘ll still be paying for the maintenance of the same number of application instances, even if they use less equipment to run. As a result, companies frequently struggle to reduce operational costs on the basis of virtualization alone.
3.1Consolidate Storage into Networked Pools Direct attached storage is usually blamed for data centers low storage utilization. However, networked storage can also suffer because of over-provisioning and isolated Storage Area Networks (SANs). You may already be paying for intelligent arrays with virtualization, thin provisioning, or deduplications features waiting to be turned on.
4. Improve Data Center Efficiency Considering the power consumption in data centers, the main problem is the minimization of the peak power required to feed a completely utilized system. In contrast, the energy consumption is defined by the average power consumption over a period of time. Therefore, the actual energy consumption by a data center does not affect the cost of the infrastructure. On the other hand, it is reflected in the electricity cost consumed by the system during the period of operation, which is the main component of a data center's operating costs. Furthermore, in most data centers 50% of consumed energy never reaches the computing resources: it is consumed by the cooling facilities or dissipated in conversions within the UPS and PDU systems. With the current tendency of continuously growing energy consumption and costs associated with it, the point when operating costs exceed the cost of computing resources themselves in few years can be reached soon. Therefore, it is crucial to develop and apply energyefficient resource management strategies in data centers. Upgrades data center power and cooling infrastructures so that energy efficiency can be achieved. There are many opportunities to reclaim capacity (and reduce electrical costs) in data center by making both small and large adjustments. Improving data center efficiency is especially important for large data centers.
4.1Reduce Overall Electricity Consumption Reducing data center electricity bill is usually the most tangible and easiest-tocalculate green IT goal. By implementing the proposed model will optimize and improved the overall energy performance of data center either on an absolute basis (usage is lower in the future than the present) or a relative basis (usage is lower in the future versus a ?do-nothing? trend line projected from current levels).
4.2Improve Utilization of IT Equipment This is a related measure of IT efficiency, aimed at reducing not only electric power usage and spending but also future capital outlays on IT servers, storage and other gear. Higher utilization means managing the same IT workload on fewer servers, which in turn means less need for power, cooling and space and fewer new servers to buy going forward.
4.3Prevent Hot and Cold Air Mixing When hot exhaust air mixes with cold air, it increases the intake temperature of equipments installed in the data center. This means that it is necessary to set the temperatures even lower, to accept the intake temperatures. It is necessary to isolate the exhaust air with a hot aisle containment system or ceiling to reduce the load on cooling system and increase the power density of racks. Because it is relatively inexpensive, compared with new 10 infrastructures, facilities upgrades to prevent hot/cold air mixing were one of the top choices among the data centers. Before overhauling anything, start small improvements like eliminating under-floor obstructions to airflow, plugging cable cut outs and installing blanking panels in racks can improve the amount of air delivered to racks.
4.4Improve Data Center Airflow Without any new equipment or procedures, the IT team can improve circulation in the data center by moving boxes, unblocking air vents and generally tidying up. This can quickly translate into a lower power draw for the CRAC and related air handling equipment
4.5Refresh Power and Cooling Infrastructure Older, uninterruptable power supplies and power distribution units may have older, less efficient transformers that are responsible for a sizable portion of the wasted electricity in data center. It is important for data centers to replace these older systems with newer, more efficient. Most data center infrastructures are network oriented allowing collecting usage statistics from a variety of energy management software‘s.
5. Update IT Processes (Green Process) Consolidation and virtualization helps to optimize hardware and software investments, reduce the number of systems being managed and free up or close some underutilized volume servers. However, IT processes remain unchanged and probably a major source of IT inefficiency. Many data centers are implementing more formalized IT processes, while others suffer from IT processes that have too many steps and depends on manual labor to get them done. Therefore it now becomes obvious for data center managers to revise their IT processes to achieve green data centers.
5.2 Establish Critical It Processes and Upgrade Management Software The focus should be on those processes that are most critical to running reliable and efficient IT services. In particular, problem management and incident management issues in data center followed by financial management and configuration management issues. IT processes ensures more reliable services, but with added records and data formalized processes don‘t get better efficiency because of the added overhead. The efficiency can be achieved by upgrading the system management tools that integrate with service desk software and provide more task-level automation to free up administrators‘ time.
CONCLUSION
Green IT is constantly becoming more relevant and many organizations are working towards reducing the carbon footprint of their data centers. This reduction in carbon footprint is achieved by reducing the data centers power consumption, which in turn results in savings for the organization. Many new techniques have been used to achieve this reduction in power. One of them is virtualization. it helps to consolidate multiple servers onto a few physical machines, which increases their utilization and decreases their power consumption. This study presents perhaps an inaugural academic attempt to understand Green IT. However, as green issues continue to entice global debate, IT is expected to play a crucial role in both greening its operations and services and supporting a business‘s overall environmental sustainability objectives. Most CIOs and IT mangers are facing two conflicting demands. On the one hand, the growth of digital business has led to increasing demands for data centres. On the other hand, the rising cost of energy, its cleanliness and its availability are limiting the supply of energy to those data centres. This requires IT to turn to Green IT solutions. In this study we identified five concerns of Green IT economical, environmental, strategic, technological and social. These concerns are not mutually exclusive and they can underline the key motivation for building Green IT. We have also identified different dimensions of greening data centers by implementing green initiatives in terms of IT infrastructure efficiency, green technologies; support tools and supplanting tools.
The proposed green IT based model relates to implementing green business practice in general. However in this study, Green IT is conceptualised as a measure of data centers IT preparedness to be environmentally responsible and competitive. The five dimensions that make up the model can be combined in a variety of 11permutations to separate organisations that are successful in building Green IT from those that are less successful. Separately, the five attributes represents barriers to Green IT success. It encompasses as a solution for implementing green data centers. The proposed solution is mainly based on virtualization technology to overcome the issues and challenges of data centers like energy efficiency and CO2 emissions to reduce the effects of global warming.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareTOLL LIKE RECEPTORS: THE IMMUNOMODULATORY AGENTS AND NOVEL TARGET OF IMMUNOTHERAPEUTIC RESEARCH
English1927L.K. DwivediEnglish Desh D. SinghEnglish Rambir SinghEnglishToll-like Receptors (TLRs), the evolutionarily conserved molecules are identified as the pattern
recognition receptors (PRRs) in vertebrates and invertebrates which recognize the pathogenassociated
molecular patterns (PAMPs). The TLRs signaling is via interactions with adaptor
proteins including MyD88 and toll receptor associated activator of interferon (TRIF). They&
directly detect the pathogen invasion and induce either immuno-stimulatory or
immunomodulatory biological response. This ability of TLRs to modulate the immune system
has been taken in concern in recent studies to develop an adaptive immunotherapy against
cancer and several other neurological disorders. Moreover, to trace their auxiliary therapeutic
effects, the TLR agonists are now undergoing the extensive clinical investigation. This review
discusses the therapeutic potential of TLRs as Immunostimulators and Immunomodulators.
Alongside, the association of TLRs with autoimmune responses and human diseases is also
explored.
EnglishTLR, PRS, PAMP, Targeted therapy, autoimmune responseINTRODUCTION
The Toll-like receptors are so named because of their similarity to the Drosophila Toll receptor (Leimaitare et al., 1996). They recognize the pathogenassociated unique molecules such as the bacterial cell wall components peptidoglycan (TLR2) and lipopolysaccharide (TLR4) (Zhang et al., 2004). The dsRNA, ssRNA and nonmethylated Cytosine-Guanosine (CpG) DNA are also identified by TLR3, TLR7 and TLR9 respectively (Akira and Takeda, 2004; Takeda et al., 2003) (Fig.1). As a consequence, after activation of TLRs by said ligands the different cytokine and chemokines are produced which can further initiate the local inflammatory response to provide a first-line defense against pathogen invasion. The TLRs are mostly located on antigen presenting cells. Each of them, with the exception of TLR3, signals through the MyD88 (myeloid differentiation88 gene) dependent pathway, initiated by the MyD88 adaptor protein (Broad et al., 2007). The MyD88 recruitment at TLRs instigates the formation of Imterleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor associated kinase (IRAK) complex (Fig.2). Four members of this family have been identified: IRAK-1, IRAK-2, IRAK-4 and IRAK-M (Björkbacka, 2006). Knockout mice for IRAK-4 had completely abolished responses to TLR2, TLR3, TLR4 and TLR9 showing that this molecule is essential for TLR signaling (Pasterkamp et al., 2004). Also, the MyD88 deficient cells show the increased expression of costimulatory molecules, such as CD80 and CD86 to induce dendritic cell maturation in the absence of MyD88 dependent pathway. Formation of IRAK complex further result in phosphorylation of IKKa/b, activation of the transcription factors NFkB, IRF1, and IRF7, and generation of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNFα and others (Takeuchi et al., 200; Brenda et al., 2008). While TLR3 signals through the MyD88 independent pathway, initiated by the TRIF adaptor molecule (Broad et al., 2007) which unlike to others initiates the phosphorylation of IKKe and activates the transcription factors IRF3 and IRF7 to generate the anti-viral molecules such as Interferon β (IFNβ) (Brenda et al., 2008). Amongst TLRs, only TLR4 can utilize either of these pathways (Fig-2). The TLRs are proved to be a key link between obesity, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease. Pharmacologic approaches to modify the activity of the TLRs may therefore have favorable influences on the atherosclerotic disease process and other cardiovascular disorders (Boekholdt et al., 2008).
TLRs AND TH RESPONSE
Since, TLRs are widely expressed on immune cells such as Dendritic Cells (DCs), monocytes, mast cells, neutrophils, B cells, endothelial cells and fibroblasts therefore; they activate these cells to produce IL-12 and IFN-α to mount the Th1 responses. However, apart from the professional antigen presenting cells (APCs), TLRs are also found expressed on non-immune cells such as mesangial, astrocytes, uterine epithelial and fibroblasts cells (Lutz and Schuler 2002). Role of TLRs in the development of classic Th2 responses is still debatable. Though, highly purified P. gingivalis LPS, a putative TLR2 ligand (Methe et al., 2005) Pam-3-cys, a synthetic TLR2 ligand and Schistosomal Egg Antigen (SEA) have been shown to induce the Th2 responses (Sakata et al., 2007).
TLRs AS IMMUNOSTIMULATORS TLRs
being organism-wide sensor system play a frontline effector role in host defense. Hitherto, many TLR agonists have been developed to be used as vaccine adjuvants to stimulate and enhance the antigen specific memory response and circumvent the booster burden. Recently, the utilization of TLR agonists against neural cancer has been an emerging strategy to stimulate the tumor specific natural adaptive anti-tumor immune response. In this approach, specific timorous area is only targeted along with protection of normal brain structures. Several TLR agonists have been investigated in this regard. One particular candidate the Imiquimod has got most attention in cancer immunotherapy. It is a synthetic TLR7 agonist that has been given the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval as a topical treatment for Herpes Sarcoma Virus (HSV)-2 lesions (Prins et al., 2006). In a recent study, the topical application of Imiquimod has been shown to decrease intracranial tumor burden in a malignant melanomic mouse model (Prins et al., 2006). It is believed that the said effect was shown due to prolonged existence of antigen-pulsed dendritic cells and improved CD8+ priming. However, a prolonged Imiquimod treatment has also been reported the increased hemorrhaging and inflammation-induced mortality. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a potent agonist of TLR4 has also been investigated for its anti-tumor immune efficacy. In a study by Won et al (2003), the LPS have been shown to decrease the mean tumor mass of primary subcutaneous Glioblastoma Multiforme (GM) tumors in induced mouse model. Supportively, the LPS administered mice bearing intracranial GM tumors have been shown the increased survival thanTLR4 knockout mice of the same group. The observations suggested that the LPS cytotoxicity is however insufficient to clear the tumors but certainly may act as a tumor-specific immune adjuvant (Chicoine et al., 2007). The chemotherapeutic use of one more agonist of TLR9, the nonmethylated CpG oligodeoxynucleotides have also got attraction and shown the great promise. It has been demonstrated that the intratumoral CpG administration in mice and rats with subcutaneous and intracranial neuroblastoma tumors increases the survival time and protects against secondary tumor challenge (Carpentier et al., 1999). It induces the apoptosis of intracranial glioblastoma cells (El Andaloussi et al., 2006). TLR9 is chiefly expressed by glial cells in mice but restricted to the B cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in healthy humans subjects (Iwasaki et al., 2004). A Phase II clinical trial is in progress to explore the therapeutic potential of said ligand into generation of a specific anti-tumor immune response in patients with brain tumors.
TLRs AS IMMUNOMODULATORS
In addition to immunostimulation, immunosuppressive properties of TLRs are also exploited to develop immunotherapy against neurological disorders. Such immunosuppressive therapies are based on the phenomena of ?tolerance?, where moderate pre-exposure of deleterious stimulus potentiate the animals to show the tolerance against subsequent intensive exposure of the same. For instance, the mild pretreatment of LPS can protect an animal from detrimental effects during subsequent higher exposure of the same. Supportively, a study by Tasaki et al (1997) demonstrated that the systemic administration of low dose LPS subsequently render the tolerance in hypertensive rats to ischemic brain damage induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The mechanism behind is believed that the inflammatory response induced during pretreatment of LPS enhances the blood perfusion towards ischemic area at the time of ischemia and afterwards (Kunz et al., 2007; Dawson et al., 1997). Moreover, LPS pretreatment has also been reported to protect brain against cytotoxic effects of TNFα after cerebral ischemia (Rosenwieg et al., 2004). It is observed that the LPS tolerant Cells possess deficient ability to generate TNFα in response to TLR4 activation. These cells unlike to naïve cells, do not recruit MyD88 to TLR4, and fails to activate IRAK-1and NFkB thereby leading to blockage in TNFα expression (Medvedev et al., 2002). Since, Dendritic Cells (DC) contain TLR9 thus it is observed that after exposure of DCs from TLR9 agonists (with or without antigen), various pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines were secreted which further activated and some time suppressed (caused due to specific cytokine viz. IL-6) to the effector T cells (Th1 and/or CTL cells) response (Pasare and Medzhitov, 2003) (Fig 3).
ROLE OF TLRs’ IN AUTOIMMUNE RESPONSE
The autoimmunity is a consequence of unbridled proliferation of auto-reactive immune cells along with defects in the maintenance of tolerance (Yamada et al., 2005). Several evidences have now established that TLRs contribute to the development of autoimmunity (Suzuki et al., 2002). The virus induced IFN-α, whose effect can be mediated via TLRs 3, 7 and 9, contribute significantly in the pathogenesis of type I diabetes mellitus and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (Kobayashi et al., 2002). Moreover, viral dsRNA (double stranded RNA) can bind to TLR3 and activate NF-κB which induces the formation of apoptotic bodies that further promotes plasmacytoid DCs to produce IFN-α (Kawai, 2001). B cells as professional antigen presenting cells express both TLR7 and TLR9. Out of which, TLR 9 are reported to break the tolerance of auto-reactive B cells through binding to hypomethylated CpG-containing DNAs, which are present in the mammalian DNA itself (Doyle et al., 2002). These regions, which may be the derivatives of apoptotic or necrotic cells, form a complex with anti-DNA IgG autoantibodies and stimulate B cells via BCR and TLR 9 (Kaisho et al., 2001).
POSSIBLE ROLE OF TLRs IN HUMAN DISEASES TLRs
being active immunomediators recognize the various endogenous proteins that are often released in response to stress or tissue damage and variably found at the sites of chronic inflammation. These may be heat shock proteins (hsp) 60, 70, 96, extra domain A-containing fibronectin fragments, hyaluronan fragments, fibrinogen, β-defensins, oxidized lowdensity lipoprotein and heparan sulfate
CONCLUSION and FUTURE PERSPECTIVES Above discussion has demonstrated the TLRs as an immunomodulatory agent who can generate the protection against cancer and suppress the damaging inflammatory responses. Captivatingly, the ability of TLRs to activate tumor specific lymphocytes has been translated into antitumor immunotherapy in recent studies.
Also, the TLR agonists based immunostimulation has been proven its success in treating the neurological disorders. Though, owing to systemic cytokine induction, the systemic use of TLR agonists may be restricted by doselimiting toxicities but combinatorial approaches with conventional therapies such as chemotherapy may be promising. However, pharmacological interventions using TLRs antagonists are in infancy but hold much promise for future success. Therefore, with increasing evidences of active role in initiation and maintenance of immune response, the TLRs can be an attractive drug targets for regulating the immune terror
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the kind support of Dr. Vinod Singh, Associate Professor, Department of Microbiology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, MP, India during preparation of the manuscript.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareIN VITRO EVALUATION OF ANTI MYCOTIC ACTIVITY OF ETHANOLIC FRUIT EXTRACT OF GARCINIA
MANGOSTANA LINN
English2832Geetha R.VEnglish Lakshmi TEnglish Anitha RoyEnglishThe aim of the present study was to assess the anti fungal activity of ethanolic fruit extract ofGarcinia mangostana. Mangosteen commonly known as ?Queen of fruits? have been traditionally used by natural health providers for thousands of years. It is a potent medicinal plant in the traditional Indian medicinal systems. Ethanolic fruit extract of Garcinia mangostana was tested for antifungal activity against Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigates, Aspergillus flavus and Mucor spp. Agar well diffusion technique was followed for screening anti fungal activity. The wells were loaded with 50μl of ethanolic
extracts at different concentrations [125 ug, 250 ug and 500 ug]. Positive controls used were
fluconazole (10 mcg /disc) and amphotericin B (100 units /disc). After incubation at 28o C for
48 hours, the zone of inhibition was measured. The extract at different concentrations showed
varying degree of antifungal activity against the micro organism compared to standard.
EnglishGarcinia mangostana, Antimycotic evaluation, Agar well diffusion, Mac Farland‘s standard, Zone of inhibition.INTRODUCTION
Garcinia mangostana, colloquially known simply as mangosteen, is a tropical evergreen tree believed to have originated in the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas of Indonesia. The pleasant taste (sweet and slightly acidic) and medicinal qualities of the reddish purple mangosteen fruit have led to its common name as ?Queen of Fruits?. The tree grows from 7 to 25 m tall. Its trunk is erect with dark-brown bark, which contains the yellow, gummy, bitter latex. Leaves are thick, leathery, darkgreen, slight glossy above, yellowish green and dull beneath with conspicuous pale midrib. The flower is unisexual and dioecious. However, male tree is extremely rare and the female trees have infertile staminoles. The male flowers are in clusters of 3 – 9 at the branch tips. The female flowers are borne singly or in pairs at the tip of young branchlets. The fruit is round, purple in color and has a smooth, thick and tough pericarp. The pericarp contains bitter yellow latex and purple staining juice. The fruit has a prominent calyx at the stem end and 4 – 8 triangular, flat stigma lobes which always corresponds to the number of fleshy segments of the fruit. The fruit contains 4 – 8 triangle segments of white, juicy and soft flesh. The fruit may be seedless or having 1 to 5 fully developed seeds. The flesh is slightly acidic and adhered to the seeds. Numerous studies have shown that mangosteen has high concentrations of xanthones, a class of polyphenolic compounds. Researches have identified a total of over 40 Xanthones from the hull, rind and the pulp of Mangosteen fruits.5-7 Xanthones have, antibacterial,8,9 antifungal,10 antioxidant,11 antitumor,12,13 anti-inflammatory,14,15 antiplatelet aggregation, antithrombotic, and vasorelaxant activities, prevent oxidative damage of low-density lipoprotein, histamine, and serotonin receptor blocker activity, and inhibit HIV. The xanthones and tannins of the mangosteen pericarp protect against insects, fungi, plant viruses, bacteria and animals while the fruit is still immature. Of the 200 known xanthones, nearly 40 are found in mangosteen. The major xanthones are alpha-mangostin, betamangostin, gamma-mangostin, and methoxy-beta-mangostin, and the most abundant is alpha-mangostin.16,17 Calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid are found in mangosteen. Modern day science has recently begun to appreciate the incredible, nutrient-rich value of mangosteen and its wide-reaching, health-promoting properties. Hence, the aim of our study was to evaluate the Antimycotic activity of ethanolic fruit extract of Garcinia mangostana Linn.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant materials:
The ethanolic fruit extract of Garcinia mangostana Linn was obtained from Green Chem Herbal Extract and Formulations, Bangalore.
Test microorganisms Fungal strains used were Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigates,Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Mucor sps. The organisms were obtained from Department of Microbiology, Saveetha Medical College and maintained in SDA slope at 4°C.
METHODOLOGY
The extracts were prepared in the following concentrations in sterile water.2.5 mg/ml, 5 mg/ml and 10 mg/ml, so that 50µl of extract of different concentrations delivers 125µg, 250µg and 500 µg respectively.
Anti mycotic Assay Agar well Diffusion Technique:
The extract at different concentrations was screened for their antifungal activity against the selected fungal strains by Agar well diffusion method. The fungal cultures were grown on Sabourauds destrose agar [Hi media M063]. The fungal growth from seven day old culture was washed, suspended in normal saline and then filtered through glass wool aseptically. The colony forming units (CFU/ml) of suspension of the fungus was determined and test inoculum was adjusted to 0.5 Mc Farland‘s standard and used for antifungal assay.18-21 100μl of the test inoculum were applied on the surface of the Sabourauds destrose agar plate and spread using sterile glass spreader. Wells were cut on the agar plates using sterile cork borer for different concentration of the extracts. 50µl of extract of different concentrations were loaded in to the wells and incubated for 48 h at 28ºC. As a positive control, fluconazole (10 mcg /disc) and amphotericin B (100 units /disc) were used. Zone of inhibition in mm were determined after 48 h. The test was performed in triplicate to minimize test error.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of three different concentrations (500, 250 and 125 μg) of ethanolic fruit extract of Garcinia mangostana was tested against the fungal strains using agar well diffusion technique. All the concentrations of the extract inhibited the fungal species with varying degree of sensitivity. The antifungal activity of the extract against the fungal strains is shown in Table 1. The extract showed good antifungal activity against the three Aspergillus Spp, Aspergillus niger Aspergilus fumigates and Aspergillus favus at all concentrations with a maximum zone of inhibition of 20mm , 22mm and 19mm diameter respectively at conc 500ug. With Candida albicans and Mucor spp highest concentration [500μg] showed inhibitory zone of 17 mm and 12 mm diameter respectively. From the results, it was evident that the lower concentration showed very weak activity while the higher concentration of the extract showed good antifungal activity against all the fungal strains tested.
Fungal infections or mycosis are more common today than ever before .They represent the invasion of tissues by one or more species of fungi. It may range from superficial, localized skin conditions to deeper tissue infections to serious systemic diseases. Some fungi are opportunistic while others are pathogenic, causing disease whether the immune system is healthy or not. The incidence of fungal infections has increased at an alarming rate in the past two decades. Most of this increase is due to opportunistic fungal infections related to the growing population of people with weakened immune systems due to HIV, cancer, and other diseases; and to modern medical practices such as the use of intensive chemotherapy and drugs that suppress the immune system. Due to resistance to anti fungal agents, it makes necessary to discover new classes of antifungal compounds to treat fungal infections. Antifungal herbs have been used as an alternative medicine since thousands of years ago to relieve itchiness and irritation which has been clinically researched and approved to be of great help. Plants are rich source of bioactive secondary metabolites of wide variety such as tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids, reported to have in vitro antifungal properties. A series of moleculeswith antifungal activity against different strains of fungus have been found in plants, which are of great importance. The results obtained from our study shows that ethanolic extract has got a very good anti mycotic activity against the selected fungal species.
CONCLUSION
The results of present investigation clearly indicate the antifungal activity of ethanolic fruit extract of Garcinia mangostana Linn and that could be used as a sources for the isolation of active compounds that may serve as lead compounds in antifungal drug development. Further studies on their cytotoxicity or toxicity will be beneficial in providing data on the possible harmful effects of this extract. Thus, the study ascertains the value of plants used in ayurveda, which could be of considerable interest to the development of new drugs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Mr.R.Rajendran, Green Chem Herbal extracts and formulations Bangalore for providing us with the Ethanolic and Aqueous extracts of fruit of Garcinia mangostana Linn as a gift sample for our research work.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2072http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2072REFERENCES
1. Burkill, H.M.: The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. Edition 2. Vol.
2. Families E-I. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. 1994. ISBN No. 0-947643-56-7. 2. Fairchild D. The Mangosteen. J Genetics 6:339-347. 1915.
3. Benemerito AN. The Garcinia of South China (Guttiferae). Lingnan Sci. Journ. 15:57-66. 1936.
4. Kirtikar K, Basu B. Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol 1. Dehra Dun, India: International Book Distributors. 1999.
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6. 13. Peres et al, Tetraoxygenated Naturally Occurring Xanthones, 55 Phytochemistry, pp. 683-710 (2000).
7. Marona et al, Pharmacological Properties of Some Aminoalkanolic Derivatives of Xanthone, 56 Pharmazie, pp. 567- 572 (2001).
8. Sundaram BM, Gopalakrishnan C, Subramanian S, Shankaranarayanan D, Kameswaran L. "Antimicrobial Activities of Garcinia Mangostana," Planta Med 1983 May;48(1):59-60.
9. Linuma M., Tosa H., Tanaka T., Asai F., Kobayashi Y., Shimano R,. Miyauchi K. "Antibacterial Activity of Xanthones from Guttiferaeous Plants Against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus," J Pharm Pharmacol 1996 Aug;48(8):861-5
10. Gopalakrishnan G., Banumathi B,. Suresh G. "Evaluation of the Antifungal Activity of Natural Xanthones From Garcinia Mangostana and Their Synthetic Derivatives," J Nat Prod 1997 May;60(5):519-524
11. Moongkarndi P, Kosem N, Kaslungka S, Luanratana O, Pongpan N, Neungton N. Antiproliferation, antioxidation and induction of apoptosis by Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen) on SKBR3 human breast cancer cell line. J Ethnopharmacol.90(1):161-166. 2004.
12. Michio Fujihara, Yumiko Kurata, Yasuyuki Kosaka, Prasit Chanarat, Terukazu Nagumo. "Antitumor Polysaccharides from the Pericarp of Mangosteen." Bull Chiang Mai Assoc Med Sci Vol.30, Supplement No.1 1997
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesANTI-MICROBIAL EFFECT OF AZADIRACHTA INDICA AND OCIMUM GRATISSIMUM AGAINST ASPERGILLUS NIGER CAUSING STORAGE ROT OF GARCINIA KOLA
English3337AmadiohaEnglish A. C.English ObiEnglish Uchenna O.EnglishThree fungi Aspergillus niger, Penicillium expansum and P. digitatum were isolated from seeds of bitter
kola (Garcinia kola) obtained from market stalls in Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria but A. niger was found
pathogenic during pathogenicity test. The pathogenic organism was subjected to cold water leaf extracts
of A. indica (Neem) and O. gratissimum (Sweet Basil) which gave a growth inhibition of 85.35 % and
66.74 % respectively after five days of incubation. The inhibitory effects of the extracts against the
pathogen were more with A. indica (Neem) than O. gratissimum and this increased with the incubation
period. Cold water extracts of these plants could be exploited as pesticides of plant origin in the control of
post-harvest microbial deterioration of seeds of G. kola incited by A. niger.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
Garcinia kola commonly referred to as bitter kola due to its bitter taste is highly medicinal (Uko et. al., 2001) and usually found in the tropical rain forest region of West and Central Africa (Gill, 1998). Seeds of G. kola are highly nutritious (Adeyaye et. al., 2007) and several medicinal and anti-microbial attributes like treatment of cough and hepatitis, snake repellant, and chest medicine have been assigned to the seeds of G. kola ( Iwu, 1993). Post-harvest microbial deterioration of G. kola seeds has been observed during storage and this has reduced both the nutritional and market value of the seeds. Extending the shelf-life of G. kola seeds during storage will ensure availability of the seeds and continuous production (Korie, 1996). Depletion of important forest trees like G. kola in rainforest regions as well as the medicinal values of G. kola seeds which have increased dramatically in the last decade (Smith, et. al., 1996) makes it imperative for an increased search for methods of preserving seeds of G. kola. Available literature indicates that not much work has been done on the microbial deterioration of G. kola seeds and their control in storage. Studies on anti-microbial activity of plant extracts have shown the significance of natural chemicals as possible source of non-phytotoxic, systemic and easily biodegradable alternative to synthetic pesticides which are not only hazardous to both the farmer and the environment but scarce and expensive when available (Amadioha, 1998, 2003; Olojede et. al., 1993). Extracts of A. indica (Neem) and O. gratissimum have been reported to be very effective in the control of storage disease of some other agricultural products (Amadioha and Obi, 1999). The effectiveness of leaf extracts ofthese plants in the control of storage rot disease of seeds of G. kola incited by A. niger is presented in this paper.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Source of Garcinia kola: Matured healthy (uninfected) and infected seeds of G. kola were obtained from open market stalls at Oboro, Umudike and Ndume in Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. The infected samples were collected in sterile polyethylene bags and taken to the laboratory for isolation. Culture Medium: Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) was used in the isolation of the fungi associated with the rot of G. kola seeds. Thirty-nine grammes of PDA was added to one litre of distilled water containing 1000mg of chloramphenicol, thoroughly mixed and dispensed into 500ml conical flasks and then plugged with cotton wool and capped with aluminum foil before sterilization for 15 minutes in an autoclave set at 121oC (105kg/cm2 ). The sterilized medium (20ml) was dispensed into sterile disposable Petri dishes (9 cm diameter). Isolation and Identification of Isolates: Infected G. kola seeds were washed in running tap water and distilled water before surface sterilizing with 70% ethanol for 10 seconds to prevent any surface contaminant that may interfere with the isolation and identification of rot causing organisms. Infected tissues (5cm) were removed and plated on the chloramphenicol amended culture medium (PDA) in Petri dishes and incubated for 5 days at room temperature (27oC). Three isolates were identified, A. niger, P. expansum and P. digitatum based on their morphological characteristics and reference to Rossman et. al. (1997). Pathogenicity Test: The method described by Amadioha (1998) was used. Healthy (uninfected) G. kola seeds were disinfected with70% ethanol and rinsed with distilled water With the aid of a cork borer (4 mm diameter), a 4 mm diameter disc was removed and a 4 mm diameter disc of the 5- day old culture of the isolates were each used to plug each hole. The disc removed from the healthy G. kola seed was replaced after 1 mm had been cut off to compensate the thickness of the isolate and then sealed with Vaseline. Each inoculated seed was placed in a micro-humidity chamber (a small polyethylene bag containing cotton wool soaked with distilled water) and incubated for 5 days. Following the development of rot symptoms, reisolation was carried out to confirm that the isolates were the same as the original isolates introduced. The organism that caused rot and found to possess the same characteristics features with the original isolate (A. niger) was confirmed as pathogen whereas the Penicillium species that did not cause any rot symptom during pathogenicity test were regarded as nonpathogens or saprophytes and discarded. Effect of extracts of Azadirachta indica and Ocimum gratissimum on the radial growth of Aspergillus niger : Fresh leaves of A. indica (Neem) and O. gratissimum were washed in running tap water and sterile distilled water, airdried at 27oC, weighed (100g) and ground in a sterile mortar with a piston. The paste was put in 250ml beaker and 100ml of distilled water was added, stirred vigorously and allowed to stand for 1 hr and then filtered through four folds of sterile cheese cloth to obtain a cold water extract of each of the test plants. The effect of the extracts on the radial growth of A. niger was determined using the poisoned food technique described by Amadioha (2002). The extract-PDA medium was prepared by spreading 0.5ml of each extract separately on the surface of the solidified PDA contained in Petri-dishes to form a thin film. The control was 0.5ml of sterile distilled water. A disc (5mm diameter) of 5 day old culture of A. niger was cut from the growing end of its pure culture and placed in the centre of a Petri-dish with three replicates of each treatment. The treated plates and control were then incubated at 27oC and radial growth in each treated plate and control experiment was measured after 4 days when the fungal growth in the control experiment had reached the periphery of the Petri-dishes. The experiments were repeated four times and mean values obtained. The percentage growth inhibition was calculated using the formula adopted by Amadioha (2003):
RESULTS AND DISCUSION
Isolation and identification of pathogenic organism: Three fungi were isolated from dead remains of G. kola, A. niger, P. expansum and P. digitatum but A. niger was pathogenic during the pathogenicity test. The frequency of association is shown in Table 1. A. niger was used as test organism throughout the course of this experiment based on its frequency of occurrence and level of pahogenicity. Several pathogenic organisms have been associated with the postharvest microbial deterioration of stored agricultural products (Amadioha and Adisa, 1999; Markson et. al., 2010). Booth (1974) and Coursey (1967) attributed attack by microorganisms as the most serious cause of post-harvest loss of stored products. In the present study, A. niger caused appreciable rot of G. kola seeds in storage whereas the Penicillium spp were found to be saprophytic or nonpathogenic. This is apparently the first report in Nigeria showing A. niger as the most virulent and frequently encountered pathogen inciting rot of G. kola seeds in storage. Effects of Azadirachta indica and Ocimum gratissimum leaf extracts on the radial growth of Aspergillus niger in vitro: Potential use of extracts of plant origin in plant disease control has been emphasized (Amadioha, 2000) but very little or no work has been done on the use of plant products against storage rot of G. kola seeds caused by A. niger. Results of the effects of A. indica (Neem) and O. gratissimum leaf extracts on A. niger showed that the plant extracts significantly inhibited the radial growth of test fungus in vitro when compared with the control experiment, suggesting the presence of antifungal substances in the tissues of the test plants. A. indica was more effective than O. gratissium in reducing the radial growth of the pathogen in culture. The differences in toxicity could be attributed to the solubility of the active principles/compounds of the test plants in the extracting solvent and or, the presence of inhibitors to the active principle (Amadioha, 2001), with higher solubility of the active compounds of A. indica than O. gratissium. The differences in active principles/compounds of the test plants and their solubility in the extracting solvents could be influenced by the age of the plant and the extracting solvent (Qasem and Abu-Blan, 1996). A. indica, has been reported to be effective as insecticide (Emosairue and Ukeh, 1990), bird repellent (Mason and Mathew, 1996) and as fungicide both in the field and storage (Amadioha, 2001, 2002; Amadioha and Obi. 1998). The current investigation showed that the percentage growth inhibition of the pathogen in culture increased with period of incubation (Table 2), indicating the presence and persistence of the anti-fungal activity of the extracts of the test plants which were retained against the pathogen for the whole period of incubation. The test plants are common medicinal plants in Nigeria that could be exploited as extract of plant origin for the control of storage rot disease of G. kola seeds incited by A. niger.
CONCLUSION
A survey of three market stalls in Umuahia Abia State, Nigeria showed that A. niger was a major pathogenic organism causing storage rot of G. kola seeds. In vitro investigations revealed that cold water crude leaf extracts of A. indica (Neem) and O. gratissimum inhibited the radial growth of A. niger in culture suggesting the presence of anti-microbial substances in the tissues of these plants. The extracts of A. indica (Neem) and O. gratissimum could be exploited as pesticides of plant origin in the control of post-harvest microbial deterioration of G. kola seeds caused by A. niger.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2073http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2073REFERENCES
1. Adeyaye, C.J; Asaolu, S.S; Aluko, A.O. (2007) Amino acid composition of two masticatry nut Cola acuminate and Garcinia kola and Anacardium occidentale ( Snack nut). International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 58, 241-249.
2. Amadioha, A. C. (1998) Control of postharvest tuber rot of potato incited by Rhizoctonia bataticola. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 31, 225-231.
3. Amadioha, A.C. (2000) Controlling Rice blast in vitro and in vivo with extracts of Azadirachta indica. Crop Protection 19, 287 – 290.
4. Amadioha, A.C. (2001) Fungicidal activity of some plant extracts against Rhizoctonia solani in cowpea. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 33, 509 –517.
5. Amadioha, A.C. (2002) Fungitoxic effects of extracts of Azadirachta indica against Cochliobolus miyabeanus causing brown spot disease of rice. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 35, 37- 42.
6. Amadioha, A. C. (2003) Evaluation of some plant leaf extracts against Collectotrichum lindemuthianmum in cowpea. Acta Phytopathologica 38, 259-265.
7. Amadioha, A. C. and Adisa, V. A. (1999) Postharvest microbial deterioration of potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum L.) in Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Root Crops 3(2), 40- 43.
8. Amadioha , A. C. and Obi, V. I. (1998) Fungitoxic activity of Azadirachta indica and Xylopia aethiopica on Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants. 6, 33-40.
9. Amadioha, A. C. and Obi, V. I. (1999) Control of anthracnose disease of cowpea by Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum. Acta Phytopathologica et Entomotogica 34, 85 –89.
10. Booth, R.H. (1974) Post-harvest deterioration of tropical root crops; losses and their control. Tropical Science 16, 49-63
11. Coursey, D.G. (1967) Yam storage. A review of yam storage practices and information on storage losses. Journal of Stored Products Research 2, 209-243.
12. Emosairue, S.O. and Ukeh, D.A. (1996) Field trial of neem products for the control of okra fleabeetles (Podasgrica spp) in Southern Nigeria. African Journal of Plant Protection 6, 27-33.
13. Gill, L.S. (1998) Taxanomy of flowering plants. New York Science Journal 3(3), 156 – 160.
14. Iwu, M.M. (1993) Hand book of African medicinal plants. CRC Press Boca Raton, F.L. 223-224.
15. Korie, C.N. (1996) Effects of different packaging materials on the shelf life of kola. B. Agric. Tech (crop protection) project report. Federal University of Technology, Owerri. 62pp.
16. Markson, A.A., Amadioha, A.C., Wokocha, R.C., Omosun, G. and Madunagu, B.E. (2010) Biochemical alteration of yam tuber tissues incited by Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. International Journal of Current Research 4, 94-97.
17. Mason, J.R. and Mathew, D.N. (1996) Evaluation of neem as a bird repellant chemical. International Journal of Pest Management 42, 47-49.
18. Olojede, F., Engelhardt, G., Wallnofor, P.R. and Adedoke, G.O. (1993) Decrease of growth and aflotoxin production byAspergillus parasiticus. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 2, 605-606
19. Qasem, J.R. and Abu-Blan, H.A. (1996) Fungicidal activity of some common weed extracts against different plant pathogenic fungi. Journal of Phytopathology 144, 157- 161.
20. Rossman, A.Y., Palm, M.E. and Spielman, L.J. (1997) A literature guide for the identification of plant pathogenic fungi. APS press, Minnesota, USA.
21. Smith, G.M.., Clegg, C., Keem, N. and Grivetti, T. (1996) Mineral values of isolated plant foods common to Southern Burkina Faso, Niamey and Nigeria, West Africa. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 47, 41-53.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesMICROBIAL SURFACTANTS: AN OVERVIEW
English3846Praveesh BVEnglish Soniyamby AREnglish Mariappan CEnglish Palaniswamy MEnglish Lalitha SEnglishBiosurfactants or microbial surfactants are surface-active biomolecules that are produced by a variety of
microorganisms. Biosurfactants have gained importance in the fields of enhanced oil recovery,
environmental bioremediation, food processing and pharmaceuticals owing to their unique properties such
as higher biodegradability and lower toxicity. Currently, biosurfactants are not widely utilized in the
petroleum industry due to high production costs associated with use of expensive substrates and
inefficient product recovery methods. The economics of biosurfactant production could be significantly
impacted through use of media optimization and application of inexpensive carbon substrates such as
agricultural process residuals. Utilization of biosurfactants produced from agricultural residuals may
result in an economic advantage for surfactant production and technology application, and convert a
substantial agricultural waste stream to a value added product. This article describes some practical
approaches that have been adopted to make the biosurfactant production process economically attractive.
These include the use of cheaper raw materials and different microorganisms produce different
biosurfactants. Here, we discuss the role and applications of biosurfactants focusing mainly on medicinal
and therapeutic perspectives. With these specialized and cost-effective applications in biomedicine, we
can look forward to biosurfactants as the molecules of the future.
Englishbiosurfactants, classification, renewable-resources, applicationINTRODCUTION
Microbial surfactants or biosurfactants are the surface-active molecules derived from a large number of microorganisms. These microbially produced surface-active compounds possess the ability to reduce the surface and interfacial tension between two immiscible fluid phases. It is only in the past few decades that surface active molecules of microbial origin, referred to as biosurfactants, have gained considerable interest. Biosurfactants have advantages over their chemicals counterparts because they are biodegradable [1], have low toxicity [2], are effective at extreme temperatures or pH values [3] and show better environmental compatibility [4]. BIOSURFACTANT PRODUCING MICROORGANISMS Various types of biosurfactants are synthesized by a number of microbes particularly during their growth on water-immiscible substrates. A
majority of biosurfactants are produced by bacteria. Bacillus, Clostridium and Pseudomonas species have often been used in the production of biosurfactant. Classification of Biosurfactant The microbial surfactants are complex molecules covering a wide range of chemical types including peptides, fatty acids, phospholipids, glycolipids, antibiotics, lipopeptides, etc. Rosenberg and Ron [5] suggested that biosurfactants can be divided into low-molecular-mass molecules, which efficiently lower surface and interfacial tension, and high molecular- mass polymers, which are more effective as emulsion-stabilizing agents. The major classes of low-mass surfactants include glycolipids, lipopeptides and phospholipids, whereas high-mass surfactants include polymeric and particulate surfactants. A brief discussion about each class of biosurfactant is given below. Glycolipids: Glycolipids are the most common types of biosurfcatnt. They are carbohydrates in combination with long-chain aliphatic acids or hydroxyaliphatic acids. Among the glycolipids, the best known are rhamnolipids, trehalolipids, and sophorolipids. Rhamnolipids Rhamnolipids, in which one or two molecules of rhamnose are linked to one or two molecules of β-hydroxydecanoic acid. These are the beststudied glycolipids. Production of rhamnosecontaining glycolipids was first described in Pseudomonas aeruginosa by Jarvis and Johnson [6]. Rhamnoipids produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains are among the most effective surfactants when applied for the removal of hydrophobic compounds from contaminated soils [7]. Trehalolipids The production of trehalose lipids seen in many members of the genus Mycobacterium. The
typical structure is due to the presence of trehalose esters on the cell surface [8] from different species of Mycobacteria [8], Corynebacteria, Nocardia, and Brevibacteria differ in size and structure of the mycolic acid esters. Trehalose lipids from Rhodococcus erythropolis and Arthrobacter sp. lowered the surface and interfacial tension in culture broth from 25 to 40 and 1 to 5 mN/m respectively [9]. Sophorolipids These glycolipids are produced mainly by yeast such as Torulopsis bombicola [10]. Sophrolipids (SLs) consist of a dimeric sugar (sophorose) and a hydroxyl fatty acid, linked by a β-glycisidic bond [11] . According to Hu and Ju, [12] there are two types of SLs namely, the acidic (nonlactonic) SLs and the lactonic SLs. The hydroxyl fattyacids moity of the acidic SLe s has a free carboxylic acid functional group whilst that of the lactonic SLs forms a macrocyclic lactone ring with 4?- hydroxyl group of sophorose by intramolecular esterification. Lipopeptides and lipoproteins A large number of cyclic lipopetides, including decapeptide antibiotics (gramicidins) and lipopeptide antibiotics (polymyxins) are produced. These consist of a lipid attached to a polypeptide chain [13]. Surfactin Surfactin just as any other biosurfcatant reduces surface tension from 72-27 mN m-1 with concentration as low as 0.005%, making surfcatn one of the most powerful biosurfctants [14]. The cyclic lipopeptides surfactin produced by Bacillus subtilis ATCC 21332 is an example of one of the most powerful biosurfactants. It is composed of a seven amino-acid ring structure coupled to a fatty-acid chain via lactone linkage. Lichenysin Lichenysin is formed during growth of Bacillus licheniformis JF2 under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions [15]. It lowers the surface tension of water from 72 mN m-1 to 28 mN m-1. The detailed characterization of lichenysin A showed that isoleucine was the C-terminal amino acid instead of leucine and an asparagine residue was present instead of aspartic acid as in the surfactin peptide. Fatty Acids, Phospholipids, and Neutral Lipids Fatty acids produced from alkanes as a result of microbial oxidations have been considered as surfactants [16]. Several bacteria and yeasts produce large quantities of fatty acid and phospholipid surfactants during growth on nalkanes [17]. Phospholipids are known to form major components of microbial membranes. When certains hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria or yeast are grown on alkane substrates, the level of phospholipids increases greatly [18]. Polymeric biosurfactants The best-studied polymeric biosurfactants are emulsan, liposan, alasan, lipomanan and other polysaccharide–protein complexes. Acinetobacter calcoaceticus RAG-1 produces an extracellular potent polyanionic amphipathics heteropolysaccharide bioemulsifier called emulsan [19]. It is an effective emisifying agent for hydrocarbons in water, even at a concentration as low as 0.001 to 0.01%. Additionally, it is noted as one of the most powerful emulsion stabilizers known with the ability to resist inversion even at water to oil ratio of 1:4 [20]. Liposan is an extracellular water-souble emulsifier synthesized by Candida lipolytica and is composed of 83% carbohydrate and 17% protein [21]. Particulate biosurfactants Extracellular membrane vesicles partition hydrocarbons to from a microemulsion, which plays an important role in alkane uptake by microbial cells. Vesicles of Acinetobacter sp. strain HO1-N with a diameter of 20–50 nm and a buoyant density of 1.158 cubic g/cm are composed of protein, phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide [22].
PRODUCTION OF BIOSURFACTANT FROM RENEWABLE SOURCE
Though biosurfactant have advantage over synthetic surfactants, it can only replace the synthetic if the cost of the raw material and the process is minimal. So far, several renewable substrates form various sources; especially from industrial wastes have been intensively studied for microorganisms‘ cultivation and surfactant production at an experimental scale. A variety of cheap raw materials, including plant-derived oils, oil wastes, starchy substances, lactic whey and distillery wastes have been reported to support biosurfactant production. Plant derived oils Several studies with plant-derived oils have shown that they can act as effective and cheap raw materials for biosurfactant production. Vegetable oils are a lipidic carbon source and are mostly comprised of saturated or unsaturated fatty acids with 16-18 carbon atoms chain. Researchers have used variety of vegetable oils from canola, corn, sunflower, safflower, olive, rapeseed, grape seed, palm, coconut, fish and soybean oil. Haba et al. [23] used olive or sunflower cooking oil as carbon source for biosurfactant production by 36 isolated bacteria. Kitamoto et al. [24] studied the interfacial and antimicrobial properties of two kinds of mannosylerythritol lipids (MEL-A and B), biosurfactants, produced by Candida antarctica T-34, when grown on soybean oil as substrate. In a study of Sim et al. [25] they tested mixture of vegetable oils (canola oil, soy bean and glucose), for rhamnolipid production by P. aeruginosa UW-1 and reported 10-12 fold increase in rhamnolipid production on vegetable oils in comparison to glucose. Camargo-de-Morais et al. [26] studied the production of a glycolipid with emulsifier properties during cultivation of Penicillium citrinum on mineral medium with 1% olive oil as carbon source. Thaniyavarn et al. [27] studied the biosurfactant production by marine isolates Pseudomonas aeruginosa A41 by using the defined medium containing 2% vegetable oil or fatty acid as a carbon source. Oliveira et al. [28] used palm oil, a low-cost agricultural byproduct which is used in as raw material for soap and food industries, for biosurfactant production using Pseudomonas alcaligenes (a strain isolated from crude oil contaminated soil). Oil wastes Apart from various vegetable oils, oil wastes from vegetable-oil refineries and the food industry were also reported as good substrates for biosurfactant production. Furthermore, various waste oils with their origins at the domestic level, in vegetable-oil refineries or soap industries were found to be suitable for microbial growth and biosurfactant production [23]. Soapstock is a gummy, ambercolored byproduct of oilseed processing. It is produced when hexane and other chemicals are used to extract and refine edible oil from the seeds. Shabtai [29] reported the production of two extracellular capsular heteropolysaccharides, emulsan and biodispersan by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus RAG-1 and A. calcoaceticus A2, respectively using soap stock as a carbon source. Mercade et al. [30] were the first group to show the production of rhamnolipids by P. aeruginosa 47T2 when grown on olive oil mill effluent (OOME) as the sole carbon source (a major waste problem in Spain). Soy molasses is a byproduct of soybean oil processing industry, is a best substrate for biosurfactant production. Soy molasses were used to produce sophorolipids by Candida bombicola [31]. The yield of pure biosurfactant was 21 g/l. In an effort to economize biosurfactant production Thavasi et al. [32] used a mixture of peanut oil cake and waste motor lubricant oil as a substrate for the biosurfactant production.Another raw materials associated with vegetable industry is residual cooking or frying oil which is a major source of nutrient rich low cost fermentative waste. Sadouk et al. [33] in an approach for reducing the cost of production of glycolipids by Rhodococcus erythropolis 16 LM.USTHB converted residual sunflower frying oil, a cheap renewable substrate, into extracellular glycolipids. Starchy substances Starch is a major agricultural product of corn, tapioca, wheat and potatoes which are major crops. Sugar and starch processing industries also produce large amount of solid residues of starch containing wastewater. The processing of agroindustrial raw materials such as cassava or potato produces the large amount of waste, whose accumulation leads to environmental pollution. Due to the high amounts of starch or reducing sugar, those wastes has been recognized as a suitable feedstock for industrial fermentations such as production of pullulan [34] and volatile compounds [35]. Das and Mukherjee [36] studied the efficiency of two Bacillus subtilis strains for the production of biosurfactants in two fermentation systems using powdered potato peels as substrate. Wang et al. [37] applied a Bacillus subtilis strain B6-1, for production of biosurfactant using soybean and sweet potato residues in solid-state fermentation. In addition, Nitschke and Pastore [38] used a cassava flour-processing effluent as a substrate for surfactant production by Bacillus subtilis LB5a and Bacillus subtilis ATCC 21332. Lactic whey and distillery wastes The dairy industry has a considerable amount of byproducts such as buttermilk, whey, and their derivatives. Dubey and Juwarkar [39] cultivated Pseudomonas aeruginosa BS2 on whey waste for biosurfactant production. Daniel et al. [40] reported the high yields of sophorolipids production with whey concentrate and rapeseedoil as substrate. Molasses is also used as substrate for biosurfactant production [41- 43].
APPLICATION OF BIOSURFACTANTS
Biosurfactants are widely used in many industries such as agriciulture, food production, chemistry, cosmetics and pharmaceutics. Some of the potential applications of biosurfactants in pollution and environmental control are microbial enhanced oil recovery, hydrocarbon degradation in soil environment and hexa-chloro cyclohexane degradation, heavy-metal removal from contaminated soil and hydrocarbon in aquatic environment
Biosurfactant in food production
Biosurfactants can be explored for several foodprocessing applications. It has been applied in food industries usually as food additives (emulsifiers). For instance, lectin and its derivatives, fatty acids esters containing glycerol, sotbitan or ethylene glycol and ethoxylated derivatives of monoglycerides including recently synthesized oligopeptides [44]. These emulsifiers have a long way to improving the flavor, taste and quality of products with minimal health hazards. It is also used to control the agglomeration of fat globules, stabilize aerated systems, improve texture and shelf-life of starchcontaining products, modify rheological properties of wheat dough and improve consistency and texture of fat-based products [45]. In bakery and ice cream formulations biosurfactants act by controlling consistency, retarding staling and solubilizing flavour oils; they are also utilized as fat stabilizers and antispattering agents during cooking of oil and fats. Improvement in dough stability, texture, volume and conservation of bakery products is obtained by the addition of rhamnolipid surfactants [46]. Rhamnolipids was also used to improve the properties of butter cream,croissants and frozen confectionery products. Lrhamnose has considerable potential as a precursor for flavouring. It is already used industrially as a precursor of high-quality flavour components like furaneol [47]. Another application of biosurfactants in food industry is as antiadhesive agents. A surfactant released by Streptococcus thermophilus has been used for fouling control of heat-exchanger plates in pasteurizers, as it retards the colonization of other thermophilic strains of Streptococcus responsible for fouling. The preconditioning of stainless steel surfaces with a biosurfactant obtained from Pseudomonas fluorescens inhibits the adhesion of L. monocytogenes L028 strain [47].
Cosmetic application of Biosurfactant
Like synthetic surfactants, biosurfactant are excellent emulsifiers and maintain wetting and foaming properties, due to this characteristics of biosurfactant are valued in several applications in cosmetic industry. These compounds are as effective as chemical surfactants and have excellent skin compatibility that synthetic surfactants lack. Glycolipids surfactants have been most extensively analyzed, especially in the cosmetic industry due to exceptional skin compatibility [48]. Sophorolipids in particular are on the brink of being in-corporated into several cosmetic applications. Common types of glycolipids are sophorolipids, mannosylerythritol lipids and rhemnolipids. C. bombicola is yeast commonly used for the production of sophorolipids which exhibit moisturizing, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties [49]. Therapeutic and biomedical applications: Biosurfactants have some therapeutic applications. The lipopeptide iturin from B. subtilis showed potent antifungal activity [50]. Rhamnolipids inhibited the growth of harmful bloom algae species, Heterosigma akashivo and Protocentrum dentatum. A rhamnolipid mixture
obtained from P. aeruginosa AT10 showed inhibitory activity against the bacteria Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Alcaligenes faecalis, Serratia arcescens, Mycobacterium phlei and Staphylococcus epidermidis and excellent antifungal properties against Aspergillus niger, Chaetonium globosum, Enicillium crysogenum, Aureobasidium pullulans and the phytopathogenic Botrytis cinerea and Rhizoctonia solani [51]. The biosurfactant from L. fermentum was reported to inhibit S. aureus infection and adherence to surgical implants [52]. Agricultural application Biosurfactant also have application in agriculturel industry. It is used as antifungal agent against the phytopathogen. Stanghellini and Miller [53] studied about the antifungal activity of rhamnolipids against three genera of zoosporic phytopathogen; Pythium aphanidermatum, Phytophthora capsici and Plasmopara lactucea-radicis. Biosurfactants are potentially used in various formulations of herbicides and pesticides [5]. An example is the use of glycolipoppetides produced by strains of Bacillus for emulsifying immiscible organophosphorus pesticides [54]. Biosurfactants in pollution and environmental control A promising method that can improve bioremediation effectiveness of hydrocarbon contaminated environments is the use of biosurfactants. They can enhance hydrocarbon bioremediation by two mechanisms. [55]. By reducing surface and interfacial tensions, biosurfactants increase the surface areas of insoluble compounds leading to increased mobility and bioavailability of hydrocarbons. In consequence, biosurfactants enhance biodegradation and removal of hydrocarbons. Biosurfactant used degrade hydrocarbon in aquatic environment. Surfactants enhance degradation by dispersing and emulsifying hydrocarbons. Chakrabarty [56] reported that an emulsifier produced by P. aeruginosa SB30 was able to quickly disperse oil into fine droplets; therefore it may be useful in removing oil from contaminated beaches [57].
CONCLUSION
Biosurfactants have received more and more attention in recent years as surface-active compounds released by microorganisms that have some influence on interfaces, most notably on the surface tension of liquid – vapor interfaces. Over the years, biosurfactants are not widely utilized in the industries due to high production costs, if the scientific worlds overcome these problems by the use of inexpensive substrates and better biotechnological tools biosurfactant will shine as most valuable biological molecule in future.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareCOMPARATIVE STUDY OF EFFICACY OF VASTUS MEDIALIS OBLIQUUS Vs RECTUS FEMORIS USING
OPEN KINEMATIC AND CLOSED KINEMATIC EXERCISES IN PATELLOFEMORAL PAIN SYNDROME
English4754Shashi Kumar C.GEnglish Nafeez SyedEnglish N.MohanEnglishBackground: Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) is often treated conservatively with voluntary
exercise for the Quadriceps femoris. Nevertheless, a substantial percentage of patients remain
symptomatic. Although exercise seems a crucial element for treatment, it may serve to increase patellar
irritation with the resulting dilemma that patients exercising the muscles may be simultaneously irritating
the knee. Patients with PFPS have been using quadriceps strengthening exercises with varying results on
muscle strength and pain. However, there are various problems associated with these forms of traditional
quadriceps strengthening exercises. This study sought to explore the effects of progressive functional
retraining of Vastus Medialis Obliquus (VMO) in the context of PFPS. Purpose: To compare the efficacy
of strengthening of VMO Vs Rectus femoris (RF) using open kinematic and closed kinematic chain
exercises in PFPS. Methods: This study was conducted at Yenepoya Medical College Hospital,
Mangalore. Forty subjects with anterior knee pain fulfilling the inclusion criteria were randomly assigned
to two groups with the mean age of 25.85 in group 1 and 27.65 in group 2. Group 1 received RF
strengthening exercises. Group 2 received strengthening of VMO. Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and
anterior knee Pain Scale were noted before and after the interventions. (i.e. either RF strengthening or
strengthening of VMO).Results: After 2weeks of intervention in Group 1 there was a significant increase
Anterior knee pain scale(AKPS) with mean difference of 4.95 and VMO co-ordination test status. There
was also a significant decrease in the VAS scale and with mean diff of 0.5 , whereas in Group 2, AKPS
with mean diff of -23.8 , VAS with the mean diff of 4.5 were all highly significant and there was a
increase in VMO co-ordination test but statistically not significant. Conclusion: Strengthening of VMO
clinically as well as statistically suggest that strengthening of VMO is more effective than the traditional
strengthening of RF in patients with PFPS.
Englishpatello femoral pain syndrome, anterior knee pain scale, strengthening, visual analogue scale.INTRODUCTION
Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) refers to the clinical presentation of anterior knee pain related to changes in the patellofemoral joint. This can be brought on by prolonged sitting (the so called 'theatre goer's sign'); by ascending and descending stairs, squatting, kneeling and by athletic activity. Clinical assessment of patients reveals a general paucity of abnormal physical findings. PFPS is considered to have an uncertain etiology with numerous theories propounded, including tightness of soft tissue and periarticular structures, patellofemoral malalignment and maltracking, tibial torsion and gait abnormalities. These commonly sited theories for PFPS have recently been supplemented by theories about nerve damage in the lateral retinaculum and patellar bone hypertension. Another proposal is that PFPS may develop due to a dysfunction of the extensor mechanism described to be due to generalized quadriceps weakness and wasting, decreased eccentric function, or differences in the activation patterns of the Vastus Medialis. To date, it is still unknown if the quadriceps dysfunction causes the patellar pain or the pain causes the dysfunction1 . Recently, based on human and cadaveric studies, authors have reported that the vastus medialis is composed of sets of fibers namely proximal, middle and distal fibers. The proximal and middle fibers get attached to the tendon common to the rectus femoris and the distal fibers get inserted into the medial aspect of the patella, which resists the valgus vector because of the ?Q‘ angle thereby controlling the patellar tracking movements2 . During voluntary ankle movements, anticipatory postural adjustments are initiated at the knee which co activates the Vastus Lateralis (VL) and the Vastus Medialis Obliquus (VMO) and this guides the normal patellar tracking. Studies have reported that there is a 5 ms delay in the VMO activation when compared to the VL. This shows that there is an altered VMO recruitment and change in the motor control in subjects with PFPS that should be considered for effective rehabilitation3 . In the analysis of patellofemoral joint reaction forces the results showed an increase in the patellofemoral joint reaction forces (PFJRF) with increasing knee flexion in Closed Kinetic Chain (CKC), whereas in Open Kinetic Chain (OKC) it increased from 90º of knee flexion to knee extension. Therefore, it is important to consider these specific ranges of knee motion in the rehabilitation of PFPS 4 The strength of evidence for routine terminal range knee extension exercises in OKC and squatting exercises in CKC for Vastus medialis strengthening is insufficient. Hence there is a need to identify efficient techniques in the rehabilitation of PFPS for improving the motor control around the knee considering rectus femoris which has the main attachment over the base of patella, correcting the abnormal patellar tracking, reversing the delayed onset of the VMO and decreasing the PFJRF for better outcomes. As there are not much studies done on rectus femoris in PFPS, this we have taken as a consideration and progressed with a study on RF and VMO in PFPS.
METHOD
Forty subjects aged between 20 to 40years with PFPS referred for Physiotherapy at Yenepoya medical college hospital were enrolled in the study. The inclusion criteria were (a) Anterior, peripatellar or Retro patellar knee pain more than 3months at least two of prolonged sitting, stairs, squatting, running, kneeling and hopping/jumping.(b)insidious onset of symptoms unrelated to traumatic incident (c)average pain level of 5cm or more than that on a VAS scale (d)age 40years or less to avoid degerative changes in Patellofemoral joint (e)symptoms for atleast 2weeks. Subjects were excluded if they had (a)signs and symptoms of their co-existing pathology (b)recent history of knee surgeries (c) evidence of OA changes (d)history of patellar subluxation or dislocation (e)ligamentous instability,meniscal lesion,plica syndrome (f)pregnancy (g)patellar tendon pathology (h)referred pain from the spine (i)knee joint effusion (j)illiteracy/inability to understand and answer questionnaires. Subjects were randomly allocated to the group 1 and group 2 using simple randomization with provided written consent informed consent.
Procedure:
A total of 40 subjects were randomly assigned to both the groups, Group 1 (Rectus femoris Strengthening) having n = 20 and Group 2 (VMO Strengthening) having n = 20. All the subjects assessed for their cause of knee pain. When the evaluation concluded that the subjects are victims of Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS), an informed consent was obtained from the subjects for the purpose of this study. The subject‘s intensity of pain is documented using a VAS scale for the usual and worst pain. The subject is then provided with an Anterior Knee Pain Scale, which consisted of a questionnaire. The questions on the pain scale are explained in detail and the subject is then asked to choose the most appropriate alternative. The Visual analogue scale (VAS) consisted of a simple 10 cm line, one end being marked with a zero and the other end being marked with a ten. The points zero and ten indicated the pain level, zero representing no pain and ten indicating the worst and most severe type of pain. All the other numbers from one to ten would indicate a gradual increment in the pain level. The subject was asked to indicate on the line where the pain is, in relation to the two extremes. The subject is then expected to choose a number on the scale rating his/her own pain appropriately. The Anterior Knee Pain Scale is a 13 item questionnaire which includes questions that ask the subject to describe their ability during walking, stair climbing, squatting, running, prolonged sitting, hoping and bar jumping. It instructs the subject to circle the latest choice, which corresponds to their knee symptoms. The focus of the anterior knee pain scale (AKPS) on symptoms may lead the subject to emphasize pain rather than function. The scale consists of discrete categories within which each item is weighted and responses are summed to provide an overall index in which 100 represents no disability In the Vastus medialis (VMO) co-ordination test, the subject is in the supine lying position. The examiner places the fist below the knee and the subject is asked to extend the knee slowly without pressing down or lifting the knee away. The test is considered positive when there is a lack of a coordinated full knee extension. After the pain scale questionnaire was completed, physiotherapy intervention was commenced for the subjects. Subjects in Group 1 received strengthening exercises of rectus femoris for 2 weeks. Rectus femoris strengthening included OKC which avoids terminal knee extension and CKC which avoids excessive knee flexion exercises. Knee extension exercises in OKC are given to the subject who is in a seated position in an extension curl pulley system. 10-RM is taken by a maximum amount of weight lifted 10 times through the prescribed range. An initial weight is reasonably chosen and based on that 10-RM was calculated a rest interval of 5 minutes should be given prior to attempting to lift the next heavier weight. CKC exercises include mini squatting with 0° to 40° of knee flexion with the subject standing against a Swiss ball supported on a wall. It was performed in 3 sets with each set comprising of 10 repetitions. Step exercises were started after the subject could descend 5 steps without pain. Subjects in Group 2 received strengthening of vastus medialis obliquus for 2 weeks. OKC exercises were given in sitting with the knee at 90° flexion. 10 RM was taken by a maximum amount of weight lifted 10times through full knee extension with lower leg lateral rotation to facilitate maximum contraction of the vastus medialis obliquus. An initial weight is reasonably chosen and based on that 10RM is calculated and then knee extension is performed till 0° CKC exercises were done by using step-down exercises where the subjects were made to step down from the step which is of 25cms in height. When the subject could complete 5 step downs from a 25 cm step without pain, the step down exercise and VMO retraining with isometric hip abduction in standing and stretching of tightened soft tissue structures are included. Outcome was measured at the end of 2nd week. Outcome measures: All the data on the scales of Visual analogue scale (VAS), Anterior knee pain scale (AKPS) and Vastus medialis obliqqus (VMO) Co-ordination were obtained before the initiation of the treatment and 2 weeks after the completion of the treatment. Anterior knee pain scale (AKPS) questionnaire was used with a set of questions based on the symptoms, the results of which were summed up and the scores were taken. Similarly, Visual analogue scale (VAS) was used to document the pain. Data analysis: The software programme used for data analysis was SPSS Ven15. Microsoft Excel was used for graphs. Demographic data of anterior knee pain scale (AKPS) and Visual analogue scale (VAS) status of both the groups were analyzed by using paired?t‘ test. Probability values of less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Demographic data of Vastus medialis obliquus (VMO) Coordination test status was analyzed by using the ?Fishers test‘. Probability values of less than 0.05 were considered significant.
RESULTS
When subjects performed rapid strengthening exercises for rectus femoris under group 1 and VMO under group 2, there were differences in both the groups but more significantly in group 2. In table 2 comparisons are done between Pre and Post Anterior knee pain scale (AKPS) within group 1(Rectus femoris strengthening). Pre Anterior knee pain scale (AKPS) had 20 subjects having mean of 72.65 (+/-15.45) where Post Anterior knee pain scale(AKPS) had 20 subjects having mean of 77.60 (+/-14.01) and a mean difference of -4.95 with p-value of 0.295 which is not significant. Group 2 analysis showed Pre Anterior knee pain scale(AKPS) with 20 subjects having mean of 65.90 (+/- 13.19) where Post Anterior knee pain scale (AKPS) had 20 subjects having mean of 89.70 (+/- 6.67) and a mean difference of -23.8 with a significant p-value of 0.0001.
DISCUSSION
At the end of our study, strengthening of the VMO showed very good improvement in PFPS subjects than in strengthening of rectus femoris muscle and by this it is clear that Rectus femoris strengthening is not much effective in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome. There was also a reduction in VAS status in subjects under VMO strengthening programme than in the rectus femoris strengthening programme. Even in the Anterior knee pain scale questionnaire there was an improved scoring in group 2 with VMO strengthening programme at the end of 2week programme up to 100%, but there was no any significant change in the VMO Co-ordination test, so this test cannot be used as an assessment tool in the subjects with Patellofemoral pain syndrome. Several studies suggest that VMO dysfunction could lead to PFPS, so for effective rehabilitation one has to concentrate on the strengthening of VMO. The tension developed in VMO acts both medial and posterior aspect of knee joint and is known to resist lateral patellar displacement. Clinical observation linking loss of active full knee extension to VMO atrophy has led to the belief that VMO has its main role in the last 15º of active knee extension. Many conservative treatments were based on this hypothesis. In contrast, recent studies have failed to find selective VMO activity in this arc5 . In our study we have done a VMO Coordination test to find out the VMO dysfunction as described by Souza5 . But most of the subjects showed a negative result even with severe symptoms that is most of these patients had no difficulty in accomplishing extension. Thus in our study VMO Co-ordination test showed no significance in both the groups. Clinically relevant results were achieved without treatment strategies like taping and stretching regimens, which suggest that the underlying cause of Patellofemoral pain syndrome(PFPS) may not be restricted to the Patellofemoral joint(PFJ). Mascal et al 6 did case studies and suggested that patients with PFPS demonstrated abnormal kinematics at the hip that responded favorably to an exercise programme specifically targeting the hip, pelvis and trunk musculature. Turnia et al7 have proposed that the increased risk of PFPS in females was due to structural differences in the pelvic width, femoral anteversion, ?Q‘ angle, tibial torsion, hormonal differences and the effect of estrogen on theconnective tissues. In our study the two groups were divided with equal number of males and females. Thus, statistically it showed that age is not significantly varying among the groups as the mean age in Group 1 and Group 2 was 25.85 and 27.65 respectively. Herrington et al8 found that the relative difference in the overall activity between VMO and VL was not influenced by gender, hip position and mode of exercises. The findings of their study indicates that when choosing exercises for the rehabilitation of patients with patellofemoral pain, the aim would be to select exercises which minimize joint loading rather than exercises which recruit VMO as this would be unlikely to occur. Therefore, in our study we have followed the exercises with minimal joint loading and specific degrees of knee movements, i.e. 90º to 50º in OKC and 0º – 40º in CKC. In our study, most of the patients have more pain during descending stairs than ascending. This could be explained by a study on PFJ stresses. During stair ascent Patellofemoral Joint Reaction Force (PFJRF) decreases because of decreased cadence and the forward lean of the trunk, thereby reducing the knee extensor moment. During stair descent, there is no significant reduction in the PFJRF and the PFJ stress value remains the same. On comparison of ascending and descending stairs, the PFJ stress – time integral is 1.5 times greater than descending stairs and thus an increase in pain is felt during descent9,10 As there are not many studies done on role of Rectus femoris in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome we suggest that further studies to be done to find out the relationship between rectus femoris with vastus medialis obliquus and vastus lateralis rehabilitation. Limitations of the study Most of the chief complaints of the patients were pain during kneeling but the AKPS does not have a question related to kneeling. Some of the questions on the AKPS have posed a problem for patients including ?atrophy of the thigh‘, ?flexion deficiency‘ and ?subluxation.‘ VMO Co-ordination test, which was considered to be a diagnostic test for PFPS, also gave negative results in many subjects with PFPS. VMO Coordination test may hence, not be considered as a diagnostic test in patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS).
Future Scope
Further research is warranted to determine the relationship between rectus femoris and vastus medialis obliquus by using electromyographic study, and another study can be done on the existing Anterior knee pain scale questionnaires could be modified or the development of a more responsive questionnaire could be devised which can include all the factors of patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Further study can be done on Athletes with patellofemoral pain syndrome to find efficacy of rectus femoris with vastus medialis obliquus. Comparative study between rectus femoris and vastus medialis obliquus can be done using different treatment methods like taping, ultrasound therapy in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome.
CONCLUSION
In this study it was found that vastus medialis obliquus strengthening is more effective compared to strengthening of rectus femoris in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2075http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2075REFERENCES
1. Oatis CA. Structure and function of the bones and non-contractile elements of the knee. Kinesiology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2002. 710 – 15
2. Lefebvre R, Lerone A, Pounarat G, Boncher JP. Vastus Medialis: Anatomical and functional consideration and implication based upon human and cadaveric studies. J manipulative physio Ther 2006; 29: 139 – 44.
3. Cowan SM, Hodges PW, Bennell KL, Crossley. Altered Vasti Recruitment when people with patellofemoral pain syndrome complete a postural task. Arch phys med Rehabil 2002; 83: 1989 – 99.
4. Tillman MD, Chiumento AB, Trimble MH, Bauer JA, Cauraugh JH, Kaminski TW, Hass CJ. Tibiofemoral rotation in landing: the influence of medially and laterally posted orthotics. Physical Therapy in Sport 2003; 4: 34 – 39.
5. Nijs J, Geel CV, Vanderauwera C, Van de Velde B. Diagnostic value of five clinical tests in patellofemoral pain syndrome. Manual Therapy 2006; 11: 69 – 77.
6. Mascal CL, Landel R, Powers C. Management of patellofemoral pain targeting hip, pelvis and trunk muscle function: 2 case reports. J ortho Sports Phys Ther 2003; 33:642 – 60
7. Alfonso VS, Sastre ER. Anterior knee pain in the young patient – what causes the pain? Acta Orthop Scand 2003; 74: 697 – 03.
8. Herrington L, Blacker M, Enjuanes N, Smith P, Worthingtom D. The effect of limb position, exercise mode and contraction type on overall activity of VMO and VL. Physical Therapy in sport 2006; 7: 87 – 92.
9. Brechter JH, Power CM. Patellofemoral joint stress during stair ascent and descent in persons with and without patellofemoral pain. Gait and Posture 2002; 16:115-23
10. McClinton S, Donatell G, Weir J, Heiderscheit B. Influence of Step Height on Quadriceps Onset Timing and activation During Stair ascent in Individuals with Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome. J OrthopSports Phys Ther 2007; 37: 239 –
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareBILATERAL VARIANT INNERVATION OF ANTERIOR COMPARTMENT MUSCLES OF UPPER ARM WITH
ABSENCE OF MUSCULO CUTANEOUS NERVE - A CASE REPORT
English5559Sunitha VinnakotaEnglish Jayasree NeeleeEnglishDuring routine dissection for medical undergraduates, in a cadaver of around 50 years, musculo cutaneous
nerve was absent in both upper arms. Median nerve after its formation fused with lateral cord and
supplied all the muscles in upper arm and one long twig after supplying brachialis continued as lateral
cutaneous nerve of forearm. Awareness of anatomical variations of peripheral nerves is important in
repair of traumatic injuries and treatment of compression syndromes of these nerves.
Englishmedian nerve, musculo cutaneous nerve and coraco brachialis muscle.INTRODUCTION
Variations in the formation and branching pattern of brachial plexus are well documented 1,2,. . Some of these variations include pre fixed and post fixed type of brachial plexus. The median nerve is formed by union of one root from lateral cord (C5, 6and7) and one root from medial cord (C8 and T1), where as musculocutaneous nerve (C5, 6 and7) arises from lateral cord of brachial plexus3 . The musculocutaneous nerve is derived as a terminal branch of lateral cord pierces the coracobrachialis and runs laterally downwards between biceps and brachialis to reach the lateral side of arm and continues as lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm. According to Tountas4 and Bergaman, musculocutaneous nerve arises from lateral cord in 90.5%, from lateral and posterior cords in 4%, from median nerve in 2% and has 2 separate bundles from medial and lateral cords in 1.4%. Case report: During routine dissection for medical undergraduates, musculocutaneous nerve was absent in the anterior compartments of both upper arms and median nerve after its formation fused with lateral cord and supplied all the muscles in upper arm and one long twig after supplying brachialis continued as lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm in approximately 50 year old male cadaver. Right side: Median nerve was formed from lateral and medial roots of lateral and medial cords infront of 3rd part of axillary artery. Median nerve was joined by lateral cord (See fig 1) 8cm below its formation. This combined nerve runs for a distance of 2cm and then twigs to biceps, coracobrachialis and one long twig to brachialis were noticed. The long twig after supplying brachialis continued as lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm. (See fig2) Left side: 5cm below its formation median nerve was joined by the lateral cord. Coracobrachialis was innervated by a small twig directly from the lateral cord and not from the median nerve as observed on right side. (See fig 3) The combined nerve runs downward for 2cm and gave twigs to biceps and brachialis. The long twig after supplying brachilis continued as lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm (See fig 4). Further course and distribution of median nerve was normal. No variation was noted in the vasculature of both upperlimbs
DISCUSSION
The variations in the formation of median nerve sited in the literature include formation of median nerve by 4 roots, one from medial cord and other three from the lateral cord5 . Arora6 and Dhingra (2005) reported a case in which the median nerve had 3 roots and musculocutaneous nerve was absent. Variations such as passing through a bony canal7 and abnormal communications with the musculocutaneous nerve have been recorded8and9. The reported variations of musculocutaneous include its total absence10 and communication with median nerve at various levels8,9. The musculo cutaneous, not piercing coraco brachialis is also known11. Venierator12 and Anagnostopoulous (1998) also described 3 different types of communication between musculocutaneous and median nerve in relation to coracobrachialis. Type I is communication proximal to muscle, where as type II is distal to muscle. Neither the nerve nor its communicating branch pierced the muscle is type III. In type V of Le Minor13 (1992) classification musculocutaneous nerve is absent and the entire fibers of musculocutaneous pass through lateral root and fibers to the muscles supplied by musculocutaneous nerve branch out directly from median nerve. The presence of communication between median and musculo cutaneous nerves may be attributed to andom factors influencing the mechanism of formation of limb muscles and peripheral nerves during embryonic life. Significant variations in nerve patterns may be a result of altered signaling between mesenchymal cells and neuronal growth cones 14 or circulatory factors at the time of fusion of brachial plexus cords15. The existing variations of the present case such as absence of musculo cutaneous nerve, derivation of all motor branches from median nerve directly falls into the type V of variations described by Le minor13 and it also falls into the type III of Venirator12. As per Arora6 and Dhingra the present case can be described as the median nerve with 3 roots and absence of musculo cutaneous nerve. Anatomical variations of peripheral nerves are important clinically and surgically. Precise knowledge of variations in median and musculo cutaneous nerves may prove valuable in traumatology of the arm, as well as in plastic and reconstructive repair operations.
Abbreviations:
1. MR: Medial root of Median nerve.
2. LR: Lateral root of Median nerve.
3. LC: Lateral cord of Brachial plexus.
4. MN: Median nerve.
5. LCN: Lateral cutaneous nerve of forearm.
6. C.B: Coracobrachialis muscle.
7. B.B: Biceps brachii muscle.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2076http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2076REFERENCES
1. Ken AT (1918): The brachial plexus of nerves in man. The variation in its formation and branches. American Journal of Anatomy 23: 285-395 (s).
2. Linell EA (1921). The distribution of nerves in Upper limb with reference to variabilities and their clinical significance. Journal of Anatomy 55: 79-112 (s).
3. Snell S. Richard 1995- Clinical anatomy for medical students: 5th ed Little Brown and Company, USA pp: 393-398.
4. Tountas C Bergaman R- Anatomic variation of upper extremity- Churchill Livingstone, 1993 pp: 223-224.
5. Uzun A, Seelig LL Jr. A variation in the formation of the median nerve: communicating branch between the musculocutaneous and median nerves in man. Folia Morphol. (Warsz). 2001; 80: 99- 101.
6. Arora L, Dhingra R (2005)- Absence of musculo cutaneous nerve and accessory head of biceps brachii- a case report, Indian Journal of paeditric surgery vol 38 issue 2, pp: 144-146.
7. Kazuki K, Egi T, Okada M, Takoka K. Anatomic variation – a bony canal for the median nerve at the distal humerus; a case report. J Hand Surg. (AM). 2004 ; 29: 953 - 958.
8. Loukas M, Aqueelah H. Musculocutaneous and median nerve connections within, proximal and distal to the coracobrachialis muscle. Folia Morphol. (Warsz). 2005; 84: 101- 108.
9. Prasada Rao PV, Chaudhary SC. Communication of the musculocutaneous nerve with the median nerve. East Air. Med. J.2000; 77: 498 – 503.
10. Gumshurun E, Adiguzel E. A Variation of the brachial plexus characterized by the absence of the musculocutaneous nerve: a case report. Surg Radiol. Anat. 2000;22:83- 85.
11. Nakatani T, Mizukami S, Tanaka S. Three cases of the musculocutaneous nerve not perforating the coracobrachialis muscle. Kalbogaku Zasshi. 1997; 72: 191-194.
12. Venierator D, Anagnostopoulous (1998) – classification of communications between musculo cutaneous and median nerves. Clinical Anatomy 11 (5), pp: 327-331.
13. Le minor JM. A rare variation of median and musculo cutaneous nerves in man. Arch Anat Histol Embryol 1990; 73: 33-42.
14.Sanes DH, Ruh TA, Harris MA. Development of the nervous system, New York, Academic press. 2010; 189-197. 15. Kosugi K, Motria, T; Yamashita, H (1986). Branching pattern of Musculo cutaneous nerve, 1 case possessing normal Biceps brachi, Ji Keakai Medical journal 33: pp 63- 71
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesGEOMAGNETIC DISTURBANCES AND CYCLONIC ACTIVITY OVER THE NORTH INDIAN OCEAN
DURING 22nd and 23rd SOLAR CYCLE
English6068R.Samuel SelvarajEnglish R.UmaEnglishTropical Cyclone activities over the North Indian Ocean (comprising Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea)
constitute one of the major natural disasters of our country. To understand the Tropical Cyclonic
activities, estimations of their frequencies are necessary. In this study, number of Geomagnetic Storms
(Sudden and Gradual type) during 22nd and 23rd solar cycle and Cyclonic disturbance that includes
Depression, Cyclonic Storm and Severe Cyclonic Storm over the North Indian Ocean has been analysed
using Spearman Rank Correlation technique. Geomagnetic Storms increase the Cyclonic Activity over the
North Indian Ocean.
Englishgeomagnetic storms, tropical cyclone, solar cycle, spearman rank correlation, etc.INTRODUCTION
Cyclones are caused by several factors. Most important factors are Sea Surface Temperature and Coriolis force. Tropical Cyclones over Bay of Bengal are generally higher both in terms of their frequency and intensity (G.Krishnakumar et al., 2006). Raman P.k. and Raghavan (1961) found that the number of monsoon storms/depressions striking the Bay Coast near Calcutta respond to annual sunspots. He showed inverse relationships between them. Upper winds at 4 km and above indicated that the decline of storms/depressions striking the coast is accompanied by a southward shift of the Tibetian summer anti-cyclone in the years of maximum sunspot activity. A lot of papers are documented in the study of cyclonic activity and magnetic storms. The various types of Solar Dynamic phenomena occurring on the solar surfaces are responsible for Interplanetary and Geomagnetic disturbances. A Solar phenomena known as Coronal Mass Ejection is known to be responsible for Geomagnetic storms (Jagannathan P and Bhalme H N 1973). Jagannathan and Bhalme (1973) found smaller frequency of storms/depressions and shorter westward extent of their tracks during sunspot maximum than during sunspot minimum. Bhalme (1975b) also reported statistically significant (at 5% level) inverse relationships between the number of monsoon storms/depressions and annual sunspots, and an apparent cycle with a period of about 40 years superimposed on linear decreasing trend in monsoon storms/depressions also showing inverse resemblance with sunspot trend in recent years. Regular solar radiation changes affect the Earth's magnetic field. Irregular current systems produce magnetic field changes caused by the interaction of the solar wind with the magnetosphere, by the magnetosphere itself, by the interactions between the magnetosphere and ionosphere, and by the ionosphere itself. The variation of magnetic field, more notably its short-term components, is due to disturbances in the earth‘s electromagnetic environment caused by solar activity. The degree of disturbance in the magnetic field is indicated by what are called indices of geomagnetic activity. There have been several such indices devised for research and application purposes. The more prominent of these are Dst, Ap, kp, Cp and AE. The official planetary Kp index is derived by calculating a weighted average of k-indices from a network of geomagnetic observatories. The k-index is a code that is related to the maximum fluctuations of horizontal components observed on a magnetometer relative to a quite day, during a three-hour interval. Dst is an index of strength of the symmetric westward ring current which encircles the earth in the equatorial belt of roughly ±30? notably during storm-times. This ring current has a dipole moment which is directed opposite to the earth‘s natural magnetic field. A significant positive correlation between the averaged Kp index of global geomagnetic activity and hurricane intensity as measured by maximum sustained wind speed is identified for baroclinically-initiated hurricanes. A significant statistical relationship between geomagnetic activity as measured by the Kp index and hurricane intensity as measured by the maximum wind speed for a certain type of higher-latitude hurricanes (James B. Elsner and S.P. Kavlakov 2001). Correlations between hurricane occurrence and several solar activityrelated phenomena, such as the total solar irradiance, the cosmic ray flux and the Dst index of geomagnetic activity. Results indicate that the highest significant correlations are found between the Atlantic and Pacific hurricanes and the Dst index. Most importantly, both oceans present the highest hurricane–Dst correlations during the ascending part of odd solar cycles and the descending phase of even solar cycles (Blanca Mendoza and Marni Pazos 2009). During maximum period of solar activity huge amounts of solar energy particles are released from the sun. They are responsible for geomagnetic disturbances. The solar cycle, or the solar magnetic activity cycle, is the main source of the ~10.7 year periodic solar variation (changing the level of irradiation experienced on Earth) which drives variations in space weather and to some degree weather on the ground and possibly climate change.The cycle is observed by counting the frequency and placement of sunspots visible on the Sun. We have analysed the number of Geomagnetic storms during the 22nd (1986-1996) and 23rd (1997-2007) Solar Cycle and Cyclonic activity over the North Indian Ocean. A Geomagnetic activity is represented by velocity of Solar Wind Streams and Interplanetary magnetic field. Geomagnetic storm consists of sudden storm commencement and gradual storm commencement. The geomagnetic activity is represented by Dst index.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Spearman‘s rank correlation technique is used to find out the statistical relationship between Geomagnetic Storms during 22nd and 23rd solar cycle and frequency of Cyclonic disturbance includes depression, cyclonic Storm and severe Cyclonic Storm over Indian Ocean. The ?classical or parametric stat? requires three major conditions like (i) measurement of the observations are available on interval or ratio scale, (ii) the background population of the MATERIAL AND METHODS Spearman‘s rank correlation technique is used to find out the statistical relationship between Geomagnetic Storms during 22nd and 23rd solar cycle and frequency of Cyclonic disturbance includes depression, cyclonic Storm and severe Cyclonic Storm over Indian Ocean. The ?classical or parametric stat? requires three major conditions like (i) measurement of the observations are available on interval or ratio scale, (ii) the background population of the. Generally Geomagnetic Storms are classified into two categories as sudden type and gradual type. Table I and II illustrates number of Geomagnetic storms (sudden and gradual) and number of Cyclonic disturbance over the North Indian Ocean during 22nd solar activity. Table III and IV illustrates number of Geomagnetic storms (sudden and gradual) and number of Cyclonic disturbance over the North Indian Ocean during 23rd solar activity. Graphs are plotted separately for sudden and gradual type of the number of Geomagnetic Storms and Frequency of Cyclonic disturbance over the North Indian Ocean. Fig I and II illustrates the comparison and variations of the number of Sudden and Gradual type of Geomagnetic Storms with the frequency of cyclonic disturbance during 22nd solar cycle. Fig III and IV illustrates the comparison and variations of the number of Sudden and Gradual type of Geomagnetic Storms with the frequency of cyclonic disturbance during 23rd solar cycle. Fig V and VI illustrates the comparison and variations of the number of Sudden and Gradual type of Geomagnetic Storms with the frequency of cyclonic disturbance during 22nd and 23rd solar cycle.
RESULTS
The Spearman Rank correlation values for Sudden and Gradual type of Geomagnetic Storms with the number of Cyclonic disturbance over the North Indian Ocean for 22nd solar cycle was found to be 0.403 and 0.697. On the other hand, the correlated value for 23rd solar cycle was found to be -0.099 and -0.27 respectively. This explains whenever geomagnetic storms forms; the number of cyclone also increases to some extent over the North Indian Ocean during 22nd and 23rd Solar Cycle.
DISCUSSIONS
Both Sudden and Gradual type of Geomagnetic Storms influences the cyclonic activity over the International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 63 North Indian Ocean. The Spearmen‘s Rank Correlation Coefficient for 22nd and 23rd solar cycle was found to be 0.297 and -0.09965 for sudden type and 0.771 and -0.27448 for gradual type of geomagnetic storms. This explains whenever geomagnetic storms forms; the number of cyclone also increases to some extent over the North Indian Ocean during 22nd and 23rd Solar Cycle.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2077http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2077REFERENCES
1. Blanca Mendoza and Marni Pazos 2009 Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics A 22 yr hurricane cycle and its relation with geomagnetic activity Volume 71, Issues 17-18, December 2009, Pages 2047-2054
2. Bhalme H N 1973b Solar activity and Indian weather/climate Vayu Mandal 5 12
3. S.C.Dubey and A.P.Mishra July 1999 Solar Activity and Large Geomagnetic Disturbances Current Science, vol. 77, No. 2
4. S.C.Dubey and A.P.Mishra 2000 Characteristics of Large Geomagnetic Storms during solar cycle 22, Indian J Radio Space Phys, 29,51
5. S.C.Dubey and A.P.Mishra June 2000 Flare index of Solar Activity and Global Geomagnetic Variability Current Science, vol. 78, No. 11, 10
6. Jagannathan P and Bhalme H N 1973 Changes in the pattern of distribution of southwest monsoon rainfall over India associated with sunspots Mon. Wea. Rev. 101,691-700
7. James B. Elsner and S.P. Kavlakov Atmospheric Science Letters (2001) Hurricane intensity changes associated with Geomagnetic variation doi:10.1006/asle.2001.0040
8. G.Krishnakumar, Alaka S.Gadgil and M.Rajeevan 2006 Sea surface temperatures as predictors of cyclonic activity over the North Indian Ocean J.Ind.Geophys.Union Vol.10, No.3,pp.187-195
9. S.P.Kavlakov and J.Elsner 30th International Cosmic Ray Conference Geomagnetic Disturbances and Atlantic Hurricane Intensification.
10. Raman P.k. and K. Raghavan 1961, Diurnal variation of thunder some in India during different seasons. Indian J. Meteorol. Geophys., 12, 1, 115-130
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEFFECT OF DORSAL NECK MUSCLE FATIGUE ON POSTURAL CONTROL
English6974Muniandy YughdtheswariEnglishRavi Shankar ReddyEnglishBackground: There appears to be a relationship between muscle fatigue in the cervical spine and deficits
in postural control, however, no previous studies have been examined the effects of specific dorsal neck
muscle fatigue on designated movers of cervical spine. By systematically fatiguing dorsal neck muscles
and measuring subsequent postural control, it may be possible to determine to what extent deficits in
postural control exist after fatigue.
Methods: 30 subjects were included in the study. Initial dorsal muscle neck strength (Kg) was measured
with digital dynamometer and postural sway velocity analysis (mm2 / sec) with eyes closed was measured
with posturography. Then the subjects were made to follow the dorsal neck muscle fatigue protocol,
where the patient is positioned in prone lying with legs straight and arms positioned at the sides in the
bed. Load of 2 kg for women and 4 kg for men is applied around the head above the ears. The load is
sustained till the subject‘s tolerance and then post analysis of postural sway velocity and dorsal muscle
neck strength were measured.
Results: There was a significant increase in postural sway velocity (EnglishDorsal Neck Muscle, Muscle Fatigue, Posturography, Postural control.INTRODUCTION
Muscle fatigue is related to a decline in tension capacity or force output after repeated muscle contraction. 1 The onset of fatigue may be attributed to metabolic or neurologic factors controlled peripherally and centrally by the neuromuscular system. 1-11 Fatigue has been demonstrated to have an adverse effect on neuromuscular control. 8, 11-14 One way of quantifying an aspect of neuromuscular control is through measures of postural control. Maintenance of posture is reliant on input from the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems. The somatosensory system receives input from articular, cutaneous, and musculotendinous receptors, including muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs, that send afferent signals regarding changes in length and tension. 12-14 It is theorized that muscle fatigue may impair the proprioceptive and kinesthetic properties of joints by increasing the threshold of muscle spindle discharge, disrupting afferent feedback, and subsequently altering conscious joint awareness. 12-14 Therefore, altered somatosensory input due to fatigue could result in deficits in neuromuscular control as represented through deficits in postural control. The location of the dorsal neck muscles suggest that they potentially play an important role in stabilizing the cervical spine.15-16 In upper quadrant postural dysfunction the dorsal neck muscles are always overused due to forward head position adapted by the subject resulting in loss of strength and endurance.17-19 It is apparent that the afferent input originating from the dorsal neck muscles does exert an influence in the activation of the muscles that control the cervical motion and, thus, may contribute to dynamic stability of the cervical spine.17-19 Little is known, however, about how dorsal neck muscle fatigue affects postural equilibrium and orientation. The purpose of the study is to know the effect of deorsal neck muscle fatigue on postural control.
METHODS
An advertisement in the physical therapy department was given in the form of posters for the voluntary participation of the subjects in the study. Screening was done and the subjects were selected according to the inclusion criteria, where the sample size is 30 subject. (n=30) irrespective of their gender. The study purpose was explained to the subjects and written consent and demographic profile was taken from the subject. At the beginning of the first session pre dorsal neck muscle strength (Kg) were measured using digital dynamometer with the subject lying in prone with leg straight and arm positioned at the sides. Followed by pre postural control analysis in the form of postural sway velocity (mm2 / sec) of the subjects were measured using posturography by asking the subject to stand with equal distance between both the leg on the fixed instrument platform (force plate) connected to sensitive detector force and movement transducers) with both the hands flexed across the chest and eyes closed for 30 second [figure 1]. Then the subjects were made to follow the standardized neck muscle fatigue protocol, where the subject is positioned in prone lying with legs straight and arms positioned at the sides in the bed. Load of 2 kg for women and 4 kg for men is applied around the head above the ears 20. The load is sustained on the subject until the subject‘s tolerance [figure 2]. Immediately following the fatigue protocol, dorsal neck muscle strength (Kg) and postural control (mm2 / sec) were measured using the same protocol.
RESULTS
Paired t test was used for comparison of pre and post dorsal neck muscle strength and postural sway velocity with eyes closed. The results of the present study show that there is a significant decrease in dorsal neck muscles strength (Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2078http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2078REFERENCES
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3. Asmussen E, Mazin B. A central nervous component in local muscle fatigue. Eur J Appl Phys 1978; 38:9-15.
4. Karatzaferi C, Giakas G, Ball D. Fatigue profilefs: a numerical method to examine fatigue in cycle ergometry. Eur J Appl Phy 1999; 80:508-10.
5. Kawakami Y, Amemiya K, Kanehisa H, Ikegawa S, Fukunaga T. Fatigue responses of human triceps muscles during repetitive maximal isometric contractions. J Appl Phys 2000; 88:75.
6. Latash M. Neurophysiological basis of movement. Champaign: Human Kinetics 1998; 417:26.
7. Merton PA.Voluntary strength and fatigue. J Phys 1954; 123:553-64.
8. Miles MP, Ive JC, Vincent KR. Neuromuscular control following maximal eccentric exercise. Eur J Appl Phys 1997; 76:368-74.
9. Pagala MK, Ravindran K, Namba T, Grob D. Skeletal muscle fatigue and physicalendurance of young and old mice. Muscle Nerve 1998; 21:1729-39.
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11. Yeung S, Au A, Chow C. Effects of fatigue on the temporal neuromuscular control of vastus medialis muscle in humans. Eur J Appl Phys 1999; 80:379-85.
12. Balestra C, Duchateau J, Hainaut K. Effects of fatigue in the stretch reflex in a human muscle.Electroencephalogram Clinical Neurophysiology 1992; 85:46-52.
13. Macefield G, Gandevia SC, Burke D. Perceptual response to microstimulation of single afferents innervating joint, muscle, and skin of the human hand. J Physiol 1990; 429:113-29.
14. Watson JD, Colebatch JG, McCloskey DI. Effects of externally imposed elastic loads on the ability to estimate position and force. Behav Brain Res 1984; 13:26771.
15. Lincoln J. Clinical instability of the upper cervical spine. Manual Therapy 2000; 5:41– 46.
16. Bland, J.H, Giles, L.G.F., Singer, K.P. (Eds.), Clinical Anatomy and Management of Cervical Spine Pain. ButterworthHeineman, Oxford, dorsal neck muscle 1998; 3:23-39
17. Jordan, K., Dziedzic, K., Jones, P.W., Ong, B.N., Dawes, P.T, The reliability of the three- dimensional FASTRAK measurement system in measuring cervical spine and shoulder range of motion in healthy individuals. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2000; 3:39
18. Jull, G. Management of cervical headaches. Manual Therapy 1997; 2:182–190.
19. Schieppati M, Nardone A, Schmid M. Neck muscle fatigue affects postural control in man. Neuroscience 2003; 121:277–85
20. Peolsson A, Vavruch L, .O¨ berg B. Disability after anterior decompression and fusion for cervical disc disease. Adv Physiotherapy 2002; 4:111-24.
21. Hill J. Increase in the discharge of muscle spindles during diaphragm fatigue. Brain Res.2000; 918:166–70.
22. Pedersen J, Ljubisavljevic M, Bergenheim M, Johansson H. Alterations in Information transmission in ensembles of primary muscle spindle afferents after muscle fatigue in heteronymous muscle. Neuroscience 1998; 84:953–9.
23. Pettorossi VE, Della Torre G, Bortolami R, Brunetti O. The role of capsaicin-sensitive muscle afferents in fatigue-induced modulation of the monosynaptic reflex in the rat. J Physiology 1999; 515:599–607.
24. Balkowiec A, Kukula K, Szulczyk P. Functional classification of afferent phrenic nerve fibres and diaphragmatic receptors in cats. J Physiol 1995; 483:759–68.
25. Della G, Lucchi ML, Brunetti O, Pettorossi VE, Clavenzani P, Bortolami R. Central projections and entries of capsaicin-sensitive muscle afferents. Brain Res 1996; 713:223– 31.
26. Della TG, Brunetti O, Pettorossi VE. Capsaicin-sensitive muscle afferents modulate the monosynaptic reflex in response to muscle ischemia and fatigue in the rat. Arch Ital Biol 2002; 140:51–65.
27. Crowell DH, Guskiewica KM, Prentice WE, Onate JA (). The effect of fatigue on postural stability and neuro psychological function (abstract). J Athl Train 2001; 36;33.
28. Gosselin G, Rassoulian H, Brown I. Effects of neck extensor muscles fatigue of balance. Clinical Biomechanics 2000; 18: 473-479.
29. Schieppati M, Tacchini E, Nardone A, Tarantola J, Corna S. Subjective perception of body sway.J Neurol Neurosurgeon Psychiatry 1999; 66: 313–22.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyCOMPARISON OF PROCESS MINING ALGORITHMS WITH ASSOCIATION RULE MINING ALGORITHMS
English8389Saravanan .M.SEnglish Rama Sree .R.JEnglishIn the recent studies says that is the state of the art of process mining algorithms were used in different
applications such as healthcare, sales and inventory, etc. But in my previous research paper, first time we
have implemented the process mining algorithms in the domain of dyeing units. Normally, the dyeing
unit is complex in nature, because it involves dynamic features in the process. Moreover, it is also critical
to keep a check on the automated processes to produce the expected results in the form of quality and
timely dyeing processes. Delivering these processes is a complex, because colour shades are difficult to
identify the little difference and also various dyeing problems were identified after dye mix. The main
process of dyeing process is dye mix process; it involved various treatments, these treatments were very
difficult to maintain the shade matching. Therefore, the process mining algorithms were used to identify
the better process control against the difficulties of dyeing process. These process mining algorithms
produce a diagrammatic process model, which is very easy to understand by the dyers, but when the
process has more number of activities then the complex process models were produced. The outcome of
these process models were not easy to understand, so some clustering techniques were used but at the
same time the missing activities produce more noise, that is the process model after clustering misses the
originality. To overcome these limitations, the association rule mining algorithms were used in the
domain of dyeing unit and the related issues are also compared in this paper.
EnglishDyeing unit, process mining, association rule mining, clustering, dye mix, shadeINTRODUCTION
The limitations of the process mining algorithms such as Heuristic Miner (HM) and the Disjunctive Workflow Schema (DWS) were seen as the need to search for a process model representation that overcomes these limitations. Below it was stated that these limitations and comparison with the association rule mining algorithm LinkRuleMiner (LRM) with the results of HM and DWS mining algorithms. The HM is one of the most robust algorithms available till date for logs containing noise and imbalance. Weijters et al. [1] conducted experiments with the HM on the benchmark artificial material. The result of these experiments emphasized the robustness of the algorithm in situations of noise and imbalance present in the log in various degrees. However the experiments were conducted on artificial material and using the default parameter settings of the algorithm.
When the algorithm was applied to two dyeing process implementations i.e. Emerald and Jayabala dyeing units, It is identified that the results of the HM are not what the dyers or experts were expecting, hence the alternative process model for the dyeing process need to be identified. Therefore, the association rule mining algorithms were used as a new approach to implement the dyeing industries, dyeing processing system with various association mining algorithms such as Apriori, FPGrowth, HMine and LinkRuleMiner were discussed.
The limitation of HM, DWS vs. LRM
The purpose of the HM process mining algorithm is to discover the process model underlying the investigated process. Hence, it is performed with many experiments with different parameter settings but the algorithm failed to provide a clear and understandable process model [2]. The process models obtained were complex and full of problems like missing activities (activities registered in the event log but not captured in the process model), missing dependencies and dangling activities. When the dyeing logs were mined without using the all-activities connected heuristic the process model obtained for some logs were better in terms of simplicity. But these models were full of disconnected and dangling activities, and therefore these models do not exhibit those connections that were shown by the models generated using the all-activities connected heuristic parameter. So, it could not be concluded whether not using the all-activities connected heuristic is a good choice. [3].
comparison of HM, DWS process mining algorithms with linkruleminer association rule mining algorithm
The LRM however can be compared to the results of the HM as they both generate different process models. The HM generates a dependency graph and the LRM generates association rules.
The limitations of the HM therefore are not dealt with in the LRM. The LRM just provides an alternate process model representation different from the one based on the pure control flow. The LRM gives insights into the process but not in form of a visual process model like the Petri nets or the dependency graph. However, these process models can be obtained using the clustered PIs from the LRM using some mining algorithm available in ProM [4] [5]. Our purpose behind the proposal and implementation of the LRM was not to replace the HM but was to obtain behavioural insights into the underlying process. This behaviour is not explicitly presented in a dependency graph. Moreover, it should be noted that the LRM is able to deal with noise if noise refers to the errors done in recording the activities in their proper execution order [6]. As the association rules only represent the associations between the activities purely based on their execution, therefore if any log does not have the ?timestamp‘ information, the association rules would still be consistent. This was observed in the Jayabala dyeing units dyeing process because in this implementation the ?timestamp‘ information of the activities is missing and only the date is recorded [7]. If such logs are given to the HM and the DWS algorithms, they may not be able to generate correct models as the dependency graph will still depict the erroneous dependencies, and also the discriminant rules [8] will portray wrong results. Though the LRM seems to be a good approach for mining flexible processes, it can be improved to provide better results. The next section illustrates the experiment with an example of dyeing process.
Comparison between DWS and LRM algorithms: A Case Study
To demonstrate the implementation of DWS algorithm in the domain of dyeing process, the three shades dyeing process is taken from Emerald dyeing unit. The three shades dyeing process has 683 PIs, 70 different ATEs and 12,294 total number of ATEs. The cluster log is derived from the DWS process mining algorithm is shown in the figure 1. Then the exported cluster log is given as input to HM algorithm to produce the simplified process model. It is identified that the whole log is very complex to understand than the clustering log. To compare the association rule mining algorithm LRM, the same event log is taken for the study. The Weka library produces the association rules for the given parameter settings as a input. Hence, the LinkRuleMiner (LRM) algorithm produces the same 10 association rules as shown in Figure 2. The LRM algorithm has the effective results with the performance of less memory overhead and high speed. These LRM association rules would help us in obtaining simpler and understandable process models that give meaningful insights into the underlying process. For this experiment the same log as used for DWS is used. As it is know that it has 683 process Instances (PIs), 70 different Event logs and 12,294 total numbers of ATEs are used to illustrate the LinkRuleMiner algorithm. The minimum support for the upper bound is set to 0.7 and the confidence is set to 0.9 to illustrate this algorithm. Hence, the Figure 2 gives the process model generated by this algorithm. The LinkRuleMiner algorithm modifies link structure and processing order of HMine algorithm. It has successfully removed link adjustment from H-Mine without any loss in performance and thus makes it possible to do parallelization on the algorithm efficiently. Therefore, the LinkRuleMiner algorithm that has no link adjustment made it possible to build parallel algorithm that requires no data exchange or any communications between each node in the middle of mining process. This allows us to build ideal parallel algorithm in shared disk environment and further to design parallel algorithm that exchanges data and communicates between each node in an efficient way in shared nothing environment.
The figure 2 has 10 different association rules, which has different confidence values, from these rules, the high confidence rule has major association between activities and the minimum confidence rule has the minor association between activities. Also, these rules identify the relationship between the processes of dyeing. The one or more activities are combined in some rules, because more than one rule can participate in the same treatments. Hence, the dependency is identified very easily even for high number of event logs. But in the case of process mining algorithms HM and DWS it is not possible to identify the association between activities, but the DWS algorithm produce the discriminant rule, which has the relationship between activities, but this does not give the confidence measures. Therefore, from this we conclude that the association rules were very easy to understand and very helpful to identify the importance of activities and also the sequence of operations with the help of support and confidence features available in this algorithm. Hence, the dyers can easily identify the interrelationship between treatments, dependant, independent treatments and worker workload. Before concluding the comparative study the following experiment also conducted for Jayabala dyeing unit. This event has hundred shades. The hundred shades dyeing process of Jayabala dyeing unit computes the association rules in 0.124 seconds. This has the 10 different rules and each represents the different confidence, lift values. It is shown in the figure 3 and 4.
Figure 4. Association rule mining Process model using LRM algorithm of hundred shades dyeing process for Jayabala dyeing unit of Whole log with 600 PIs, 262 different ATEs and total number of ATEs of 10,200 with execution time
LIMITATIONS OF THE LINKRULEMINER ALGORITHM
The association rule mining algorithm LRM has limitations with respect to frequent pattern by comparing with other algorithms available in traditional data mining. These limitations are stated below.
Every association rule algorithm first generates frequent itemsets and then derives association rules from these frequent itemsets. Computational requirements for frequent itemset generation are generally more expensive than those of rule generation. When the value of the support thresholds is lowered it results in more itemsets declared as frequent. This increases the computational complexity of the algorithm because candidate itemsets must be generated and counted. The maximum size of frequent itemsets also increases with lowering the support threshold values. With this increase, the algorithm has to make more passes over the dataset. The total number of iterations required by the algorithm is kmax +1, where kmax is the maximum size of the frequent itemsets. Therefore, when lower support values are given to the algorithm to generate rules involving low frequent activities, the computational complexity also increases, thereby degrading the performance of the LRM in terms of computation time.
When more itemsets (activities or group of activities) are declared as frequent itemsets more space is needed to store the support count of these items. This increase in the number of events increases the computation and I/O costs as larger number of candidate itemsets will be generated by the algorithm.
The Apriori algorithm makes repeated passes over the data set therefore its run time increases with the size of the dataset. If the number of PIs in the event log is large the runtime for the algorithm also increases. For the LRM algorithm also the computation time increases linearly with an increase in the number of PIs.
Also if the width of PIs is large i.e. the number of ATEs contained in a PI is large then the number of hash tree traversals performed during the support counting is also increased. This also consumes a lot to time.
The association rule algorithms do not deal with length-one-loops. For example, if an event log contains traces of the type ?…aa…? it does not generate a rule showing that the task 'a' is in loop with itself. So, this information is missing in the LRM. But it is capable of dealing with loops involving more than 1 task i.e. length two or three loops.
The confidence measure ignores the support of the itemset in the rule consequent. Due to this some high confidence rules can sometimes be misleading [9]. A better metric like the lift can be used to indicate interesting rules. Lift is a metric that also considers the support count of an association rule.
Practically, by varying the values of the confidence and support parameters in the Apriori algorithm hundreds of association rules can be generated. But many of these rules are redundant and do not provide any new information. So, the search of interesting and non-redundant association rules is a very popular research topic.
In the LRM, it is identified that the user can use the original Apriori algorithm but it is also identified that the user can apply the concept of interesting rules to retain only the non redundant rules. That means that the user can still take the output of the Apriori and then apply our filters. This consumes extra memory and time as many frequent itemsets are computed without any use as the rules that may be generated from them are eventually discarded because they may be redundant rules. It means a new concept for the association rule algorithm should be proposed that generates only the nonredundant rules and the frequent itemsets are generated accordingly.
The frequent itemset generation in the FPGrowth algorithm is also computationally expensive. The latter minimizes the number of database passes by representing the transactional dataset in vertical layout (storing the list of transaction identifiers) rather than the horizontal layout storing the transactions themselves.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, it is presented with the experiments of the Emerald and Jayabala dyeing unit‘s dyeing process using the LRM algorithm. Hence, it is analyzed the association rules and understood the strengths of these rules indicated by confidence and predictive accuracy metric. It was established that association rules and frequent itemsets represent behavioral and frequent patterns in event logs which are not explicitly communicated by a process model (like Petri net, dependency graph etc.) mined using some mining algorithm. These frequent patterns can be further used as a criterion for the event log into clusters that satisfy a particular behavioural pattern and the ones that do not satisfy this pattern. These clustered process instances can be supplied as input to some mining algorithms to gain specific process models exhibiting homogeneity of cases. Hence, this paper discussed about the process mining algorithms HM and DWS were investigated against the association rule mining algorithms. In spite of the limitations of the association rule algorithms implemented in the LRM, the LRM can be used for mining complex and less-structured processes from domains like the dyeing to determine homogeneous care flow paths.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2079http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20791. A.J.M.M. Weijters, W.M.P. van der Aalst, and A. K. Alves de Medeiros. Process Mining with the HeuristicsMiner Algorithm. BETA Working Paper Series, WP166, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, 2006.
2. A.J.M.M. Weijters and W.M.P. van der Aalst. Workflow Mining: Discovering Workflow Models from Event-Based Data. In C. Dousson, F. H¨oppner, and R. Quiniou, editors, Proceedings of the ECAI Workshop on Knowledge Discovery and Spatial Data, pages 78–84, 2002.
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5. Prom Framework: www.processmining.org
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7. J. Herbst. A Machine Learning Approach to Workflow Management. In Proceedings 11th European Conference on Machine Learning, volume 1810 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 183–194, 2000.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesPINEAPPLE PROTEINASES: AN EFFECTIVE OAK TASAR COCOON COOKING AGENT
English9092Y. Ranjana DeviEnglish L. Rupachandra SinghEnglish S. Kunjeshwori DeviEnglishTasar silk production is one of the major agro based industries playing an important role in the rural
economy of the NE states of India. The hard and compact oak tasar (Antheraea proylei J.) cocoons are
difficult to reel due to presence of high amounts of protein-tannin complexes. The chemical and
commercial enzymatic methods developed for reeling these cocoons has drawbacks like low reeling
performance, low fibre strength, high costs, low fuel efficiency and prolonged cooking time. In the
present investigation, an alternative enzymatic method using pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. cv.
Queen) extract which is abundantly grown in the NE
C for one hour and
subsequent single silk filament reeling on an epprouvette machine and tensile testing on instron tensile
strength tester. Results indicated good reeling performances with fibre strength of 2.03 0.07 g/D.
Scanning electron microscopic studies showed that the silk filaments were sufficiently free from the silk
gum sericin and no surface damage characterized by rupture/fibrillation of filament was seen due to
excessive removal of sericin. These results showed that pineapple extract which is rich in cysteine
endopeptidases can cleave the internal peptide bonds in an amino acid chain effecting partial
solubilisation of the proteinaceous silk gum (sericin) involved in binding the silk (fibroin) strands
together in silkworm cocoon.
EnglishProteolytic enzymes, Sericin, Fibroin, Single silk filament reeling.INTRODUCTION
The oak tasar (Antheraea proylei J.) silkworm, the larvae of which feed on leaves of oak tree Quercus species (Family-Fagaceae) found extensively in the sub-Himalayan belt of India, is an important source of tasar silk (Singh and Singh, 1998). Tasar silk production is one of the major agro based industries playing an important role in the rural economy of the NE states. Due to hard and compact nature of the oak tasar cocoons and presence of high amounts of protein-tannin complexes in the form of proanthocyanidins, these oak tasar silk cocoons cannot be satisfactorily softened by boiling in plain water unlike the mulberry (Bombyx mori L.) silk cocoons (Pandey,1990). Generally the cocoons are cooked in presence of strong alkali agent, other harsh chemicals or commercial enzymatic preparations, however these methods are limited due to low reeling performance, high costs, low fibre strength, low fuel efficiency, complicated procedure and prolonged cooking time. Taking into account the abundant availability of pineapples in north eastern states of India, an alternative method for the oak tasar cocoon cooking based on the proteolytically active pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. cv. Queen) extract was investigated for effective reeling performances.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The cocoons produced by the oak tasar silkworm Antheraea proylei J. fed on Quercus serrata (Thunb.) leaves, hot air stifled for 6-7 hrs at 70ºC, and then stored for 2-3 months were used in the present investigation. These cocoons were cooked using a standardised procedure involving crude pineapple extract preparation as described. Thirty oak tasar cocoons (ten replications of three cocoons each) were wrapped in a coarse cotton cloth and subjected to 45 minutes pressure cooking at 15 lbs/sq inch pressure. The cocoons were then soaked in the pineapple extract at 60 C temperature in an incubator for 1 hour. The pineapple extract was prepared by homogenising 150 g of the fruit pulp (prepared by first detaching the crown and stem parts of the mature and yellow fruit and then slicing off the skin part) with 1 litre of distilled water and the resulting homogenate was strained through a coarse cotton cloth. The supernatant having high proteinase activity (Singh et. al., 2003) was used for softening of the oak tasar cocoons. At the end of soaking, cocoons along with the wrapper were taken out from the cooking medium, and then washed repeatedly with tap water until the associated brown colour and proteinase activity were washed out. The cocoons were then removed from the wrapper, semi-dried on blotting papers, deflossed, and then subjected to single filament reeling on an epprouvette machine. The silk fibres were subjected to tensile and elongation tests at 64% humidity and 25 C using Instron Tensile Strength Tester 6021 and also subjected to scanning electron microscopic examination using Scanning Electron Microscopic Model Stereoscan 360 of Cambridge Instruments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The reeling parameters for determining the reeling performances was evaluated as indicated by FAO - Silk Reeling And Testing Manual (1999). The following results on the reeling parameters were recorded as Mean of 30 cocoons ± S.D viz. (i) Number of ends feeding per cocoon (Number of breaks encountered by a cocoon while reeling) = 3.5 ± 1.1 (ii) Filament length (Length of reeled silk filament per cocoon in meters) = 676.7 ± 159.7 m (iii) Recovery % [(Filament weight/cocoon shell weight) × 100] = 69.7 ± 6.9 % (iv) Non- breakable filament length [(Filament length in meters × reelability%) / 100] = 193.5 m (v) Reelability % ( Number of reeled cocoons / Number of ends feeding) = 28.6% (vi) Denier (D) [( Total weight of reeled silk (g)/ Total length of reeled silk (m) × 9000)] = 6.8 ± 1.1 D (vii) Tenacity (g/D) and Elongation (%) as averages of twenty repetitions taking outer, middle and inner reeled filaments of the cocoon in more or less equal proportions = 2.03 0.07 g/D and 30.97 7.14 % respectively. The observations of the reeling parameters shows that the silk filaments obtained by using the standardised pineapple extract method has good reeling performances with better fibre strength which is needed for weaving efficiency of the yarn. Moreover, results of the scanning electron microscopic examination given in the form of photomicrograph in Fig.1. shows that the silk filaments were sufficiently free from the silk gum sericin suitable for optimum yarn reeling. At the same time, no surface damage
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from the above observations that pineapple fruit pulp extract having proteolytic activity due to presence of cysteine proteinases, the most adundant among them being the fruit bromelain (EC 3.4.22.33) (Rowan and Buttle, 1994), have the potential to effect partial solubilization of the proteinaceous gum sericin involved in binding the silk strands (fibroin) together in cocoon, an essential process in the silk cocoon cooking and reeling. The pineapple proteinases find application in silk industry in general and tasar (non-mulberry) silk in particular as an effective cocoon cooking and reeling agent
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
Financial assistances from DBT, New Delhi, India in the form of project grant and DST, New Delhi, India in the form of FIST grant are gratefully acknowledged
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2080http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2080REFERENCES
1. Singh, K.C. and Singh, N.I. Biology and ecology of temperate tasar silkmoths, Antheraea proylei Jolly and Antheraea pernyi Guerin-Meneville (Saturniidae): a review. Ind J of Seri 1998 ; 37(2) : 89-100
2. Pandey, R.K. Why oak tasar cocoons are difficult to reel. Ind Silk 1990; 29(4) : 32-34
3. Singh, L.R., Devi, Y.R., Devi, S.K. Enzymological characterization of pineapple extract for potential application in oak tasar (Antheraea proylei J.) silk cocoon cooking and reeling. Electronic. J of Biotech 2003; 6(3) : 198-207
4. Lee, Y. W. Silk Reeling and Testing Manual, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin no.136, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 1999
5. Rowan, A. D. and Buttle, D. J., Pineapple cysteine endopeptidases, Methods in Enzymology (Barrett, A.J., Ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1994; 244 : 555-568.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareFORMULATION AND NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF VALUE ADDED IDLI PREPARED USING SELECTED
DRIED HERBS
English9398Ena GuptaEnglish Ritu P. DubeyEnglishToday, herbs are still the alternative medicine and primary source of health care for 80% of the world.
Information available on the nutritive value of herbs is negligible. Thus, an attempt was made to introduce
new types of value added edible medicinal herbs in food product, which will improve the well being of
the citizen in the country and preventing micronutrient malnutrition. A total of six dried herbs viz. mint,
basil, drumstick, ginger, garlic and lotus stem were selected and analyzed for proximate and mineral
contents by AOAC (1997) methods. These selected dried herbs were then incorporated into idli with one
control (T0) and four treatments T1, T2, T3 and T4 at different percent incorporation levels with herbs
using their standard ingredients and methods of preparation. Organoleptic properties of idlis were judged
by nine point hedonic scale. The nutritive value of the developed idlis was calculated by using the food
composition tables, Gopalan (2007), and the analyzed value of dried herbs was determined by calculation
method. Results showed that moisture, fat, protein, carbohydrate, energy and fiber contents (percent) of
the dried herbs ranged between 5.20 to 11.3g, 0.76 – 5.91g, 4.06g – 19.85g, 38.1 – 72.71, 205 – 346Kcal
and 9.86 – 40.91g, while calcium and iron content of selected herbs ranged between 80.0 –
2112.5mg/100g and 2.75 – 87.4mg/100g respectively. The highest overall acceptability was found in T3
(15 percent) in case of idli. Significant difference (P?0.05) in flavour and taste, body and texture and
colour and appearance between various treatment combinations was found. Remarkable increase was
observed in nutrients such as protein, fat, fiber, calcium and iron in the developed idlis compared to
control.
EnglishHerbs, Idli, Organolepic evaluation, Composition.NTRODUCTION
Herbs have been used since time immemorial for different purposes. Introduction of new types of value added edible herbs in food products might improve the well being of the citizen in the country1 . Now-a-days, plant foods are gaining importance as a means to increase the per capita availability of foods2 . Herbs not only add flavor, variety, color and nutrition to foods but also help in cutting down on salt, fat and sugar. Many herbs both fresh and dried are rich source of micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidants and fiber content that may help protect against degenerative diseases3 and could make an important contribution to combating micronutrient malnutrition as well as providing food security4 . Fortunately India is found to be a rich repository of herbs and is well known for its richest and most diverse cultural traditions associated with the use of herbs. Fermentation is one of the oldest and most economical methods of producing and preserving foods highly acceptable to man. Fermented foods contribute to about one-third of the diet worldwide5 . Cereals are particularly important substrates for fermented foods in all parts of the world and are staples in the Indian subcontinent, in Asia, and in Africa. Idli is one such fermented food rich in carbohydrate, protein, vitamins and essential minerals which act as a balanced diet for all age group6 . Besides the microorganism, starch rice powder and black gram dhal, certain selected dried herbs can also be incorporated, consisting of lotus stem, garlic, ginger, mint, basil and drumstick leaves. These herbs are known to have antimicrobial, antifungal and antioxidant activity that probably inhibits contaminating organisms and stimulates the useful organisms in idli7 . Herbs play an important role in the life of indigenous people around the world but due to non- acquaintance of consumption form of herbs and non- acceptability of taste in their original form, it is not possible to continue the intake of these herbs for long duration. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to explore possibilities of using selected dried herbs to enrich the traditional idli along with a view to determine the organoleptic acceptability.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Selection of the herbs Dried herbs namely lotus stem, garlic, ginger, mint, basil and drumstick leaves were procured from the licensed and authorized shops of herbs. The above dried herbs were cleaned and shortened for chemical analysis. Chemical analysis of the dried herbs
Nutrients such as moisture, protein, fat, crude fiber, total ash, calcium and iron content of selected dried herbs were analyzed as per AOAC (1997) methods8 . Basic formulation of value added idli The selected dried herbs viz. mint (Mentha asiatica), basil (Ocimum basilicum), drumstick leaves (Moringa oligfera), ginger (Zingiber officinale), garlic (Allium longicuspis) and lotus stem (Nelumbo nucifera) were incorporated in idli with one control (T0) and four treatments T1, T2, T3 and T4 at 5, 10, 15 and 20 percent incorporation levels with herbs using standard ingredients and methods of preparation. The composition is given in the Table 1. The dried herbs were used in different ratios for the preparation of idli. Details of control and treatments Control (T0): Control T0 was prepared without incorporating herbs. (75 percent rice flour and 25 percent black gram flour). Treatment (T1): In this treatment 2 percent lotus stem powder, 1.5 percent basil leaves, 0.5 percent drumstick leaves and 1 percent ginger was incorporated in 70 percent rice flour and 25 percent black gram flour. Treatment (T2): In this treatment 7 percent lotus stem powder, 1.5 percent mint leaves, 0.5 percent drumstick leaves and 1 percent ginger was incorporated in 65 percent rice flour and 25 percent black gram flour. Treatment (T3): In this treatment 12 percent lotus stem powder, 1.5 percent garlic flour, 0.5 percent drumstick leaves and 1 percent ginger was incorporated in 60 percent rice flour and 25 percent black gram flour. Treatment (T4): In this treatment 17 percent lotus stem powder, 0.5 percent garlic flour, 0.5 percent drumstick leaves,0.5 percent mint leaves,0.5 percent basil leaves and 1 percent ginger was incorporated in 55 percent rice flour and 25 percent black gram flour. Preparation of value added idlis
The most popular is a steamed rice-bean food called "Idli". Rice, and a Chinese herb lotus stem was ground coarse and dehulled black gram to a fine paste, other herbs namely garlic, ginger, mint, basil, drumstick leaves and salt was added in a specified ratios. The paste was incubated overnight in warm place (30-32oC), until it has expanded to about 2½ times its original volume after that it was poured in an idli steamer and steamed till it was done. The specialty of black gram in idli preparation owing to the mucilaginous material present in it which is absent in other edible legumes. The mucilaginous principle helps in the retention of carbon dioxide evolved during fermentation. Organoleptic evaluation The developed idlis were served to group of 30 semi trained panelists for the evaluation of colour, texture, flavour, taste and overall acceptability on a nine point hedonic scale with a scores ranging from 9 to1 where scores 9 to 1 represented like extremely and dislike extremely respectively. The quality parameters were quantified and the mean scores of the three evaluations were calculated. Nutritive value of developed idlis The proximate principles (energy, fat, carbohydrate, protein, fiber) and minerals like calcium and iron of the control and enriched products were assessed using the food composition tables9 , and analyzed value of herbs was determined by calculation method. Statistical analysis The data collected was tabulated and analyzed statistically with the help of approved statistical techniques. Percentage, mean scores, standard error of mean, critical difference and analysis of variance were applied.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained from the present investigation have been discussed in the following sub heads:
Nutritional composition of the selected dried herbs Table 2 depicts nutritional composition of the six selected dried herbs namely mint (Mentha asiatica), basil (Ocimum basilicum), drumstick leaves (Moringa oligfera), ginger (Zingiber officinale), garlic (Allium longicuspis) and lotus stem (Nelumbo nucifera). Results showed that moisture, fat, protein, carbohydrate, energy and fiber contents (percent) of the dried herbs ranged between 5.20 to 11.3g, 0.76 – 5.91g, 4.06g – 19.85g, 38.1 – 72.71, 205 – 346Kcal and 9.86 – 40.91g, while calcium and iron content of selected herbs ranged between 80.0 – 2112.5mg/100g and 2.75 – 87.4mg/100g respectively. Organoleptic evaluation of value added idlis Table 3 shows the organoleptic scores of product idli prepared by utilizing dried herbs. The treatment T3 (15 percent incorporation) of the product was found to be highly acceptable with scores 8.50, 8.50, 8.25, 8.40 and 8.48 for colour, texture, flavour, taste and overall acceptability respectively. The other levels of incorporation were also liked at various degrees although a little less than T3. Analysis of variance reveals that the calculated value of F is greater than the table value on 4,12 (d.f.) at 5% probability level. Therefore it was conclude that there was significant difference between treatments regarding the overall acceptability of the product. Nutritive value of value added idlis Table 5 present information regarding the mean nutrient composition of dried herbs incorporated products (per 100g). Results showed that the fat content of the developed idlis was in range of 0.72 to 0.96 g/100g. The fat was highest in treatment T4 (0.96g/100g). The protein content was highest in treatment T1 (11.27 g/100g). Carbohydrate content of the developed idlis was found to be in the range of 68.47 to 73.55 g/100g. The maximum value 73.55 g/100g were observed in treatment T0 (control). This may be due to 75 percent of rice flour and 25 percent of black gram flour present in idlis. Energy value ranged between 325 to 346 Kcal/100g. The maximum energy value 346 Kcal/100g was observed in treatment T0 (control) which had energy rich ingredient like rice flour. Fiber content of idlis varied from 0.37 to 5.20 g/100g. The highest value 5.20 g/100g was observed in treatment T4. The control recipes in general had low fiber content whereas after the incorporation of dried herbs, the values increased considerably. Thus, these developed idlis can be recommended to persons requiring high fiber diets. The calcium content of the developed idlis ranged from 46.0 to 142.42 mg/100g. Treatment T4 had higher calcium content (142.42 mg/100g) among other treatments. The range of iron content in developed idlis was 1.47 to 12.54 mg/100g. The increase in iron values can be said to be proportionate to the quantities of dried herbs added to the main ingredient.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from the results that the incorporation of selected dried herbs (viz. mint, basil, drumstick leaves, ginger, garlic and lotus stem) in idlis can improve the nutritional quality of products as well as add variety in the diet. The dried herbs used in development of idli act as antimicrobial agent, which worked as a natural preservative to keep food safe and to increase the shelf life of the product. Complete or partial replacing of rice with dried herbs had good impact on the nutritive value by increasing the protein, fat, fibre, calcium and iron content in the developed idlis. Thus developed herbal idli is found to be acceptable in both sensory and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I owe a never ending debt of gratitude to my adored and worshipful God for his grace in the completion of the study. I grateful acknowledge to Dr. Ritu Dubey for her great support during my research work.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2081http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2081REFERENCES
1. Lai PK, Roy J. (2004). "Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices". Curr. Med. Chem. 11 (11): 1451– 60. PMID 15180577.
2. Sheela KN, Kamal G, Vijayalakshmi D, Yankanchi GM, Roopa BP. (2004). Proximate Composition of Underutilized Green Leafy Vegetables in Southern Karnataka. J. Hum. Ecol., 15(3) : 227-229.
3. Fisher C. (1992). Phenolic Compounds in Food and Their Effects on Health I, Chapter 9, A.C.S Symp. Ser. 506.
4. Flyman MV, Afolayan AJ. (2006). The suitability of wild vegetables for alleviating human dietary deficiencies. Assoc. Food Scientists & Technol., 24 : 56-62.
5. Campbell-Platt G. (1994). "Fermented foods- a world perspective." Food Research International 27: 253.
6. Srilakshmi B. (2003). Food Science, Third Edition, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, P: 17-72.
7. Zaika LL, Kissenger JC. (1981). The inhibitory effect of spices on microorganisms. J. Food Sci. 46 : 1205.
8. A.O.A.C. (1997). Official method of analysis of the association of analytical chemists, 16th Ed. Washington D.C.
9. Gopalan C, Shastri BVP, Balasubramanium SC. (2004). Nutritive value of Indian foods, 1 st edition, NIN (ICMR), Hyderabad, pp.48- 61
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcarePROFILE OF FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY OF HEAD AND NECK LESIONS IN A TERTIARY
HOSPITAL
English99105Lakshmibai B MallappaEnglish Ramya B SEnglish B LathaEnglish D C PrabhuEnglishBackground and objective :- Fine Needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) is a simple, minimally invasive
screening test and is an essential component of pre-treatment investigation, on which clinical
management is based. Although surgical excision of palpable lesions in head and neck lesions is relatively
simple, vicinity to other anatomical structures in this region sometimes causes problems. Hence FNAC is
a useful diagnostic technique in the management of head and neck lesion. This study is done to evaluate
the role of FNAC in palpable head and neck masses and also to study their distribution.
Materials and methods :- Study includes 437 patients presenting with palpable head and neck lesions
subjected to FNAC at the Department of Pathology, Victoria hospital BMCRIand RI, Bangalore
fromJanuary2011to March2011. The age ranged between1-95 yrs with Male to Female ratio of 1:1.57.
Out of these 199 cases (45.5%) were from cervical lymph nodes, 141(32.5%) from thyroid, 28
cases(6.4%) from salivary glands. Granulomatous Lymphadenitis was the commonest diagnosis followed
by nodular goitre of thyroid, Hashimotos thyroiditis, reactive hyperplasia, metastatic lymph nodes.Out of
these 43 cases (9.83%) malignant and 394 cases (90.16%) benign. FNAC was inconclusive in7.8% of
cases.
Conclusion:- The current study evalutes the role of FNAC as a diagnostic tool in the investigation of
head and neck lesions. Tuberculous Lymphadenitis still remains the most common lesion in the head and
neck region.
EnglishFine-Needle Aspiration Cytology, Lymph-Nodes, Thyroid, Salivary Glands.INTRODUCTION
FNACis a rapid, convenient and accurate method of tissue diagnosis that can be done on an out-patient basis. FNAC offers a simple method of diagnosis of neoplastic and non – neoplastic lesions of the head and neck. The procedure is safe and free from complications and is well tolerated by the patients. There is no evidence that the tumor spreads through the skin tract created by the fine hypodermic needle used in this technique.1 The high degree of diagnostic accuracy, low costs and minimally disruptive nature of the procedure makes FNAC a highly desirable alternative to open biopsy.2 FNAC does not give the same architectural detail as histology but it can provide cells from the entire lesion as many passes through the lesion can be made while aspirating. All head and neck lesions must undergo FNAC and culture if necessary.3The tissues which are most frequently sampled are lymph-nodes, thyroid and major salivary glands.4
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A prospective study of 3 months duration, between January2011 to March 2011 was conducted in the Department of Pathology, Victoria Hospital, Bangalore. A total of 698 cases of FNAC were done out of which 437 cases were of head and neck region. Prior to FNAC, the patients were examined in detail, which included the recording of their pertinent clinical history and significant clinical findings. Relevant investigations were carried out as per requirements. FNAC was done using 22G needle fitted to a 10ml disposable syringe. Multiple needle passes, continuous aspiratory pressure and release of pressure before withdrawal from lesions was followed during aspiration. Smears were air-dried and stained by Giemsa Stain. The rest of the slides were fixed in methanol and stained by Hand E procedure. The Zeihl Neelsen‘ stain for AFB was done in those cases with Lymph-node swellings where the clinical suspicions or diagnosis was tuberculosis and/ or in those cases where purulent or cheesy material was aspirated. A cell-block preparation was also done where the aspirated material was adequate. Ultra-sound Guided FNACs were very few .
RESULTS
In this prospective study of 437 cases, adequacy of material was achieved is 92.2%.The age ranged between 1-95 yrs. The lesions were most commonly seen in the age group of 21- 30yrs.The number of male patients were 170(39%) and female patients were 267(61%). The male to female ratio was 1:1.57(Figure 1). Lymph-nodes constituted the most common organ with 199 cases(45.5%),followed by Thyroid 141cases(32.5%),Salivary Glands-28 cases(6.4%) and others 69 cases(15.9%).Among these cases 43 cases(9.83%) were malignant and 394 cases(90.16%) were benign(Figure 2). In the lymph node granulomatous lymphadenitis was the most common lesion accounting for 95(47.7%) cases followed by reactive lymphadenitis in 46 cases and metastatic lymph node deposits in 30 cases (Table 1). A total of 141 cases of thyroid FNAC were done among which nodular goitre was the most common diagnosis(41.9%) followed by Hashimotos thyroiditis (Table 2). In the salivary gland chronic sialadenitis was the commonest with 8 cases followed by pleomorphic adenoma in 7 cases. The other common lesions encountered during FNAC of head and neck region includes mainly epidermal inclusion cysts 20 cases, lipoma 21 cases, suppurative lesions 16 cases, benign cystic lesions 6 cases and single cases of proliferative squamous lesion lip, Squamous Cell Carcinoma of Jaw, Carotid body tumour, Metastatic deposits in the Eye, Malignant adnexal tumour over forehead and Benign vascular lesion (Table 4).
DISCUSSION
Diagnostic cytology when performed by well trained experienced individual offers high degree of reliability and feasibility, therefore FNAC has gained universal acceptance as in most instances it is inexpensive, safe, quick and accurate.2 Head and Neck masses often pose a challenging diagnostic problem to the clinician.4 The goal of FNAC in the head and neck area as in other anatomical sites is to provide clinically useful information which exceeds that obtained by palpation or imaging alone. The false negatives and false positives were pointers towards problems and pitfalls in cytological interpretation.6 This prospective study was evaluated and the results were compared with other reports.
S.Soni etal1 Studied 59 cases and found 47.45% were of neck nodes, 23.72% were of thyroid, 22.03% were of salivary glands and 6.77% were of other lesions. Farzana Shahid et al2 have studied 518 FNAC from head and neck lesions, out of which 473 were benign and 45 cases were malignant. Maximum number of cases were from Lymphnodes (356), followed by Thyroid (124) and Salivary gland (38). The above 2 studies are almost similar to our analysis. In our study 43(9.83%) cases were malignant and 394 cases (90.16%) were benign. The frequency of the various lesions in the different organs were as follows Lymph-Nodes - 199cases(45.5%), Thyroid-141cases(32.5%), Salivary Gland-28 cases(6.4%) and others 69 cases(15.9%). Fernandes H et al4 found that the most common site aspirated was Thyroid Gland (71.3%) followed by Lymph-Nodes(22.48%),Salivary gland (3.87%) and soft tissue lesions(2.32%). Naila Tariq et al6 analysed 122 FNACs of Head and Neck lesions, among which 65 cases were from thyroid,53 cases from lymph-nodes and 4 cases from salivary gland. In our study of lymph-nodes, the spectrum of lesions include granulomatous Lymphadenitis constituting (48%), followed by reactive lymphadenitis which is 23.2%. Metastatic Deposits about 15.1%.Primary malignancies such as Hodgkin‘sLymphoma and NonHodgkin‘s Lymphoma constituted about 2.5%.About 2% of cases were suspicious of malignancy. About 19cases(9.6%) were inconclusive for interpretations. The study conducted by Farzana Shahid etal2 ,showed almost similar results with Granulomatous Inflammations being most common lesion constituting which 238cases(66.9%) followed by reactive hyperplasia 54 cases(15.2%) and that of primary malignancy were2.8%. Another study conducted by Tariq Ahmed et al3 on 50 patients found Tuberculous Lymphadenitis to be the commonest(36%), followed by reactive Lymphadenitis(18%).Other malignant lesions constituted(14%). About 8% of cases were inconclusive. In our study of Paediatric lymph-node FNAC, the ratio of Tubercular Lymphadenitis to that of Reactive Lymphadenitis is almost1:2. This ratio indicates that lymphoid hyperplasias are more common in this age group.This analysis has also been done by Amy Rapkiewicz et al5 where in they had 36 cases of reactive lymphoid hyperplasia to 3 cases of Tubercular Lymphadenitis. Fernandes H et al4 found reactive Lymphadenopathy was the commonest cause of lymphadenopathy followed by Tuberculosis and Granulomatous, Metastatic Lymphadenopathy. The study conducted by Muhammad Javaid et al7 showed that malignant Lymphadenopathy constitutes a significant portion of findings in aspirates of enlarged lymph nodes(57.15%).The benign lymphadenopathy only constitutes 42.85% of which tuberculous lymphadenitis was the commonest finding(26.19%) followed by reactive hyperplasia(16.66%). The diagnostic accuracy of material in our study was 92.2%.This valve is similar to that of Andleeb Abrari et al8 , where it is 93.3%. With regards to thyroid lesions our study showed that Nodular Goitre(41.9%) was the commonest followed by Inflammatory lesions such as Hashimotos‘s Thyroiditis- 37.6%,Hyperplastic Thyroid-2.8%, Lymphocytic Thyroiditis 1.4%.The neoplastic lesions constituted about 6.4%.3 cases of normal thyroid and in 10 cases(7%) the aspirates were inconclusive. The above figures are similar to that of Farzana Shahid et al2 where in their commonest lesion was Benign Nodular Goitre(52.4%);Inflammatory lesions(7.4%) and Neoplastic were 3.2%.Another study conducted by Fernandes H et al4 found that Thyroid Gland(71.31%) was the commonest site aspirated in the head and neck region.Even in their study the commonest lesion encountered in the Thyroid Gland was Nodular Goitre, followed by Hashimotos Thyroiditis and Papillary Carcinoma was the commonest malignant lesion.1 case of Thyroglossal Cyst was diagnosed. Even in our study there was 1 case of Thyroglossal Cyst. The study conducted by Naila Tariq et al6 Showed 37 cases of Multinodular Goitre(56.9%);followed by inflammatory and neoplastic lesions. A study conducted in a tertiary health care centre by G.G. Swamy et al10 also revealed that the most common organ aspirated was the Thyroid Gland(60%) with 52% Nodular Goitre followed by 16% of follicular neoplasm;12% as papillary carcinoma and 4% cases as suspicious of malignancy Finally with regards to salivary glands in our study there were 28 cases(6.4%).The commonest lesion being inflammatory-Chronic Sialadenitis- 8cases(28.6%), 9cases(32.2%) benign neoplasms and 3 cases of (10.7%) mucoepidermoid carcinoma and 8 cases were inconclusive(28.6%). A study by G.G Swamy et al9 showed out of 20 cases-8cases(40%) were benign neoplasms,3 cases(15%) were malignant neoplasms, 1 case(5%) was non-neoplastic and 8cases(40%) were inflammatory lesions. Another study by El Hag et al10 also showed that inflammatory lesions such as sialadenitis was most commonest with 12cases(57%) followed by benign lesions 8 cases(38%) and mucoepidermoid carcinoma 1 case(5%). The remaining other lesions were Epidermal Inclusion Cyst 20 cases(4.6%), suppurative lesions 16 cases(3.7%), Lipoma 21 cases(4.8%) ,Cystic Lesion 6 cases(1.4%),proliferative squamous lesion lip -1 case, squamous cellcarcinoma –jaw -1 case, carotid body tumour -1 case, metastatic deposits eye-1case ,malignant adnexal tumour –fore head -1 case and benign vascular lesion 1 case. The high rate of inconclusive samples can be explained by some factors that have been described previously in the literature. These are as follows
- Inexperience in the collection of cells
- difficulty in interpreting the smears
. - poor or inadequate smears for interpretation
. - artifacts, such as necrosis and high content of blood in some samples.11
On comparing the results of the present series with other workers, it can be said that the results of this study are favourable with those published in literature and are fairly accurate.
CONCLUSION
FNAC is a simple and rapid procedure which can be carried out as an out-patient procedure with minimal problems. Owing to its accurate diagnostic potential it is proved useful in separating inflammatory, benign and malignant lesions with good certainty. Morever, the procedure is simple and cost-effective. Hence, FNAC is recommended as the first-line investigation in diagnosing head and neck lesions. In a developing country like India even today Tuberculosis Lymphadenitis remains the most common lesion,
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2082http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20821. S,Soni, S.KPippal,YashveerB,P Srivastava: Efficacy of Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology inDiagnosis of Neck Masses. www.waent.org/archeives/2010/Vol3-2; pg1-5
2. Farzana Shahid, Talat Mirza,Shahid Mustafa,,Saima Sabahat andShaheen Sharafat;An Experimental Status of Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology of Head and Neck Lesions in aTertiary Care Scenario.- International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 103 Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences vol.6,No2,159-162,2010.
3. Tariq Ahmad, Mohammad Naeem, Siddique Ahmad, Ambreen Samad, Amir Nasir-Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology(FNAC) and swellings in the surgical out-patient.-J .Ayub Med ical College Abbottabad 2008;20(3):30-32.
4. Fernandes H, D‘Souza C.R.S., Thejaswini B .N-Role of Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology in palpable Head and Neck Masses. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research.2009; Oct(3):1719-1725.
5. Amy Rapkiewicz et al-Spectrum of Head and Neck Lesions Diagnosed by Fine – Needle Aspiration. Cytoiogy inthe Pediatric Population. Cancer CytoPathology 2007;111:242- 51@2007American Cancer Society.
6. Naila Tariq,Saleem Sadiq,Shahnaz Kehar,Muhammad Shafiq. Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology of Head and Neck Lesions-An Experience at the Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Centre,Karachi. Pakistan Journal of Otolaryngology 2007;23:63-65
7. Muhammad Javaid, Niamatullah, Khurshid Anwar, Muhammad Said-Diagnostic valve of Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC) in Cervical LymphadenopathyJPMI 2006 Vol.20No.2:117-120
8. Andleed Abrari,S .Shamshad Ahmad, Vandana Bakshi.-Cytology in the otorhinolaryngologist‘s domain-A study of 150 cases,emphasizing diagnostic utility and pitfalls-Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery Vol.54No.2,April-June2002
9. G.G. Swamy,A.Singh,J.M Ahuja, N.Satyanarayana.-Accuracy of fine needle aspiration cytology in the diagnosis of palpable head and neck masses in a tertiary health care center.-Journal of College of Medical Sciences-Nepal,,2010.Vol-6,No- 4,19-25.
10. Imad Abdien El Hag et al-Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology of Head and Neck Masses-Seven years Experience in a Secondary Care Hospital-Acta Cytologica 2003;47:387-392.
11. Ana Paula Candido dos Santos et al-Fine Needle aspiration biopsy in the oral cavity and head and neck regionBrazOralRes.2011Marc-April;25(2):186- 91.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareCOMPARISON EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUPCOGNITIVE TRAINING AND LOGO THERAPY IN
DEPRESSED ELDERLY MEN IN RASHT
English106113Shahnam AbolghasemiEnglish Sorourosadat MousaviEnglish Mohammad Mojtaba KeikhayfarzanehEnglishThe main goal of the present research was to compare effectiveness of group-cognitive training and logo
therapy in depressed elderly men in Rasht. In this experimental study participants were all of elderly
men who has been cared in private nursing homes in Rasht in 2009-2010.The research design was in the
form of pretest –post test and control group and research instrument was depression inventory . All of
participants completed depression inventory .45 of who were high scorers in inventory were selected and
randomly were divided to three groups. The first and second group as experimental group and the third as
control group .The experimental groups had 10 seventy four hours weekly sessions of cognitive and
logo therapy .Again all of the participants completed depression inventory .Treatment data was analyzed
by using ANOVAs covariance analysis . Finding in three groups showed a decrease in depression by
using group_ cognitive method and logo therapy but in comparison the effectiveness of group cognitive
therapy was more than logo therapy.
EnglishDepression, Elderly men, Cognitive Therapy, Logo TherapyINTRODUCTION
The limitations of the process mining algorithms such as Heuristic Miner (HM) and the Disjunctive Workflow Schema (DWS) were seen as the need to search for a process model representation that overcomes these limitations. Below it was stated that these limitations and comparison with the association rule mining algorithm LinkRuleMiner (LRM) with the results of HM and DWS mining algorithms. The HM is one of the most robust algorithms available till date for logs containing noise and imbalance. Weijters et al. [1] conducted experiments with the HM on the benchmark artificial material. The result of these experiments emphasized the robustness of the algorithm in situations of noise and imbalance present in the log in various degrees. However the experiments were conducted on artificial material and using the default parameter settings of the algorithm When the algorithm was applied to two dyeing process implementations i.e. Emerald and Jayabala dyeing units, It is identified that the results of the HM are not what the dyers or experts were expecting, hence the alternative process model for the dyeing process need to be identified. Therefore, the association rule mining algorithms were used as a new approach to implement the dyeing industries, dyeing processing system with various association mining algorithms such as Apriori, FPGrowth, HMine and LinkRuleMiner were discussed. The limitation of HM, DWS vs. LRM The purpose of the HM process mining algorithm is to discover the process model underlying the investigated process. Hence, it is performed with many experiments with different parameter settings but the algorithm failed to provide a clear and understandable process model [2]. The process models obtained were complex and full of problems like missing activities (activities registered in the event log but not captured in the process model), missing dependencies and dangling activities. When the dyeing logs were mined without using the all-activities connected heuristic the process model obtained for some logs were better in terms of simplicity. But these models were full of disconnected and dangling activities, and therefore these models do not exhibit those connections that were shown by the models generated using the all-activities connected heuristic parameter. So, it could not be concluded whether not using the all-activities connected heuristic is a good choice. [3]. comparison of HM, DWS process mining algorithms with linkruleminer association rule mining algorithm The LRM however can be compared to the results of the HM as they both generate different process models. The HM generates a dependency graph and the LRM generates association rules. The limitations of the HM therefore are not dealt with in the LRM. The LRM just provides an alternate process model representation different from the one based on the pure control flow. The LRM gives insights into the process but not in form of a visual process model like the Petri nets or the dependency graph. However, these process models can be obtained using the clustered PIs from the LRM using some mining algorithm available in ProM [4] [5]. Our purpose behind the proposal and implementation of the LRM was not to replace the HM but was to obtain behavioural insights into the underlying process. This behaviour is not explicitly presented in a dependency graph. Moreover, it should be noted that the LRM is able to deal with noise if noise refers to the errors done in recording the activities in their proper execution order [6]. As the association rules only represent the associations between the activities purely based on their execution, therefore if any log does not have the ?timestamp‘ information, the association rules would still be consistent. This was observed in the Jayabala dyeing units dyeing process because in this implementation the ?timestamp‘ information of the activities is missing and only the date is recorded [7]. If such logs are given to the HM and the DWS algorithms, they may not be able to generate correct models as the dependency graph will still depict the erroneous dependencies, and also the discriminant rules [8] will portray wrong results. Though the LRM seems to be a good approach for mining flexible processes, it can be improved to provide better results. The next section illustrates the experiment with an example of dyeing process. Comparison between DWS and LRM algorithms: A Case Study To demonstrate the implementation of DWS algorithm in the domain of dyeing process, the three shades dyeing process is taken from Emerald dyeing unit. The three shades dyeing process has 683 PIs, 70 different ATEs and 12,294 total number of ATEs. The cluster log is derived from the DWS process mining algorithm is shown in the figure 1. Then the exported cluster log is given as input to HM algorithm to produce the simplified process model. It is identified that the whole log is very complex to understand than the clustering log. To compare the association rule mining algorithm LRM, the same event log is taken for the study. The Weka library produces the association rules for the given parameter settings as a input. Hence, the LinkRuleMiner (LRM) algorithm produces the same 10 association rules as shown in Figure 2. The LRM algorithm has the effective results with the performance of less memory overhead and high speed. These LRM association rules would help us in obtaining simpler and understandable process models that give meaningful insights into the underlying process. For this experiment the same log as used for DWS is used. As it is know that it has 683 process Instances (PIs), 70 different Event logs and 12,294 total numbers of ATEs are used to illustrate the LinkRuleMiner algorithm. The minimum support for the upper bound is set to 0.7 and the confidence is set to 0.9 to illustrate this algorithm. Hence, the Figure 2 gives the process model generated by this algorithm. The LinkRuleMiner algorithm modifies link structure and processing order of HMine algorithm. It has successfully removed link adjustment from H-Mine without any loss in performance and thus makes it possible to do parallelization on the algorithm efficiently. Therefore, the LinkRuleMiner algorithm that has no link adjustment made it possible to build parallel algorithm that requires no data exchange or any communications between each node in the middle of mining process. This allows us to build ideal parallel algorithm in shared disk environment and further to design parallel algorithm that exchanges data and communicates between each node in an efficient way in shared nothing environment. The figure 2 has 10 different association rules, which has different confidence values, from these rules, the high confidence rule has major association between activities and the minimum confidence rule has the minor association between activities. Also, these rules identify the relationship between the processes of dyeing. The one or more activities are combined in some rules, because more than one rule can participate in the same treatments. Hence, the dependency is identified very easily even for high number of event logs. But in the case of process mining algorithms HM and DWS it is not possible to identify the association between activities, but the DWS algorithm produce the discriminant rule, which has the relationship between activities, but this does not give the confidence measures. Therefore, from this we conclude that the association rules were very easy to understand and very helpful to identify the importance of activities and also the sequence of operations with the help of support and confidence features available in this algorithm. Hence, the dyers can easily identify the interrelationship between treatments, dependant, independent treatments and worker workload. Before concluding the comparative study the following experiment also conducted for Jayabala dyeing unit. This event has hundred shades. The hundred shades dyeing process of Jayabala dyeing unit computes the association rules in 0.124 seconds. This has the 10 different rules and each represents the different confidence, lift values. It is shown in the figure 3 and 4.
Figure 4. Association rule mining Process model using LRM algorithm of hundred shades dyeing process for Jayabala dyeing unit of Whole log with 600 PIs, 262 different ATEs and total number of ATEs of 10,200 with execution time
LIMITATIONS OF THE LINKRULEMINER ALGORITHM
The association rule mining algorithm LRM has limitations with respect to frequent pattern by comparing with other algorithms available in traditional data mining. These limitations are stated below.
Every association rule algorithm first generates frequent itemsets and then derives association rules from these frequent itemsets. Computational requirements for frequent itemset generation are generally more expensive than those of rule generation. When the value of the support thresholds is lowered it results in more itemsets declared as frequent. This increases the computational complexity of the algorithm because candidate itemsets must be generated and counted. The maximum size of frequent itemsets also increases with lowering the support threshold values. With this increase, the algorithm has to make more passes over the dataset. The total number of iterations required by the algorithm is kmax +1, where kmax is the maximum size of the frequent itemsets. Therefore, when lower support values are given to the algorithm to generate rules involving low frequent activities, the computational complexity also increases, thereby degrading the performance of the LRM in terms of computation time.
When more itemsets (activities or group of activities) are declared as frequent itemsets more space is needed to store the support count of these items. This increase in the number of events increases the computation and I/O costs as larger number of candidate itemsets will be generated by the algorithm.
The Apriori algorithm makes repeated passes over the data set therefore its run time increases with the size of the dataset. If the number of PIs in the event log is large the runtime for the algorithm also increases. For the LRM algorithm also the computation time increases linearly with an increase in the number of PIs.
Also if the width of PIs is large i.e. the number of ATEs contained in a PI is large then the number of hash tree traversals performed during the support counting is also increased. This also consumes a lot to time.
The association rule algorithms do not deal with length-one-loops. For example, if an event log contains traces of the type ?…aa…? it does not generate a rule showing that the task 'a' is in loop with itself. So, this information is missing in the LRM. But it is capable of dealing with loops involving more than 1 task i.e. length two or three loops.
The confidence measure ignores the support of the itemset in the rule consequent. Due to this some high confidence rules can sometimes be misleading [9]. A better metric like the lift can be used to indicate interesting rules. Lift is a metric that also considers the support count of an association rule.
Practically, by varying the values of the confidence and support parameters in the Apriori algorithm hundreds of association rules can be generated. But many of these rules are redundant and do not provide any new information. So, the search of interesting and non-redundant association rules is a very popular research topic.
In the LRM, it is identified that the user can use the original Apriori algorithm but it is also identified that the user can apply the concept of interesting rules to retain only the non redundant rules. That means that the user can still take the output of the Apriori and then apply our filters. This consumes extra memory and time as many frequent itemsets are computed without any use as the rules that may be generated from them are eventually discarded because they may be redundant rules. It means a new concept for the association rule algorithm should be proposed that generates only the nonredundant rules and the frequent itemsets are generated accordingly.
The frequent itemset generation in the FPGrowth algorithm is also computationally expensive. The latter minimizes the number of database passes by representing the transactional dataset in vertical layout (storing the list of transaction identifiers) rather than the horizontal layout storing the transactions themselves.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2083http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2083REFERENCES
1. A.J.M.M. Weijters, W.M.P. van der Aalst, and A. K. Alves de Medeiros. Process Mining with the HeuristicsMiner Algorithm. BETA Working Paper Series, WP166, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, 2006.
2. A.J.M.M. Weijters and W.M.P. van der Aalst. Workflow Mining: Discovering Workflow Models from Event-Based Data. In C. Dousson, F. H¨oppner, and R. Quiniou, editors, Proceedings of the ECAI Workshop on Knowledge Discovery and Spatial Data, pages 78–84, 2002.
3. R. Agrawal, D. Gunopulos, and F. Leymann. Mining Process Models from Workflow Logs. In Sixth International Conference on Extending Database Technology, pp. 469– 483, 1998.
4. J. Herbst and D. Karagiannis. An Inductive Approach to the Acquisition and Adaptation of Workflow Models. In M. Ibrahim and B. Drabble, editors, Proceedings of the IJCAI‘99 Workshop on Intelligent Workflow and Process Management: The New Frontier for AI in Business, pages 52– 57, Stockholm, Sweden, August 1999.
5. Prom Framework: www.processmining.org
6. Van der Aalst, W.M.P., Weijters, A.J.M.M., Maruster, L. Workflow Mining: Discovering Process Models from Event Logs, IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 16, pp: 1128-1142, 2004.
7. J. Herbst. A Machine Learning Approach to Workflow Management. In Proceedings 11th European Conference on Machine Learning, volume 1810 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 183–194, 2000.
8. Dumas. M, van der Aalst. W.M.P. Process Aware Information Systems: Bridging People and Software through Process Technology, John Wiley & Sonc: Hoboken, New Jersey, 2005.
9. P. Tan, M. Steinbach and V. Kumar. Introduction to Data Mining. Addison Wesley, 2006.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesAPPLICATION OF DENSITY FUNCTIONAL THEORY (DFT) IN ADVANCING RESEARCH IN QUEST FOR
ALTERNATIVE FUELS
English114120Rit NandaEnglishThere is an acute shortage of energy facing the world. The existing reserves of petroleum are depleting
and newer reserves are often in the deep sea or have high pressure and temperature conditions which
make their exploitation unviable. The challenge facing the scientific community is to find alternative fuels
to offset the demand to supply gap of conventional sources of energy like petroleum. Among various
techniques used, Density Functional Theory (DFT) is a technique that is promising in the quest for
alternative fuels. This paper discusses the various alternative fuels that have been studied using DFT and
tries to generalise the findings of this technique over a broad spectrum of possible alternative fuels. It also
suggests newer horizons that can be explored using this technique.
EnglishDFT, Alternative Fuels, Energy Sources, Chemical Research1. INTRODUCTION
Density Functional Theory (DFT), as the name suggests, uses functionals of electron density as a modelling method, where electron density as the basic variable. A functional is traditionally a map from a vector space to the field underlying the vector space, which is usually real or complex numbers, like functions map number to numbers. In other words, a functional takes a function as its argument or input and returns a scalar1 . The referred source may be further accessed for detailed explanation on DFT, but this paper, in its course, will stick with only reviewing its practical applications in the field of energy. The various applications covered in this paper are hydrogen fuel cell, newer perspectives into Fischer-Tropsch process, biofuels, photovoltaic cells used in solar energy and nuclear energy. 2. Review of DFT Applications 2.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cell An area where DFT has been used extensively is in research of Hydrogen Fuel Cells. Hydrogen is a clean and efficient fuel, but there is a significant challenge facing its production, storage, and use. At the moment, hydride compounds cannot provide competitive storage for transportation, but research in this field is being carried out through DFT. DFT is implemented on computer clusters for calculating the electronic and crystal structures, bond strengths and heats of reaction for many compounds. This same process can and is carried out by synthesising and discovering the compounds and its properties in the laboratory, but in the same time frame, a computational tool like DFT can generate more comprehensive information2 . Therefore, DFT has found ready usage in hydrogen storage tools to the extent of examining the structures, hydrogen storage capacities and decomposition temperatures for 300 compounds3 . Another aspect of DFT in hydrogen storage is the charge/release phenomena which refers to charging and discharging of hydrogen from the storage media. Nanostructures have opened up many possibilities for hydrogen storage challenge because it allows for the control of both the static and dynamic parameters of the phenomena. The reaction pathways and material science at this nanoscale can be effectively studied by DFT2 . Another domain that has been studied with the help of DFT in this field is catalysts and catlaysis. Catalysts are needed to control the speed of the reactions occurring at the electrodes of the fuel cells. A study has already been done on Near Surface Alloys (NSAs) using DFT to check their applicability as catalysts in hydrogen rich environment like fuel cells and the results have been encouraging4 . DFT studies have also been extended to adsorption of hydrogen for storage in fuel cells. Light metals like Magnesium and Aluminium have high storage densities and safe endothermic hydrogen release making them promising candidates for hydrogen storage devices. However, as experimental studies are not feasible on such highly reactive metals, so DFT has been used to study Al cluster properties like cluster size and hydrogen site specific effects5 . As has been reviewed in this section, DFT has been used extensively in the research of hydrogen fuel cells as a source of alternate energy. It has been used to identify and study the compound properties for hydrogen storage. It has been used for studying the catalysts that can be used in the cells. It has been used to develop new materials for the storage of hydrogen. Thus, a review clearly shows that DFT has a huge potential to unlock the obstacles that prevent hydrogen from becoming a commercial fuel.
2.2 Fuel Generation from Synthesis Gas
Another area that has been probed extensively using DFT is the generation of fuel from Synthesis Gas. Synthesis Gas is a mixture of CO and H2. It has been used to convert coal into liquid fuels and over the past decade is being used to convert biomass into liquid fuels6 . DFT has been used to propose alternate reaction pathways that yield higher hydrocarbons from Synthesis Gas (CO/H2 2:1). This was done by microkinetic simulation using DFT which showed that the main pathway of FischerTropsch process on Co{0001} is not the carbide mechanism but an alternate mechanism that involves the hydrogenation of CO to oxymethylidyne species. This discovery has proposed to reduce the pressure gap in heterogeneous catalysis at realistic pressures7 . This research was furthered on Ru catalysts as well to yield similar results and parallels could be drawn between homogenous and heterogenous catalysis8 . Other than used for predicting reaction pathways, DFT has also been used to study the intermediates in FischerTropsch process. The relative stabilities of the intermediates can be compared to give an idea of the final product and the reaction barriers may be used for determining the stepwise mechanism9 . Thus, it may be clearly seen that DFT has contributed in a large way in the field of hydrocarbon production from Synthesis Gas. By understanding the reaction mechanism, the intermediates and the catalytic effects, one may optimize the process to viably generate different desirable products.
2.3 Biofuel
The applications of DFT in the field of biofuels are widespread. The structures and the energetics of model biofuels have been studied. Studies have been carried out, using DFT, on Isopropyl Butanoate (IPB). It is mentioned in the paper that there are seven different channels of dissociation of IPB, but the formation of Butanoic Acid and Propene via a six-member ring transition is the most favourable reaction. Formation of lower esters was found to be hindered by high energy barriers. It was also seen that IPB disassociates faster than methyl and ethyl esters10. Similar studies have been carried out on 2-butanol as a possible biofuel, using DFT. Studying various dissociation mechanisms, it was found that dehydration to 1- and 2- butene through four centre transition states is the most dominant channel at lower temperatures of less than 700 K. At higher temperatures of more than 800 K, however, a simple C-C bond fissure takes place11. However, it must be noted that there also have been claims to the contrary saying that to study the chemical kinetics of chemical combustion, DFT may be inaccurate12. The study on biofuels has also been extended to its synthesis. The starting materials of biofuel synthesis has been studied using DFT. By using DFT, it was possible to calculate two things. One was the ground state energy and the second was the molecular structure of the triglycerides13. Triglycerides are present in vegetable oils and fatty acids which are then trans-esterified with alcohol to give esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. However, vegetable oils may also be directly used as fuel oils and may be used to produce liquid hydrocarbon. A study was conducted to model the catalytic cracking of palm oil to produce hydrocarbons using MCM-41 as catalyst. The pore size distribution of the catalyst was determined using DFT14 . Thus, it is amply clear that various uses of DFT have been employed to study biofuels. DFT has been used to study the structures of potential biofuels and their energetic on dissociation. They have also been used to model the starting triglycerides for biodiesel synthesis. Not only limited to reaction compounds, catalysts‘ pore size distributions have been studied using DFT, which are employed in cracking vegetable oil like palm oil. have been studied using DFT, which are employed in cracking vegetable oil like palm oil.
2.4 Photovoltaic Cells
Photovoltaic cells are used widely used to harness solar energy. Semiconductor physics often operate at the micro and the nano level and it is no surprise that DFT has been used to study photovoltaic cells. DFT has been used to study the semiconductor grain boundaries and the junctions. A combination of DFT and high-resolution electron microscope has revealed the grain physics at a variety of semiconductors like Si, CdTe, CuInSe2 and CuGaSe2. Of these four, it has been found that the former two semiconductors require special passivation while the other two do not15. Passivation significantly affects performance of photovoltaic cells and understanding this phenomena for different solar cells will help increase the efficiency16. DFT has also been used in thin-film photovoltaic cells to calculate the structural parameters and the formation energies. However, DFT cannot predict the band gaps and optical absorption spectra17. Research has also progressed to a remarkable extent on the nano scale, an example of which is the use of DFT in photovoltaic heterojunctions formed by poly-3- hexylthiophene interfaced with metallic and semiconducting carbon nano-tubes. It is found that a majority of the interfaces at these junctions are inefficient as they are in contact with the metallic carbon nano-tubes rather than the semiconducting ones18Hence, it is clear that DFT research has progressed from simple grain boundaries and passivation techniques to thin-film cells to heterojunction efficiency. This clearly illustrates the ability of DFT to keep up to date with modern advancements in the field of photovoltaics.\ments in the field of photovoltaics
2.5 Nuclear Energy
This is another field of energy that can be studied using DFT. That is the field of nuclear energy. Research has been carried out already in this field. In all such research, it is vital to understand the atomic nuclei, so as to apply that knowledge to societal applications like nuclear energy generation. DFT calculations have been carried out to understand the two following parameters, namely the neutron local density in the nucleus and the ground state deformation of nuclei lying in the stable region. This helps in understanding the reactions of short-lived and stable nuclei19. But further study is needed for understanding those nuclei that have higher neutron number20. In general, DFT can be used to study the following topics related to the nuclei, namely pairing, broken symmetries, single-particle energies and improving empirical energy density functionals. Each of the topics is described further21 . Pairing can be studied by ab initio DFT using non-local pairing fields. The details of the DFT calculations are not given here but can be looked up in the referred source21. Broken symmetries include the translational and rotational invariance and other phase symmetries. Broken symmetries have been well explored in for mean-field approximations but it is a relatively new concept in the context of ab initio DFT21 . The detailed discussion of each may be again looked up in the source referred. Single-particle properties, like spectrum, may also be explored using DFT21. Empirical energy density functionals are generally reliable when the experimental data is available but where it is not, extrapolation becomes difficult, thus also suggesting the benefit of ab ignition DFT21 . Further research has also been carried out using covariant DFT to analyse the nuclear structure, particularly of low-lying excited states in transitional nuclei as well as exotic nuclei, the details of which may be accessed from the referred source22 . Thus, it has been established that DFT can be used to understand the nuclear structures and their deformation mechanism. Ab initio DFT and covariant DFT have also been used for varied applications to study different aspects of the nuclei
cenario and DFT Research W3
The Global Petroleum Sorldwide Petroleum and other fossil fuels are the chief sources of energy to the world. The need for DFT applications, as described in the previous section, becomes paramount because of the need for alternative fuels. In the following sections, we discuss the current petroleum production scenario and the role of DFT being actively pursued to research alternative fuels. 3.1 The Global Current Petroleum Scenario Petroleum and other fossil fuels are the primary source of energy in the world. At the moment, the production from the existing fields is declining, especially the major or the giant oil fields. It is evident that lesser numbers of giant fields are being discovered in the newer decades and it has been following a decreasing pattern since the 1960s and 70s. The average decline rate of the existing fields is an annual -6.5%23. It clearly illustrates the diminishing production from existing, especially large, fields. Of the newer fields that are being discovered, many are High Pressure/High Temperature (HPHT) wells and Deep Sea wells. But these are expensive to drill and complete and are expected to increase the crude barrel price further. There are inherent problems with HPHT wells, significant among which are pressure related problems24. The cost associated with deep sea drilling are also very high. On a point of comparison, a land (onshore) well of drilled depth to 20,000 feet cost around $11 million in 200325. The 2010 figures quote the cost of a deep sea well to be between $100 to $200 million26 . This clearly illustrates that with lesser large fields being discovered, existing fields declining and newer discoveries likely to increase the barrel cost of crude due to high cost of drilling and completion, the market is likely to face a supply shortage at the current cost of crude in the near future and escalating costs will make other alternative energies, that are currently uncompetitive, viable. Of the newer fossil fuels that are being explored, the primary are tar sands, ultra heavy oil, oil shale, tight gas, and coal bed methane. However, they all have evolved on the geologic time scale and compared to our rate of energy consumption are decidedly finite. On the human time scale, alternative energies like renewable biomass can therefore compete with these newer fossil fuels, along with an added advantage of being less destructive to the environment27 .
3.2 DFT research for alternative energy
As has been described in the previous sections, DFT has wide applicability in the field of alternative energy internationally. In this section, the current research that have been completed or are in progress are discussed. DFT has left solid foundations for research in alternative energy in the future. The majority of the research that is ongoing in the field of alternative energy are happening in the countries of USA, Germany, China, Japan, Great Britain with USA topping the list28 . In 2007 in the USA, it was decided that computational needs in alternative and enewable energy were paramount. It urged academia and industry to work in tandem with the governmental Department of Energy to meet these ends. The key priority research directions were designated as hydrogen fuels, bioenergy conversion, photovoltaic solar energy conversion, wind energy, and grid futures and reliability29. It was a great step towards prominent role of computational methods in the energy sector within the chemical engineering domain; the stated goals of computational chemistry being to reduce the costs of development, improve energy efficiency and environmental performance, and increase productivity and profitability30 . In 2010, research was carried out in European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, France (ESRF), to develop new energy sources and improve the efficiency of existing sources by X-Ray beams of Synchrotron Radiation Source, which help in understanding the structure and behaviour at the fundamental microscopic level. The results were compared with DFT calculations and they were found to be similar31 . In India, research groups at the National Chemical Laboratory, Pune are involved in the study of organic molecules using ab initio DFT modelling
4. CONCLUSION
The review of the various DFT applications in the field of alternative energy clearly suggest its immense potential. It has been used to study a variety of alternative fuels, ranging from nuclear energy to biofuels. It clearly has an advantage over time consuming physical experimentation by using faster computational methods. The final word comes from the pioneer of DFT, Dr. Walter Kohn, who received the 1998 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his role in the development of density functional theory. He talks about the decline in crude oil productionand the increase in greenhouse gas production and he envisages ?a world powered predominantly by solar and wind energy‘ 32 . With increasingly better computational methods and with the interest shown in DFT research by various international agencies, coupled with the growing need for viable alternative energy, DFT presents an exciting prospect for further research.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2084http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2084REFERENCES
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3. Alapati S.V., Johnson J.K., Sholl D.S. Using first principles calculations to identify new destabilized metal hydride reactions for reversible hydrogen storage. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2007. 1438-52.
4. Greeley J, Mavrikakis M. Alloy Catalysts Designed from First Principles. Nature Materials 2004. 810-15.
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10. El-Nahas A.M., Heikal A.L., Mangood A.H., El-Shereefy E.E., Structures and Energetics of Unimolecular Thermal Degradation of Isopropyl Butanoate as a Model Biofuel: Density Functional Theory and Ab Initio Studies. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A 2010. 7996-8002.
11. El-Nahas A.M., Mangood A.H., Takeuchi H., Taketsugu T. Thermal Decomposition of 2-Butanol as a Potential Nonfossil Fuel: A Computational Study. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A 2011. 2837-46.
12. Sarathy S.M. Chemical Kinetic Modeling of Biofuel Combustion. [Thesis]. Toronto: University of Toronto; 2010.
13. Marton G., Ple?u V., Marton A., Bercaru M.T. A Quantum Mechanics Approach to Biofuel Synthesis. Chemical Engineering Transactions 2010. 1351-6.
14. Yared I., Kurniawan H., Wibisono M., Sudaryanto Y., Hindarso H., Ismadji S. Modeling Of Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuel Production From Palm Oil Via Catalytic Cracking Using Mcm-41 As Catalyst. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences 2008. 55-61.
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17. Botti S. CIGS Photovoltaic Technology: The Alternative to Silicon Solar Cells. Coimbra, Portugal 2010.
18. Kanai Y., Grossman J.C. Role of Semiconducting and Metallic Tubes in P3HT/Carbon-Nanotube Photovoltaic Heterojunctions: Density Functional Theory Calculations. Nano Letters 2008. 908-12.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareROLE OF SALIVARY SECRETORY LEUKOCYTE PROTEASE INHIBITOR IN HIV:A REVIEW
English121126Shivayogi CharanthimathEnglish Vaishali KeluskarEnglish Anjana BagewadiEnglish Kishor BhatEnglishSaliva is a promising option for diagnosing certain disorders and monitoring the evolution of certain
pathologies or the dosage of medicines or drugs. Its advantages as a diagnostic tool include its being easy
to obtain and the positive correlation between many parameters in serum and saliva. Saliva plays an
essential rôle in maintaining the integrity of the oral structures, in personal relationships, in the digestion
and in controlling oral infection.
Human secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor is a cationic protein in saliva has been found to be the most
potent anti-HIV-1 factor among several innate inhibitory molecules namely, virus-specific antibodies,
mucins, and thrombospondins, identified and purified from saliva. This review includes the role of slpi as
a anti HIV factor, there by reducing the risk of oral transmission of HIV and also antiprotease,
bactericidal and antifungal activity are also discussed.
Englishsaliva.HIV, SLPIINTRODUCTION
Human immunodeficiency virus transmission from oral secretions of the millions of HIV affected individuals during, dental treatment, biting and aerosolization is a rare event even when infectious HIV is shed into the oral cavity by infected blood or exudates. Despite its shedding of infected blood or exudate, saliva of infected individuals usually contains only noninfectious components of HIV indicating that there may be a break down or inactivation of infectious HIV and may contain fragments or the entire non-infectious genome Human secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor is a cationic protein in saliva has been found to be the most potent anti-HIV-1 factor.2,3,4. Human secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) is an 11.7-kDa cationic protein which plays a vital role in innate immunity. It is a non glycosylated, highly basic, acid-stable, cysteinerich, 107-amino acid single-chain polypeptide Antiprotease and anti-inflammatory activities: SLPI exerts its antiprotease activity by stabilizing the protease-antiprotease complex and may mediate the enhancement by heparin. The balance between proteinases and antiproteinases is a prerequisite for the maintenance of tissue integrity. The cleavage of SLPI results in increased tissue damage. SLPI also shields the tissues against inflammatory products by down-regulating the macrophage responses against bacteria lipopolysaccharides(LPS). LPS directly induce SLPI production by macrophages or by way of interleukin-1 (IL-1 ), tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL-6 and IL-10. SLPI renders macrophages, thus inhibits release of proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide. SLPI along with other factors manifests its antiinflammatory profile by decreasing the C5arelated chemotactic activity. Thus, the accumulation of SLPI in the local tissue environment may represent an intrinsic feedback inhibition mechanism. lipopolysaccharides(LPS). LPS directly induce SLPI production by macrophages or by way of interleukin-1 (IL-1 ), tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL-6 and IL-10. SLPI renders macrophages, thus inhibits release of proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide. SLPI along with other factors manifests its antiinflammatory profile by decreasing the C5arelated chemotactic activity. Thus, the accumulation of SLPI in the local tissue environment may represent an intrinsic feedback inhibition mechanism.
Bactericidal and antifungal activities SLPI has broad-spectrum antibiotic activity that includes bactericidal and antifungal properties. The mechanism of the SLPI- mediated bactericidal activity includes binding of the protease inhibitor to the bacterial mRNA and DNA. SLPI has fungicidal activity against human isolates of the pathogenic fungi Aspergillums fumigatus and Candida albicans by partial inhibition of fungal protease activity as it has been demonstrated using recombinant SLPI (rSLPI). The antibacterial and antifungal activities are related to the cationic nature of SLPI, thus SLPI may provide a valuable therapeutic option in the future treatment or prevention of infectious diseases.2,3,4 Role of Oral Environment in HIV Transmission: During the asymptomatic infection HIV shed at any mucosal surface originates from infected mononuclear leukocytes. The cell free infectious HIV has low infectivity for the CD4 negative epithelial cells on all mucosal surfaces. In saliva, inhibition of HIV may be partly due to several inhibitors of viruses that are present in saliva. Free secretory antibody also is present in saliva but may not be effective due to its lowconcentrations Since most of the infectious virus that is shed orally during the asymptomatic phase of infection, it is hypothesized that saliva may disrupt these infected cells and render them incapable of supporting virus multiplication and cell to cell transmission of HIV.3,4 For long time researchers in dental profession were deeply interested in the study of saliva to be used as a diagnostic tool for various oral as well as systemic diseases. Despite the low frequency of isolation of HIV in the saliva, a high frequency of salivary antibodies to HIV are observed. This opened a reliable and easy screening approach for HIV / AIDS. SLPI was first isolated from secretions of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cystic fibrosis and was thereby considered a major antielastase inhibitor. SLPI is produced by neutrophils, macrophages, betacells of pancreatic islets, epithelial cells investing the renal tubules, acinar cells of parotid and submandibular glands, acinar cells of submucosal glands, and epithelial cells lining mucous membranes of respiratory and alimentary tract. SLPI was originally isolated from parotid saliva and has been detected in a variety of secretions such as whole saliva, seminal fluid, cervical mucus, synovial fluid, breast milk, tears and cerebral spinal fluid. SLPI was found to play a pivotal role in apoptosis and wound healing. SLPI has alternative names called mucus protease inhibitor, anti leukoprotease, bronchial secretory inhibitor, human seminal inhibitor I, cervix uteri secretion inhibitor, and secretory leukoprotease inhibitor. The physiologic concentration of SLPI in saliva is 0.1 to 10µg/ml.2, 3
ROLE OF SLPI IN HIV:
SLPI is likely to be a major deterrent of immunodeficiency varies type-1(HIV-1) transmission through oral secretions. There are evidences suggesting that mucosa account for the most easily accessed route of HIV-1 transmission, paradoxically, the oral cavity is a rare route of transmission. SLPI was found to be the most potent anti-HIV-1 factor among several innate inhibitory molecules namely, virusspecific antibodies, mucins, and thrombospondins, identified and purified from saliva. Moderate activity is also exerted against HIV-2 strains, but only when the concentration of SLPI exceeds the norm. The mechanism by which SLPI inhibits HIV-1 infection is still elusive, but it appears to involve the host cell target rather than binding to the virus. Moreover, SLPI‘s antiviral activity appears to be distinct from its known antiprotease activity. Evidence suggests that SLPI blocks HIV-1 internalization in a dosedependent manner rather than binding to CD4 and inhibits a step of viral infection that occurs after virus binding but before reverse transcription. SLPI confers local protection against microbial, fungal, and HIV-1 insults. It is noted that among proteins present in the saliva, only SLPI has anti-HIV-1 activity at physiological concentrations.4,5,6,7 Studies have shown that defensins reduce the lytic action of human. Defensins are important mediators of the innate defense of mucosal against microbial infections. Several defensins and microdefensins are effective inhibitors of HIV-1 infection in vitro, and recent evidence implicates defensins in resistance to HIV-1 progression in vivo. 7 Some studies revealed that HIV-1 induces expression of - defensins on human oral epithelial cells and block HIV replication by direct interaction with the virions by modulation of the C and CR4 co receptor. 8 Qualitative and quantitative tests for HIV patients to detect free HIV in saliva concluded that HIV was present in low level even in the presence of severe periodontal disease. This is probably due to the low levels of mononuclear cells in salivary glands and gingiva and inhibitory factors in saliva of HIV infected patients..9 Saliva of seronegative individuals also has protective properties against HIV infectivity indicating that other non-immunological factors are involved in the HIV inhibitory capacity of saliva, including salivary proteins. 10 . The infection of primary monocytes with HIV-1 is significantly suppressed in the presence of human saliva. Human saliva blocked the infectivity of HIV-1 by inverse transcriptase for 3 weeks after an hour exposure of monocytes to the virus, whereas other human fluids failed to reduce the infectivity of virus.11 Research conducted has identified a salivary protein that reduces HIV infectivity by thrombospondin 1(TSP-1) that adheres to HIV surface protein gp120 and strongly inhibits the ability of the virus to enter peripheral blood mononuclear cells invitro.12 According to some studies lysosome proteins, when present above physiological levels, act jointly to attack HIV with lysozymes destroying viral membranes while ribonucleases block reproduction of the virus by destroying its genetic material.13 Lactoferrin secreted by neutrophils and exocrine glands, is found in saliva, breast milk, tears, semen and other mucosal secretions. It can inhibit HIV replication both when iron saturated and when not, and it can also interfere with the adhesion and entry of HIV to host cells. 14 Hypotonic saliva inhibits the production of HIV by infected leucocytes which contributes to the extremely low oral transmission. Salivary hypo toxicity appears to destroy the cell wall of HIV infected mononuclear leucocytes, preventing them from binding to mucosal epithelial cells and producing infective HIV.15 Recent studies demonstrated that basic proline rich proteins found in human parotid saliva have a potent anti HIV-1 activity independent of that attributed to SLPI and TSP-1. Its action mechanism is based on the binding of these proteins to the gp120 of the virus, preventing entry of HIV into the host cell.16 Salivary antibodies against HIV were identified at the beginning of the HIV pandemic. It appears that HIV infection is associated with decreased, salivary IgA levels, although a dichotomy has been reported between IgA concentrations in saliva and serum. Thus the presence of specific anti- HIV antibodies (IgA, IgG, and IgM) can be readily detected in saliva of seropositive patients but at a much lower level than in blood.17 Various studies conducted on inhibitors of HIV encoded protease combined with nucleoside analogues with antiretroviral activity, cause profound and sustained suppression of viral replication thereby reducing morbidity and prolonging life in patients with HIV infections. The 4 approved HIV protease inhibitors are based on amino acid sequences recognized and cleared in HIV proteins.1 Association of SLPI levels with reduced transmission of HIV 1 studied in breast milk, concluded that higher SLPI levels protect the infant against HIV-I infection after exposure to HIV-1 through breast milk.19 Studies conducted have revealed that hypotonic disruption may be a major mechanism by which saliva kills infected mononuclear leukocytes, it prevents their attachment to mucosal epithelial cells and production of infectious HIV there by preventing transmission.20 Some studies demonstrated that recombinant human secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor inhibits infection of lymphocytes and monocyte derived tumor cell lines and peripheral blood lymphocytes with laboratory adapted isolates and with the primary isolate, NDK of free human, (HIV-1). In contrast, rhSLPI did not inhibit inhibitory activity toward transcytosis of cell associated HIV-1 through a light monolayer of endometrial epithelial cells. They concluded that inhibitory effect of SLPI is restricted to free HIV-1 in corporal fluids.22 According to one in vitro study, SLPI contribute to the anti HIV-I activity of human saliva. Thus it may play an important role in the unique HIV- 1 infectivity activity of human saliva and SLPI is generally present at higher concentrations in tissues associated with lower rates of transmission of HIV-1. If an inverse correlation exists between levels of SLPI and the risk or rate of HIV-1 transmission, exogenously administered SLPI may afford protection against this lethal virus.23 A study was carried out to compare the inhibitory capacity of saliva from the 4 major types of salivary glands separately, suggesting the neutralizing capacity of glandular saliva towards HIV-IIIB strain and glandular saliva‘s interfering at different sites during the virus replication cycle.24 According to some authors inhibition of HIV may be partly due to presence of inhibitors of viruses that are present in saliva and hypothesized that most of the infectious virus that is shed orally during the asymptomatic phase of infection is produced by infected leucocytes. The CD4 negative mucosal epithelial cells resist infection by cell free HIV, disrupt these infected cells and thus render them incapable of supporting virus multiplication and cell to cell transmission of HIV.24 An in vitro study to know the effect of increasing concentration of humanL1 acid glycoprotein on anti viral activity in AIDS patients was carried and assessed experimentally in vitro anti HIV activity.25 Studies on anti leukoprotease suggested that endogenous protease inhibitors may participate in mucosal host defense. They reported in the antimicrobial activity of recombinent (V) AGP toward the human fungal pathogens Aspergirus Fumigatus, and Candida Albicans or ALP expressed pronounced fungicidal activity toward metabolically active a yeast cells of these fungus 26 A study was conducted to asses SLPI in HIV infection on 65 HIV seropositive patients which revealed that SLPI inhibits HIV-1 infection of human monocytes at physiological concentration by its inhibitory effect by blocking HIV binding to host cells. SLPI is an antimicrobial protein found in saliva SLPI is secreated by the serous acinar cells of parotid and van-abner glands. SLPI has broad antimicriobial activity and has been shown to inhibit candidal and viral growth.27 Researchers from Atlanta found that saliva contains two inhibitory components one particulate and the other remaining in the filtrate. Inhibition of virus infectivity by saliva was not due to low pH or due to other constituents such as lysosomes, lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase. Also the fact that anti-HIV IgA antibodies are present in saliva of infected persons, may contribute to the low frequency with which HIV has been recovered from saliva of infected persons and the apparent lack of oral transmission of the virus.28
CONCLUSION
The present review suggests a multifaceted role for SLPI. This SLPI has been found to be the most potent anti-HIV factor among several innate inhibitory molecules; it can be used as an adjunct to various diagnostic procedures implied for the risk of oral transmission of HIV infection .Finally SLPI is used as a marker to monitor the progress of an infection or a malignant lesion.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2085http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2085REFERENCES
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3. Stergios Daumas, Allexandros Kalokotronis, Panagiotes Stefanopoulus. (2005) Anti inflammatory and antimicrobial roles of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor. Mini Review. Journal of Infection and Immunity. 1271-1274.
4. Fryksmark, Jannert, Ohbson, Tegnor Witt. .( 989) Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor and 1 alpha 1 protease inhibitor, and virus induced nasal secreations. Jr of Rhinology. 27: 97-103.
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8. Cole and Rehrer.(2003) Mini defensins antimicrobial peptides with activity against HIV-1. Curr Pharm Des . 9:1463-1473.
9. Quinone- Mateu et al.(2003) Human epithelial beta defensins 2 and 3 inhibit HIV-1 replication. AIDS 17: F39-F48.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyPARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION FROM A RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE
English127135T.V.MahendiranEnglish P.ThangamEnglish K. ThanushkodiEnglishThe work is an outcome of the motivation caused by the increasing awareness of the need for innovative
PSO schemes featuring an appropriate methodology for optimization. PSO is a swarm intelligence-based
evolutionary algorithm inspired originally by the social behavior of bird flocking. PSO finds its
applications successfully in many areas including function optimization, neural network training, solving
multidimensional complex problems, fuzzy systems, etc. The simplicity of implementation and weak
dependence on the optimized model of PSO make it a popular tool for a wide range of optimization
problems. This paper consists of an overall review of the various PSO schemes and developments in the
literature. This review also recommends some research areas in this field, highlighting those leading to
high efficiency.
EnglishPSO, bird flocking, convergence, Swarm intelligence, function optimization.I. INTRODUCTION
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is an algorithm for finding optimal regions of complex search space through interaction of individuals in a population of particles. PSO algorithm, originally introduced in terms of social and cognitive behavior by Eberhart and Kennedy in 1995 [1] has been proven to be a powerful competitor to other evolutionary algorithms such as genetic algorithms. PSO is a population based stochastic optimization technique and well adapted to the optimization of nonlinear functions in multidimensional space. PSO has received significant interest from researchers studying in different research areas and has been applied to several real-world problems. PSO algorithm simulates social behavior among individuals (particles) flying through multidimensional search space, each particle representing a single intersection of all search dimensions [2], [3]. The particles evaluate their positions relative to a global fitness at every iteration, and companion particles share memories of their best positions, and then use those memories to adjust their own velocities and positions.
II. BACKGROUND OF PSO PSO
incorporates swarming behaviors observed in flocks of birds, schools of fish or swarms of bees, and even human social behavior. It is a population-based optimization tool, which could be implemented and applied easily to solve PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION FROM A RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE T.V.Mahendiran1 , P.Thangam2 , K. Thanushkodi3 1EEE Department, Coimbatore Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu 2CSE Department, Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, Coimbatore , Tamilnadu 3Akshaya College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore , Tamilnadu E-mail of Corresponding Author: saimahegobi@gmail.com International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 128 various function optimization problems [4]. The main strength of PSO is its fast convergence than the other global optimization algorithms. PSO utilizes a population of candidate solutions to evolve an optimal or near-optimal solution to a problem [5]. The degree of optimality is measured by a fitness function defined by the user. PSO is similar to the evolutionary computation techniques such as Genetic Algorithms (GA), Evolutionary Programming (EP), Evolution Strategies (ES), and Genetic Programming (GP) in that the system is initialized with a population of random solutions and searches for optima by updating generations. PSO differs from the evolutionary computing methods in that the population members, called particles, fly through the problem space by following the current optimum particles. Each particle keeps track of its coordinates in the problem space which are associated with the best solution (fitness) it has achieved so far [6]. (The fitness value is also stored.) This value is called pbest. Another "best" value that is tracked by the particle swarm optimizer is the best value, obtained so far by any particle in the neighbors of the particle. This location is called lbest. When a particle takes all the population as its topological neighbors, the best value is a global best and is called gbest. The particle swarm optimization concept consists of, at each time step, changing the velocity of (accelerating) each particle toward its pbest and lbest locations (local version of PSO). Acceleration is weighted by a random term, with separate random numbers being generated for acceleration toward pbest and lbest locations.
In past several years, PSO has been successfully applied in many research and application areas. It is demonstrated that PSO gets better results in a faster, cheaper way compared with other methods. Another reason that PSO is attractive is that there are few parameters to adjust. One version, with slight variations, works well in a wide variety of applications. Particle swarm optimization has been used for approaches that can be used across a wide range of applications, as well as for specific applications focused on a specific requirement.
III. DEVELOPMENTS OF PSO
A. Adaptive Mutation PSO (AMPSO) Zhen-Su, Zhi-Rong and Juan [8] presented a new adaptive mutation PSO, which is based on the variance of the population‘s fitness. During the running time, the mutation probability for the current best particle is determined by two factors: the variance of the population‘s fitness and the current optimal solution. The ability of PSO algorithm to break away from the local optimum is greatly improved by the mutation. The experimental results show that the new algorithm has great advantage of convergence property over traditional PSO and also avoids the premature convergence problem effectively.
B. Self-organization PSO (SOPSO) Jie, Zeng, and Han developed a selforganization PSO with the aim to alleviate the premature convergence [9]. SOPSO emphasizes the information interactions between the particle-lever and the swarmlever, and introduce feedback to simulate the function. Through the feedback information, the particles can perceive the swarm-lever state and adopt favorable behavior model to modify their behavior, which not only can modify the exploitation and the exploration of the algorithm adaptively, but also can vary the diversity of the swarm and contribute to a global optimum output in the swarm. Results show that SOPSO performs very well on benchmark problems, and outperforms the basic PSO in search ability.
C. Attractive and Repulsive PSO (ARPSO) Xuan and Jihong proposed Attractive and Repulsive PSO (ARPSO) [10]. It performs optimization using two phases. In attractive phase, particles converge to promise regions in the search space. In repulsive phase, particles are repelled each other along opposition directions. When the particles diversity is high, the particles will attract each other just as the basic PSO algorithm. The information of good solutions will flow between particles. When the particles diversity is low, it turns to repulsive phase, particles are no longer attracted to but instead are repelled and new potential particles are created. Premature convergence is avoided by the new potential particles. Experiments show that this method is feasible and robust.
D. Immune PSO (IPSO) In optimization processing of PSO, premature convergence often takes place especially for the case of uneven solution population distribution. Ying and Zhidong proposed a combination of an immune system and PSO to improve the diversity of particles and reduce the premature convergence [11]. Biological research on the immune system indicates that the immune principle can provide inspiration for the improvement of the performance of evolution computations. Inspired by the diversity of biological immune systems, a diversity retaining mechanism based on concentration and immune memory is introduced in the IPSO. Immune behavior is beneficial for retaining diversity, which can effectively avoid premature convergence and improve the search speed and quality of the algorithm.
E. Amnesia PSO (APSO) Amnesia PSO [11] algorithm makes use of an efficient mechanism to improve the diversity of particles and thereby reducing the premature convergence. The mechanism is called forgetfulness mechanism. The basic idea is that a slight amnesia is imposed on each particle and the swarm, when the particle swarm tends to premature convergence. Each particle forgets its historical best position and considers the current position as its best position. Similarly, the swarm does not remember its historical global best position and choose the best position from the current positions of all particles. This mechanism gives the particles a new chance based on existing better conditions. Thus this method turns out to be an effective solution to overcome the problem of premature convergence.
F. PSO based on informative Diffusion and Clonal Selection (InformPSO) Information diffusion among biological particles is a time process. Particles, close to the current best particle, change the direction and rate of velocities fleetly towards it, while particles, far from it, move more slowly towards it. On the assumption that information is diffused among particles in a short time, information received by particles close to the global best is more than that received by those far from it. Thus InformPSO [12], suggested by Li et. al, adjusts the variable ?social cognition‘ aspect of particles. This improves the local search ability of PSO, increases the particles‘ diversity and enables the swarm to overcome premature convergence problem.
G. Emotional PSO (EPSO) Ge and Rubo [13] presented a modification of the PSO, intended to introduce some psychology factor of emotion into the algorithm. In the new algorithm, which is based on a simple perception and emotion psychology model, each particle has its own feeling and reaction to the current position, and it also has specified emotional factor towards the sense it got from both its own history and other particles. All these psychology factors will influence the next action of the particle. This new algorithm outperforms PSO on four test functions, being less susceptible to premature convergence, and less likely to be stuck in local optima. EPSO algorithm outperforms the PSO even in its faster convergence speed.
H. Hybrid PSO (HPSO) Yang, Chen and Zhou presented a new hybrid algorithm of PSO called PSOSA [14] in which the mechanism of modified simulated annealing (SA) is embedded into standard PSO algorithm. When the optimal particle of particle swarm is got into local optimum, the particle swarm is very hard to jump out of the local optimum with standard PSO. The SA has the character of probability-sudden-jump so as to be able to jump out of the local optimum and approach the global optimum. The proposed Hybrid PSO merges these two different optimization mechanisms into a whole, which is in favor of enriching the search behavior during optimization process and enhancing the searching ability and efficiency in global and local. PSO enables SA to be parallel SA. Meanwhile, the SA enhances and complements the ability of PSO getting rid of local minimum, which avoid getting into local minimum and approach global minimum. This algorithm not only keeps the characters simple and easy to be implemented, but also enhances the ability of getting rid of local optimum and improves the speed and precision of convergence. The testing results of several benchmark functions with different dimensions show that the proposed HPSO algorithm is superior to standard PSO and other PSO algorithms.
I. Independent Neighborhoods PSO (INPSO) Grosan, Abraham, Han and Gelbukh proposed a novel hybrid PSO – evolutionary algorithm (INPSO) [15] for solving the well known geometric place problems. The proposed PSO algorithm is similar to the classical one, but which uses neighborhoods. Thus the particles fly in independent subswarms. It divides the swarm into multiple independent neighborhoods. The dimension of each neighborhood (sub-swarm) is the same for all considered sub-swarms. By considering different sub-swarms, the number of solutions, which can be obtained at the end of the search process, is at most equal to the number of sub-swarms. This INPSO algorithm is very fast compared to the evolutionary algorithms (EA). But, for difficult problems, there can be some particles, which could never converge. Taking into account these issues, a hybrid approach involving both INPSO and EA is developed. The key advantages of the hybrid approach are in making use of the fast convergence property of INPSO and EA‘s definite convergence. The combination obtains the solutions very fast and all individuals converged to the geometrical place with fewer iterations.
J. Discrete PSO (DPSO) DPSO [16] approach, motivated by swarm behavior, makes use of velocity and position to obtain the globally optimal partition of the data. Many researchers search for parameter values from incomplete data using Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm. The EM algorithm is an iterative approach to compute maximum a posteriori and maximum likelihood parameters from incomplete data. EM approach has the drawback of local optimum solution because it is sensitive to initialization. The DPSO method is an evolutionary method to estimate conditional probabilities from incomplete data sets. DPSO method has strong global search ability and parallel performance, but the convergence rate of the DPSO algorithm is painfully slow. So Guan and Liu proposed a novel hybrid algorithm as a combination of DPSO and the EM approach to improve the global search performance. The DPSO+EM method overcomes the disadvantages of these two approaches by performing a local optimization using the EM method at each particle. The approach is applied to 4 realworld data sets and the results show that the hybrid DPSO+EM algorithm exhibits more efficiency and outperforms the EM approach.
K. Fuzzy PSO (FPSO) Yi, Yao and Jiang presented a fuzzy PSO method [17] and applied it to image clustering. In this method, particles search the International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 132 optimal cluster centers in solution space, and images are classified according to the membership degree of images to cluster centers. First the fuzzy concept is combined with the PSO algorithm. Second, to solve the ?curse of dimensionality‘ problem, feature weights are introduced, which are dynamically determined during clustering, to represent the importance of features. Image classification and clustering is a challenging problem in computer vision. The fuzzy PSO approach considers each particle as a cluster center. The particles fly in the solution space to search suitable cluster centers. This method is different from previous work in that it employs fuzzy concept in PSO and adopts attribute selection mechanism to avoid the ?curse of dimensionality‘ problem. The experimental results show that the presented approach can properly process image clustering problem. Future extension is to improve the speed of the algorithm.
L. Multi-objective PSO (MOPSO) Luis, Noel and Carlos [18] proposed a new multi-objective evolutionary algorithm, which consists of a hybrid between PSO and scatter search. The main idea of the approach is to combine the high convergence rate of the PSO algorithm with a local search approach based on scatter search. A new leader selection scheme is proposed for PSO, which aims to accelerate convergence. Upon applying PSO, scatter search acts as a local search scheme, improving the spread of the non-dominated solutions found so far. Thus, the hybrid constitutes an efficient multiobjective evolutionary algorithm, which can produce reasonably good approximations of multi-objective problems of high dimensionality. The proposed approach is validated using ten standard test functions.
IV.ANALYSIS OF PSO SYSTEM 4.1 Advantages of PSO The reasons for why PSO replaces the other evolutionary computing algorithms are as follows:
With a population of candidate solutions, a PSO algorithm can maintain useful information about characteristics of the environment.
PSO, as characterized by its fast convergence behavior, has an in-built ability to adapt to a changing environment.
Some early works on PSO have shown that PSO is effective for locating and tracking optima in both static and dynamic environments
4.2 Applications of PSO PSO finds its applications in the following areas: Evolving neural networks, Human tumor analysis, Computer numerically controlled milling optimization, Battery pack state-ofcharge estimation, Real-time training of neural networks, Servomechanism, Reactive power and voltage control, Ingredient mix optimization, Moving Peaks (multiple peaks dynamic environment), PSO can be tailor-designed to deal with specific real-world problems.
4.3 Parameters that affect the performance of PSO The performance of the PSO algorithm depends largely on the following parameters [19]: 1)Initialization methods, 2)Population size, 3)Population diameter, 4)Absolute vs. signed velocities, 5)Population topology, 6)Births, deaths, migration, 7)Limiting domain, 8)Multiobjective optimization techniques, 9)Comparison over problem spaces, and 10)Hybrids. Of the above mentioned parameters, topology plays a vital role. It determines how the solutions spread through the population, and hence affects the rate of convergence and parallelism of the search. This is illustrated as follows:
gbest: each particle is influenced by the best found from the entire swarm. ?
lbest: each particle is influenced only by particles in local neighborhood. Some of the topologies commonly adopted in PSO are depicted in Fig 1. Some latest innovations in topologies include mean degree, dynamic clustering, heterogeneity, etc. The choice of the best suitable topology for the current problem improves the performance of the PSO algorithm. Thus, there should be a good balance between exploration and exploitation, (i.e.) gbest model propagate information the fastest in the population; while the lbest model using a ring structure the slowest. For complex multimodal functions, propagating information the fastest might not be desirable. However, if this is too slow, then it might incur higher computational cost. Mendes and Kennedy [20] found that von Neumann topology (North, South, East and West, of each particle placed on a 2 dimensional lattice) seems to be an overall winner among many different communication topologies.
4.3 Future analysis of PSO We have already discussed the parameters that affect the performance of a PSO system. The other future analyses on the PSO [21] are: Trajectory analysis, Interaction Analysis, Probability Distribution Analysis. These analyses could be conducted for better learning about the swarm thus promoting excellent swarm behaviors.
V. RESEARCH AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Robustness of a PSO algorithm can be determined by several factors. They include: Quality of the algorithm, Search speed, Search ability , Diversity of particles, Property of convergence, and accuracy. Thus, a PSO algorithm can be chosen to solve a particular problem by considering the requirements in terms of convergence, search and ultimately the quality and efficiency of the algorithm. The factors to be considered when choosing a Ring (Local best) Global best Random graph Star International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 134 particular variant and/or a parameter set [22] are: characteristics of the problem, available search time, and the solution quality threshold. A number of research directions are currently pursued, to name a few: Matching algorithms, application to different kind of problems, parameter selection, identification of ?state-ofthe-art? PSO algorithms, new variants, and theoretical aspects.
VI.CONCLUSIONS The paper presents a survey of literature on Particle Swarm Optimization. The different types of PSO algorithms are reviewed and classified based on properties such as their search ability, immunity to premature convergence and also the fundamental methodology used. The advantages of PSO are highlighted and also the applications of PSO in diverse areas are discussed. An analysis is performed on the PSO system, identifying parameters that affect the performance of the system. Some future analysis and recommendations are provided. Also, based on the review, the proposal on the ways of detecting a robust PSO algorithm is presented. Finally, the research directions in this area are discussed with further recommendations.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2086http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20861. J. Kennedy, and R.C. Eberhart, ?Particle Swarm Optimization,? Proc of the IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks, Australia, pp. 1942–1948. 1995.
2. http://www.swarmintelligence.org/
3. http://www.particleswarm.info/
4. Nadia Nedjah, Luiza de Macedo Mourelle, Swarm Intelligent Systems, Springer, 2006.
5. J. Kennedy, R.C.Eberhart, Y.Shi, Swarm Intelligence, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2001.
6. R.C.Eberhart, and Y.Shi, ?PSO: Developments, Applications and Resources?, IEEE conference, 2001.
7. Riccardo Poli, James Kennedy, Tim Blackwell, Particle swarm optimization. Swarm Intelligence, 1(1): 33-57, 2007.
8. Lu Zhen-Su, Hou Zhi-rong, and Du Juan, ?Particle Swarm Optimization with Adaptive Mutation,? Springer-Verlag, pp. 99-104, 2006.
9. Jing Jie, Jianchao Zeng, and Chongzhao Han, ?Self-Organization Particle Swarm Optimization based on Information Feedback,? Springer-Verlag, LNCS 4221, pp. 913-922, 2006.
10. Yang Xuan, and Pei Jihong, ?Elastic Image Registration using Attractive and Repulsive Particle Swarm Optimization,” SpringerVerlag, LNCS 4247, pp. 782-789, 2006.
11. Li Ying, and Deng Zhidong, ?Multiresolution Neural Networks based on Immune Particle Swarm Optimization,? Springer-Verlag, LNCS 4221, pp. 97-106, 2006.
12. Yamping Li, Shaozi Li, Shuili Chen, Qingshen Jiang, and Wenzhong Guo, ?Particle Swarm Optimization Based on Information Diffusion and Clonal Selection,? Springer-Verlag, LNCS 4247, pp.521-528, 2006.
13. Yang Ge, and Zhang Rubo, ?An Emotional Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm,? Springer-Verlag, LNCS 3612, pp. 553-561, 2005.
14. Guangyou Yang, Dingfang Chen, and Guozhu Zhou, ?A new hybrid algorithm of Particle Swarm Optimization,? SpringerVerlag, LNBI 4115, pp. 50-60, 2006.
15. Crina Grosan, Ajith Abraham, Sangyong Han, and Alexander Gelbukh, ?Hybrid Particle Swarm-Evolutionary Algorithm for Search and Optimization,? Springer-Verlag, LNAI 3789, pp. 623-632, 2005. International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 135
16. Jing-Hua Guan, Da-You Liu, and Si-Pei Liu, ?Discrete Particle Swarm Optimization and EM Hybrid Approach for Naïve Bayes Clustering,? Springer-Verlag, LNCS 4233, pp. 1164-1173, 2006.
17. Wensheng Yi, Min Yao, and Zhiwei Jiang, ?Fuzzy Particle Swarm Optimization Clustering and Its Application to Image Clustering,? Springer-Verlag, LNCS 4261, pp. 459-467, 2006.
18. Luis V. Santana-Quintero, Noel Ramirez, and Carlos Coello, ?A Multi Objective Particle Swarm Optimizer Hybridized with Scatter Search,” Springer-Verlag, LNAI 4293, pp. 294-304, 2006.
19. J.Kennedy, R.Eberhart, ?Tutorial on Particle Swarm Optimization?, IEEE Swarm Intelligence Symposium 2005, USA, 2005.
20. Kennedy, J., and Mendes, R., ?Population structure and Particle Swarm Performance?, Proc. of the 2002 World Congress on Computational Intelligence, 2002.
21. Xiaodong Li, Particle Swarm Optimization: An introduction and its recent developments, A tutorial prepared for SEAL‘06, 2006.
22. Marco A. Montes de Oca, Universit´e Libre de Bruxelles (U.L.B.), Particle Swarm Optimization: Introduction, 2007.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyTHE SUPPORTIVE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY BUSINESS INCUBATORS ON SUSTAINABLE GROWTH AND
PROFITABILITY OF SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES
English136142Vinay. K. BEnglish A. N. Santosh KumarEnglishToday, the entrepreneurial, knowledge-based enterprises are prime indicators of economic growth which
need special business development services. Since, no consensus has been reached yet on the most
effective means of providing such support or on the methods for evaluating the performance of these
services. However, the support required for its sustainability, growth and profitability is being provided
with the establishment of Technology Business Incubators. The increase in number of small enterprise
development strategies reflects the growing importance of the small and medium enterprises (SME‘s). In
particular, the Technology Business Incubators are emerging foci of entrepreneurial assistance program
and their supportive role concerns the formation and promotion of viable enterprises. It is argued that the
incubators are innovative instruments that are increasingly considered to be of prime importance in the
development and promotion of competitive small firms. This paper aims to assess the supportive role of
Technology Business Incubators on sustainability, growth and profitability concerns of SME‘s.
EnglishEDP, profitability, sustainability.1. INTRODUCTION
Today Small and Medium Enterprises (SME‘s) are the prime source for creation of employment, incubating business ideas and main driver for innovation but technological obsolescence is a major obstacle as far as sustainability and growth of SME‘s is concerned. Identifying Technology, its acquisition, transfer, adoption and upgradation are the key issues of these SME‘s. The SME‘S in India has emerged as the most dynamic and vibrant sector in recent years with the encouragement from the Government when a centrally sponsored scheme known as ?District Industries Centre‘ was launched throughout the country with an aim to provide necessary services. But the great challenge is its survival and to create a place for themselves in the global community chain where advanced manufacturing methods are predominant. To overcome the challenges of Technology obsolescence, competitive global market and sustain the growth of SME‘S sector, entrepreneur need to be creative, innovative, well acquainted with the latest technology, sophisticated machines and equipments. Entrepreneur finds it very difficult to cope up with the fast technological changes apart from other challenges with limited resources available at their hands. Particularly when it comes to Research and Development for Technology Up gradation with the investments and uncertainties involved they have to look forward to Technical and Research Institutions and universities [1].
2. SME’S IN INDIA – A VISION
Performance of SME‘s in India has been constantly out-performing large scale enterprises in terms of production and employment. Basic accent of India‘s policy for SME‘S sector has been defensive, aiming to protect from dynamics of the competitive growth. The process of change has accelerated in most recent years due to macroeconomic transformation both in house as well globally. In the present situation the two big global economic forces which are competing for world attention are (a) the advent of a new economy due to information and communication technology and (b) due to globalization increased instability and uncertainty. With the formation of WTO, a new trade environment is emerging and a large number of items are now under Open General License (OGL). In the recent times there has been reduction in import duties. These have thrown a challenge before the SME sector which warranted them to be more competitive and efficient to face the international competition successfully. Further, consumer‘s choice, preference and their quality are varying a lot. To cope up with these changes, the SME sector will have to undergo many internal and external transformations.
3. NEED OF TECHNOENTREPRENEURSHIP The role of Techno - Entrepreneurship assumes an important place in the fast changing environment. The science based entrepreneurial engineer aims at technical intervention like invention, innovation, planning and management organization to exhibit to produce new products/services and market that can recognize as valuable by society [2]. Necessity of developing creative design, methodology, or several of them to suit individual idiosyncrasy is unquestionable. Developing creativity needs insight, to develop necessary insight, it is only one method of presenting the principles from known to unknown, from old concepts to new one, involving several laws develops confidence in meeting uncertainty with initiative and originality [3]. Educators has to overcome the traditional disciplinary barriers for what it is a multi-disciplinary approach with heavy emphasis on economic, business and entrepreneurial skills [4]. Engineer who learns sufficient science and engineering acquire capabilities to know why and how of various theories and can design products and services based on their knowledge and skill competencies [5]. Techno - Entrepreneurs have received increased attention over the past decade and now recognized their ability to develop units that generate high wage employment and high levels of wealth [6]. A technologically vibrant, internationally competitive SME‘S sector should be encouraged to emerge, to make a sustainable contribution to national economy [7]. A close relationship exists between enterprise and entrepreneurship. While not exactly the same, they merge significantly in an educational context with respect to the specific learner attributes they pursue and the development of which they treat as key objectives. Major divergence between the two exists in, on the part of entrepreneurship education, the reliance on venture creation [8]. The task, therefore, is to create a culture where Science and Technology people will seek to create employment not only for themselves but also for others.
4. TECHNOLOGY BUSINESS INCUBATORS Entrepreneurs and successful start-up companies contribute to industrial growth and economic wealth incubators have become an important source of help for entrepreneurs wanting to beat the odds and jumpstart their businesses [9].
Earlier business incubators used to focus on new technology, light manufacturing, and services. Today‘s incubators target diverse industries such as biotechnology, clean energy, ceramics technologies, the internet, software and telecommunications, high technology, and the arts [10]. Incubators have variously been used to combat unemployment, raise rates of enterprise formation, upgrade the technological standing of firms in a given locality, commercialize university research, and assist socially disadvantaged groups. In a small number of cases, incubation applies a way of protecting legitimate entrepreneurship from criminal activity. However, job creation is by far the most common goal of incubation schemes [11].
Various enabling factors crucial for the success of incubating mechanisms in a country are RandD expenditures, new technologies, RandD, Resources, Technology, Production, Costs and Socio-economic conditions. Start up entrepreneurs need various support services like marketing, business facilitation, technical expertise, resources for financing and business management during their initial phase to enhance its survival. Incubators provide a conducive atmosphere and a range of critical support services and needed facilities to nurture and support a start-up. Various mechanisms like science parks, technology parks, innovation centres, Technology Business Incubators (TBI‘s) are being experimented world over to catalyse growth of technology based new enterprises.
5. TECHNOLOGY BUSINESS INCUBATORS IN INDIA – AN OVERVIEW The Techno – Entrepreneurship initiative was started by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) in 1985 through the establishment of Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Parks (STEP), which provide a reorientation approach to innovation and entrepreneurship involving education, training, research, finance, and management. The concept revolved around the creation of STEP in academic institutions / research lab of excellence with an objective of opening doors of self employment for young Science and Technology graduates. Technology Business Incubator is the next initiative to incubate knowledge-based start-ups into commercially viable products / services by providing specialized guidance, critical support services, innovative financing and networking support with supporting environment. World wide around 3,000 plus incubators of various types are in operation, in which US alone over 800 incubators, Europe has about 700 incubators, Germany has around 300 incubators.
Among the developing countries, China leads with 100 incubators while In India, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, has initiated promotion of Technology Business Incubation and in addition several other ministry‘s and private players have established TBI‘s which is nearing 100. The TBI‘s are aimed at achieving the following objectives:
Enterprise and entrepreneurship development: An appropriate tool for economic development by promoting technology/knowledge-based businesses, culture of technopreneurship and creation of value added new jobs;
Technology commercialization: To provide a platform for speedy commercialization of the technologies developed in the institutes to reach the end-users;
To provide an interfacing and networking mechanism between academic, RandD institutions, industries and financial institutions;
To provide value addition through its services provided to its tenants as well as to the existing technology dominated SME‘s
To provide RandD for industry: It also enables small industry to take up RandD activity and the technology upgradation activities.
6. SUPPORTIVE ROLE OF TBI IN NURTURING SME’S For TBI to play a supportive role for sustainability, growth and profitability of SME‘s, there is a need to analyse the specific expectation of SME‘s from Technical Institutions and the input required by the Technical Institutions, related to TBI‘s. Since SME‘s has the limited resources and therefore,can not afford to have their own RandD. Hence entrepreneur looks forward technical institutions to get their problems sorted out which inturn needs to impart entrepreneurial awareness and more industrial exposure to realize the industrial problems and requirements of industry. Entrepreneurial awareness in the engineering institution‘s curriculum needs to be mandatory. Entrepreneurial Development Program (EDP) should be practically oriented with industrial orientation and can be carried out as per the following five steps as shown in Table 1
Entrepreneurial awareness and Entrepreneurial Development Program may yield the following outcomes.
To be well versed with production line and to operate the process.
To guide operational staff at different level of shop floor.
To know the choice of raw materials, their specifications, availability, quality, source of supply price etc
. To know the product quality requirements and measures for improving it.
To study the marketing channels, distribution networks, agency practices.
To get well versed with taxation and other regulatory rules.
To be inline with bureaucratic regulations, external environmental turbulence.
To identify the opportunity and avail opportunity benefits.
To follow five ?P‘ principles i.e. Planning, Preparation, Persuasion, Patience, and Perfection for running industrial venture successfully.
To be physically and mentally strong to face competition from the similar units and business rivals.
7. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
Indian SME‘S face several problems despite its importance in industrialisation strategy and potential for employment generation. Technological obsolescence and ineffective technology management are some of the reasons. Therefore, to overcome the barriers in the development SME‘s the industrial organizations needs not only engineers with technical knowledge but engineers with entrepreneurial skills, effective communication and soft skills, ability to lead and work effectively in a multidisciplinary team. In fast changing world, wherein technology is leapfrogging beyond the speed of light and product lifetime cycle is shrinking, Techno - Entrepreneurship has taken central position for economic growth of a nation and in the process of industrialization through innovations, product development, and improvement in productivity. To cater the need for effective business support TBI is essential and it provides a good platform for the convergence of support mechanisms towards a synergetic third generation system. Hence, a systematically designed Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP) can be can be more constructive in imparting engineers with entrepreneurial fold and inculcating them to take the benefit of TBI‘s. In next 10 years, knowledge-based industries are likely to acquire greater prominence and SME‘s are likely to come up in the industry. The role of the Government is to facilitate support to SME‘s in the era of globalization and to focus on providing human resource development support along with establishment of suitable support mechanisms and nurture technology oriented enterprises. Some of the suggestions where there is a need to cater includes;
Availability of Technology database.
Panel of experts and consultants for guidance and assistance for SME‘s.
Organizing workshops, exhibitions and seminars to increase SME awareness of new technologies.
Periodical assessment of SME sectors. Strengthening interaction between SME‘s with RandD sectors and academic Institutions.
Increase Venture Capital funding and facilitate access to venture capital scheme and other innovative financing mechanisms.
Effective networking with other RandD institutions for making the TBI a focal point for technology.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2087http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2087
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesPREDICTING SOIL EROSION BY WATER AND ITS MANAGEMENT IN THE LATERITIC AREAS OF
WESTERN RAMPURHAT I BLOCK (BIRBHUM, WEST BENGAL)
English143161Sandipan GhoshEnglish Tapas DuloiEnglishEnvironmental geography and environmental geomorphology severally emphasize that unless loss of soil
is checked, it would amount to a great loss for mankind. Present investigation was conducted to assess the
present status of soil loss and sediment yield in the selected adjoining lateritic areas (Cainozoic upland of
laterites) of Rampurhat I block, Birbhum district (West Bengal) and Shikaripara block, Dumka district
(Jharkhand). The field study revealed that different forms of water erosion are operated there in varying
magnitude. In particular rainsplash erosion, sheet and inter-rill erosion (overland flow), rill and gully
erosion are considered here as major forms of water erosion. The soil series of Bhatina, Raspur,
Jhinjharpur and Maldiha are shallow, light-textured and gravelly with very low moisture retention
capacity, low pH and low amount of clay and organic matter. These soils (remained under barren waste
land with sparse bushy vegetation) are susceptible to moderate-severe rain-splash, rill and gully erosion,
and should be kept under thick vegetative cover and afforestation. To understand and prevent the soil
erosion at first we should make some precise quantitative estimation of soil loss. In order that, taking
small catchments and slope facets as ideal geomorphic unit, the present study is centrally focused on the
charteristics of lateritic soil, the empirical quantification of soil loss and implementation of low-cost soil
conservation measures.
EnglishLaterites; rain-splash detachment; rill erosion; inter-rill erosion; USLE and soil conservation1.0 INTRODUCTION
Laterisation process itself is a form of soil degradation and soil erosion by water is very much associated with the lateritic soils of West Bengal and Jharkhand. Large tracts of waste land are remained without thick forest cover and at places hard indurated laterites are exposed in the border region of Rampurhat I block, Birbhum district (West Bengal) and Shikaripara block, Dumka district (Jharkhand). Doing extensive field survey of 65.84 km2 area of study, we have found that it is worthwhile to indentify and estimate the different forms of soil erosion because a separate conservation practice is required to check each form of water erosion. It is observed that low water-holding capacity, low clay content, low percentage of organic matter, weak sub-soils structure, deforestation, grazing, peak volume of overland flow, high erosivity of monsoonal rainfall, surface crusting etc. favours rain-splash erosion, sheet erosion (inter-rill erosion), rill erosion and gully erosion.
This research article emphasizes upon firstly, the crucial features of lateritic soil which influence high erodibility of soil; secondly, on prediction of soil loss and thirdly, on suggestive low-cost conservation practices of degraded lateritic waste land and forest tracts.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The ultimate goal is the fruitful application of pedo-geomorphic principles and quantitative techniques in the analysis of soil erosion and conservation. So to achieve this goal, the chief objectives are considered as follows:
1. Find out the important features of lateritic soil which influence soil erodibility,
2. Identify and locate the dominant forms of water erosion,
3. Quantify those forms of erosion through mathematical models,
4. Mapping the spatial variation of soil erosion, and
5. Suggest some eco-friendly low-cost conservation practices to control soil loss.
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Quantitative and process-from approaches are taken into consideration to fulfill the above objectives of this pedo-geomorphic study.
Frequent field observations, recording and interpretation are three fundamental pillars of soil erosion study. This study has both an applied aspect and environmental concern. The sub-basins and slope facets are taken as the geomorphic unit of investigation (spatial scale) and steady time scale is taken into consideration. In the pre-field session district resource map of Birbhum district (Geological Survey of India, 2001), district planning map (NATMO, 2001), topographical sheet of Survey of India (72 P/12/NE, 1979), IRS 1-D LISS III image (2001), SRTM data (2006), numerous literatures, reports, bulletins and books are collected and consulted regularly. We have taken much help of technical bulletins of National Bureau of Soil Survey (NBSS) and Land Use Planning of India. The field survey is completed with the help of Garmin G.P.S. and Abney Level. The soil samples and related geomorphic data are collected from field work. The baseline map of the study area is prepared using MapInfo 9.0 software. Raw image processing, georeferencing, sub setting of area of interest, image enhancement, and output of thematic raster and vector overlays are done in ERDAS 9.1 and ArcGis 9.2 softwares.
4.8 CONCLUSION
The study area is covered with Rajmahal basalt, china clay and mostly laterite. Hard massive basalt is of Jurassic to Cretaceous age, soft and medium hard laterite is of Cainozoic age and china clay is of Late Pleistocene to Early Eocene age. The region is a small portion of inter-fluvial lateritic tracts (eastern fringe of Rajmahal Hills) between Brahmani and Dawarka rivers. The region experiences a hot-dry and sub-humid climate. This geo-climatic and hydrologic condition favours the formation of low-level laterites which is also currently took place in this region. The presence of iron-oxides, hard duricrust, rich kaolinitic clay and plant fossils at different depth are the glimpses of deep chemical weathering of multi-cyclic laterites of ?Rarh Plain‘ of West Bengal. Since the morphometric and hydrological variables do not work in isolation but as closely inter-related phenomena. Some of the variables account for the major amount of explained variation of erosional landforms in this particular geo-climatic condition. These are Constant of Channel Maintenance, source points, Basin Relief, Ruggedness Number, Lemniscate Ratio, drainage texture, maximum valley-side slope and mean ground slope (based on Principal Component Analysis of thirteen variables of seventeen 3rd and 2nd order basins). From this study we can say that there will be more success in soil conservation if we give separate attention in each type of soil erosion (categorization of erosion risk areas). In brief, soil erosion ranges from 0.46-3.64 kg/m2 /year in this region. Again when we consider developing regional economy, the measures of soil conservation should be based on low-cost equipments, sustainable structures and local people participation. Therefore, to control severe soil loss and to enhance the soil loss tolerance level, we can adopt those conservation practices particularly in this lateritic area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author expresses his great profound gratitude to the Head of Department of Geography (2009-2011), Dr. Sanat Kumar Guchhait, Reader of Post-graduate Dept. of Geography and Dr. N. C. Jana, Reader of Postgraduate Dept. of Geography, The University of Burdwan, for their encouragement, co-operation and valuable advices, commitment of time throughout the course of this work from checking, examining and compilation of information to the summing up of this article in spite of their demanding academic and administrative schedule. The author wises to express his deep sense of gratitude to senior M.Phil. scholar, Mr. Manas Nath for his patience and help during the field survey and Miss. Tithy Majhi (Part-time Lecturer, Department of Geography, Maharajadhiraj Uday Chand Women‘s College, Burdwan) for her suggestion and help during the analysis of soil samples and article writings.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2088http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20881. Bagchi, K.N. and Mukherjee, K.N. (1983): Diagnostic Survey of West Bengal, Calcutta University, Calcutta
2. Billi, P. and Dramis, F. (2003). Geomorphological Investigation on Gully Erosion in the Rift Valley and the Northern Highlands of Ethiopia, Catena Vol. 50, Elsevier Science
3. Blanco, H. and Lal, R. (2008). Principles of Soil Conservation and Management, Springer, Dordrecht
4. Chatterjee, A.B., Gupta, Avijit and Mukhopadhyay, P.K. (1970). West Bengal (ed.), Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta
5. Chesworth, Ward (2008). Encyclopedia of Soil Science (ed.), Springer, Dordrecht
6. Chorley, Richard J. (1969). Water, Earth and Man (ed.), Methuen, London
7. Chow, V. T. (1964). Handbook of Applied Hydrology (ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York
8. Cooke, R. U. and Doornkamp, J. C. (1987). Geomorphology in Environmental Management, Clarendon Press, Oxford
9. Dury, G. H. (1976). River and River Terraces (ed.), MacMillan, London
10. Gerrard, A. J. (1981). Soils and Landforms: An Integration of Geomorphology and Pedology, George Allen and Unwin, London
11. Ghosh, S. and Maji, T. (2011). Pedogeomorphic analysis of Soil Loss in the Lateritic Region of Rampurhat I block of Birbhum district, West Bengal and Shikaripara block of Dumka district, Jharkhand, International Journal of Environmental Sciences, Volume 1, No. 7, Integrated Publishing Association
12. Hudson, Norman (1984). Soil Conservation, English Language Book Society, London
13. Jog, S. R. (1995). Indian Geomorphology, volume 1 (ed.), Rawat Publications, Jaipur
14. Knighton, David (1998). Fluvial Forms and Processes, Arnold publishers, London
15. Kumar, Anil and Pandey, R. N. (1989). Wasteland Management in India, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi
16. McFarlane, M. J. (1976). Laterite and Landscape, Academic Press, London
17. Morgan, R. P. C. (1986). Soil Erosion and Conservation, Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow
18. Morgan, R.P.C. and Rickson, R.J. (1995). Slope Stabilization and Erosion Control (ed.), E and FN SON publication, London
19. Panniza, Mario (1996). Environmental Geomorphology, Elsevier, Amsterdam 20. Sachetzal, R. and Anderson, S. (2005). Soils: Genesis and Geomorphology, Cambridge University Press, London
21. Sarkar, D., Nayak, D.C., Dutta, D. and Dhyani, B.L. (2005). Soil Erosion of West Bengal, National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, NBSS Publ. 117, Nagpur
22. Sarkar, D., Nayak, D.C., Dutta, D. and Gajbhiye, K.S. (2007). Optimizing Land Use of Birbhum District (West Bengal) Soil Resource Assessment, National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, NBSS Publ. 130, Nagpur
23. Singh, S., Sharma, H.S. and De, S.N (2004). Geomorphology and Environment (ed.), ACB Publications, Kolkata
24. Stallings, J. H. (1957). Soil Conservation, Prentice-Hall Publication, London
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesSECURE COMMUNICATION USING A HYPERCHAOS BASED SIGNAL TRANSMISSION SCHEME
English162167S ManimaranEnglish V BalachandranEnglish G KandibanEnglishA new hyperchaos based signal transmission scheme is proposed to transmit digital information signal by
using the conventional synchronization of hyperchaos and digital transmission approaches. In this scheme
the two different hyperchaotic system is used to generate an analog key after thresholding a different
hyperchaotic signal. This signal along with the information digital signal is used to generate the
transmitted signal. Then the transmitted signal is masked by the two different hyperchaotic signals of the
transmitter and is transmitted through the channel to the receiver as well as used to drive the transmitter
hyperchaotic systems using the concept of self-modulation. At the receiver end, suitable feedback loop is
constructed for unmasking and then the subtraction rule is used to recover the information signal. By
considering appropriate circuit configuration, the experimental results are presented.
EnglishHyperchaotic communication, Hyperchaotic modulation, Signal transmission, Performance analysisINTRODUCTION
There has been a great deal of research on hyperchaotic communication system. Following these approaches, different methods have been developed in order to make the content of a message using hyperchaotic signals1 . The problem of unmasking the information message from the different two hyperchaotic carrier signals, different approaches for designing cryptosystems based on hyperchaos have been recently introduced2 . In these schemes both conventional cryptographic method and synchronization of hyperchaotic systems are combined so that the level of security of the transmitted hyperchaotic signal is enhanced. So, presently, we have shown the effective usage of different two hyperchaotic system to generate hyperchaotic digital transmission signal by employing suitable thresholding mechanism on one of the state variables of the different two hyperchaotic systems at the transmitter. Then the modulo-three addition (op-amp adder) is performed between the digital information signal and the threshold hyperchaotic digital transmission signal. A small amplitude version of the transmitted signal is further masked by the different two hyperchaotic signal of the transmitter and is transmitted through the channel to the receiver as well as used to drive the transmitter hyperchaotic system using the concept of self-modulation3 . For receiver, at the receiver module upon synchronization, the modulo-subtraction is performed with the regenerated hyperchaotic transmission analog key signals with the reproduced transmitted signal to recover the digital information signal.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND RESULTS The actual circuit realization of the different two hyperchaotic system based on signal transmission scheme for the case of autonomous third order Chua‘s circuit and simple 4D hyperchaotic oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 1.
CONCLUSIONS
We present here a new hyperchaos based secure communication system by combining the strength of conventional signal transmission scheme and hyperchaos based communication methods. Further the hyperchaotic signals from the same transmitter and receiver pair have been utilized to transmission and receiving the information signal respectively. The security of the system is potentially increased due to the opamp arithmetic operation between the digital information signal and the hyperchaotic digital transmission signal as op-amp addition operation mask the information of both the hyperchaotic transmitter and the message efficiently. The effect of perturbing factor like channel noise and parameter mismatch is investigated and their corresponding performance analysis are discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2089http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20891. Kennedy M P and Kolumban G, Signal processing, 80 (2000) 1307.
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10. Kandiban G and Balachandran V, India J Pure & Appl Phys, 47 (2009) 346.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEFFECT OF CERVICAL SPINE MOBILIZATION IN THE TREATMENT OF MECHANICAL NECK PAIN-A
RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL
English168176Anupama PrabhuEnglish Ravi Shankar ReddyEnglish Ganesh BMEnglishBackground: Mechanical neck pain (MNP) is the most common type of neck pain having its occurrence
in general population. In mechanical neck pain there is reduction in mobility of either a single segment or
multiple segments of cervical and thoracic spine in association with pain. This study attempted to
determine the effect of cervical mobilization in patients with mechanical neck pain.
Methods: 28 subjects were recruited and randomized into experimental and control group. The subjects
in the experimental group received moist heat for 15 minutes, thoracic thrust manipulations and cervical
mobilization and control group received moist heat for 15 minutes and thoracic thrust manipulation. Both
the groups received intervention for a period of five sessions. The outcome measures Visual analog scale
(VAS), cervical range of motion (CROM) and neck disability index (NDI) were measured before the
intervention and following five sessions of intervention in both the groups.
Results: Pre and post comparison within the groups showed a significant difference in all the outcome
measures i.e. VAS, NDI and CROM in both experimental and control groups (p0.05).
Conclusion: Both cervical mobilization and thoracic thrust mobilization was effective in the management
of MNP. Cervical mobilization was not superior to thoracic thrust manipulation alone in the management
of MNP.
EnglishMobilization, Mechanical neck painNTRODUCTION
Mechanical neck pain (MNP) is the most common type of neck pain having its occurrence in general population, accounting for 25% of all outpatient physical therapy visits, and resulting in considerable economic burden.1-3 It has been estimated that in any six months period 54% of adults will experience neck pain with approximately 5% having substantial activity limitation due to their neck disorder.4 Physical therapy is often the first treatment approach for patients with neck pain.2 MNP is defined as generalized neck pain and/or shoulder pain with symptoms provoked by neck postures, neck movements, or palpation of the neck musculature.2,3 Pathology remains obscure, but has been asserted to involve mechanical dysfunction of the spine, particularly zygapophyseal joints and related mechanical structures with clinical presentation of reduction in mobility of either a single or multiple segments of cervical spine in association with pain.5 Because of the biomechanical relationship between the cervical and thoracic spine, disturbance in joint mobility of one segment can serve as a contributor to the development of disorders in either segments.1 Physical therapy interventions in the management of mechanical neck pain include manual therapy, exercises, massage, thermotherapy and electrotherapy which aim to keep the neck moving as normally as possible.3,6 However, robust evidence to support these strategies is lacking. Spinal manual therapy techniques are commonly used in the management of musculoskeletal pain of spinal origin it has a pain relieving effect and results in more rapid restoration of function.7 Manual therapy interventions are one treatment strategy appropriate for patients with mechanical neck pain.1,2 Possible mechanisms to explain the effects of manual therapy include direct effects on articular/periarticular structures, neurophysiological mechanisms and a nonspecific placebo effect.7 Mobilization is passive movement performed in such a manner that it is at all times within the ability of the patient to prevent the movement if he or she so choose.8 Manipulation is a technique performed at a speed such that it has taken place before the person on whom it is performed is able to prevent it.8 Decreased mobility in the thoracic spine has been shown to be related to the presence of neck pain symptoms.3 Recently, evidence has begun to emerge for the use of manual therapy, specifically, thrust mobilization/manipulation procedures, directed at the thoracic spine in people with MNP.1-3,6 However, there is no literature containing information addressing effect of cervical mobilization with thoracic thrust manipulation in patients with MNP. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of cervical spine mobilization in addition to thoracic thrust manipulation in the management of mechanical neck pain.
METHODOLOGY
Subjects: A sample of 28 patients with a diagnosis of mechanical neck pain by a primary care physician were recruited from an outpatient clinic and randomly allocated to an experimental group and control group using block randomization method. Patients whose age ranged between 18 and 30 with mean age 23.17 ±0.6 with a diagnosis of mechanical neck pain for more than three months were recruited. Patients who had one or more of the following conditions such as: contraindication to manipulation, history of whiplash or cervical surgery, diagnosis of fibromyalgia syndrome, having undergone spinal manipulative therapy in the previous two months or loss of standing balance were excluded from the current study. Explanation and informed consent were obtained from each subject. This study was approved by the ethical review board of the university.
Outcome measures:
For the baseline examination and the subsequent follow-ups, each subject reported his/her intensity of neck pain by the Visual Analog Scale (VAS). Neck Disability index (NDI) was used to measure the disability of the patient. For objective measurements, subjects‘ cervical range of motion was measured by the cervical range of motion (CROM) device. The neck ranges were measured while patient sitting with feet rested on the ground, their hips and knees positioned at a right angle, and their back against a chair. The CROM device was set on the patients‘ head so that all three inclinometers for 3 cardinal planes read zero. The patients were instructed to perform a maximally active movement in each direction. Six conventional movements of the cervical spine were measured in order from flexion, extension, right lateral flexion, left lateral flexion, right rotation and left rotation.
PROCEDURE ]
Experimental group received cervical mobilization for 5 sessions (2/week), moist heat therapy for 15 min over the painful site and thoracic thrust manipulation. For Cervical mobilization patient was made to lie prone with neck slightly flexed and hands resting below the forehead. Grade III and Grade IV central Posterior-Anterior oscillatory mobilization targeted at spinous process was given as described by Maitland et al. Three sets of mobilization were given with one minute rest between each set. The level of cervical mobilization was determined according to clinical assessment (which includes movement analysis and palpation) by an experienced physiotherapist who had post-graduate training in spinal manipulative therapy and with at least 5 years of clinical experience in the management of neck pain patients with manual procedures. Moist heat was applied to neck and upper back by making the patient sit comfortably on a chair with head resting on a pillow and hands under the forehead for 15 – 20 minutes. For Thoracic thrust manipulation patient was made to lie prone with hands by his/her side manipulative physical therapist stood alongside the patient with right hand between spine and right scapula and left hand between spine and left scapula. Pressure transmission was through lateral surface of hypothenar eminence near pisiform bone. Ulnar border of each hand was placed in a line across the patient‘s back in parallel lines. Therapist‘s forearms were directed across the patient‘s back at right angles to the vertebral column, pisiform bone tucked into the space between paravertebral muscles and the spinous process. Slack was taken in the soft tissues by applying both PA and rotatory pressures. Rotary postero- anterior intervertebral pressure technique described by Maitland et al was used. Maximum of two attempts were performed at each level. Control group and received 5 sessions (2/week) of thoracic thrust together with the moist heat therapy for 15-20 minutes. All subjects were evaluated and assessed at baseline, immediately after 5 sessions of treatment by a blinded assessor.
Data analysis: Data was statistically analyzed using SPSS package (version 16.0) software. A normal distribution of quantitative data was assessed by means of the Shapiro–Wilk test. Medians and inter quartile ranges were calculated for each variable. Baseline features were compared between groups by using Mann Whitney U-test. Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to assess Pre-post comparison of NDI, ROM and VAS within the groups.Mann-Whitney U-test was used to analyse the change scores of Pre and post NDI, ROM and VAS between the groups. p value ≤ 0.05 was considered significant.
RESULTS
Shapiro-Wilk test for normality was checked and showed that data did not follow normal distribution. Hence, non-parametric tests were used to analyze the outcome variables. Our study mainly comprised of young population (23.17 ±0.6). No significant differences were found for gender and age between groups, so both groups were comparable in all respects at the start of the study (Table 1). Mann Whitney U-test was used to compare the baseline variables. No statistically significant difference in baseline levels of pain, range of motion and disability were detected between the groups (Table 2). Wilcoxon Signed rank test was used to analyze within group significance of outcome variables. There was a statistically significant difference between the pre-intervention and post-intervention scores in both cervical mobilization and thoracic thrust mobilization groups in terms of pain, range and disability (p≤0.05) (Table 3 and 4). Mann Whitney U test was used to analyze statistically significant difference between cervical mobilization and thoracic thrust mobilization groups, no significant difference between the groups was found for any of the outcome measure (p>0.05) (Table 5).
DISCUSSION
The results of our study demonstrated improvement in short term pain, cervical mobility and disability scores in both the groups. There was no significant difference between the groups for any of the outcome measures. Reduction in neck pain from thoracic spine manipulation intervention may be attributed to a restoration of normal biomechanics to this region, potentially lowering mechanical stresses and improving the distribution of forces in the cervical spine.1Decreased mobility in the thoracic spine was found to be associated with subjective complaints of neck pain.1,22 Disturbance in biomechanical link between the thoracic and cervical spine leads to abnormal distribution of forces in the cervical spine.1 Another mechanism could be that the thoracic thrust manipulative procedure was found to induce a reflex inhibition of pain or reflex muscle relaxation by modifying the discharge of proprioceptive group I and II afferents.3 which might have had an effect on improving pain, range and disability in both the groups. Superficial heating provided by moist heat has been found to decrease muscle spasm and improve function. Physiological effects include analgesia, increased flexibility of collagenous tissue, decreased spindle sensitivity and reduction of muscle spasm through selective decrease in excitation of nociceptive nerve endings.13
Range of motion
Biomechanical link between cervico-thoracic spine may be one reason why thoracic spine manipulation is beneficial.3Thrust manipulation reduces pain and spasm while increasing mobility through changes in muscle electrical activity, reducing muscle spasm and increasing inter-segmental joint play.3
Pain
It has been suggested that stimulation of large diameter, low threshold mechanoreceptors by spinal manual therapy may produce inhibition at the spinal cord level as per predictions of the gate control theory.7It has been speculated that immediate hypoalgesia following manual technique is related to the stimulation of descending inhibitory mechanisms.1
Disability
Delay in activation of deep cervical flexors and heightened activity of superficial muscles in MNP has its implications on the muscles capacity to generate torque, which can impair the function of the cervical spine.4 Cervical mobilization and thoracic thrust has shown to facilitate deep neck flexor muscles with a decreased co-activation of superficial neck flexors.7The reduction in disability obtained in this study can also be attributed to the improvement in range of motion and pain observed following treatment in both the groups. It is often believed that manual therapists must accurately identify a segmental impairment through careful palpation of vertebral movement or alignment and, once identified, treat the particular impairment by applying a specific amount of force to a single segment in a specific direction.3 However, all patients in our study received identical central PA cervical mobilization regardless of the clinical presentation. While this may seem counterintuitive to some philosophies, based on substandard levels of reliability with palpation techniques,11and studies suggesting non significant differences between the preferred and random mobilization in neck pain,5 we selected to deliver one specific technique to all patients. In cervical mobilization group there was no additional improvement seen when compared to control group, the reason could be due to the age group recruited in our study consisted of young individuals; problems‘ pertaining to neck pain here is less likely to be due to joint dysfunction and more of muscular dysfunction so cervical mobilization may not have showed an additional effect in experimental group. Recent studies have demonstrated that mobilization/manipulation techniques directed at impaired motion segments were no more beneficial than the treatment of randomly selected segments.1Which is in consensus with our study which shows thoracic thrust manipulation applied remote to the cervical spine have had indirect effect over the cervical area. The mechanism of action of cervical mobilization is similar to that of thoracic thrust manipulation hence the effect must have been neutralized. In this study grade III mobilization was used more predominantly than grade IV due to the lower pain thresholds in subjects, use of grade IV mobilization results in greater improvement in range as it address restriction more than pain. Studies have shown cervical spine manipulation to have immediate effect in reducing pain and increasing cervical ROM when compared to cervical mobilization, which has a delayed effect.5In a longer duration, cervical mobilization yielded similar mean reductions in pain and disability as cervical manipulation.5 A recent study conducted to compare the effect of cervical manipulation versus cervical mobilization has shown that time taken for recovery of neck pain and disability to be more in cervical mobilization group than cervical manipulation group.23Short term follow up in our study would have masked the effects of cervical mobilization.
The limitations of the study were that there was no long term follow up and all patients were recruited at one physiotherapy clinic, so the patients may not be representative of the general population.
CONCLUSION
Clinically meaningful and statistically significant improvement in both groups of patients over time suggests that cervical mobilization, as part of the thoracic spine thrust manipulation treatment did not influence the results of the treatment.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2090http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20901. Cleland A, Childs D, McRae M, Palmer A, Stowell T. Immediate effects of thoracic manipulation in patients with neck pain: a randomized clinical trial. Man Ther. 2005;10:127–135
2. Iglesias J, Penas C, Cleland J, Vega M. Thoracic spine manipulation for the management of patients with neck pain: A randomized clinical trial. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2009;39:20-27.
3. Iglesias J, Penas C, Cleland J, Sendin F, Cerro L, Sanchez R. Inclusion of thoracic spine thrust manipulation into an electrotherapy/thermal program for the management of patients with acute mechanical neck pain: A randomized clinical trial. Man Ther. 2009;14:306-313.
4. Shaun o‘ L, Falls D, Elliot J, Jull G. Muscle Dysfunction in cervical spine pain: Implications for assessment and management. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2009;39:324-333
5. Kanlayanaphotporn R, Adit C, Vachalathiti R. The immediate effects of Mobilization technique on pain and Range of Motion in patients presenting with unilateral neck pain: International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 173 RCT. Arch Phys Med Rehab. 2009;90:187- 92.
6. Cleland A, Glynn P, Whitman J, Eberhart S, MacDonald C, Childs J. Short-term effects of thrust versus nonthrust mobilization/manipulation directed at the thoracic spine in patients with neck pain: A randomized clinical trial. Phys Ther. 2007;87:431-440.
7. Sterling M, Jull G, Wright A. Cervical mobilization: Concurrent effects on pain, sympathetic nervous system activity and motor activity. Man Ther. 2001;6:72-81.
8. Maitland D, Hengeveld E, Banks K, English K. Maitland‘s Vertebral Manipulation. 7th ed.2005.
9. Gross R, Haines T, Goldsmith c, Santaguida L, McLaughlin M, Peloso P et al. Knowledge to Action: A challenge for neck pain treatment. Jour of Ortho and Spo Phys Ther. 2009;39:351-363.
10. Cleland JA, Childs JD, Fritz J, Whitman J, Eberhart SL. Development of a clinical prediction rule for guiding treatment of a subgroup of patients with neck pain: use of thoracic spine manipulation, exercise and patient education. Phys Ther. 2007a;87:9- 23.
11. Cleland J, Childs J, Fritz J, Whitman M. Inter-rater reliability of the history and physical examination in patients with mechanical neck pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2006;87:1388-95.
12. French SD, Cameron M, Walker BF, Reggars JW, Esterman AJ. Superficial heat or cold for low back pain. Cochrane database of systematic review.2006.
13. Vasudevan V. Physical rehabilitation in managing pain. International association for the study of pain.1997;5.
14. Bialosky JE, Bishop D M, Price D, Robinson E, George Z. the mechanisms of manual therapy in the treatment of musculoskeletal pain: A comprehensive model. Man Ther.2009;14:531-538.
15. Vernon H. Rehabilitation of the spine. In; John P Butler, editors. Pain and disability questionnaire in chiropractic rehabilitation. 2 nd edition. California: Williams and Wilkins.1996;57-59.
16. Moeti P, Marchetti G. Clinical outcome from mechanical intermittent cervical traction for the treatment of cervical radiculopathy: A case series. J Orthop Sports Phy Ther.2001;3:207-13.
17. Chan Ci, Clair A, Edmondston J. Validity of the Neck Disability Index and Disability Scale for measuring disability associated with chronic, non-traumatic neck pain. Man Ther. 2009;14:433-438.
18. Kelvin J. Assessment of published reliability studies for cervical spine Range of motion measurement tools. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2000; 23:180-195.
19. Michel T, Cecile S, Anne-Marie B. Criterion valisity of Cervical Range of Motion (CROM) device for Rotational range of motion on healthy adults: J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2006;36:242-248.
20. Tousignant M, de Bellefeuille L, O‘Donoughue S, Grahovac S. Criterion validity of the cervical range of motion (CROM) goniometer for cervical flexion and extension. Spine. 2000;25:324-330.
21. Tousignant M, Duclos E, Lafleche S, et al. Validity study for the cervical range of motion device used for lateral flexion in patients with neck pain. Spine. 2002;27:812- 817.
22. Cheung Lau, Wing Chiu, Hing Lam. The effectiveness of thoracic manipulation on patients with chronic mechanical neck pain International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 174 – A randomized controlled trial. Man Ther.2011;16:141-147.
23. Leaver M, Maher G, Herbert R D, Latimer J, McAuley H, Jull G et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing manipulation with mobilization for recent onset neck pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;91:1313- 1318.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareA STUDY OF LONG TERM PROGNOSIS IN CEREBRAL VENOUS THROMBOSIS
English177180Navendra Kumar GuptaEnglish Lalit ShrimaliEnglish Suchi GuptaEnglishBackground and Purpose: Very little is known about the long-term outcome of patients with cerebral
venous thrombosis (CVT), particularly regarding the risk of residual epilepsy and further thrombotic
events.
Methods : We retrospectively studied 35 patients with age range between 18 – 37 years who
were diagnosed CVT by clinical findings and confirmed by CT scan were followed up for mean of 21.8
months. Information on death, neurological status, seizures, recurrent CVT, other thrombotic events, and
subsequent pregnancies was obtained from direct observation and mail.
Results : 26 patients (74.28%) had no neurological sequelae while 9 patients ( 25.71%) had neurological
deficit with 1 of these 9 patients initially presented with isolated intracranial hypertension had blindness
due to optic atrophy ,while remaining 8 patients who had focal signs at presentation were left with various
cognitive or focal deficits .
Conclusion: CVT has an essentially good long term prognosis . The
frequency of long term epilepsy is low , suggesting that long-term
anticonvulsant treatment is not necessary in the majority of cases. A second
CVT or another thrombotic episode occurred in 12% of patients, stressing the need in a minority of cases
for long-term anticoagulation
EnglishCerebral venous thrombosis , neurological deficit , prognosis, pregnancy .INTRODUCTION
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVT) is a disease with potentially serious consequences, which usually affects young to middle aged people. Bouser 1 and Einhäupl 2 studied the outcome of patients with cerebral venous sinus thrombosis and showed that it may vary from complete recovery to permanent neurological deficits, as a natural course of the disease. Cerebral venous thrombosis for many years has been diagnosed mainly at autopsy. This has led to the description of a very rare and lethal disease characterized clinically by headache, papilledema, seizures, focal deficits, coma, death and pathologically by haemorrhagic infarction contraindicating the use of anti-coagulants according to Kalbag and Woolf 3 , Krayenbuhl 4 . The introduction and widespread use of cerebral angiography, CT of the brain and more recently MRI 5 has made early diagnosis of CVT possible and had completely modified knowledge of this condition 6, 7. Einhäupl2 and Brujin8 shown that treatment with anticoagulant drugs leads to a moderate benefit for patients with CVT compared with placebo treatment, but the mortality after treatment with anticoagulant drugs isstill 5% to 10%. Little is known about the long-term outcome of patients with CVT, since there is no study specifically dedicated to the subject. We report the long-term prognosis of 35 patients with CVT.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Patients who had been diagnosed CVT by detailed history including obstetric history, mode of delivery, onset of symptoms, clinical findings, neurological examination and by CT scan after their discharge from the hospital was followed up. They were specifically asked for presence of any of the following; headache, seizures, sensorimotor and visual disturbances. Data was also collected regarding recurrence of CVT, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism and any other health problem and hospitalization and subsequent pregnancies. Other relevant information regarding socio-economic status, use of oral contraceptives and other medications was also collected.
RESULTS The main characteristics along with suspected etiology are summarized in table 1. 20 (57.1%) patients received anticoagulants, initially heparin for few days (5 to 7 days) followed by oral anticoagulants for 3 to 4 months unless there was any contraindication for anticoagulation. These patients had haemorrhagic infarcts before treatment, however no worsening was observed after anticoagulation therapy. Anticonvulsant was used only in 20patients who had seizures in the acute stage; anticonvulsants were tapered off gradually after 3 to 4 months unless attacks persisted. The majority of the patients 26 of 35 had no neurological sequelae during follow up. 9 patients continued to suffer from various degrees of neurological impairment as summarized in table 2. Seizures were observed only in few patients (6 out of 20) who had seizures and focal signs in the acute stage. These seizures appeared in the first year after CVT. Regarding the thrombotic risk, 4 patients had recurrence of CVT within 12 months of the first episode. None of the 4 patients with recurrence was on long term anticoagulation.
DISCUSSION
The interval between delivery and onset of symptoms varied with about 90% of them developed symptoms within 7 to 10 days of delivery. This has been attributed to increased platelet adhesiveness during pregnancy and puerperium with peak increase by 10th postpartum day when the incidence of CVT is highest. Focal deficits such as hemiparesis and hemisensory disturbance, seizures, impairment of level of consciousness occur in one third to three quarters of cases. Predominant CT scan finding in all the patients was haemorhagic infarction. 60% of these patients had superior sagittal sinus thrombosis and other 40% had deep venous system and cortical veins involvement .Haemorrhagic infarction occurred in nearly all patients principally affecting the cortex and adjacent white matter . Viilringer9 observed that this is thought to be primarily due to elevated venous and capillary pressure caused by persistence of thrombosis. Haemoglobin was found to be less than 6.6 gm % in most of the patients, significantly low haemoglobin and packed cell volume are seen in most patients. 26 of 35 patients with CVT recovered with no permanent neurological impairment and 9 patients were left with neurological damage .This confirms that these two main modes of presentation carry a different prognosis regarding the risk of sequelae, as seen by International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 179 Bouser1 , Ameri6 , and Barinagarrementeria10. No worsening was observed in patients who received anticoagulant agents in the acute stage, as this was not controlled study it was difficult to conclude that the low rate of sequelae observed in the present study is related to the wide use of anticoagulants. The frequency of epilepsy beyond the acute attack was low in contrast to those in Nagpal RD11 study. However, the low risk of recurrent seizures and the very low risk of late recurrences, it is appropriate to maintain anticonvulsant therapy for a year and to taper off gradually thereafter. If seizure recurs, anticonvulsant should be given on a long term basis. Heparin is considered the treatment of first choice in patients with CVT by most experts, because it is safe and probably beneficial as also seen in Frey JL12 study. Nevertheless, it is clear that a substantial number of patients with CVT may recover completely without any treatment 1, 12.Thrombotic events occurred in 9 patients during follow up. When no cause is found, long term anticoagulation is not indicated after the initial CVT. However, if there is a recurrent CVT or another venous thromboembolic event, then long term anticoagulation is preferred. The systemic heparin treatment is not warranted unless there is an underlying thrombophillia or a known cause of venous thrombosis.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the long term prognosis of CVT in the study was essentially good. The risk of long standing epilepsy and of CVT recurrence were low in most cases, there is no need for long term anticoagulant or anticonvulsant treatment. In the absence of known thrombophillia, heparin treatment during further pregnancies does not seem to be required. It should, however be emphasized that this is a retrospective study and that prospective studies need to better assess the long term prognosis of patients with CVT.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2091http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20911. Bousser M, Russell RR. Cerebral venous thrombosis. London: WB Saunders, 1997.
2. Einhäupl KM, Villringer A, Haberl RL, et al. Clinical spectrum of sinus venous thrombosis. In: Einhäupl KM, Kempski O, Baethmann A, eds. Cerebral sinus thrombosis Experimental and clinical aspects. New York: Plenum Press, 1990; 149-156.
3. Kalbag RM, Woolf AL. Cerebral venous thrombosis. London, UK; Oxford University Press; 1967.
4. Krayenbuhl HA. Cerebral venous and sinus thrombosis. Clin Neurosurg; 1967; 14; 1 – 24.
5. Thron A, Wessel K, Linden D Scroth G. Superior sagittal sinus thrombosis; neuroradiological evaluation and clinical findings. J Neurol; 1986; 162; 779 – 785.
6. Ameri A, Bousser MG. Cerebral venous thrombosis .Neurol Clin; 1992; 10; 87 – 111.
7. Preter M . Langzietprognose bei Hirnvenen und Sinusthrombosen. Eine Katamnese von 77 patienten. Munich , Grrmany ; Ludwig – Maximillians –university ; 1995 . Doctoral thesis.
8. Bruijn de SFTM, Stam J, for the Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis Study Group. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of anticoagulant treatment with low-molecularweight heparin for cerebral sinus thrombosis. Stroke 1999; 30: 484-488.
9. Viilringer A, Mehraen S. Pathophysiological aspects of cerebral sinus venous thrombosis. J Neuroradiol; 1994; 21; 72 – 80.
10. Barinagarrementeria F, Cantu C, Arredondo H. Aseptic cerebral venous thrombosis; International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 03 issue 10 October 2011 180 proposed prognostic scale. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis; 1992; 2; 34 –39.
11. Nagpal RD. Dural sinus and cerebral venous thrombosis. Neurosurg Rev; 1983; 6; 155 – 160.
12. Frey JL, Muro GJ, McDougall CG, et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis: combined intrathrombus rtPA and intravenous heparin. Stroke 1999; 30:489-494.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyEXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF PERFORMANCE OF THE REFRIGERATOR CONDENSER BY VARYING THE
FINS SPACING OF THE CONDENSER
English181189S.Sharmas ValiEnglish M.L.S.Deva KumarEnglishThis paper describes the Experimental Analysis of performance of the refrigerator condenser by varying
the fins spacing of the condenser. Vapor compression machine is a refrigerator in which the heat removed
from the cold by evaporation of the refrigerant is given a thermal potential so that it can gravitate to a
natural sink by compressing the vapor produced. Majority of the refrigerators works on the Vapor
compression refrigeration system. The system consists of components like compressor, condenser,
expansion valve and evaporator. The performance of the system depends on the performance of all the
components of the system. The main objective of the present work is to increase the performance of the
condenser by increasing the heat transfer rate through the condenser. Heat transfer rate can be increased
by the extended surfaces called fins. Heat transfer rate is also depends on the spacing between the fins of
the condenser. In the present experimental work several condensers having different fins spacing are
taken. By using this parameter experiments are conducted on a domestic refrigerator of capacity 165liters.
The effect of varying the condenser fins spacing on the performance of refrigerator condenser is
calculated experimentally.
EnglishI INTRODUCTION
A condenser is a heat exchanger is which desuperheating of high temperature vapor changes the phase from vapor to liquid and sub cooling of condensate occurs. The condenser is an important device used in the high pressure side of a refrigeration system. Its function is to remove heat of hot vapor refrigerant discharged from the compressor. The hot vapor refrigerant consists of the heat absorbed by the evaporator and the heat of compression added by the mechanical energy of the compressor motor. The heat from the hot vapor refrigerant in a condenser is removed first by transferring it to the walls of the condenser tubes and then from the tubes to the condensing or cooling medium. The cooling medium may be air or water or a combination of the two. An air cooled condenser is one in which the removal of heat is done by air. It consists of steel or copper tubing through which the refrigerant flows. The size of tube usually ranges from 6mm to 18mm outside diameter, depending upon the size of the condenser. Generally copper tubes are used because of its excellent heat transfer ability. The condensers with steel tubes are used in ammonia refrigerating systems. Majority of the domestic refrigerators uses the natural convection air cooled condenser. In the present work refrigerator uses the natural convection air cooled condenser. In natural convection air cooled condenser, the heat transfer from the condenser coils to the air is by natural convection. As the air comes in contact with the warm condenser tubes, it absorbs heat from the refrigerant and thus the temperature of air increases. The warm air being lighter, rises up and cold air from below rises to take away the heat from the condenser. This cycle continues in natural convection air cooled condensers. This paper is an experimental approach to increase the heat to be rejected in the condenser as well as increase the performance of the system. If the condenser is having more fins spacing then the number of fins available at the condenser are less. Due to this surface area decreases. Therefore less heat transfer occurs. On the other hand if the condenser is having less fins spacing then the number of fins available at the condenser are more. Because of more number of fins surface area increases. There fore more heat transfer takes place through the condenser.
II.PRESENT WORK:
The procedure for the present work is as follows. In vapor compression refrigeration system basically there are two heat exchangers. One is to absorb the heat which is done by evaporator and another is to reject the heat absorbed at the evaporator and heat of compression added by the compressor which is done by the condenser. The work focuses on heat transfer rate through the condenser. This is only possible either by providing a fan or extending the surfaces. The extended surfaces are called fins. The rate of heat transfer in the condenser depends upon the number of fins attached to the condenser. The present work investigates the performance of the condenser using different fins spacing of the condenser. In the present domestic refrigerator the condenser fins spacing is 6mm. The performance of the condenser will also help to increase the cop of the system as the sub cooling region occurs at the exit of the condenser. In general domestic refrigerators have no fan at the condenser and hence extended surfaces like fins play a very vital role in the rejection of heat. In order to know the performance characteristics of the vapor compression refrigeration system pressure and temperature gauges are installed at each entry and exit of the component. Experiments are conducted on several condensers having different fins spacing. All the values of pressures and temperatures are tabulated. The domestic refrigerator selected for the present work has the following specifications.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2092http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20921. Seshimo Y, Fujii M. An experimental study of the performance of plate fin and tube heat exchangers at low Reynolds numbers. ASME/JSME Thermal Engineering Proceedings, ASME 1991;4:449–54.
2. Kays WM, London AL. Compact heat exchangers. New-York: McGraw-Hill, 1984
3. Granryd E, Conklin JC. Thermal performance analysisfor heat exchangers using nonazeotropic refrigerant mixtures.Heat Transfer in Advanced Energy Systems, ASME Winter Ann Mtg 1990;151:25–32.
4. Akintunde, M.A. 2004b. Experimental Investigation of The performance of Vapor Compression Refrigeration Systems. Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
5. Performance enhancement of a household refrigerator by addition of latent heat storage International Journal of Refrigeration, Volume 31, Issue 5, August 2008, Pages 892-901 Azzouz, K.; Leducq, D.; Gobin, D.
6. Yumrutas R, kunduz M, Kanoglu M. Exergy analysis of vapor compression refrigeration systems. Exergy, An international journal 2002;2(4);266-72.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesDISSOCIATION ENERGIES, FRANCK-CONDON FACTORS AND R-CENTROIDS OF THE SULPHIDES OF
METALS (LI AND NI )
English190198C. BalanarayanaEnglish B.C. Venkata ReddyEnglish R.R. ReddyEnglish G.Venkata ChalapathiEnglishThe experimental potential energy curves for the different electronic states of astrophysically important
LiS+ and NiS molecules are constructed by using Rydberg-Klein-Rees method as modified by
Vanderslice et al. The ground state dissociation energies are determined by curve fitting techniques using
the five parameters Hulburt-Hirschfelder (H-H) function. The estimated dissociation energies are
0.81±0.02 and 3.56±0.08 eV for LiS+, and NiS respectively. These values are in good agreement with the
values reported in the earlier literature. The r-centroids and Franck-Condon factors (FC factors) for the
bands of 3 -X3 - system of LiS+ and A3 -X3 - system for NiS, molecules have been calculated. The
Franck-Condon factors are evaluated by the approximated analytical methods of Jarmain and Fraser. The
absence of the bands of these systems is explained.
EnglishDiatomic molecules; Dissociation energies; Franck-Condon factors; r-centriodsI. INTRODUCTION
There has been considerable interest in spectroscopic studies of transition metal containing species because of their importance in chemistry, astrophysics, surface science and ab initio calculations. These compounds are widely used as catalysts in various chemical processes. Theoretical calculations on these molecules often fail to predict the correct spectroscopic properties and energy ordering of electronic states. The spectroscopic studies of these molecules, therefore, have become important to gain insight into chemical bonding in simple metal systems. Ram et al. [1] have mentioned that NiS might also be present in S-type stars. There are several theoretical studies on the spectroscopic properties of low-lying electronic states of NiS. An experimental observation of NiS has been reported by Zheng et al. [2] in the 495-555nm regions. Ram et al. [1] have reported on the observation of NiS bands in the near IR region (2500-7500 cm-1 ). Molecular species containing sulphur atom are of astrophysical importance. Some of them have been definitely identified. Theoretical investigations of the SH+ and LiS+ cations have been pursued by Khadri et al. [3]. In view of their astrophysical / scientific importance, it is proposed to construct potential curves and evaluate dissociation energies. As no attempt has been made so far to evaluate dissociation energies , Franck-Condon factors (FC factors) and r-centroids using spectroscopic data for LiS+ and NiS molecules , the present authors have taken up this investigation.
II. THEORY & COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE
Potential energy curves Experimental observed vibrational levels are used to construct the potential energy curve. The molecular constants required for the present study have been taken from the literature [1-4] and are listed in Table I. Many authors employed RKRV method and constructed the potential energy curves [5-16]. The RKRV [17- 21] method is an improved form of RKR method, which makes use of Wentzel-KramersBrillouin (WKB) approximation from which we obtain reliable potential energy curves with the observed vibrational and rotational constants. The potential energy curves are constructed using the method of RKRV [17-21] utilizing the molecular constants (listed in Table I) and the results are presented in Table II. The details of the said method were reported in literature, as such only the results of the present work are given Table I
Dissociation energy
The RKRV turning points are inserted into the five parameter Hulburt-Hirschfelder‘s [22-24] function and the potential energies U(r) are calculated by varying the dissociation energy De values. An average percentage deviation is determined between the calculated U(r) and the experimental G( ) values. An accurate estimation of the dissociation energy (Do) requires an empirical potential function, which provides the best reproduction of the experimental energy values. A critical evaluation of the importance of these functions was given by Steele et al. [24] and they have shown that the potential function of HulburtHirschfelder (H-H) [22-24] fits well with the RKRV curves of a large number of diatomic molecules. In the present investigation, it is observed that the H-H function [22, 23] functions fits best and reproduces the experimental energy values (Table III). Different De values are used in the H-H function and the De value, for which the best fit of the energy values U(r) is observed, which is taken as the dissociation energy (De) of the molecule.
The values of r-Centroids of NiS molecule are estimated and presented in the Table IV. The
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2093http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=20931. R.S. Ram, S. Yu, I. Gordon and P.F. Bernath, J. Mol. Spectr. 20, 258 (2009).
2. X.F. Zheng, T.T. Wang, J.R. Guo, C.X. Chen andY. Chen, Chem. Phys. Lett. 137, 394 (2004).
3. F. Khadri, H.N.Dome, S.Lahman, Z. Benhakder and M. Hochalf, J. Mol. Spectr. 232, 237 (2006).
4. K.D. Setzer, F. Meinecke and E.H. Fink, J. Mol. Spectr. 56, 258 (2009).
5. R.R.Reddy and R. Viswanath, J. Astrophys. Astro. 153, 10 (1989).
6. R.R.Reddy, Y.N. Ahammed, K. RamaGopal and D. Baba Basha, J. Quant. Spectr. Radiat. Trans. 85, 105 (2004).
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10. R.R.Reddy, K. Rama Gopal, Y. N.Ahammed, D. Baba Basha, K. Narasimhulu and L.S.S.Reddy, Ind. J. Pure Appl. Phys. 43, 237 (2005).
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15. R. R. Reddy, Y.N. Ahammed, K. R. Gopal and D. Baba Basha, Astro. Phys. Space Sci. 286, 419 (2003).
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23. H.M. Hulburt and J.O. Hirschfelder, J. Chem. Phys. 1901, 35 (1961).
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27. A.G. Gaydon, Editor, Dissociation energies and spectra of diatomic molecules, 3rd edition, Proc. Phys. Soc., 253, 69A (1968).
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesMICROARRAY DETECTION OF MICROBIAL PATHOGENS AND THEIR EXPRESSION PROFILES
English199205Desh D. SinghEnglishEarly diagnosis is crucial for disease treatment and control as it reduces the inappropriate use for
antimicrobial therapy and surveillance activity. This requires the ability to detect and accurately diagnose
infection at or close to the source/outbreak with minimum delay the need for specific, approachable pointof-
care diagnosis able of selective between Causative Pathogens and their subtypes. Nothing of the
available Pathogen diagnostic assays combines a point-of-care format with the complex capability to
identify a large repertoire of human and. The ability of the microarray to identify divergent Pathogens is
based on a balance between the stringency of the hybridization conditions and the signal of the virus
relative to background noise on the array. Although Microbial microarrays can test for all Pathogens
simultaneously, the requirement for nonspecific amplification by random priming reduces their analytical
sensitivity, as compared with assays that detect a single or few agents at one time. This review discusses
the applications of microarray technology has turn out to be a shows potential new tool for the detection
and identification of Microbial pathogens in human Serum, plasma and cell cultures.
EnglishMicroarray, Microbial Pathogen, infectious diseases, diagnosis.INTRODUCTION
The rising accessibility of rapid and responsive nucleic acid testing assays for Microbial diseases will modernize the practice of medicine by gradually reducing the need for standard culture-based Microbiological methods that take time 1 . Molecular theranostics in Microbial diseases is a promising conception in which molecular biology tools are used to provide rapid and accurate diagnostic assays to enable improved initial management of patients and more efficient use of antimicrobial 2 . It is a multiplex technique used in combination of bioinformatics and statistical data analysis 3 . With the huge number of tests accessible for the finding of Microbial agents affecting humans, it is commonly not predictable that the majority of these tests are indirect. For infections caused by agents, commonly used tests determine the presence of specific antibodies produced by the patient's immune system in response to infectious agent 4 . These tests are useful for blood screening and in a limited extent as diagnostic tools, but, because they offer only an indirect measure of infection, they do not tell the clinicians whether the infection is past or current, or if there is a response to the therapy 5 . An antibody based test can also miss a recent infection, because generally it may take several days to weeks for the immune system to mount an antibody response to the infectious agent6 . Microarrays can be used for the identification of a defined set of known Pathogens using specific or random PCR primers, the resequencing of known Pathogens to identify sequence variants, or for the discovery of novel Pathogens using Microbial microarrays 7 . Microbial microarrays attempt to represent all known Pathogens using tens of thousands of oligonucleotide probes 8 . Known Pathogens can be detected on the microarray, as well as novel Pathogens with at least some degree of relatedness to known Pathogens 9 . Although Microbial microarrays can test for all Pathogens simultaneously, the requirement for nonspecific amplification by random priming reduces their analytical sensitivity, as compared with assays that detect a single or few agents at one time 10 .
Microarray:
Biomedical research evolves and advances not only through the compilation of knowledge but also through the development of new technologies 11. Using traditional methods to assay gene expression, researchers were able to survey a relatively small number of genes at a time 12. Microarray technology aims to monitor the whole genome on a single chip so that researchers can have a better picture of the interactions among thousands of genes simultaneously14. They represent a major methodological advance and illustrate how the advent of new technologies provides powerful tools for researchers 15. Scientists are using microarray technology to try to understand fundamental aspects of growth and development as well as to explore the underlying genetic causes of many human diseases 16 .
Microarrrinciples
Microarrays are typically composed of DNA ?probes? that are bound to a solid substrate such as glass (Figure 1). Each spot (50 to 150 μm) in the array lattice is composed of many identical probes that are complementary to the gene of interest 17. During hybridization DNA ?targets? diffuse passively across the glass surface, when sequences complementary to a probe will anneal and form a DNA duplex 18. Hybridized targets can then be detected using one of many reporter molecule systems 19. In essence, a microarray is a reverse dotblot that employs the same principles of hybridization and detection used for many years with membrane-bound nucleic acids (e.g. Southern and Northern blots) 20 .
Microbial source and nucleic acid isolation
Microbial samples are purified from whole blood, plasma, and serum throat swabs, cerebral spinal fluid, amniotic fluid, Urine, Stool, Genital tract, Throat, Microbial culture supernatants, Virus-infected supernatants and other cell-free body fluids 21-23 .
Primer design, Probes and array for confirming the identity of Microbial strains
Most critical parameter for successful PCR is the design of Primers. All things being equal, a poorly designed primer can result in a PCR reaction that will not work .The primer sequence determines several things such as the length of the product, its melting temperature and ultimately the yield . A poorly designed primer can result in little or no product due to nonspecific amplification and/or primer-dimmer formation, which can become competitive enough to suppress product formation24-25. This application note is provided to give rules that should be taken into account when designing primers for PCR. More comprehensive coverage of this subject can be found elsewhere 26-28 . Several variables must be taken into account when designing PCR Primers. Among the most critical are: Primer length, Melting Temperature (Tm), Specificity, Complementary Primer Sequences, G/C content and Polypyrimidine (T, C) or polypurine (A, G) stretches ,3‘-end Sequence 29.
Sample amplification and labeling
The C-DNA from the cells in two different conditions is extracted and labeled with two different fluorescent labels: for example a green dye (Cyanine 3) for cells at condition 1 and a red dye (Cyanine 5) for cells at condition 2 (to be more accurate, the labeling is typically done by synthesising single stranded DNAs that are complementary to the extracted mRNA by a enzyme called reverse transcriptase). Both extracts are washed over the microarray. Labeled gene products from the extracts hybridize to their complementary sequences in the spots due to the preferential binding - complementary single stranded nucleic acid sequences tend to attract to each other and the longer the complementary parts, the stronger the attraction 30.
Microarray hybridization
The core principle behind microarrays is hybridization between two DNA strands, the property of complementary nucleic acid sequences to specifically pair with each other by forming hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. A high number of complementary base pairs in a nucleotide sequence mean tighter non-covalent bonding between the two strands. After washing off of non-specific bonding sequences, only strongly paired strands will remain hybridized 31 .So fluorescently labeled target sequences that bind to a probe sequence generate a signal that depends on the strength of the hybridization determined by the number of paired bases, the hybridization conditions (such as temperature), and washing after hybridization . Total strength of the signal, from a spot (feature), depends upon the amount of target sample binding to the probes present on that spot. Microarrays use relative quantization in which the intensity of a feature is compared to the intensity of the same feature under a different condition, and the identity of the feature is known by its position. An alternative to microarrays is serial analysis of gene expression, where the transcriptome is sequenced allowing an absolute measurement32 .
Image acquisition Microarray images are acquiring through with laser scanner. The scanner executes a region scan of the slide and creates for each dye a digital map or an image, of the fluorescent intensities for each pixel33 . For a distinctive microarray examination, the scanner generate two 16-bit tagged image file layout (TIFF files), one for each fluorescent dye. Dissimilar dyes attract and emit luminosity at diverse wavelengths34. In classify to calculate the large quantity of the two luminous dyes for every spot, the scanners are intend create excitation luminosity at diverse wavelength and perceive dissimilar discharge wavelength. The dyes used usually are Cy3 and Cy5 having discharge in 510-550nm and 630-660nm ranges respectively 35 .
Data Analysis
Signal potency is commonly sequence dependent Intended for this cause, averaging indicate intensities is not suitable and probe variant should be investigate separately in expectancy of the concluding data evaluation steps. Probe reproduces have the similar progression, by the way of various instances on the arrangement. In theory, these should have the same expression, and their justification is to amplify. The self-assurance in the dependability of the gene investigates authentication development 36. Probe replicates are developed in two most important approaches 37The subsequent alternative is to comprise all replica values in the occupied dataset (e.g. to apply ANOVA-type investigation methods afterward 38 . Investigational inaccuracy is then pooled with genetic variation. It is essential not to puzzle this supplement in the numeral of data values for each gene in the company of the true statistical sample size, which is purely the number of biologically autonomous objective samples 39 .
Data normalization
There are two types of variation in the data, the biological variation causal the study plan which one would like to notice and compute and the deviation due to the technology, the handling and processing, which one would like to minimize in order to not obscure the biology 40 . For this reason we compared the variation reduction efficiency of our Z-normalization approach with three other methods by calculating three measures of data technical variation: We can be use the following notation to represent the normalization methods we compared:
NLRi= log2 (Ri/Gi) -median (log2) (R/G) The median of all logs (ratios) is subtracted from all individual logs (ratios), resultant in a new taken as a whole median log (ratio) of zero. Log-ratios can be non-linear with respect to signal magnitude. Once applying a locally robust LOWESS function to this graph, the following serves as normalization procedure: LRi=log2 (Ri/Gi)- log2(2y(xi) Log-ratios can be non-linear with respect to signal magnitude 41. Use of the R-I plot, namely, log10 (R/G) vs log2(R/G) will show if this effect is present. After applying a locally robust LOWESS function to this method, the following serves as normalization procedure: NLRi=log2 (Ri/Gi) -log2 (2 y (xi)) Provided a sufficient number of probes or control probes are contained within each subarray, the options above can be expanded to normalize these within an array, adjusting for possible print-tip or hybridization gradient problems 42
Analysis It is significant to note down that for microarrays projects intended to study distinct gene pathways and communications, a greatest of explanation and statistical consistency is required. For minimum result set for each gene should comprises mean expression prominence per condition, P values, and fold-changes from consequence testing43. Data points are usually the mean values of biological chip replicates of each gene in a given condition 44. Limited subsets of interesting genes can evidently be plotted by means of simple vertical bar charts 45 . ANOVA-type methods are somewhat more involved, and appropriate where there is more than one experimental factor under investigation46,47. It is significant to note that the expression of personality genes of attention is typically backed up by substantiation using other techniques such as PCR, in situ hybridization and Northern blotting48,49 .
CONCLUSIONS
Accessible techniques to screen a broad range of Pathogens are intrinsically biased and there by constrained to detecting a restricted number of candidate Pathogens. To prevent this difficulty, we required to expand a Microbial recognition line of attack based on a combination of Microbial genomics and long oligonucleotide microarray technology. To accomplish this objective, the extremely conserved nucleotide sequences within a Microbial family can be selects for illustration on the microarray. By using the most conserved sequences, we anticipate maximizing the prospect that all members of each Microbial family, as well as unsequenced, unknown, or newly evolved family member can be detected. Secondary, but corresponding, ambition, we required to take advantage of the elevated resolution ofcroarray hybridization to distinguish among Microbial subtypes, which is a complex and difficult job with conventional methods.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241310EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareSWELLING STUDIES OF Gt-cl-poly(AA) WITH RESPONSE TO TIME,TEMPERATURE AND pH PROPERTIES
English7582Prashar DeepakEnglishCross-linked three dimensional network of Gum tragacanth with acrylic acid has been synthesized using
ascorbic acid-potassium persulphate as an initiator and glutaraldehyde as a crosslinker. The polymer
formed was further studied for swelling behavior in response to time, temperature and pH.
Englishcrosslinked, Gum tragacanth, swelling studies, pHINTRODUCTION
Superabsorbent polymers (SAP) are the polymers that can absorb and retain extremely large amounts of a liquid relative to their own mass [1]. Water absorbing polymers, which are classified as hydrogels, when cross-linked [2] absorb aqueous solutions through hydrogen bonding with water molecules. Hydrogels are hydrophilic, three-dimensional networks, which are able to imbibe large amount of water or biological fluids. Hydrogel formation is also known as the complexation of the polymers [3, 4]. Their ability to swell under biological conditions makes it an ideal material for use in drug delivery [5, 6] and immobilization of proteins, peptides and other therapeutically active compounds [7]. Swelling characteristics of the hydrogels are affected by the properties of the swelling medium such as pH [8], ionic strength [9] and counter ions [10]. Many researchers have studied the synthesis, characterization, swelling behavior and controlled drug delivery of the polymer hydrogels [11, 12]. These days modified polysaccharides have been the major area of scientific research. Lot of work has been carriedout on various polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose, chitosan, dextrin, guar-gum, psyllium and many more. The Gum tragacanth is a complex mixture of polysaccharides and is composed of two major components: 60-70% water insoluble fraction called bassorin and 30% soluble fraction of tragacanthin. Water-soluble tragacanthin is a branched arabiogalactan, which is soluble in 70% ethanol. The acidic bassorin has a chain of (1-4)-linked α-D-galacturonic acid units some of which are substituted at O-3 with β-Dxylopyranosyl units and some of these being terminated with galactose or fucose. Tragacanth is stable over a wide pH range as low as pH 2. Gum tragacanth is a highly branched, heterogenous hydrophilic carbohydrate polymer, which may contain methoxyl groups. It is complex, slightly acidic polysaccharide bounded with small proportions of proteins and with trace amounts of starch and cellulosic materials. Ca Mg and K are also present as associated cations. On acid hydrolysis, Gum tragacanth produces sugars of D-galacturonic acid, D-galactose, Lfucose (6-deoxy-L-galactose), D-xylose, Larabinose and L-rhamnose. D-galacturonic acids repeating units forms the main chain by 1, 4- linkages and a short side chains consisting of Dxylose residue connected to the main chain by 1, 3-linkages. Further this D-xylose residue is attached to L-fucose and D-galactose by 1, 2- linkages. L-fucose may be replaced by Dgalactose. In the structure of tragacanthin, several chains are arranged in parallel. In present paper, a cross-linked three dimensional network of Gum tragacanth with acrylic acid has been synthesized using ascorbic acid-potassium persulphate as an initiator and glutaraldehyde as a crosslinker. The polymer formed was further studied for swelling behavior in response to time, temperature and pH
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Gum tragacanth (sd Fine Chemicals Pvt. Ltd.) and ascorbic acid-potassium persulphate (sd Fine Chemicals Pvt. Ltd.) were used as backbone and initiator, respectively. Glutaraldehyde (MERCK) and acrylic acid (MERCK) were used as crosslinker and monomer, respectively. Instrumental Analysis Scanning Electron Micrographs (SEM) of the candidate polymers were taken on LEO-435VF, LEO Electron Microscopy Ltd
Synthesis
1.0 g of Gum Tragacanth was taken in a reaction flask containing 25ml of distilled water. To the reaction mixture 0.5mol L-1 of Acrylic acid was added followed by the addition of Ascorbic acidKPS in 1:1.25 molar ratios as an initiator system and 0.42mol L-1 of glutaraldehyde as a crosslinker. The reaction was carried out at pH 7.0 for 90min at 40OC. At the end of the reaction the homopolymer was removed on washing with hot water and the gel obtained was allowed to stand for about 10-12 hours undisturbed for gelling process to take place. The product obtained was dried in the oven at 60 OC till a constant weight was obtained. The percentage grafting and percentage swelling was calculated as per the following equations 1 and 2:
Preparation of solutions of different pH
Alkaline solutions were prepared with NaOH pallets and acidic solutions were prepared by the addition of HCl and pH was determined with Cyberscan 1100, EUTECH INSTRUMENTS, pH meter.
Preparation of artificial biological fluid
Artificial biological fluid was prepared in the laboratory using electrolytic powder and distilled water (DW). 25gms of electrolytic powder was dissolved in per 1000ml of distilled water to obtain the artificial biological fluid of 25000ppm.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mechanism
Hydroxyl groups present on the backbone and monomers are the active sites for graft copolymerization to take place. Various steps involved in the graft copolymerization of Gum tragacanth with different vinyl monomer mixtures are depicted in Scheme-I: Initially, ascorbic acid ion reacts with the potassium persulphate to generate SO4 -* which on further reaction with water molecule generates OH* followed by the interaction of OH* and SO4 -* with backbone and monomer resulting in generation of active sites. Activated monomer and backbone molecules propagate further and give rise to three dimensional crosslinked networks in the presence of glutaraldehyde. However, chain termination takes place either by the reaction of OH* with the live propagating macromolecular chains or reaction between two activated chains.
Characterization
SEM
n order to have the conducting impact, the samples were gold plated and the scanning was synchronized with microscopic beam so as to maintain the small size over a large distance relative to the specimen. A remarkable three dimensional appearance with high resolution was obtained in case of crosslinked product. SEM images clearly exhibited the differences in the surface morphology of the Gum Tragacanth and Gt-cl-poly(AA) which were brought about through copolymerization and crosslinking (Figures. 1a-b). Water uptake studies of Gt-cl-poly(AA) Effect of time Water uptake studies were carried out at different time intervals (4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24hrs) using distilled water and artificial electrolytic biological fluid. It was found that with increase in time, Ps increases but the rate of swelling slowed down after 20 hrs and attains a constant value at 24 hrs (Figure 2). Moreover, the swelling capacity of candidate polymer in artificial biological electrolytic fluid is lower in comparison to distilled water, which could be explained on the basis of reverse osmosis process. In case of electrolytic fluid and in hypertonic solutions (higher concentration) the polymer showed deswelling behavior. Similarly after 24 hrs, the pores of the network structure got saturated with the solvent molecule there by leaving no more space for further solvent entry into the matrix. Effect of temperature Water uptake studies opting the different temperature (30, 40, 50, 600C) were carried out. Ps increase with increase in temperature upto 500C and decrease thereafter (Figure 3). This might be due to the reason that at a higher temperature, the polymer becomes compact leading to desorption. Effect of pH Pulsatile behavior of bio-polymer was analyzed in solutions of different pH and percentage swelling was observed to be significantly affected (Figure 4). When the completely dried hydrogel sample is placed in the swelling medium of pH 9.2, the solvent diffuses into the outer surface of the candidate polymer through the micropores, resulting in the plasticization of macromolecular chains. At the same time, the carboxylic groups, attached along the polymer backbone, undergo ionization to yield –COO– groups (since the pH of the swelling medium is more than the pKa value of acrylic acid inside the gel matrix). This results in the formation of a charged hydrated layer through which the counter ions along with the solvent molecules embed into the interior dry core region and allow the gel to swell. In this way, the dry core slowly disappears and the gel matrix continuous
to swell. The swelling is further enhanced due to relaxation (or unfolding) of macromolecular chains owing to the repulsion among similarly charged –COO– groups which also promotes the swelling process. When the fully hydrated gel is placed in the medium of pH 2.0, H+ ions present in the external solution, diffuse into the gel matrix through water-filled macrospores that have existed in the fully hydrated gel. These H+ ions protonate the –COO– groups to yield uncharged –COOH groups which ultimately results in folding of the macromolecular chains as the repulsive forces no longer exist, thus letting the solvent molecules to come out of the polymer matrix resulting in deswelling.
CONCLUSION
Modification of Gum tragacanth via crosslinking and network formation with acrylic acid improves the property profile and usability of the polymer in various technical fields. Further, polymer was found to show pulsatile behavior under acidic and basic conditions, which could be of great significance in the sustained release of colon specific drugs.
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Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2223http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2223REFERENCES
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