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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesACCEPTANCE DECISION RULE OF REPETITIVE GROUP SAMPLING FOR BURR TYPE XII
DISTRIBUTION
English0612Muhammad AslamEnglishIn this paper, acceptance decision rule of repetitive group sampling for Burr type XII distribution is given for known/unknown shape parameters. Two real lifetime examples from Lio et al. (2010) are selected to explain the procedure when the shape parameters of the Burr type XII distribution are unknown in practice. The two points approach on operating characteristics (OC) curve is used to construct the tables for industry use. Examples are given to illustrate the repetitive group sampling plans.
EnglishGroup acceptance sampling; repetitive sampling; life tests; producer‘s risk and consumer risks; Burr type XII distribution1. INTRODUCTION
The reputation of companies depends upon the high reliability of their products. Now a day, different companies compete with each other on the basis of quality and reliability. Consumer prefers those items which is more reliable than others items. Inspection of the final product is very necessary to set the reliability or lifetime of the product. Even advanced machinery is available to produce high quality product. But, without proper inspection it is almost not possible to set the standard of the quality. For example, during the manufacturer of the US quartz (1/4 $), after strict inspection coins are sent to banks. In the lot, if few coins are not according to standard the complete lot of quartz is discarded. Inspection of the item is done on the basis of few items selected from the lot of the product. So, producer and consumer risks are always there. The researchers are trying to propose various types of acceptance sampling plans to minimize these risks. Producer and consumer are interesting to adopt that sampling plan which not only minimize their risks but also provides better protection of rejecting the good lots and accepting the bad lot respectively. In life testing experiment, single sampling is usually given more importance due to simplicity in application. In single acceptance sampling scheme, the acceptance number is fixed and sample of items are put on the test for some pre-fixed experiment time. If the number of defective items are larger than acceptance number, the lot is rejected, otherwise accepted. Single acceptance sampling is studied by many authors for several statistical distributions. Recently, single acceptance sampling was studied by Kantam et al. (2001), Rosaiah et al. (2006), Balakrishnan et al. (2007), Tsai and Wu (2006), Aslam and Kantam (2008), Aslam et al. (2010), Aslam et al. (2010) for Pareto distribution of 2nd kind, Lio et al. (2010a, 2010b) and Aslam et al. (2010). According to Aslam and Jun (2009 a, b) that the single sampling scheme is applicable when the experimenter has the facility to put single item on the single tester. Testers accommodating more than single item are available in practice. The number of items in a single tester in called the group and if sampling is done using the groups this is called the group acceptance sampling. For example, sudden death testing is always done in groups, for more detail see Jun et al. (2006). Aslam and Jun (2009 b) introduced the group sampling in time truncated experiment for log-logistic distribution and inverse Rayleigh distribution considering only consumer‘s risk. Aslam and Jun (2009 a) proposed the group plan for the Weibull distribution. According to Sherman (1965) the attribute repetitive group plan is more efficient than the single sampling plan even its operation is similar to sequential sampling. For more detail about attribute repetitive sampling reader may refer to Sherman (1965). Many authors including Balamurali and Jun (2006) provided the variable repetitive plans and compared the results with single plans. In the literature, study about the attribute sampling is available for the normal distribution. Burr type XII distribution attracted the attention of the researcher due its applications in many areas. This distribution is originally derived by Burr (1942) and is widely used in the area of quality control, reliability analysis and failure time models. More recently, Lio et al. (2010 a, b) produced excellent paper by introducing this distribution in area of acceptance sampling. They used two real data sets to fit the Burr type XII distribution and explained results with Further, no study is available for repetitive group plans for the Burr type XII distribution using the percentile life of the product. So, in this paper, we provided the repetitive group plans for the Burr type XII distribution. The rest of the paper is organized as: Design of proposed plan is given in Section 2. Advantage of the proposed plan is discussed in Section 3. Some examples are given in Section 4. In the last section, concluding remarks are given.
2. Design of the Proposed Plan Aslam and Jun (2009 a, b) originally proposed the group plan under the time truncated experiment in terms of mean ratio for Weibull distribution. We proposed the following repetitive group plan based on the original group plan. Step-1 Select the number of groups g and allocate predefined r items to each groups so that the sample size for a lot will be n=r g. Step-2 Accept the lot if the number of failures, D , is smaller than or equal to 1 c in every group. Truncate the test and reject the lot of the product as soon as the number of failures, D, from a group exceeds 2 c where 2 1 c c . Step-3 If the number of failures, D , with 1 2 c D c , for every group, then go to step and repeat the experiment. The proposed plan is characterized by three parameters which are 1 c , 2 c and g. The proposed repetitive group plan is generalization of many plans. The plan reduces to ordinary single plan when =1. Further, this plan reduces to Aslam and Jun (2009 a, b) plan if 1 2 c c The probability of acceptance and probability of rejection for this plan is given below respectively
The design parameters of proposed plan are found using the simulation process such that the Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) should satisfy at minimum average sample number (ASN). While implementing the program for the proposed plan we noted that several combinations of plan parameters are available. As suggested Balamurali and Jun (2006), we selected that combination that provides the minimum ASN at consumer‘s risk. The plan parameters of this plan are determined for various values of =0.25, 0.10, 0.05, 0.01, q = 0.5, 1.0, 0 / q q t t 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, q =0.10, k =0.08, 5.49, r =5, 10 and b =5.47, 0.85. The plan parameters are placed in Table 1-2. From Table 1, we can observe that as 0 / q q t t increases from 2 to 10, the values of g remains same. But, as q increases from 0.5 to 1.0, we can see that g decreases. It is interesting to note that all the plan parameters are determined for 1 c =0 and 2 c =1. The ASNs for each plan is also given in Tables 1-2. As 0 / q q t t increases from 2 to 10, Table 1 shows that g remains the same; however, Table 2 shows that g decreases. From Tables 1-2, we can see that the repetition of the experiment is needed and g reduces when r increases from 5 to 10. Tables 1-2 are around here The similar tables for other values of shape parameters can be considered to find the suitable plan parameters combination. A program is available with author upon request. If shape parameter is unknown, it can be estimated from the previous data.
3. Comparison of Plans
We compare the single group acceptance sampling plan with repetitive group sampling plan for b 0.85, k 5.49, =0.25, q 0.5 ,1.0 and =5, 10. The group sizes from both plans are placed in Table 3. From this table, we can see that for any percentile ratio the proposed plan provides the less group size (sample size). For example, for ratio=4, q 0.5 and =10, the sample size from the single sampling plan is 110 and from the proposed plan it is 60. For the proposed we need approximately 50% less sample size to reach the same decision about the submitted lot of the product. So, the proposed plan is more efficient that the single group acceptance plan. Table 3 is around here
4. Application
Example-1 Assume that the lifetime of a product have a Burr type XII distribution with k =5.49 and b =0.85. Suppose that an experimenter would like to use the proposed plan to establish the true unknown 10th percentile lifetime for the product is at least 6 months and experiment will be stopped after 6 months. This information leads to q =1.0. Further suppose that the in laboratory the experimenter has facility to install five items on a single tester. Let =0.05 when / 4 0 q q t t and =0.05 for this experiment. Then from Table 2 with r 5 , the plan parameters are ( 0, 2, 11) c1 c2 g . This plan is implemented as follows: select a random sample of 55 items and distribute into 11 groups. Accept the lot if no failure is recorded and reject it if more than 2 failures are recorded before 6 months. If the number of failures is greater than 0 and less than 3, then repeat the experiment. From Table 4, the probability of acceptance is 0.9796 and ASN=589.7for this plan.
5. CONCLUSION
Repetitive group acceptance sampling plan for the time truncated life tests is proposed when life time of the product follows the Burr type XII distribution. The plan is explained with the help of examples. The results of the proposed plan are compared with single group sampling plans and found that the proposed plan is more efficient than the single plan. It is suggested that to save time and cost of the life test experiments, the proposed plan should be applied in industry. Further, the proposed plan can be used to test/inspect many electronic components. The present study can be extended to some other distribution including alpha distribution, gamma distribution and generalized exponential distribution as future research.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writer thanks the referees and editor for several valuable comments.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1959http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19591. Aslam, M. and Jun, C.-H. (2009a). A group acceptance sampling plan for truncated life test having Weibull distribution, Journal of Applied Statistics, 36(9), 1021-1027.
2. Aslam, M., Ahmad, M. and Razzaque, A. (2010). Group Acceptance Sampling Plan For Lifetimes Having Generalized Pareto Distribution, Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 4 (2), 185-193.
3. Aslam, M., and Kantam, R.R.L. (2008). Economic acceptance sampling based on truncated life tests in the Birnbaum-Saunders distribution, Pakistan Journal of Statistics, 24(4), 269-276.
4. Aslam, M., Jun, C.-H, and Ahmad, M. (2009b). A group sampling plan based on truncated life tests for gamma distributed items. Pakistan Journal of Statistics. 25 (3), 333-340.
5. Aslam, M., Kundu, D. and Ahmad, M. (2010). Time truncated acceptance sampling plan for generalized exponential distribution, Journal of Applied Statistics (UK), 37(4), 555- 566.
6. Balakrishnan, N., Leiva, V. and Lopez, J. (2007). Acceptance sampling plans from truncated life tests based on the generalized Birnbaum-Saunders distribution. Communication in Statistics-Simulation and Computation, 36, pp. 643-656.
7. Balamurali, S. and Jun, C.-H. (2006), Repetitive group sampling procedure for variables inspection. Journal of Applied Statistics, 33(3), 327-338.
8. Burr, I.W. (1942). Cumulative frequency functions, Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 13, 215–232.
9. Jun, C.-H., Balamurali, S. and Lee, S.- H. (2006). Variables sampling plans for Weibull distributed lifetimes under sudden death testing. IEEE Transactions on Reliability, 55(1), pp. 53-58.
10. Kantam, R.R. L., Rosaiah, K. and Rao, G.S. (2001). Acceptance sampling based on life tests: Log-logistic models. Journal of Applied Statistics, 28(1), pp.121-128.
11. Lio, Y. L., Tsai, T.-R. and Wu, S.-J. (2010a). Acceptance sampling plans from truncated life tests based on the Birnbaum-Saunders distribution for percentiles, Communication in Statistics: Simulation and Computation, 39, 119-136.
12. Lio, Y. L., Tsai, T.-R. and Wu, S.-J. (2010b). Acceptance sampling plans from truncated life tests based on the Burr type XII percentiles, Journal of the Chinese Institute of Industrial Engineering, 27 (4), pp. 270-280.
13. Rosaiah, K., Kantam, R.R.L. and Santosh Kumar, Ch. (2006). Reliability of test plans for exponentiated loglogistic distribution, Economic Quality Control, 21(2), pp.165-175.
14. Sherman, R. E. (1965). Design and evaluation of repetitive group sampling plan, Technometrics, 7, pp. 11–21.
15. Tsai, T.-R. and Wu, S.-J. (2006). Acceptance sampling based on truncated life tests for generalized Rayleigh distribution. Journal of Applied Statistics, 33(6), pp. 595-600.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyELECTRO-OXIDATION OF ETHANOL AND ISOPROPANOL ONTO PT-SN AND PT-NI SURFACES
English1320Abhik ChatterjeeEnglish Moitrayee ChatterjeeEnglish Susanta GhoshEnglish I BasumallickEnglishA simple galvanostatic method is reported on the preparation of bimetallic Pt-Sn and Pt-Ni catalysts on graphite sheet electrode and studied their catalytic activity towards isopropanol (2-Propanol or 2-PrOH) and ethanol (EtOH) electro-oxidation. These catalysts have been characterized by SEM, EDX, Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and amperometry technique. The surface area of the deposited binary electro-catalysts has been estimated from Cu-UPD technique. A striking opposite catalytic behavior of Pt86Sn14 is observed for EtOH and 2-PrOH oxidation. Presence of Sn enhances catalytic activity of Pt for EtOH oxidation, while it deactivates the same for 2-PrOH oxidation. On the other hand, incorporation of small percentage of Ni in binary Pt98Ni2 enhances its catalytic activity for oxidation of both the alcohols. The results are explained in terms of bifunctional effect, electronic effect and strong adsorption of intermediate products.
EnglishElectro-oxidation, Ethanol, Isopropanol, Binary electrocatalyst, Electronic effect, Bifunctional mechanism.INTRODUCTION
Direct alcohol fuel cells (DAFCs) have drawn tremendous attention as power sources in numerous applications at low operating temperature. Among several alcohols, which can be used in a direct alcohol fuel cell (DAFC) are methanol (MeOH), EtOH and 2-PrOH 1 . Electrooxidation of higher carbon atom alcohols involves more intermediates and products than that of methanol electro-oxidation and thus more efficient electro-catalysts are needed at lower temperature. Platinum is the best choice as an electro-catalyst, but its cost and surface poisoning phenomenon inhibit it from large scale applications. Thus, enhancement of catalytic activity of Pt in the presence of a second metal for electro-oxidation of simple alcohols is the field of research interest as it will reduce the cost of the catalyst without losing much efficiency. The longevity as well as efficient catalytic activity of bimetallic catalysts, such as Pt-Ru, Pt-Sn, Pt-Ni, can be explained in terms of bifunctional effect, electronic effect or combination of these two effects 2-4 . When the second metal is more oxophilic, like Ru, or Sn, it improves catalytic activity of Pt through bifunctional mechanism. Thus the catalytic activity and its longevity may be enhanced by incorporating a second metal, like Ru or Sn. Pt-Sn has been reported as an effective electrocatalyst for methanol and ethanol oxidation, which is comparable with Pt-Ru catalyst having lower cost 5,6. But very few reports are available in the literature on electrooxidation of 2-propanol on bimetallic electrodes 7,8 . On the other hand, a second metal like Ni enhance the catalytic activity of Pt towards alcohol oxidation by altering the electronic states of the original catalytic metal, Pt 9,10 . But similar studies with 2-PrOH electrooxidation are neither extensive nor conclusive. Therefore the objective of the present study is to report the results of systematic studies on electro-oxidation of 2-PrOH in the presence of Pt-Sn and Pt-Ni catalysts, at their optimum compositions and compare the same with those of ethanol oxidation under similar conditions. It is expected that the present study will help in understanding the potentiality of Pt-Sn and Pt-Ni as electrocatalyst for 2-PrOH oxidation, which is a fuel of high theoretical power density.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Materials: Sulfuric acid (Merck), Acetone (Merck), H2PtCl6 (Arrora Matthey Limited), SnCl2 (Merck), NiSO4 (E-Merck) were used as supplied. EtOH (Bengal chemicals) and 2-PrOH (Merck) were distilled before use. Electrode preparation: Graphite sheet (Alfa-Aesar) was taken as substrate for metal deposition. Before each deposition, the graphite surface was electrochemically cleaned. Depositions were carried out galvanostatically (PAR VersaStatTMII) with a current density of 2.5mA.cm-2 for 30 minutes. Electrode characterization: The surface morphologies of the anode materials were investigated with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), at an accelerating potential of 20kV. The elemental compositions of the electro-deposited catalysts were determined by energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. Electrochemical measurement: The catalytic activity of all the deposited electrodes towards EtOH and 2-PrOH oxidation was studied by cyclic voltammetry technique and amperometry (at 25oC). A three electrode setup was constructed for this study, where carbon supported electrodes (1cm x 1 cm) were the working electrodes, the counter electrode was the Pt foil (1cm2 ), while a saturated calomel electrode (SCE) served as reference electrode. The electrolytes were 0.5 M sulfuric acid solution (blank), and 0.5 M sulphuric acid containing EtOH/2- PrOH (1.0M) solution. Cyclic voltammograms of the blank solution and alcohol solutions were recorded between - 0.2 to 1.1 V vs. SCE at a scan rate of 30 mV .s-1 . Amperometry measurements were done in 1.0 M EtOH and 2-PrOH in 0.5 M H2SO4 at 0.45 V for 1800s. Surface area determination: The active surface area of the electrodes was determined by under-potential deposition of copper (Cu-UPD) and anodic stripping 6, 11. To begin the surface area estimation, the linear sweep voltammogram (LSV) of a clean catalyst sample was recorded in 0.1M H2SO4 over a range of 0.059V to 0.8V vs. SCE at a sweep rate of 10mVs-1 . Afterwards, the working electrode was transferred into the solution containing 0.1M H2SO4 and 2 mM CuSO4 solution for deposition of the Cu UPD monolayer. The electrode then polarized at 0.8V for 120s and then stepped to 0.059V for 300s. The anodic stripping was performed by carrying out a linear scan between 0.059V to 0.8V vs. SCE at 10mV.s-1 . The charge associated with this copper stripping was calculated by integration method after subtracting the charge associated for background process. The electro-active surface area was then calculated with the assumption of an adsorption ratio of a single Cu atom to each surface metal atom and a monolayer charge of 420 µC cm-2 .
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The literature report reveals that the optimum atomic percentage of Sn in Pt-Sn alloy for ethanol oxidation is 10-20 atom%, thus an intermediate composition, 14 atom % of Sn, has been selected 12,13. For Pt-Ni alloy, a small atomic percentage, 2 atom% Ni, has been chosen in order to avoid leaching of Ni in acidic medium. The loading of the electro-active metals onto graphite sheet has been calculated considering 100% coulombic efficiency. Calculated Pt loading is found to be 0.045 mg. cm-2 . The surface area of the electrodes is determined by Cu-UPD method . The effective surface area of Pt, Pt-Ni and Pt-Sn electrodes are 100, 97 and 88 cm2 , respectively. The SEM images of the Pt, Pt-Sn, and PtNi electrode surfaces have been presented in figure 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Though the SEM images do not provide much information on particle size and its growth kinetics, but a uniform growth of relatively smooth catalyst layer is reflected. Some elongated agglomerate was observed on PtNi surface. On an average, the approximate particle size for those electro-catalysts range from 200 to 250 nm. The energy dispersion X-ray spectrums of the bimetallic catalysts show the composition of the catalysts (spectrums are not shown). Based on the composition of the catalysts, the electrodes may be designated as Pt86Sn14 and Pt98Ni2. Typical cyclic voltammograms of the blank and those of 1.0 M EtOH and 2-PrOH oxidation in 0.5M H2SO4 medium at 30 mV.s-1 scan rate within the potential limit –0.2 to 1.1V vs. SCE are shown in figure 4, 5 and 6, respectively. The CVs of the blank solutions (figure 4) exhibit typical hydrogen desorption/ adsorption for Pt and Pt98Ni2, but no such peaks are observed with Pt86Sn14 electrocatalyst. The characteristic features of alcohol oxidation on Pt surface, i.e. two well-defined oxidation peaks are found during the forward and the reverse scans. It is clearly seen from figure 5 and figure 6 that the onset potentials for electro-oxidation of EtOH are largely shifted to lower potential value on the bimetallic catalyst surface. The anodic peak current density of EtOH oxidation, normalized w.r.t. loading, on to Pt86Sn14 surface is also higher than that of Pt. All these indicate significant enhancement of catalytic activity of Pt in Pt-Sn bimetallic catalyst for EtOH oxidation. Contrary to this, a strong catalytic deactivation of Pt in Pt-Sn is observed (figure 5) for 2-PrOH oxidation. The opposite catalytic activity of Pt86Sn14 towards EtOH and 2-PrOH oxidation indicates that mechanism of electrooxidation of EtOH and 2-PrOH are different onto Pt86Sn14 surface. The observed catalytic deactivation on to Pt86Sn14 surface for 2-PrOH oxidation may be explained due to the adsorption of acetone, which is formed as an intermediate product during electrooxidation of 2-PrOH on the electrode surface 13. In order to confirm the finding, CVs of pure acetone on to Pt86Sn14 and Pt98Ni2 catalyst are recorded as shown in figure 7. It is interesting that no anodic peak is observed onto Pt86Sn14 surface. However, acetone oxidation starts at 0.5V and a maximum is appeared at 0.585 V vs. SCE onto Pt98Ni2 surface. Thus, the observed catalytic deactivation of Pt86Sn14 for 2-PrOH oxidation is attributed due to formation of acetone intermediate. Electrooxidation of ethanol onto Pt-Sn surface seems to occur through bi-functional mechanism by water activation process as follows; Sn +H2O Sn –(OH) + H+ +e- The adsorbed aldehyde species formed during EtOH oxidation then react with adsorbed -OH to produce acetic acid as follow; Pt + CH3CH2OH PtCH3CHOHads + H+ + e Pt-(COCH3) +Sn-(OH) Pt +Sn + CH3COOH and so on. Anodic peak current onto Pt98Ni2 catalyst surface for electro-oxidation of these alcohols are higher than that of pure Pt and onset potentials are largely shifted to lower potential values. Thus, shift of onset potential and higher anodic peak current values are indicative of better electrocatalytic activity of Pt98Ni2 for both the alcohols. As Ni-O bond energy is about 200 kJ.mol-1 lower than that of Pt-C bond, bi-functional mechanism does not operate here for EtOH or 2-PrOH oxidation, but the observed enhancement of catalytic activity of Pt in presence of trace amount of Ni may be due to its electronic effect. Amperometry studies (figure 8 and figure 9) also corroborate these findings, showing better catalytic activities of Pt98Ni2 for EtOH and 2-PrOH, but poor catalytic activity of Pt86Sn14 towards 2-PrOH oxidation.
CONCLUSION
In the present paper, electro-oxidation of EtOH and 2-PrOH has been studied on to Pt86Sn14 and Pt98Ni2 surfaces. In case of EtOH, improved catalytic activities of Pt are observed in the presence of Ni and Sn. This is explained in terms of electronic effect of Ni and bi-functional effect of Sn. However, for 2-PrOH oxidation catalytic activity of Pt inhibited in the presence of Sn. This is due to the formation of acetone during 2-PrOH oxidation and its strong adsorption onto Sn surface. This was confirmed by cyclic voltammogram of acetone onto Pt86Sn14 surface that indicates inactiveness of this catalyst towards acetone oxidation. Thus, present study does not recommend Pt86Sn14 as a catalyst for 2- PrOH electro-oxidation, but it recommends the same as potential catalyst for ethanol oxidation with a caution that ethanol should be free of contamination of secondary alcohols like 2-PrOH and ketones like acetone.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Prof S Shome(GSI,India) for SEM-EDX study. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1960http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19601. Lamy C, Belgsir EM, L´eger J-M. Electrocatalytic oxidation of aliphatic alcohols: Application to the direct alcohol fuel cell (DAFC). J Appl Electrochem 2001; 31(7):799-809.
2. Markovic NM, Gasteiger HA, Ross PN, Jiang X, Villegas I, Weaver MJ. Electro-oxidation mechanisms of methanol and formic acid on Pt-Ru alloy surfaces. Electrochim Acta 1995; 40(1): 91-98.
3. Chatterhee M, Chatterjee A, Ghosh S, Basumallick I. Electrooxidation of ethanol and ethyleneglycol on carbon supported nano Pt and PtRu catalyst in acid solution. Electrochim Acta 2009; 54(28): 7299-7304.
4. Iwasita T, Electrocatalysis of methanol oxidation. Electrochim Acta 2002; 47(22-23): 3663-3674.
5. Gonzalez MJ, Hable CT, Wrighton MS, Electrocatalytic oxidation of small carbohydrate fuels at Pt−Sn modified electrodes. J Phys Chem B 1998; 102(49): 9881-9890.
6. Lycke D, Gyenge E, Electrochemically assisted organo sol method for Pt-Sn nanoparticle synthesis and insitu deposition on graphite felt support: extended reaction zone anodes for direct ethanol fuel cells. Electrochim Acta 2007; 52 (13): 4287-4298.
7. Rodrigues IA, Nart FC. 2-Propanol oxidation on platinum and platinum– rhodium electrodeposits. J Electroanal Chem 2006; 590(2): 145-151.
8. Rodrigues I A, de Souza J P I, Pastor E, Nart F C. Cleavage of the C−C bond during the electrooxidation of 1- Propanol and 2-Propanol: effect of the Pt morphology and of codeposited Ru. Langmuir 1997; 13(25): 6829-6835.
9. Wang Z, Zuo P, Wang G, Du C, Yin G. Effect of Ni on PtRu/C catalyst performance for ethanol electrooxidation in acidic medium. J Phys Chem C 2008; 112(16): 6582- 6588.
10. Park K, Choi J, Kwon B, Lee S, Sung Y, Ha H,Hong S, Kim H, Wieckowski A. Chemical and electronic effects of Ni in Pt/Ni and Pt/Ru/Ni alloy nanoparticles in methanol electrooxidation. J Phys Chem B 2002; 106(8): 1869 - 1877.
11. Green CL, Kucernak A. Determination of the platinum and ruthenium surface areas in platinum−ruthenium alloy electrocatalysts by underpotential deposition of copperIunsupported Catalysts. J Phys Chem B 2002; 106(5): 1036-1047.
12. Lamy C, Rousseau S, Belgsir E M, Coutanceau C, L´eger JM. Recent progress in the direct ethanol fuel cell: development of new platinum–tin electrocatalysts. Electrochim Acta 2004; 49(22-23): 3901-3908.
13. Simoes FC, dosAnjos DM, Vigier F, Leger JM, Hahn F, Coutanceau C, Ganzalez ER, Tremiliosi-Filho G, Andrade AR, Olivi P, Kokoh KB. Electroactivity of tin modified platinum electrodes for ethanol electrooxidation, J Power sources 2007; 167(1): 1-10.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesCLICK CHEMISTRY: AN APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN DRUG SYNTHESIS
English2131Abhishek KumarEnglish Pankaj KumarEnglish Himanshu JoshiEnglishClick chemistry is a chemical philosophy introduced by K. Barry Sharpless in 2001 and describes chemistry tailored to generate substances quickly and reliably by joining small units together. This is inspired by the fact that nature also generates substances by joining small modular units. Click chemistry is not a specific reaction; it is a concept that mimicks nature. Sustainable development requires redesigning many organic chemical processes, most of which are often based on technology developed in the first half of the 20th century, and inventing new reactions that use and produce safer chemicals under more environmentally benign conditions. Click Chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with the goals of green chemistry. The focus is on minimizing the hazard and maximizing the efficiency of any chemical choice. Moreover Sharpless notes that ?many of the reactions that meet the click
chemistry standard often proceed better (faster and more selectivity) in water than in organic
solvents. Click Chemistry requires simple reaction conditions, preferably solvent free or water
as the solvent which results in generation of inoffensive by-products. Indeed it has been found
that most of the reactions that meet click chemistry standards often proceed rapidly in water
and with high yield than in an organic solvent. The aim of the present article is to provide in
detail the click chemistry reactions using solvent free or water as the solvent that is consistent
with the goals of sustainable chemistry.
EnglishClick chemistry, green chemistry, sustainable, solvent free, waterINTRODUCTION
Sustainable development requires redesigning many organic chemical processes, most of which are often based on technology developed in the first half of the 20th century, and inventing new reactions that use and produce safer chemicals under more environmentally benign conditions1 . Water is generally considered as an ideal solvent in terms of the environmental impact and low cost. In addition, water is superb heat sink and thus can control the exothermic transformations without side reactions. The free energies of organic molecules are substantially greater when poorly solvated in water, and thus often result in increased reactivity which can compensate for low concentration of reactant molecules in water. Water can activate the electrophile and nucleophile through the formation of hydrogen bonding2 and also can differentiate the reactivities of competing nonpolarizable and polarizable species. The protection- deprotection of the functional groups such as –OH, -NH2, -COOH may not be necessary. Moreover the reaction products can sometimes be isolated simply by decantation or filtration. Due to these inherent features of water, it is natural outcome that water can be suitable solvent of choice for such designed set of click reactions. To date pericyclic, condensation, oxidation and reduction reactions are routinely carried out in aqueous medium3 . Indeed, it has been found that most of the reactions that meet click chemistry standards often proceed rapidly in water and with high yields than in an organic solvent. The simple protic functional groups like hydroxyl and amides which are ubiquitously present in biologically active organic molecules can be tolerated by using water as a solvent, which offers another significant advantage of performing click chemistry in water in perspective of drug discovery. The 1, 2-epoxide functionality is largely present in nature, is biologically important and is a powerful building block in organic synthesis4 . Recently Sharpless5 , following the chemical lead of mother nature, proposed to term ?click chemistry? the synthetic approach that generates substances ?by joining small units together with heteroatom links (C-X-C)? and defined the criteria that a process must meet to be useful in this context. A ?click reaction? that uses this strategy is the nucleophilic ring-opening of 1, 2- epoxides.Moreover Sharpless notes that ?many of the reactions that meet the click chemistry standard often proceed better (faster and more selectivity) in water than in organic solvents.. In this respect water is unique as reaction medium.? An overview of the click reactions carried in solvent free or water as the solvent has been presented. Water as a solvent for click chemistry The concept of green or sustainable chemistry was born around 1990 thanks to a small group of chemists who, ahead of the times, clearly saw that the need for more environmentally acceptable processes in chemical industry had to become a top priority in RandD activities. Over the past two years, we have found that many of the reactions that meet click chemistry standards often proceed better in water than in an organic solvent. This is a natural outcome of one or more of the following five factors. 1) Click reactions often proceed readily in hot water, to give a single product, even when one or more of the reactants, as well as the product, appear to be insoluble in this medium. The fact that reactions between organic species in aqueous solution can have higher apparent rate constants than the same processes in organic media has been observed and exploited by a number of laboratories6 . Among the many explanations offered for such phenomena, we call particular attention to the notion that the free energies of organic molecules are substantially greater when poorly solvated in water, and often impart increased reactivity, which compensates for the low concentration of the participants7 . 2) Nucleophile additions to epoxide8 (?homocarbonyl?) and aziridine (?homoimine?) electrophiles (as well as aziridinium and episulfonium ions) are favored by solvents best able to respond continuously to the demanding range of hydrogen-bonding situations that arise during these processes. In this respect, water is unique, and for the same reasons, it is the perfect milieu for reversible carbonyl chemistry. 3) Two important subsets of olefin and acetylene click reactions are oxidations by electrophilic reagents and cycloaddition reactions. These processes are either concerted or involve polarizable nucleophiles/electrophiles, so that water is not an interfering medium9 . More generally, it should be appreciated that the use of water offers the greatest leverage for differentiating the reactivities of competing ?hard? (nonpolarizable) and ?soft? (polarizable) species. 4) A highly favorable reaction of two solutes (say at 0.1M concentration) is usually much faster than a low driving force side-reaction of one of the solutes with solvent water (55 M). The Schotten - Baumann method for making amides from acyl or sulfonyl halides in water is a well known example given below.
5) Water is a superb heat sink, due to its high heat capacity, and has a convenient boiling temperature; both are useful for large-scale processes. Water is usually regarded as an ideal solvent in terms of its environmental impact and low cost. A benefit which is little appreciated but has enormous consequences is that most hydroxy and amide groups will not interfere with click reactions performed in water. As a consequence, the installation and removal of protecting groups is avoided, probably the best single reason for adopting this style of synthesis. Indeed, we view many of the best reactions for installing protecting groups as good click reactions in their own right. These considerations highlight the fact that, although click reaction components are necessarily highly reactive, their chemoselectivity profiles are quite narrowly defined, that is, orthogonal to an unusually broad range of reagents, solvents, and other functional groups. This attribute allows for reliable and clean sequential transformations of broad scope10. For example, opening epoxide or aziridine rings by HN3 installs a highly reactive ?sticky spot? for [3+2] cycloaddition with alkynes, but one that is invisible to most other functional groups. The types of reactions, and especially reaction conditions, which fall into the click chemistry category were more common in the organic literature of 50 to 100 years ago. Few solvents were used then, and heat was the preferred way to speed up reactions. The dearth of available purification techniques meant that processes were chosen for their reliability in giving a single isolable product.
Catalysis
Adopting a K. B. Sharpless statement11 , catalysis is the engine that drives the development of chemistry. Everybody can easily recognize that top achievements in applied chemistry are focused on industrial applications of catalysis, rational design, serendipitous discovery or combinatorial identification of new ligands, catalysts, new solid supports (organic, inorganic, amorphous or mesoporous silica phases, metal organic frameworks, etc). An ideal catalyst should approach 100% selectivity while reaching high levels of productivity. Selectivity refers first of all to (i) chemoselectivity, which means the catalyst must be able to select preferred reactants from complex mixtures, (ii) regioselectivity, which means selection of preferred sites of the reacting substrate and (iii) stereoselectivity, which means preferred formation of a single stereoisomer.
Based on ??click chemistry‘‘, pyrrolidine catalysts such as 22, containing a triazole ring, have been shown to efficiently promote a highly diastereoselective and enantioselective Michael addition of ketones to nitroalkenes12. The triazole moiety is essential to promote the reaction in water with excellent yields and enantiocontrol. A solid-phase version, 23, has also been proposed. Here the1, 2, 3- triazole ring, constructed through a click 1, 3-cycloaddition, also grafts the chiral pyrrolidine monomer onto the polystyrene backbone and provides a structural element capable of conferring the catalyst with high catalytic activity and enantioselectivity, particularly in the case of ketones as donors. Catalytic performance is optimized by using water and DiMePEG as an additive. A basic advantage is the easy recyclability13 . With chiral diamine 24, in the form of a trifluoroacetate salt, the classic aqueous biphasic protocol has been successfully applied to the asymmetric Michael reaction of ketones with both aryl and alkyl nitro olefins. Brine is used as the aqueous phase14 . The thiourea functionality, inserted on the most frequently used chiral pyrrolidine scaffold, works excellently as reactivity and enantioselectivity control co-factor by chelating the nitro group of the acceptor. This solution, adopted in 25, provides a family of robust catalysts that afford high yields (up to 98%) and great stereoselectivities (up to 99: 1 dr and 99% ee) in direct Michael additions of ketones to various nitroolefins in water15 . Reactions in the presence of metal salts Azidolysis of 1, 2-epoxides is a widely investigated organic reaction because 1, 2- azidoalcohols are precursors of vicinal amino alcohols and are building blocks for carbohydrates and nucleosides16 . The classical protocol uses NaN3 (5 mol/eq) as reagent in the presence of NH4Cl (2.3 mol/eq) as coordinating salt in alcohol-water at 70-80 °C. Some examples are illustrated in Table 217 and Scheme 118, 19
Under these conditions the reaction is completely anti-stereoselective and generally requires a long reaction time. The attack of nucleophile on substituted oxirane ring occurs mainly on the least substituted carbon except when the substituent is an aryl group.
In this case the nucleophilic attack generally occurs mainly on the benzylic carbon (Table 2, entries 4 and 6). In the absence of a specific substituent on the α-and β-carbons of the oxirane ring, the nucleophile preferentially attacks the carbon which is less influenced by unfavorable effects of electron-withdrawing functionalities present in the molecule (Scheme1).
Azidolysis of cis- and trans- 1, 4- diepoxycyclohexanes 7 and 9 (Scheme 2) with hydrazoic acid, generated in situ from NaN3 and p-toluenesulfonic acid, carried out in 1:1 DMSO/H2O mixture at 70°C, gave the azidoalcohols 8 and 10, respectively, as sole products which were converted to corresponding aminocyclitols with good yields by catalytic reduction20 . The reason for using an aqueous-organic medium for the azidolysis of 1, 2-epoxides is to carry out the reaction under homogeneous conditions solubilizing both the sodium azide (water) and the epoxide (organic solvent). Recently we have shown21 that the azidolysis of 1, 2-epoxides can be suitably performed in water alone under heterogeneous conditions. The nucleophilic addition was totally antidiastereoselective and the reactivity and regioselectivity of the process and the competition of the azido ion with the water or with the hydroxide ion were controlled by working at suitable pH values. Some results are reported in Table 3. The conversion of 1, 2- epoxide into azidoalcohol was quantitative. With highly hydrophobic epoxides, the azidolysis was accelerated by carrying out the reaction in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTABr). Metal Salt Catalyzed Reactions Metal salt-promoted nucleophilic ringopening of 1, 2-epoxides were investigated in an attempt to improve the regioselectivity and the reaction rate attained by using classical conditions (NaN3/NH4Cl, in alcohol or alcohol/water at 70-80 °C). Most of the work was carried out inorganic solvent using a variety of metal salts (LiClO4, LiOTf, Mg(ClO4)2, Zn(OTf)2, NaClO4, KClO4, Ti(O-i-Pr)4),22,23 generally in large excess. Lewis acidcatalyzed reactions carried out in just water have been recently investigated focusing on the azidolysis24, iodolysis25, bromolysis and thiolysis26 of 2,3-epoxycarboxylic acids and their esters to develop simple one-pot procedures in aqueous media for the synthesis of hydroxyamino acids, hydroxyacids, and hydroxysulfides.
The azidolysis reaction of α, β- epoxycyclohexane carboxylic acid (21) (Table 4) was efficaciously catalyzed in water at pH 4.0 and 30°C by 1 mol% of Cu(NO3)2, InCl3, AlCl3, Al(NO3)3 and AlF3. These salts, with the exception of Cu(NO3)2, were not operative at pH 7.0. Yb(OTf)3, and Sc(OTf)3 were not efficient at either pH 4.0 or at pH 7.0. The reactions were always highly C-β-regioselective. The catalytic effect of various Lewis acids on the azidolysis of trans- α, β- epoxyhexanoic Acid (22) was also investigated. Cu(NO3)2, AlCl3 and InCl3 were again the best catalysts at pH 4.0, while SnCl4 showed little activity and TiCl4 slowed the reaction rate; both these salts gave mixtures of C-β and C-α adducts along with large amounts of diols (Table 4).
CONCLUSION
The present article describes the click chemistry reactions performed in solvent free or water as the solvent which is consistent with the goals of green chemistry. It emphasizes the advantage of using water as a solvent in click chemistry. It describes the nucleophilic ring-opening of 1, 2-epoxides in aqueous media and the role of organocatalysts in click chemistry reactions. Many of the reactions that meet the click chemistry standard often proceed better (faster and more selectivity) in water than in organic solvents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1961http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19611. Tundo P, Anastas PT. Green Chemistry: Challenging Perspectives. Oxford University Press 2000.
2. Chakraborti et al. Green Chem 2007; 9:11(advance article).
3. Li CJ, Chang TH. Organic reactions in aqueous media. Wiley NY 1997.
4. Fringuelli F, Piermatti O, Pizzo F. Trends in Organic Chemistry. Res Trends Pub 1997; 6:181.
5. Kolbe HC, Finn MG, Sharpless KB. Angew Chem Int Ed 2001; 40: 2005.
6. Breslow R. Pure App Chem 1998; 64:6094-96.
7. Gajewski JJ. Acc Chem Res 1997; 30:219-225.
8. Fringuelli F, Piermatti O, Pizzo F, Vaccaro L. J Org Chem 1999; 64:6094- 96.
9. Mersbergen DV, Wijnen JW, Engberts JBFN. J Org Chem 1998; 63:8801- 8805.
10. Tietze LF, Modi A. Med Res Rev 2000; 20:304-322.
11. Colacino E, Nun P, Maria FM, Martinez J, La
12. Kumamoto K, Ichikawa Y, Kotsuki H. Synlett 2005; 14:2254.
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14. Sugihara T, Takebayashi M, Kaneka C. Tetrahedron Lett 1995; 36:5547.
15. WG Dauben, Hendrcks RT. Tetrahedron Lett 1992; 33:603.
16. Jacobs GA, Tino JA, Zahler R. Tetrahedron Lett 1989; 30:6955.
17. Chini M, Crotti P, Macchia F. Tetrahedron Lett 1990; 31:5641.
18. Crotti P, Di Bussolo V, Favero L, Macchia F, Pineschi M. Eur J Org Chem 1998; 1675.
19. Banwell MG, Haddad N, Hudlicky T, Nugent TC, Mackay MF, Richards SL. J Chem Soc 1997; 1:1779.
20. Kavadias G, Droghini R. Can J Chem 1979; 57:1870.
21. Fringuelli F, Germani R, Pizzo F, Santinelli F, Savelli G. J Org Chem 1992; 57:1198.
22. Chang JM, Sharpless KB. J Org Chem 1985; 50:1560.
23. Azzena F, Crotti P. Favero L, Pineschi M. Tetrahedron 1995; 51:13409.
24. Fringuelli F, Pizzo F, Vaccaro L. Synlett 2000; 311.
25. Amantini D, Fringuelli F, Pizzo F, Vaccaro L. J Org Chem 2001; 66:4463.
26. Fringuelli F, Pizzo F, Tortoioli S, Vaccaro L. Adv Synth Catal 2002; 344-379.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareCONGENITAL OPTIC PIT WITH CENTRAL SEROUS RETINOPATHY
English3235A.ShahnawazEnglish Deepak MishraEnglish M.A.AkbarEnglish P.BhushanEnglishTitle: Congenital Optic Pit with Central Serous Retinopathy Purpose. To document association of Optic disc pit and Central Serous Retinopathy Method. Case report/Research article. Results The patient presented with progressive defective vision of 8 months duration in her left eye with best corrected vision of 6/60 not improving further with glasses or pinhole. Ocular examination was within normal limits except for abnormal fundus findings. Fundus examination revealed the presence of congenital optic disc pit with a serous macular elevation in the left. Conclusions. Central Serous Retinopathy should also be considered as an association of congenital Optic disc pit
EnglishOptic disc pit, Central Serous Retinopathy, progressive defective visionINTRODUCTION
Optic pits are congenital excavations of the optic nerve head that may be associated with other abnormalities of the optic nerve and peripapillary retina. Optic pits occur in about one in 10,000 people, with no gender predilection, and are usually sporadic. Optic pits are usually incidental findings on fundus examination and remain asymptomatic unless complicated by macular lesions such as edema, schisms or serous detachment. A patient with macular involvement generally presents with visual acuity of worse than 20/70 in the affected eye and 80 percent of these eyes loose visual acuity to 20/200 or worse. It has been suggested that these patients have a greater propensity to develop normal tension glaucoma, although the arcuate visual field defects may be caused by the optic pit itself rather than by glaucomatous damage. A 27 year old female patient presented to our OPD with progressive defective vision of 8 months duration in her left eye. Ocular examination revealed a best corrected vision of 6/60 not improving further with glasses or pinhole. Ocular examination was within normal limits except for abnormal fundus findings. Fundus examination revealed the presence of congenital optic disc pit with a serous macular elevation in the left eye. (Fig 1) Laser photocoagulation was used to produce several rows of laser burns between the area of the serous retinal detachment and the optic disc. The objective was to achieve a very light white laser burn with little collateral damage to the nerve fiber layer. This presumably creates a wall of scar tissue to block the passage of fluid from the optic pit to the inner retinal schisis cavity and subretinal space Vitreous surgery and internal tamponade: Combinations of posterior vitrectomy, photocoagulation and gas tamponade was suggested and patient was referred to higher center for treating optic pit–associated maculopathy. Successful macular reattachment and improved central vision can be achieved using vitrectomy with induction of PVD and gas tamponade.
DISCUSSION
Congenital pits of the optic nerve head vary in size, shape, depth and location. They appear as small, hypopigmented, grayish, oval or round excavated depressions in the optic nerve head. They are usually about 500 μm in size and may be bilateral in 10 to 15 percent of cases. Optic pits are most commonly located on the temporal side of the optic disc, but they may be situated centrally or anywhere along the margin of the optic disc. Optic pits along the rim of the optic disc are most likely to lead to serous detachments of the retina, with associated full-thickness or laminar retinal holes, retinal pigment epithelium mottling and general cystic changes. The retinal detachments are usually confined between the superior and inferior vascular arcades and are contiguous with the optic disc, sometimes through a visible isthmus of subretinal fluid. The elevated retina contains cystic cavities in the outer plexiform layer.
Optical coherence tomography - OCT of an optic pit usually shows a schisis like separation between the inner and outer retina and a larger retinal detachment.
Visual field testing. Optic pits may be associated with visual field changes, which can be due to one or both of the following mechanisms: _ An optic pit, especially if large, may displace nerve fibers to produce an arcuate scotoma or may lead to an enlarged blind spot. _ Associated serous macular detachment may manifest as metamorphopsia or blurred vision, and visual fields may demonstrate central scotoma. However, unlike degenerative or reticular retinoschisis, there is no absolute scotoma in optic pit maculopathy.
Fluorescein angiography: Fluorescein angiography is usually unremarkable in cases of optic pit. There is no dye accumulation in the area of the serous detachment, although there may be late hyperfluorescence of the optic pit. It has been suggested that vitreopapillary traction in this area may cause leakage from optic disc blood vessels.
Electrophysiological testing: An electroretinogram (ERG) may show poorly defined and low-amplitude waveforms, consistent with schisis and serous detachment. Preoperative evaluation of macular function is important for predicting the likelihood of central vision recovery after successful macular reattachment. Patients with a poor ERG response are less likely to experience visual acuity improvement even after anatomical reattachment. Differential Diagnosis: A dilated biomicroscopic fundus examination is essential for differentiating optic pits from the following conditions: _ Optic disc anomalies such as choroidal and sclera crescent.
-Tilted disc syndrome.
-Circumpapillary staphyloma.
-Hypoplastic disc
-Glaucomatous optic neuropathy. (Any change in the appearance of the optic pit over time suggests that the lesion may be an acquired notch of the neuroretinal rim secondary to glaucomatous damage.)
-Central serous retinopathy and subretinal neovascular membranes. (These conditions are alternative considerations for serous macular detachment).
Pathophysiology
Congenital optic pits result from an imperfect closure of the superior edge of the embryonic fissure. They are asymptomatic unless complicated by secondary macular changes. They typically lead to a two-layered maculopathy consisting of a primary inner retinal layer schisis and a secondary outer layer detachment. Although the exact mechanism by which optic pits cause macular detachment is not known, various theories about the source of fluid and the macular changes have been proposed, including: Subretinal fluid. It has not been established conclusively whether the subretinal fluid originates from the vitreous cavity, from the subarachnoid space or from leakage from the retinal vessels around the optic disc. Studies involving intrathecal fluorescein injections and histological tissue analysis have failed to provide any evidence of the optic pit acting as a conduit between the subarachnoid and subretinal spaces. The lack of dye leakage from retinal vessels makes it unlikely that the retinal vasculature is the source of the fluid. Brown and colleagues suggested that there may be a connection between the vitreous and the submacular fluid, based on the findings in their canine model of optic pit1 . Using India ink they found a direct communication between the vitreous, the optic pit and the subretinal space in three collie dogs with congenital optic pits
Two-layer separation.
Serous macular detachment associated with optic pit was thought to be due to direct communication between the optic pit and the subretinal space, facilitating fluid accumulation under the macula. However, Lincoff and colleagues suggested that the primary communication from the optic pit may be to the retina2 . Fluid may move into the retina, causing a schisislike separation of the inner and outer layers, with the neurosensory serous retinal detachment occurring secondary to this schisis. Recent OCT findings confirm this separation. Vitreous traction. Vitreous traction appears to be an important factor in the pathogenesis of optic pit– related macular detachment. Traction, vitreomacular or vitreopapillary, may permit entry of fluid into the retina through the optic pit.
Management
Patients with asymptomatic optic pits need regular monitoring for the onset of any macular involvement. The management of optic pits with associated macular involvement is not well defined; various treatment modalities have been tried with variable success. Less invasive treatments like laser photocoagulation should be tried initially, followed by a combination of vitrectomy, complete posterior vitreous detachment (PVD) induction and internal gas tamponade if symptoms persist .When the optic pit is asymptomatic, the patient should be advised about the importance of regular comprehensive eye exams, including dilated retinal evaluations and threshold visual fields. Patients should be educated about the use of home visual acuity assessment and Amsler grid testing to monitor for the onset of maculopathy. They should be made aware of the signs and symptoms (e.g., blurred vision and metamorphopsia) of macular complications.
Laser photocoagulation. This is used to produce one or several rows of laser burns between the area of the serous retinal detachment and the optic disc. The objective is to achieve a very light white laser burn with little collateral damage to the nerve fiber layer. This presumably creates a wall of scar tissue to block the passage of fluid from the optic pit to the inner retinal schisis cavity and subretinal space (although the scarring may also involve peripapillary retinal tissue). While studies have reported successful resolution of the serous detachment in eyes that have been treated with photocoagulation, this does not always translate into improved final visual outcome.
Macular buckling. Macular buckling has been reported as a treatment option for serous detachment associated with optic pit. Scleral buckling converts the posterior hyaloid traction from an inward to an outward vector, promoting reattachment of the macula.
Vitreal surgery and internal tamponade. Combinations of posterior vitrectomy, photocoagulation and gas tamponade are used for treating optic pit–associated maculopathy. Successful macular reattachment and improved central vision can be achieved using vitrectomy with induction of PVD and gas tamponade3 .A complete PVD helps relieve vitreous traction. Indeed, spontaneous macular reattachment has been observed in eyes undergoing posterior vitreous separation. Gandorfer and Kampik advocate internal limiting membrane peeling in addition to removing the posterior vitreous for relieving all tractional components4 .
CONCLUSION Maculopathy caused by optic pits has an overall poor prognosis, and long-term studies involving large groups of these patients are lacking. Given that the exact pathophysiology is still a matter of debate, management should be tailored to the visual disability and macular changes of the specific patient.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript and also of the patient for his co-operation and consent
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1962http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19621. Brown GC, Shields JA, Patty BE, Goldberg RE. Congenital pits of the optic nerve head.I.Experimental studies in collie dogs. Arch Ophthalmol. 1979 Jul;97(7):1341-4.
2. Lincoff H, Lopez R, Kreissig I, Yannuzzi L, Cox M, Burton T. Retinoschisis associated with optic nerve pits. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988 Jan;106(1):61-7
3. Hirakata A, Hida T, Ogasawara A, Iizuka N. Multilayered retinoschisis associated with optic disc pit. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2005 Sep-Oct;49(5):414-6
4. Gandorfer A, Kampik A. [Role of vitreoretinal interface in the pathogenesis and therapy of macular disease associated with optic pits]. Ophthalmologe.2000,Apr;97(4):276-9.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareTHE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN HAND GRIP STRENGTH AND HAND DIMENSIONS IN HEALTHY
INDIAN FEMALES
English3642Umama Nisar ShahEnglish Mohamed Sherif SirajudeenEnglish Padma Kumar SomasekaranEnglish Naajil MohasinEnglish Manjula ShantaramEnglishBackground: The human hand is a very complex structure and devoted to the functions of manipulation. Hand grip strength is used in clinical settings as an indicator of overall physical strength and health. Objectives: This cross-sectional study was performed to study the association between hand grip strength and anthropometric measurements (height, weight, body mass index, hand dimensions) in healthy Indian female population. Methods and Measures: A
total of 50 healthy female subjects, satisfying the selection criteria were recruited in the study. Subjects were then assessed for height, weight, body mass index (BMI), hand and forearm anthropometric measurements. The grip strength of both dominant and non-dominant hands were measured using Jamar dynamometer. Measurements followed standardized procedures and instructions. Statistical analysis: The data was analyzed by Pearson‘s correlation coefficients and 5% level of probability was used to indicate statistical significance. Results: In females, dominant and non-dominant grip strength have significant positive correlation (pEnglishHand grip strength, Jamar dynamometer, anthropometric measurementsINTRODUCTION
The human hand is a very complex structure and devoted to the functions of manipulation. It is also capable of relaying sensory information about temperature, shape and texture of the object to the brain1 . Its effectiveness is due to the ability to perform firm grip, together with highly elaborated nervous control and sensitivity of fingers2 . Full function and adequate strength of hand are necessary for dealing with demands of daily life. Hand grip strength is used in clinical settings as an indicator of overall physical strength and health3 . Hand strength has been identified as an important factor predicting disability in musculoskeletal diseases 4 , bone mineral density 5,6, and the likelihood of falls and fractures in osteoporosis 7,8.It even predicts complications and general morbidity after surgical interventions 9 ,general disability and future outcome in older age 10-1 Hand grip strength can be quantified by measuring the amount of static force that the hand can squeeze around a dynamometer. The force has most commonly been measured in kilograms and pounds13 . The Jamar dynamometer has been found to give the most accurate and acceptable measures of grip strength14 . Anthropometric data is very useful in designing functions concerning with human. Without such data, the designs cannot fit the people who are going to use them. Therefore the information regarding the human sizes is essential to be implemented in the design of various facilities. Hand dimensions (anthropometry) is very important and used in designing objects dealing with human hands15 . Hand grip strength is positively correlated to height, weight, body mass index (BMI) and hand anthropometric measurements in healthy Indian men16. The information regarding hand grip strength and anthropometric measurements of healthy women is scanty from India. Since women are the most important source of work force in India, their hand grip strength and anthropometric data are essential in the implements from ergonomic considerations. Keeping these factors in view, a study has been undertaken to generate hand grip strength and anthropometric data of normal adult Indian women and to determine whether these parameters are associated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This was a cross-sectional descriptive study and was conducted in post graduate research laboratory at Yenepoya University, Mangalore, Karnataka. Approval was taken from Yenepoya University Ethical Committee prior to the commencement of the study. The data was collected from 50 healthy adult females of age group 20-80 years. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects prior to data collection. The inclusion criteria in the study was that subjects should be healthy. Subjects were excluded if they reported any neurological or musculoskeletal impairment of upperlimbs, cardiovascular or systemic illness.
Procedure
Healthy females were assessed for the - height (cm), weight (kg), body mass index (BMI) as recommended by World Health Organization (WHO).
Hand dimensions: The precision of the measures was 0.5 cm. The hand length, hand breadth, hand span, wrist circumference and forearm girth measurements were therefore rounded to the nearest whole centimeter.
Measurement of Hand length: Measurements of the hand length was taken in both hands (perpendicular distance) from the tip of the middle finger to the distal wrist crease 17,18 (figure 1) Hand breadth Measurement: Measurements of the hand breadth was taken in both hands from the radial side of metacarpal D2 (index finger) to ulnar side of metacarpal D5 (small finger)17,18 as shown in figure 2. Measurement of hand span: Hand span was measured in both hands from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the small finger with the hand opened as wide as possible19 (figure 3). Wrist circumference: Measurement of the wrist circumference was taken for both sides around distal wrist flexion crease20 . Forearm girth: Measurement of the forearm girth for both sides was taken around the maximum girth immediately distal to the elbow with arm extended in front of the body and palm up21 . Handgrip strength was measured using a Jamar dynamometer (figure 4). Grip strength is tested by placing the subject in seated position with his arm side, elbow flexed 90°, forearm in mid-prone position, wrist extended between 0°- 30° and ulnarly deviated 15°. The subject alternatively grips the dynamometer with his dominant and non-dominant hands, performing 3 trials, using different grip spans in random order, allowing a 1-minute rest between the measurements22-24. The reported precision of the device was 0.1 kg. For each measure, the hand to be tested first was chosen randomly. For Jamar dynamometer the grip span equivalence for the different positions are as follows: position 1 - 3.5 cm; position 2 - 4.8 cm; position 3 - 6.0 cm; position 4 - 7.3 cm; and position 5 - 8.6 cm.
Statistical analysis Pearson‘s correlation coefficients were applied to establish the correlations of dominant and non-dominant hand grip strength with height, weight BMI and hand anthropometric measurements. A 5% level of probability was used to indicate statistical significance.
RESULTS
In table 1, descriptive statistics of age, height, weight and BMI of the subjects is depicted. The data regarding hand anthropometric measurements and grip strength are given in table 2. The dominant and non-dominant grip strength have significant positive correlation (pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1963http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19631. BlairVA. Hand function. In: Durward BR, Baer GD, Rowe PJ, eds. Functional Human Movement. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2002. p. 160- 79.
2. Markze MW. Origin of the human hand. Am J Phys Anthropol.1971; 34: 61-84.
3. Nicolay CW, Walker AL. Grip strength and endurance: Influences of anthropometric variation, hand dominance and gender. International journal of industrial ergonomics.2005;35:605-618.
4. Oken O, Batur G, Gündüz R, Yorganciogly RZ. Factors associated with functional disability in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol Int. 2008; 29(2):163-166.
5. Barnekow-Bergkvist M, Hedberg G, PettersSon U, Lorentzon R. Relationships between physical activity and physical capacity in adolescent females and bone mass in adulthood. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2006; 16(6):447-455.
6. Di Monaco M, Di Monaco R, Manca M, Cavanna A. Handgrip strength is an independent predictor of distal radius bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. Clin Rheumatol .2000; 19(6):473-476.
7. Sirola J, Rikkonen T, Tuppurainen M, Jurvelin JS, Alhava E, Kröger H. Grip strength may facilitate fracture prediction in perimenopausal women with normal BMD: a 15-year population-based study. Calcif Tissue Int .2008; 83(2):93-100.
8. Ensrud KE, Ewing SK, Taylor BC, Fink HA, Cawthon PM, Stone KL, Hillier TA, Cauley JA, Hochberg MC, Rodondi N, Tracy JK, Cummings SR. Comparison of 2 frailty indexes for prediction of falls, disability, fractures, and death in older women. Arch Int Med .2008; 168(4):382-389.
9. Mahalakshmi VN, Ananthakrishnan N, Kate V, Sahai S, Trakroo M. Handgrip strength and endurance training as a predictor of postoperative morbidity in surgical patients: can it serve as a simple bedside test? Int Surg. 2004; 98(2):115-121.
10. Al Snih S, Markides KS, Ottenbacher KJ, Raji MA. Hand grip strength and incident ADL disability in elderly Mexican Americans over a seven-year period. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2004; 16(6):481-486.
11. Rantanen T, Guralnik JM, Foley D, Masaki K, Leveille S, Curb JD, White L. Midlife hand grip strength as a predictor of old age disability. JAMA.1999; 281(6):558-560.
12. Bohannon RW. Hand-grip dynamometry predicts future outcomes in aging adults. J Geriatr Phys Ther .2008; 31(1):3-10.
13. Massy-Westropp, Gill TK, Taylor AW, Bohannon RW, Hill CL. Hand Grip Strength: age and gender stratified normative data in a population-based study. BMC Research Notes. 2011;4:127.
14. Mathiowetz V, Weber K, Volland G, Kashman N. Reliability and validity of grip and pinch strength evaluations. J Hand Surg. 1984 ;9:222–226.
15. Saengchaiya N, Bunterngchit Y. Hand Anthropometry of Thai Female Industrial Workers. The journal of KMITNB. 2004;14(1):16-19.
16. Sirajudeen MS, Shah UN, Somasekaran PK, Shantaram M. Correlation between grip strength and physical factors in men. Journal of advanced researches in biological sciences. Forthcoming 2012.
17. Vianna, LauroC, Oliveira, Ricardo B, Araujo B, Claudio GS. Age-Related Decline in Handgrip Strength Differs According To Gender, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2007; 21(4): 1310-1314.
18. Jurimae T. Hurbo T ,Jurimae J .Relationship of handgrip strength with anthropometric and body composition variables in prepubertal children . Journal of Comparative Human Biology.2009; 60(3): 225-238.
19. Ruiz-Ruiz J, Mesa JL, Gutiérrez A, Castillo MJ. Hand size influences optimal grip span in women but not in men. J Hand Surg 2002;27: 897–901.
20. Myers RS. Suanders manual of physical therapy practice. Saunders company.1995.
21. Katch VL,McArdle WD, Katch FI. Essentials of exercise physiology. LWW.1995.
22. Smith P. Lister‘s The Hand. Churchill livingstone. 2002.
23. Hunter JM, Mackin EJ, Callahan AD. Rehabilitation of the hand: Surgery and therapy. Missouri: Mosby 1995.
24. Fess EE: Grip strength. In Clinical assessment recommendations.. 2 edition. Edited by: Casanova JS. Chicago: American Society of Hand Therapists;1992:41-45
25. Bansal N. Hand grip strength: Normative data for young adults. Indian journal of Physiotherapy and Occupationaltherapy.2008;2(2):29-33.
26. Incel NA, Ceceli E, Durukan PB, Erdem HR, Yorgancioglu ZR. Grip Strength: Effect of Hand Dominance. Singapore Med J. 2002;43(5) : 234- 237.
27. Koley S, Singh AP. An Association of Dominant Hand Grip Strength with Some Anthropometric Variables in Indian Collegiate Population. Anthropologischer Anzeiger. 2009;67(1):21-28.
28. Ramakrishnan B, Bronkema LA, Hallbeck MS. Effects of Grip Span, Wrist Position, Hand and Gender on Grip Strength. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 1994;38(1):10554-558.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEFFECT OF PUSHUP TRAINING ON UPPER BODY STRENGTH AND POWER IN YOUNG
ADULTS
English4353Salvi ShahEnglishIntroduction: Strength and Endurance in the muscles of upper body, specifically the chest, shoulder triceps and core is a good indication of overall fitness. Proper pushups are one of the best exercises for developing pushing strength and power for upper body. Aim of Study: To study effectiveness of dynamic/plyometric pushup training on upper body
strength and power and to study the comparative effectiveness of dynamic/plyometric pushup training Methodology: Study design: An experimental comparative study Sample selection: A random sample of 30 students were taken from government Physiotherapy college, civil hospital, Ahmedabad after giving due consideration to inclusion and exclusion criteria. All of them took part in study on a voluntary basis after signing consent. Sample size: Total 30 Group A: Dynamic pushup training-15, Group B:Plyometric push up training-15 Inclusion criteria Age-18-24 years, Male students, Students who have experience in recreational over head sports Exclusion criteria Any major upper extremity/back injury within last one year, An active participation in an intercollegiate athletics or bodybuilding during study, Those who reported performance enhancing drugs, Any medical illness Outcome measures 1 RM bench press for measuring strength, Medicine ball put test for measuring power. Results: In Group A and Group B results showed highly significant mprovement in 1 RM and medicine ball putdistance after 6 weeks of exercise at 5% level of significance. On comparing Group A and Group B the results showed no significant difference in improvements in 1RM but showed significant difference in improvement in medicine ball put distance between both groups at 5% level of significance. Conclusion: From the present study it can be concluded that plyometric pushup exercises are superior to dynamic pushup exercises in terms of strength and power.
EnglishPushup, Upper body Strength and PowerINTRODUCTION
Today‘s sports and recreation activities have become more and more competitive, with this increased competitive nature comes an increase in the desire to improve performance. Many techniques have been used over the years in an attempt to enhance performance and thus improve success. One of the most important aspects of performance enhancement, other than the skill is the ability to produce power1 . Success in many sports depends heavily upon the athlete‘s explosive leg power and muscular strength2 . Three elements of muscle performance strength, power and endurance can be enhanced by some form of resistance exercise3 . Strength and endurance in the muscles of upper body, specifically the chest, shoulder triceps and core is a good indication of overall fitness. Upper body strength and endurance is essential for athletes such as swimmers, tennis players, climbers or golfers who demand strength and power from their arms and shoulder to perform well and avoid injury4, 5. So, developing upper body strength and power should be integrated part of a complete training programme6 . Proper pushups are best exercises for developing strength and power for upper body. It is an effective upper body exercise that uses the body‘s own weight to build fitness foundation. They promote strength, balance and stability by developing several key muscles, including pectoralis major in chest, deltoid or shoulder muscles, scapular and rotator cuff, triceps located on the back of the upper arm and upper back muscles 7 . Upper body power is obviously valuable for athletes who participate in tennis, javelin throw, shot-put, discus throw, base ball, foot ball and variety of sports. Power is the most desired physical quality for a number of sports because it entails both force and velocity aspects. Because both strength and power can be improved by many different training variables, training to improve power output has been described as requiring a multifaceted approach8 . There are many different types of pushups. They are named as below. Planche pushups, Boxer's pushups, Maltese pushups, Hindu pushups, Guillotine pushups, less difficult versions: Wall pushups/Modified (Dynamic) pushups, plyometric pushups9 . Cogley et al reviewed the benefits of a narrow-base hand position over the triceps brachii and the benefits of a wide base hand position over the pectoralis major10. Freeman et al reported the benefit of more shoulder muscle activation with the dynamic push-up (push-up with the hands on a wobbly surface) 11 . As such there is controversy and lack of research regarding which pushups are better for improving upper body strength/power and Very few researches have attempted to document the effectiveness of plyometric training on upper extremities12. So purpose of this study is to see the individual effects of plyometric push up training and dynamic push up training on upper body strength and power and also to compare the effect of dynamic push up training and plyometric push up training on power and strength of upper body.
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
Study design
An experimental comparative study
Study setting Fitness centre of Government Physiotherapy College, Government Spine Institute, Civil hospital, Ahmedabad
Sample selection A random sample of 30 students were taken from government Physiotherapy college, Civil hospital, Ahmedabad after giving due consideration to inclusion /exclusion criteria. All of them took part in study on voluntary basis after signing consent.
Sample size 30 Group A -15 (Dynamic pushup training) Group B -15 (Plyometric pushup training)
Selection criteria: Inclusion criteria: Age: 18 -24 years Sex: Male students Students who have experience in recreational over head sports Exclusion criteria: Any upper extremity or back injury within last one year An active participation in an intercollegiate athletics/bodybuilding during the course of study Those who reported performance enhancing drugs Any medical illness.
Outcome measures
1 RM bench press for measuring strength4, 13 Medicine ball put test for measuring power 13, 14, 15
1 RM bench press test has been used extensively as an outcome measure13 and has good reliability and validity16 . (Photograph 1) Medicine ball put has been used extensively as an outcome measure13, 14, 15 and has good reliability and validity14, 17 . (Photograph 2)
Procedure
Subjects who fulfilled all inclusion criteria were taken up for study. The procedure was explained to all subjects. All subjects signed consent and were allocated randomly to either dynamic push up group or plyometric push up group. The intervention covered 18 training sessions, at a frequency of 3 sessions per week and with at least 48 hours between sessions14.The bench press and medicine ball put distance were used as criterion measurements. Before the start of study and again after 6 weeks of training, 2 tests (i.e. 1 RM bench press and medicine ball put) were used to measure the strength and power of chest and shoulder girdle musculature. Tests were preceded by general warm up that included 5 minutes of stationary cycling followed by flexibility exercises for chest and shoulder girdle musculature. The 2 tests were completed on one occasion with about 5 minutes rest between each test14 . Subjects were divided into 2 groups. Group A (n=15) trained with dynamic pushups and Group B (n=15) trained with plyometric pushups. The dynamic push up training and plyometric push up training programs were matched for repetitions, sets, progression and rest intervals between sets. Subjects in both groups were completed pushups exercises from kneeling positions. In dynamic push up group, subjects were instructed to follow a cadence of 2 seconds down and 2 seconds up with relatively constant velocity of movements. In plyometric push up group, each plyometric push up was repeated every 4 seconds until the assigned repetitions were completed.
Dynamic push up14
Dynamic push-ups were completed from the knees, with the body remaining straight from the head to the knees, and the knees and toes remaining in contact with the floor throughout the exercise. Subjects started in the up or inclined position with their hands placed just beyond shoulder width apart on the floor, and their fingers pointing forward. When viewed from the side, their hands fall directly below their shoulders. From this position, the subject was instructed to lower his body until his chest almost touched the floor. Without pausing, the subject changed direction and straightened his arms, pushing the trunk up to the starting position. (Photograph 3) .
Plyometric Push-Up14
Plyometric push-ups were completed from the kneeling position, with the knees and feets remaining in contact with the floor. Subjects started with their trunk vertical and their arms relaxed and hanging at their sides. From this position they were allowed themselves to fall forward, extending their arms forward with slight elbow flexion, in preparation for contact. At contact, the subject gradually absorbed the force of the fall by further flexing the elbows and gradually stopped the movement with the chest nearly touching the floor. Immediately after stopping the downward motion, the subject had reversed the action by rapidly extending his arms and propelling his trunk back to the starting position. If the subject was unable to return to the starting position during the ascent phase, then he was allowed to break form at the highest return point and helped himself back to the starting position by flexing at the hips and going into a quadruped position. In this case, the subject was instructed to perform the plyometric pushup with the goal of achieving maximal height and developing the ability to return to the starting position as soon as possible. Subjects were instructed that the ascent phase be similar to a clap push-up (without the hand clap) with the hands leaving the ground, and that they had to perform each repetition with maximum effort, emphasizing a fast switch from trunk descent to trunk ascent.(Photograph 4)
Treatment protocol14 (Table 1)
2 to 3 minutes of rest was given between sets3 . Prior to actual exercises session, general warm up exercises for 5-10 minutes were given. In warm up exercises stationary cycling was followed by flexibility exercises for chest and shoulder girdle musculature. After the completion of training session, cool down exercises were given which includes stationary cycling and gentle stretching exercises for about 5 minutes3 . Subjects were not allowed to be involved in any formal athletic competition or formal weight training for the duration of study. The subjects were observed for any change or any symptoms and asked to report if there is any discomfort during the training session. All the subjects completed the whole treatment program of 6 weeks without any discomfort.
RESULTS
Total 30 subjects were randomly divided into 2 groups: Group A and Group B.15 subjects were taken in each group. All the statistical analysis was done with the help of Graph Pad Demo version. Graph 1, 2, 3 displays the group statistics of age, weight and height distribution among the 30 subjects respectively. No significant difference was seen across the two groups in age, Student‘s t-test (paired t-test) was applied for within group comparison of Group A and Group B. In the Group A and Group B results showed highly significant improvement in 1 RM and medicine ball put distance after 6 weeks of exercise with dynamic push up at 5% level of Student‘s t test (unpaired t test) was applied between group comparison for Group A and Group B. On comparing group A and group B the results showed no significant difference in improvements in 1RM between both groups at 5% level of significance but showed highly significant difference in improvements in medicine ball put distance between both groups at 5%
DISCUSSION
Results of the present study showed that there was a significant improvement in outcome measures of strength and power in both groups (pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1964http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19641. Wilk K.E., Arrigo., ?Current concepts in the Rehabilitation of the athletic shoulders.? J. orthop Sports Phys. Vol 18 (4): 365-378, 1993.
2. Rahman Rahini, Naser Behpur., ?The effects of plyometric, weight and plyometric weight tranning on an anaerobic power and muscular strength.? J. phy edu and sports. Vol 3 (1): 81 -91, 2005.
3. Carolyn Kisner, Lynn allen., ?Therapeutic Exercises? JAYPEE: 5th edition.
4. Mc Ardle W.D., Katch F.I., Katch V., ?Essentials of Exercise Physiology.? Lippincott Williams and Wilkins: 3rd edition, Philadephlia 2000.
5. Elizabrth Quinn, ?Push up fitness test for upper body strength and Endurance?. December 05, 2008.
6. Thomas W. Kernozek, ?Upper body strength training for basketball training and conditioning?. May/june 2001.
7. By Koolazzice., ?How to do master pushups?. April 2006
8. Danial BAKER., ?Combining Scienfic Research In To Practicle Methods To Increase Effectiveness of Maximal Power Training?. [PhD thesis]. Australian strength and conditioning association, School of biomedical and sport science, edith cowan university, Australia.
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_up
10. Cogley RM, Archambault TA, Fibeger JF, et al., ?Comparison of muscle activation using various hand positions during the push-up exercise.? J Strength Cond Res; 19:628-633, 2005.
11. Freeman S, Karpowicz A, Gray J, McGill S., ?Quantifying muscle patterns and spine load during various forms of the push-up.? Med Sci Sports Exerc, 38:570-7, 2006. 12. Heiderscheit B.C., K.P. Mclean, G.J. Davies., ?The effects of isokinetic vs. plyometric training on the shoulder internal rotators.? J. Orthop. Sports Phys. Ther. Vol 23: 125–133. 1996. 13. Adams Kent J., Swank, Annm , barnard, Kerry, Berning, Joe M., Sevene Adams, Patricia G., ?Safety of Maximal Power, Strength, and Endurance Testing in Older African American Women?. J Strength and conditioning. Vol 14(3), 254-260, 2000
14. Jeffery F. Vossen, John F. Kramer, Darren G. Burke and Deborah P. Vossen., ?Comparison of Dynamic Push-Up Training and Plyometric Push-Up Training on Upper-Body Power and Strength?. J Strength and Conditioning Research, 14(3): 248– 253, 2000.
15 Avery D. Faigenbaum, James E. McFarland, Fred B. Keiper, William Tevlin, Nicholas A. Ratamess, Jie Kang and Jay R. Hoffman., ?Effects of a short-term plyometric and resistance training program on fitness performance in boys age 12 to 15 years.? J Sports Science and Medicine: Vol 16, 519-525, 2007.
16 Levinger I, Goodman C, Hare D. L., Jerums G., Toia D., Selig S., ?The reliability of the 1RM strength test for untrained middle-aged individuals.? J Sci Med Sport. Vol 12(2):310-6, 2009.
17 Stockbrugger BA, Haennel RG., ?Validity and reliability of a medicine ball explosive power test.? J Strength Cond Res. Nov; 15(4):431-8, 2001
18 Crowder V.R., S.W. Jolly, B. Collins, J. Johnson., ?The effect of plyometric push-ups on upper body power.? Track Field Q. Rev. 93:58–59, 1993.
19 Robert u. Newton, Kerry P. McEvoy., ?Baseball throwing velocity: A comparison of medicine ball training and weight training.? J Strength and Conditioning Research, Vol 8:198-203, 1994.
20 Kathleen A. Swanik, Scott M. Lephart, Buz Swanik, Susan P. Lephart., ?The effects of shoulder plyometric training on proprioception and selected muscle performance characteristics.? Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, Pa.J shoulder elbow surg. Vol 11(6): 579- 586, 2002.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesEVALUATION OF COST ALLOCATION SYSTEM IN ETHIOPIAN FLOUR SHARE COMPANIES
English5464D.GuruswamyEnglishAll kinds of organizations such as manufacturing firms, service giving companies and non profit making organizations need cost allocation system. Cost allocation is affect by technology, scarcity of raw materials, differences in actual and budget cost, skilled and unskilled manpower etc. These are factors that are common in factories and industries which
take inputs from highly uncertain agricultural production. Cost is an important variable that managers use to control the profitability of their organizations, and its proper allocation affects the efficiency of a certain production line or the whole organizational success. Profit making companies like Tigray Flour Share Company can be benefited from cost allocation systems that fit their structure and overall financial targets both in the short run and long run. And studying the type of cost allocation system used and its viability becomes a significant point which this paper tried to deal with. This research work was designed as a case study type with the purpose of analyzing cost allocation system in Tigray Flour Share Company. Both secondary and primary data sources were used. The overall conclusion of this study shows that there is a proper cost allocation method selected on a purpose in mind and using cause and effect criterion. As such, the poor performance observed in the company can be attributed to challenges other than its cost allocation system.
EnglishCost allocation, Evaluation, Ethiopian Flour Share CompanyINTRODUCTION
Cot is defined as economic sacrifice made to obtain some products and services property transfer and service performed, cot measure and report financial and non financial relating to the cost of acquiring and utilization of resources in an organization and associated with all types of the organization. Cost management describe the approach and activities of managers short, long term and control decision that close value for customers and lower cot of production an services allocating service cot reflect a cause and effect relationship between pending support services and the service provide. The mot common methods of allocating service cost are direct and step down methods. Direct method: each support department cost directly to operating department. Step down method: it allows partial recognition of service rendered by support department it requires the support department to be ranked. Standard cost is a budget for the production of one unit of a product or service and difference between the actual and standard cot is a cost variance. Cost allocation is assigned to a department to facilitate decision about department efficiency. Also assigned to a produce of customer to facilitate a profitability analysis and used to describe the assignment of indirect cost to a particular cost object- material, machinery and labor. This able the company to be competitor is a specific product line and to reduce the selling price of a product to break its market.
Though there is no clear information with regard to who was the founder of Tigray Flour Share Company, it presents document states that the organization‘s commencements date back to 1990 E.C. There is clear indication why the firm was founded, its initial capital, structure of the management and so on. However, with the coming of privatization concept in Ethiopia, it was recognized in 1992 to be governed by public enterprises authority as per the proclamation number 25/1992 (Negarit Gateta proclamation, 1992), and the name of the organization changed from Tigray Flour Factory to Tigray Flour Share Company in March 1992. The supervising authority of the enterprises is a body designated by the government. At this time the company‘s initial capital was Birr 3,949,000. Tigray Flour Factory uses wheat grain as a raw material to produce the main product (flour) and by product-crusca and cruscallo which is used as animal food, particularly for hens, cows, oxen, donkey etc. There are other weaknesses in the organization:
Unexpected material price increment
Decrease in quantity of product
Market fluctuation
Inaccessibility of currency
Some of the major purposes of the company:
To produces and sell various kinds of flour related product and by product
To renovate and expand the existing facilities and establish new factories may be necessary.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
All kinds of organizations such as manufacturing firms, service giving companies and non profit making organizations need cost allocation system. Cost allocation is affect by technology, scarcity of raw materials, differences in actual and budget cost, skilled and unskilled man power etc. These are factors that are common in factories and industries in Ethiopia which take inputs from highly uncertain agricultural production. Determining the right level of capacity is theoretically, one of the most challenging task facing managers of manufacturing companies. Having too much capacity relative to demand leads to incurring costs related to unused capacity, having too little capacity to produce leads to losing customers. Therefore, cost allocation and capacity determination are economically very important tasks that managers should deal with. With this in mind, the researcher seeks to answer questions like: is there a structured way of allocating costs in Tigray Flour Share Company? If so what method does the company use, and is it really viable taking into consideration the prevailing company profile and production line? And to the best of the researcher‘s knowledge, there is no previous research study conducted on ?Assessment of Cost Allocation System in Tigray Flour Share Company (TFSC).
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The general objective of the study is to evaluate the cost allocation system in Tigray Flour Share Company by considering the following specific objectives .
1. To identify the cost structure and composition of costs in Tigray Flour Share Company
2. To study the cost allocation system of the company
3. To evaluate the performance of the company in the light of the particular cost allocation system it uses.
Significance of the study
The researcher believes that this study will help to know the cost allocation system practiced in the company (TFSC). It also enables to know the practical point of view rather than knowing theoretically. In addition, this research highlights the strengths and weaknesses of cost allocation system in the company.
METHODOLOGY
This research work was designed as a case study type with the purpose of analyzing cost allocation system in Tigray Flour Share Company. As such, the subject of discussion is cost allocation system and the organization is specifically TFSC. Both secondary and primary data sources were used. The secondary sources of the data for this was from Audited Financial Statements of the company, news papers, articles and books. The primary data was collected through interviews with purposely selected employees in a management position of the company. The analysis method used is almost exclusively descriptive and qualitative. Tables were used to present the data in more condensed and readable format. Some calculations of ratios to find per unit cost were also applied to summarize the nature of costs and other financial matters of the company.
Scope of the study The main focus of this research is on cost structure and its allocation system of Tigray Flour Share Company. That means, the study covers only cost and cost related variables in the company mentioned.
Data analysis and interpretation According to the Audited financial statement of TFSC (2009), the company has been consistently applying accounting policies so that the necessary financial information has desired features convenient to users. The accounting policies include valuation of fixed assets and stocks-issues of paramount relevance to the whole discussion of this paper. The specific ways of presenting the document of these provisions are summarized as follows: The valuation of fixed assets in TFSC is simply cost less depreciation. It is clearly stated as an accounting policy of the company, in which the depreciation is charged on the reduced balance of each pool of fixed assets except building and the straight line method of deprecation is used. Concerning stocks, finished products are valued at an average production cost of that production period; by-products at net selling price, raw material, spare parts and other supplies are valued at moving average cost. The points in the preceding paragraph coupled with the following list of cost components obtained from TFSC audited financial statements, will make the discussion of cost allocation system in the company. In a broader view, the components of company cost are overhead cost and support service costs (cost of sales). The former comprises the following items:
Buildings
Plant and machinery
Motor vehicles
Computers
Office furniture and equipment
Specialized equipment, and
Other tools
The following are the items that are categorized under the second type of costs which are discussed in the later sections. At this point, it is worth discussing the allocation of costs in terms of their purpose, selection criteria and specific method adopted.
Manufacturing Overhead Costs The components of manufacturing overhead costs that TFSC has identified in its accounting policies are the above items listed already. The question is how the company allocates it costs among these items, starting with the purpose and criteria, helps one to identify the method adopted.
Purpose: To the extent that TFSC is engaged in the production of a uniform output (flour) by using only wheat as a raw material. The cost allocation system that the company has adopted was selected to serve the purpose of making sound economic decisions in general and measuring income and dividends to be reported to shareholders in particular. Accordingly, the company reports its comprehensive audited financial statements annually, and the management of the company provides the shareholders with profit and loss statement. More importantly cost analysis of the company is also made for the same purpose stated.
Criteria: In an interview held with the company general manager, it was found that the company would start with the aforementioned purpose in mind, and on the basis of cause and effect criterion, it would select the ?best‘ cost allocation method that serve its purpose. To allocate manufacturing overhead costs, the company uses cause and effect criteria, for its structure involves only two department, which is manufacturing and support (service) which is sales service to be precise.
Method: Although the cost allocation follows the purpose and criteria conceived in advance, it application affects the financial status of the company. Tigray Flour Share Company uses process costing system almost exclusively since the output of the company through different processing stages. In other words, given its purpose and based on the cause and effect criteria of method selection, TFSC uses process costing method to determine cost per unit. The possible rationale of using this method lies in the fact that, the company uses only one raw material (wheat) and produces always homogenous product (flour), which is in effect, marketed using homogenous channels of distribution to a relatively constant customer. As to the evaluation of cost allocation system of the company, one can say that the company has adopted the right cost allocation method that can serve its purpose very well. Referring to the same expression above, the numerator is decomposed into total manufacturing cost components as shown in the table below.
Table-1 about here Table-1 shows the share of different components of the manufacturing overhead costs that the company incurred in the years 2008 and 2009. Buildings account for about half of the total cost followed by motor vehicle, plant and machinery. The reason for a higher motor vehicle cost is incurred in transporting raw materials to warehouse and finished product (wheat) to the market. Since all cost components listed above belong to the same operation system of producing homogenous product, the cost allocation system (process costing) in TFSC merely divides total output level. According to financial statements, per unit cost of manufacturing overheads for TFSC in the years 2008 and 2009 was about 1.03 Birr each. The fact that per unit manufacturing overhead cost is constant for both consecutive years is the company did not make additional investment to expand existing buildings, machinery and equipment in 2008 and 2009. This again shows that the revenue of the company per year per unit less than the operation costs that are related to support services given the per unit profit per year.
Costs of Sales The second category of costs that Tigray Flour Share Company incurs is the service costs (or costs off sales service). This is also similar for the whole period of the company‘s operation in terms of the service types given and the cost items associated with them. The presence of homogeneity of products and services in the context of cost allocation is that TFSC uses process costing system as already stated earlier. In Tigray Flour Share Company what is sold is what has been produced in the manufacturing operation. With a daily capacity of 900 quintals of flour production, the factory operates for 365 days less 43 maintenance days a year. The total output per year under the normal conditions, is determined as:
Total Production per year
= 900 quintals x (365-43) days
=289,800 quintals per year
In the support service department, only this much flour can be sold on a uniform selling-strategy basis to a uniform customer base. The question is, as to whether TFSC has a different cost allocation system for the support service department. Theoretically, the answer would be no, because homogenous products are involved. Fortunately, the data obtained from different cost analysis documents of the company show that process costing method is used in the service department as well. The difference with the earlier discussion is the composition of cost of sales which comprises variable cost items as opposed to the manufacturing overhead cost items. The cost items which fall under this category are both direct, indirect labor, material costs, and costs associated with the use of facilities, wear and tear of machinery and buildings, to mention a few of them. The whole list is given in the table below with their corresponding values for the year 2008 and 2009.
Table-2 about here
The information presented in Table-2 above shows the list of cost items in the support service department of the company on the one hand and the cost performance of each item for the year 2008 and 2009 on the other so that the company‘s distribution of annual cost of sales among cost items is easily depicted and changes in the annual cost of a given item is also presented. In column two of the above table, both direct and indirect costs items are incorporated and all items included here are the sources of variable costs of the company. Since these components of sales costs are associated with the production and distribution of homogenous product. The cost allocation system adopted by TFSC to allocate cost of sales is also process costing method. In this table, whether each cost it allocated to total output separately and then added or the total sales cost is allocated to total output does not make any difference, as far as per unit cost of sales per annum it concerned.
Illustration:
The direct material cost for the year 2008 was Birr 4,898,858, and total out put was 289,800 quintals. To find the amount of direct material cost allocated for each unit of output, one has to divide direct material cost by total output. That is, Direct material cost per unit (2008)
= 4,898,858/289,800
=16.90 Birr
Now suppose one does this for all the remaining items and add the results, it gives the annual cot of sales per unit of output of the company for the year 2008. The only difference is that the values of each cost item under the column labeled 2008 are taken, summed and divided by the corresponding total output of the year 2008. TFSC has only flour production division which mean all the production cots that is, direct material cost as well a manufacturing overhead costs accrue to this department. As result, the unit overhead cost is calculated as:
Unit Cost = Total cost added during a year/Total product in the same year
Records of cost allocation for the year 2008 and 2009 have been taken from secondary data sourced of Tigray Flour Share Company, and the unit costs the company has of the manufacturing overhead costs during these two consecutive years are given below.
Unit MOH cost (2007)
= Total MOH cost (2008)/Total output (2008)
= 297105/289,800
= 1.03 Birr
Where total cost (2008) is the sum of manufacturing overhead cost in the year 2008. Similarly, the manufacturing overhead cots per unit of output for 2009 are:
Unit MOH cost (2009) = Total MOH cost (2009)/Total output (2009)
= 297105/289,800
= 1.03 Birr
Here total cots for the year 2009 are the sum of manufacturing overhead cost. Fortunately, there were no additions to overhead costs of the manufacturing department, and the total cost, of the company calculated per unit of output, is the same for both years. The denominators of the above expressions are obtained from the capacity of the plant, which is 900 quintals of flour per day, for 322 days per year (43 days-maintenance). The annual quantity of flour produced is on average 289,800 quintals for the period under consideration. This being the upper limit of factory capacity, TFSC uses this quantity to determine the unit cost overhead allocated in the manufacturing department here there is only one operation process. Though the unit cots of each item can be added to find the unit cost of sales allocated on process costing basis, the values for 2008 and 2009 can be computed using the total cost of sales as follows:
Per unit cost of sales (2008) =122375/289800=0.422 Birr, and Per unit cost of sales (2009) =105935/289800=0.365 Birr.
In a company like TFSC, producing identical products, the unit cost of sales depends on either total cost of sales per annum, total output per annum or both. That means, if the total annual output (denominator) is fixed, then the total cost of sales per annum determines the unit cost allocated to the production department. This is obvious from the data obtained in this research, were total output as observed to have been at full capacity in 2008 and 2009. If total output are to vary while cost of sales is remains the same for both years, per unit cost would be higher for the year with lower productivity performance. The only possible outcome which depends on the relative effects of the numerator and denominator will both vary at the same time. The empirical outcome from this study shows that total cost decreased from Birr 122,375 to Birr 105935 in 2008 and 2009 respectively. While total output remained constant. This gives a higher per unit cot allocated in 2008 than in 2009. Evaluating the cost of sales of the company, it can be said that per unit cost decreased from Birr 0.422 in 2008 to Birr 0.365 in 2009. The interpretation is that each unit of output (a quintal of flour) in 2009 costs on average 33.74 Birr more than it was in 2008 (19.7). In other words, the unit cost of output is increased with constant level of output as a result of inefficiency of production cost management of the TFSC in 2009. Another important point which perhaps needs further discussion is depreciation cost whose allocation system is similar but it is determined according to predetermined accounting policy of the company.
Depreciation Cost
Depreciation is charged on the reduced balance of each pool of fixed assets, except buildings, depreciated at the straight-line method. The specific rates used to calculate the amount of depreciation charged on different fixed assets are given in the table below
Table-3 about here The determination of depreciation cost in the computation of cost of sales (considered in the support service cost allocation) depends on the accounting policy the company has set and applied. To find the depreciation cost associated with buildings, a straight-line method is used and it gives 5 percent of the value of the building per annum. To allocate this cost, the process costing method that the company uses assigns the per unit quotient of this part of depreciation cost. The total cost of wear and tear of fixed assets is then determined by adding the values obtained in similar fashion (total depreciation is the sum of individual depreciation). According to the depreciation percentages presented in Table-3, the absolute depreciation costs the company incurred in 2008 and 2009 are presented below.
Table-4 about here The depreciation costs of each fixed asset for the year 2008 and for 2009 that Tigray Flour Share Company (TFSC) incurred as a result of wear and tear of its buildings, machinery, equipment and other fixed plant assets. This computation is used to obtain the amount deducted from the respective costs of the asset so that the book value of the asset is determined at any point in time. The book values of all fixed plant assets are given below.
Table-5 about here The above figures are simple examples that the company uses to compute the book value of a given asset given its balance of cost and percentage of depreciation. The essence of the discussion of depreciation and other costs is that, understanding how they are allocated and how they are determined. The next question is the financial performance of the company when it uses process costing method to directly allocate manufacturing overhead costs and costs of sales to the production and distribution processes of the factory.
Company Performance and cost allocation (Process Costing) Theoretically, the company profile and its product line suits the cost allocation system it has adopted. The ultimate goal of the company is to maximize profit in general to have healthy financial status either by maximizing sales (revenue) and/or by minimizing costs. Therefore, the performance of TFSC can be evaluated in terms of its profitability, and to avoid hasty conclusion from a one-shot glance at its financial statement, the following profit and loss statements of the company for 2008 and for 2009 are presented. These statements were directly taken from the audited financial statements of TFSC. The researcher has tried to associate the insight immediately under the financial statements with the intertwined phenomena of cost allocation system already discussed in detail and that of the cause and effect criterion of selecting a given cost allocation system. Tigray Flour Share Company adopted process costing method to allocate its cost; does this help the company earn positive profit? Is process costing of TFSC is efficient?
Table-6 about here
Table-7 about here
From the given profit and loss statements of the company, it can be seen that the company incurred loss in 2008 while the situation is aggravated in the following year (2009) since the net loss for the year 2009 is more than 150% of the net loss where incurred in 2008. That is, it uses process costing implying that TFSC can allocate costs directly to the non separable process it has and the profit/loss situations can be evaluated by summarizing everything in a single financial statement. Costs of sales are what have been discussed as support service costs computed using direct and indirect materials as well as labor cost. Depreciation costs are also taken into account. As to the performance of the company, it is deduced from the whole exposition so far that TFSC has been effective in allocating costs and identifying cost items by using process costing system; nevertheless, TFSC seems to have been inefficient in minimizing its cost or in maximizing its sales revenue.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the major findings of chapter three, the cost allocation system that Tigray Flour Share Company has adopted can be evaluated theoretically and based on empirical evidence; the following general conclusions are drawn: Tigray Flour Share Company produces and sells a homogenous product whose input is an identical raw material (wheat). This shows that the use of process costing method by the company to allocate both manufacturing overhead and sales costs is appropriate according to theoretical concepts. The company has different accounting policies and depreciation cost is determinedbased on specific rates charged on different assets of the company. The total cost of depreciation is then allocated using process costing in the non-separable production and sales operation of the company. Generally speaking, there is a proper cost allocation method selected on a purpose in mind and using cause and effect criterion. As such, the poor performance observed in the company can be attributed to challenges other than its cost allocation system.
ACKNOLEDGEMNT
The author is thankful to Manager of Tigray Flour Share Company for cooperation and providing various issues of financial statements. The author is also thankful to management and employees of Tigray Flour Share Company for providing the relevant information to carried out this research.
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2. Beckett, J. A., A study of the principles of allocating costs, The Accounting Review (July): 327-333 (1951)
3. Blocher, Edward J., Chen, Kung H., and Lin, Thomas W. Cost Management: A Strategic Emphasis. New York: Irwin/McGraw-Hill (1999)
4. Bost, P. J., Do cost accounting standards fill a gap in cost allocation? Management Accounting (November): 34-36 (1986)
5. Brown, Clifford D., Accounting and Reporting Practices of Nonprofit Organizations—Choices and Applications. New York: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (1999)
6. DeCoster, D. T., The unit cost denominator in process costing. The Accounting Review (July): 750-754 (1964)
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcarePHYSIOTHERAPY MANAGEMENT OF LATERAL EPICONDYLALGIA: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF TREATMENT METHODS
English6574Jagatheesan Alagesan Sanjeev SaxenaEnglish Anandbabu RamadassEnglishObjective: Lateral epicondylalgia (LE) is a commonly encountered musculo skeletal complaint. Currently, there is no agreement regarding the exact underlying patho-anatomical cause or the most effective management strategy. The aim of this systematic review was to identify and summarize the existing evidence on physiotherapy management in patients with Lateral Epicondylalgia through published studies to establish an evidence for decision making in clinical practice and research. Methods: The therapeutic modalities reported in Medline, EBSCO and Google Scholar were searched independently and 27 suitable trials were identified and qualitatively reviewed. The selected studies were grouped under each treatment method and were described under manual therapy, exercise therapy, brace, electrotherapy and actinotherapy in the review. Results: The physiotherapy management of LE patients includes Manual therapy, taping, electrotherapy, Actinotherapy, Exercises therapy, Brace, Low-Level Laser Therapy, Ultrasound Therapy and Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy and no specific therapy has emerged as a 'gold standard' with demonstrably superior long-term efficacy. Conclusion: This review finding would facilitate clinicians and researchers to understand the
physiotherapy treatment options available for the management of patients with LE. There is a lack of evidence for the long term benefit of physical therapy interventions in general and an effective treatment strategy that provides rapid alleviation of LE and that is maintained in the long term is needed.
EnglishPhysiotherapy, Rehabilitation, Lateral EpicondylalgiaINTRODUCTION
Lateral Epicondylalgia (LE), lateral epicondylitis or tennis elbow is a musculo skeletal disorder often encountered by healthcare practitioners, such as physical therapists, and is characterized by pain over the lateral elbow that is typically aggravated by gripping activities.1 The syndrome is most prevalent (35-64% of all cases) in jobs requiring repetitive manual tasks, it results in restricted function, and it is one of the more costly of all work-related illnesses.2-4 The peak incidence of this condition occurs between the ages of 35 and 50 and usually affects the dominant arm.5 Formerly called lateral epicondylitis, lateral epicondylalgia or epicondylar tendinopathy are more appropriate terms considering that numerous studies6-9 have shown the absence of inflammatory cells in this disorder. It has therefore, been suggested that the term epicondylitis be abandoned in favor of 'epicondylalgia’.
1,10,11 The exact underlying pathological process contributing to LE has been the topic of much debate, and there still exists no consensus.11 Current evidence following surgical intervention indicates that LE is a chronic disorder demonstrated by the presence of degenerative changes, such as increased fibroblasts and disorganized collagen, as opposed to inflammatory cells.1,8,12,13 Repetitive wrist dorsiflexion with supination and pronation causes overuse of the extensor tendons of the forearm and subsequent micro tears, collagen degeneration, and angio fibroblastic proliferation. If untreated, lateral epicondylitis persists for an average of six to 24 months.14 Lateral epicondylitis presents as a history of occupation or activity related pain at the lateral elbow. Symptoms are usually reproduced with resisted supination or wrist dorsiflexion, particularly with the elbow in full extension. The pain is typically located just distal to the lateral epicondyle over the extensor tendon mass. Imaging studies are rarely required for diagnosis. Recent review articles have addressed the use of patient history, differential diagnosis, and physical examination in the diagnosis of lateral epicondylitis.15,16 A significant number of treatments are offered for LE, ranging from medical interventions such as surgery and medication to physical therapy including modalities, exercise, and manual therapy.12,17-19 Given the complexity surrounding the identification of an underlying cause, it is not surprising that no agreement exists as to which method is most effective in treating this disorder.5,17,19 In addition, evidence regarding treatment effectiveness for LE is also lacking. World Confederation for Physical Therapy (WCPT) defines Physiotherapy as, "….providing services to individuals and populations to develop, maintain and restore maximum movement and functional ability throughout the lifespan. Physiotherapy includes providing services in circumstances where movement and function are threatened by ageing, injury, diseases, disorders, conditions or environmental factors. Functional movement is central to what it means to be healthy. Physiotherapy is concerned with identifying and maximising quality of life and movement potential within the spheres of promotion, prevention, treatment or intervention, habilitation and rehabilitation. This encompasses physical, psychological, emotional, and social wellbeing. Physiotherapy involves the interaction between the physiotherapist, patients or clients, other health professionals, families, care givers and communities in a process where movement potential is assessed and goals are agreed upon, using knowledge and skills unique to physiotherapists.?20 Physiotherapy for LE include; friction massage, manipulative therapy, ultrasound, phonophoresis, iontophoresis, shock wave therapy, orthotic therapy, elbow braces and supports, taping, low level laser therapy, and plyometric exercises.21-27 The aim of this systematic review was to identify and summarize the existing evidence on physiotherapy management in patients with Lateral Epicondylalgia through published studies to establish an evidence for decision making in clinical practice and research.
Search Strategy and Selection Criteria Independent search was carried out by testers using a well-defined search strategy in following databases; Medline, EBSCO and Google Scholar published from 1996 to 2011 using the key terms lateral epicondylalgia, lateral epicondylitis, tennis elbow, lateral elbow pain, physiotherapy, rehabilitation, management, treatment. The Boolean operator AND was used to link terms describing diagnosis (lateral epicondylalgia, lateral epicondylitis, etc.) with terms describing intervention (physiotherapy, rehabilitation, etc.). Relevant studies were included regardless of methodological quality so as to include those articles that may have been excluded from past reviews. A total of 168 studies were potentially identified by the authors. Studies published in English language on effectiveness, efficacy, effects of physiotherapy treatment methods Main findings of the review The 27 included studies were grouped under twelve treatment methods studied for their effectiveness in LE patient population which are descriptively reported below using a qualitative approach.was included in the review; and studies on surgery (45 Studies), pharmacotherapy (29 studies), comparison of drugs (32 studies) or combined drug therapy (23 studies) with other treatments (12 studies) were excluded. A total of 27 studies were finally identified and then considered for review. To avoid search bias, the testers performed independent searches and then disagreements were solved by consensus at various stages of the study.
Main findings of the review The 27 included studies were grouped under twelve treatment methods studied for their effectiveness in LE patient population which are descriptively reported below using a qualitative approach. Manual therapy Vicenzino et al28 investigated effect of spinal manipulative therapy in a group of 15 patients by randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, repeated measures design with treatment, placebo or control condition. The treatment condition produced significant improvement in pressure pain threshold, pain-free grip strength, neurodynamics and pain scores relative to placebo and control conditions. One-group pre-test post-test research by Abbott et al29 and placebo, control, repeated-measures research by Paungmali et al30 investigated the effect of elbow mobilization with movement and they prove it to be effective. Nourbakhsh and Fearon31 assessed effect of Oscillating-energy Manual Therapy in a randomized, placebo-control, doubleblinded study on pain, grip strength, and functional abilities of subjects with chronic LE and found as an efficient treatment for LE. Ahuja32 in a narrative review from 1992 to 2010 on efficacy of mobilization with movement (MWM) in LE concluded that there is a significant immediate hypoalgesic effect of MWM in LE.
Manual therapy and exercises Blanchette and Normand33 in a pilot randomized clinical study assessed 27 subjects for the effect of augmented soft tissue mobilization and control group with stretching exercises and life style modification, showed improvements in pain-free grip strength, visual analog scale in both groups.
Manual therapy and taping Vicenzino12 in a master class presented that the manipulative therapy and taping warrant consideration in the clinical best practice management of LE.
Manual therapy and electrotherapy One case report by Radpasand34 presented a 57-year-old woman with LE who was treated successfully by high-velocity and low-amplitude manipulation, high-voltage pulsed galvanic stimulation, a hardpadded elbow brace, ice, and exercise, along with restricted use of the affected elbow in a 10 week protocol and proved effect of the specific sequential multimodal treatment.
Manual therapy and Actinotherapy Stasinopoulos and Stasinopoulos35 compared the effectiveness of Cyriax physiotherapy, a supervised exercise programme, and polarized polychromatic non-coherent light (Bioptron light) in the treatment of LE in a controlled clinical trial with 75 patients sequentially allocated in to three groups. Intervention given for four weeks three treatments per week, pain and pain-free grip strength were assessed at baseline, and of intervention and 28 week follow up. The authors concluded that supervised exercise programme should be the first treatment option for therapists when they manage LE patients. If this is not possible, Cyriax physiotherapy and polarized polychromatic non-coherent light (Bioptron light) may be suitable.
Exercises therapy Stasinopoulos et al36 studied the use and effects of strengthening and stretching exercise programmes in the treatment of LE and concluded a well designed trial is needed to study the effectiveness of a supervised exercise programme for LET consisting of eccentric and static stretching exercises. Martinez-Silvestrini et al37 evaluated effect of home exercises on Ninety-four subjects with chronic LE in a randomised trial with three groups: stretching, concentric strengthening with stretching, and eccentric strengthening with stretching for six weeks. The authors found no significant differences among the three groups in painfree grip strength, Patient-rated Forearm Evaluation Questionnaire, Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand questionnaire, Short Form 36, and visual analog pain scale.
Exercises therapy and brace Svernlov and Adolfsson38 performed a Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial on 38 patients with LE to compare stretching and eccentric exercise along with forearm bands and wrist support nightly for 12 weeks and found that eccentric training considerably reduce symptoms than conventional stretching. Luginbuhl et al39 analysed the effect of forearm support band and of strengthening exercises for the treatment of LE in a prospective randomised study with 3 groups of treatment: (I) forearm support band, (II) strengthening exercises and (III) both methods on 29 patients. No differences in the scores were found between the 3 groups of treatment (p=0.27), indicating that no beneficial influence was found either for the strengthening exercises or for the forearm support band. Improvement seems to occur with time, independent of the method of treatment used.
Brace Struijs et al40 evaluated the effectiveness of brace-only treatment, physical therapy, and the combination of these for patients with LE in a randomized trial of 180 patients over 3 groups for 1 year follow-up. Conflicting results were found. Brace treatment might be useful as initial therapy. Combination therapy has no additional advantage compared to physical therapy but is superior to brace only for the short term. Faes et al41 investigated the effect of an external wrist extension force on extensor muscle activity during hand gripping in patients with LE in a semi experimental study and concluded that the dynamic extensor brace could be a promising intervention for LE.
Low-Level Laser Therapy (LLLT) Papadopoulos et al42 studied the effect of low-level laser therapy in a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study on patients with LE (n = 29) using a gallium aluminium arsenide laser. No significant differences were found between the treatment and placebo groups. Bjordal et al43 in a systematic review with meta-analysis, with primary outcome measures of pain relief and/or global improvement and subgroup analyses of methodological quality, wavelengths and treatment procedures identified 18 randomised placebo-controlled trials were LLLT administered with optimal doses of 904 nm and possibly 632 nm wavelengths directly to the lateral elbow tendon insertions, seem to offer short-term pain relief and less disability in LE, both alone and in conjunction with an exercise regimen.
Oken et al44 evaluated the effects of LLLT and compared these with the effects of brace or ultrasound (US) treatment in tennis elbow in a prospective and randomized, controlled, single-blind trial on 58 patients over 6 weeks intervetion. The results show that, in patients with lateral epicondylitis, a brace has a shorter beneficial effect than US and laser therapy in reducing pain, and that laser therapy is more effective than the brace and US treatment in improving grip strength. Stergioulas45 compared the effectiveness of a protocol of combination of laser with plyometric exercises and a protocol of placebo laser with the same program, in the treatment of LE. Fifty patients were randomised into two groups. Group A (n = 25) was treated with a 904 Ga-As laser CW, frequency 50 Hz, intensity 40 mW and energy density 2.4 J/cm(2), plus plyometric exercises and group B (n = 25) that received placebo laser plus the same plyometric exercises for 8 weeks. Pain at rest, grip strength and range of motion were analyzed at baseline, 8 week course of treatment and 8 weeks after the end of treatment. The results suggested that the combination of laser with plyometric exercises was more effective treatment than placebo laser with the same plyometric exercises at the end of the treatment as well as at the follow-up. Future studies are needed to establish the relative and absolute effectiveness of the above protocol.
Ultrasound Therapy D'Vaz et al46 in a randomized, doubleblind, placebo controlled trial assessed the effectiveness of low-intensity ultrasound therapy (LIUS) vs placebo therapy daily for 12 weeks in 55 patients with chronic LE. No significant difference found between LIUS and placebo in elbow pain at baseline and 12 weeks.
Smidt et al47 evaluate the available evidence of the effectiveness of physiotherapy for LE. 23 RCTs were included in the review evaluating the effects of laser therapy, ultrasound treatment, electrotherapy, and exercises and mobilisation techniques. The pooled estimate of the treatment effects of two studies on ultrasound compared to placebo ultrasound, showed statistically significant and clinically relevant differences in favour of ultrasound. There is insufficient evidence either to demonstrate benefit or lack of effect of laser therapy, electrotherapy, exercises and mobilisation techniques for LE.
Manual therapy and Ultrasound Therapy
Nagrale et al48 in a RCT compared the effectiveness of deep transverse friction massage with Mill's manipulation versus phonophoresis with supervised exercise in managing LE with sixty patients. The control group received phonophoresis with diclofenac gel over the area of the lateral epicondyle for 5 minutes combined with supervised exercises and the experimental group received 10 minutes of deep transverse friction massage followed by a single application of Mill's manipulation for 4 weeks. Pain, pain-free grip strength and functional status were measured. This study demonstrates that Cyriax physiotherapy is a superior treatment approach compared to phonopboresis and exercise in managing lateral epicondylalgia. Kochar and Dogra49 compared the effect of a combination of Mulligan mobilisation (a manual therapy approach) and ultrasound therapy with that of ultrasound therapy alone in a RCT with 66 patients for 3 weeks. In follow up of 12 weeks of therapy pain and grip strength were analysed. The authors conclude that addition of Mulligan mobilisation to a regimen comprising ultrasound therapy and progressive exercises brings about increased and faster recovery in patients with LE.
Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy Bisset et al50 in a systematic review of the literature on the effectiveness of physical interventions for LE identified 76 RCT of which 28 satisfied the minimum criteria for meta-analysis. The evidence suggests that extracorporeal shock wave therapy is not beneficial in the treatment of LE and there is a lack of evidence for the long term benefit of physical interventions in general. Rompe and Maffulli51 in a qualitative study-by-study assessment included 10 trials that randomized 948 participants to shock wave therapy (SWT) or placebo or treatment control and evidence was found for effectiveness of SWT for LE under well-defined, restrictive conditions only. Kohia et al 52 analyzed research literatures that has examined the effectiveness of various physical therapy interventions on LE evidence databases from 1994 to 2006 using the key words lateral epicondylitis, tennis elbow, modalities, intervention, management of, treatment for, radio humeral bursitis, and experiment. Shockwave therapy and Cyriax therapy protocol are effective physical therapy interventions and no single intervention has been proven to be the most efficient. Wright et al19 reviewed a range of physical therapies, drug therapies and surgical interventions and concluded no specific therapy has emerged as a 'gold standard' with demonstrably superior long-term efficacy.
DISCUSSION
This review was a clinically and scientifically applicable for use both by clinicians and researchers involved with patients of Lateral Epicondylalgia. Some of the potential limitations of this review were the lack of meta-analysis and quality scoring of the included studies. This review included studies of all designs leading to heterogeneity not only in interventions, outcome assessment and follow-up, but also in analysis and effect size. Only studies in English were reviewed and this might have missed some other important studies. Finally, no attempt was made to locate and obtain unpublished data, which introduces the potential for publication bias. These sources can prove to be difficult to identify and obtain when not indexed in databases such as Medline.53 Lack of indexing is a significant barrier to successfully incorporating unpublished data into the search methodology, and for this reason it was not included in this review. The increased variability regarding different physiotherapy modalities, comparison interventions, follow-up, and outcome measures also made it very difficult to compare results across studies and draw relevant conclusions. Though a large volume of literature on management of LE patients is on pharmacotherapy and surgical intervention,54-56 future research could be on developing a comprehensive management involving physiotherapy treatment methods in patients with LE. Further good quality controlled clinical trials on comparison between the physiotherapy modalities and lifestyle modification are necessary to derive valid conclusions.
CONCLUSION
This review has presented evidence to prove physiotherapy intervention methods for management of lateral epicondylalgia. It is clear that lateral epicondylalgia is a complex condition, which is more than a simple soft-tissue injury of the extensor tendons. An effective treatment strategy that provides rapid alleviation of LE and that is maintained in the long term is needed. There is a lack of evidence for the long term benefit of physical therapy interventions in general.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Authors acknowledge the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles and journals from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Disclosures This review was performed as part of review of literature for Doctoral thesis (PhD Thesis) of the first author.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareIN VITRO ANTICANCER ACTIVITY OF ZINGIBER OFFICINALE AND ALLIUM SATIVA TOWARDS MCF- 7
AND K562 CELL LINES
English7582K.S.V.Prabhu RatnamEnglish Ranga Suresh SannidhiEnglish Y. Raja Ratna ReddyEnglish Jagadeeswara Reddy KanalaEnglishPhytochemicals present in the genus Allium and Ginger have potential pharmacological effects, such as antimicrobial, antithrombotic, antitumor, hypo lipidaemic and hypoglycemic activities. In the present study, we examined the effects of garlic and ginger oils on human leukemia (K 562) and Breast Cancer (MCF-7) cells. Incubation of K 562 and MCF-7 with garlic and ginger mixture (5.0 μg/ml) caused a marked suppression of K562 and MCF-7 proliferations when compared with DMSO (used as positive control) separately. The combination of garlic and ginger oil results were more effective (p EnglishTryphan Blue Assay, MCF-7, K562, Zingiber officinale (Ginger) and Allium Sativa (Garlic).INTRODUCTION
The role of natural products as a source for remedies has been recognized since ancient times. Despite major scientific and technological progress in combinatorial chemistry, drugs derived from natural product still make an enormous contribution in drug discovery today. Experimental agents derived from natural products are offering us a great opportunity to evaluate not only totally new chemical classes of anticancer agents, but also novel and potentially relevant mechanisms of action (Adriana B da Rocha et al, 2001). Cancer arises due to the uncontrolled growth of cells and it is a multi-step disease incorporating physical, environmental, metabolic, chemical and genetic factors, which play a direct and/or indirect role in the induction and deterioration of cancers. Breast cancer and lymphoma are one of the commonest malignancies affecting population. Breast cancer is one of the main life-threatening diseases that a woman may have to face during her lifetime (Angelopoulos et al., 2004). The increasing incidence of breast neoplasia reported over the last a few decades has led to development of new anticancer drugs, drug combinations, and chemotherapy strategies by methodical and scientific exploration of enormous pool of synthetic, biological, and natural products (Mukherjee et al., 2001). There is a large amount of scientific evidence showing that consumption of fruits and vegetables lower the risk of cancer (Chen et al., 2004), and medicinal plants constitute the main source of new pharmaceuticals and healthcare products, including medications for ethnoveterinary medicine (Ivanova et al., 2005). (Xiujie Wang et al, 2006)
Allium Sativa (Garlic) is known to exhibit anticancer effects in prostate, pancreatic and breast cancers. (Yogeshwer Shukla et al (2007)) Similarly, Zingiber officinale (Ginger) is used against breast, ovarian, gastric and lung cancers and lymphomas. (Yogeshwer Shukla (2007)). This study was undertaken to explore the cytotoxic activity of the plant extracts Zingiber officinale and Allium sativa in human leukemia (K 562) and Breast Cancer (MCF- 7) cells.
MATERIALS AND METHODS K562 cells (Leukaemic cell line) were obtained from ATCC, USA (CCL-243™) and MCF-7 cells (Breast cancer cell line) were obtained from ATCC, USA (HTB- 22™). RPMI 1640 medium containing 10% fetal bovine was obtained from Difco, In vitro gen Corp, Canada. All solvents were of HPLC grade. Acetonitrile was purchased from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany), and ultra pure water was obtained in a Milli-Q system from Millipore (Bedford, MA, China). Allium Sativa and Zingiber officinale were purchased from Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Tirupati, India. The RPMI medium was prepared using Serum (Sigma, USA) and antibiotics (100u/mL Penicillin and 100µg/mL streptomycin) in a humidified atmosphere of 5% C02 at 37 0 C .
Preparation of Ginger Extract Dried ginger was prepared from ginger slices through air-drying at room temperature (25ºC) until the weight of ginger was constant. Steamed ginger was obtained by steaming raw ginger at different temperatures at various time points (100 ºC for 1 h, or 120 ºC for 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6 h). Ginger was air dried at room temperature (25 ºC) until the weight was constant. For the HPLC analysis, the ginger slices were accurately weighed (5 g for fresh ginger, 0.5 g for dried ginger and steamed ginger) and suspended in 40.0 mL methanol, and were ultrasonically extracted twice for 30 min each time. The extract mixture was cooled to room temperature, and filtered. The residue on the filter paper was washed with methanol. The combined methanol extracts were evaporated to dryness under vacuum at 45 ºC. After reconstitution in methanol, the extract was transferred to a 10-mL volumetric flask and made up to the volume with methanol. The resultant solutions were centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for five min; the supernatants were transferred to an auto sampler vial for HPLC analysis. For the in vitro antiproliferation studies, fresh, dried gingers, or steamed ginger (120 ºC, 4 h) were extracted with methanol as described above. The extract was evaporated under vacuum, and dissolved with DMSO. (XiaoLan Cheng et al, 2011)
Preparation of Garlic Extract The outer layers of garlic cloves were removed and cloves were cut up into 0.5 cm thick pieces, and distributed on sterile filter-papers as monolayers. The process of drying was done using a thermostat with natural circulation of warm medium at temperature of 45 °C ± 2 °C for 72 h. Dried garlic was cooled on 20 °C and was grinded into powder in the laboratory mill. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts were prepared from garlic powders as follows: 1 g of garlic powder was dissolved in 5 ml of re distilled water and absolute ethanol, respectively. The suspension was set aside for 24 h at room temperature. The supernatants (extracts) were collected after centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 15 min. Aqueous extracts were sterilized using a 0.22 μm filter. (M. Colic et al, 2002) For application to the cells, these oils and extract were diluted in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and further diluted in RPMI medium. (V. Bhuvaneswari et al, 2004).
Cell treatment Zingiber officinale and Allium sativa were used at different concentrations (alone and in various combinations) to evaluate their antiproliferative effect. These compounds were prepared as 10mM stock solution in 100% DMSO and were stored in dark colored bottle at 4°C. The stocks were diluted to the required concentration immediately before use with 1% DMSO. The cells were exposed to drugs individually and in different combination for a period of 48 hr. Cells grown in media containing equivalent amount of DMSO without drug serves as control. (Sivakumar Ramamurthy et al, 2011).
Cell Viability Assay K562 and MCF-7 cells were cultured at a density of 6 X 104 and 5 X 104 /well into 24-well plates to reach the 80-90% confluence using RPMI medium. After 48 hrs incubation, the cells were collected from each well in eppendroff and centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 5 min to get the cell pellet. (Liane Ziliotto et al, 2009) The cells were counted with a hemocytometer (Model S-plus, Coulter Co., FL), and cell viability was evaluated in terms of exclusion of Tryphan Blue, which was determined by microscopic observation.
Tryphan Blue Exclusion Assay The Tryphan blue exclusion assay is based on fact that the chromophore is negatively charged and does not interact with the cell unless the membrane is damaged. Therefore, all the cells which exclude the dye are viable. The cell suspension was diluted with 0.4% Tryphan blue solution (1:1), mixed thoroughly and was allowed to stand at room temperature for 5 min. Hemocytometer was used for cell counting. When observed under the microscope, nonviable cells were stained blue, viable cells remain unstained. % Dead cell = N° of dead cells / (Sum of the live cells and dead cells) X 100 Finally, cells were seeded in 48 well plates at the concentration of 5000 cells/ml and incubated in 5% Co2 at 37° C for 24 hours. After incubation, the cells were treated with the test compounds in various concentrations 5.0, 10.0 and 20.0 µg/mL. Percent of Growth Inhibition was calculated using the formula: % of growth Inhibition = ((Control Cells/ml – Test Cells/ml)/Control Cells/ml)*100.
Statistical Methods The data were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the differences among samples were determined by Dunnett‘s pair-wise comparison test using the Systat 12.0 software. P-value of < 0.05 was regarded as significant.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. We are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present study was undertaken to investigate the potential anticancer activity of the Zingiber officinale and Allium sativa in two different Cell lines. The In vitro assay resulted that Zingiber officinale and Allium sativa were able to induce significant inhibition of cell growth by applying them in combination when compared to separate and single agent treatment in K-562 (leukemia) and MCF-7 (breast cancer) cell lines by Tryphan blue assay. Rational drug development in cancer therapy appears to concentrate on the discovery of effective pharmaceutical agents that can intervene in diverge signaling pathways. (John Stone et al., 2002) The result obtained from the study revealed that the anticancer activity of drugs was higher in combination therapy when compared with the individual drug treatment at lower concentrations. Zingiber officinale rhizome is typically consumed as a fresh paste, dried powder, tablets, slices preserved in syrup, candy (crystallized Zingiber officinale) or for flavoring tea. Zingiber officinale has been found to be anti carcinogenic via multiple pathways. Although chemo preventive activities of Zingiber officinale have been examined (Koshimizu et al., 1988; Katiyar et al., 1996), very little information is available in the literature with regard to the effects of individual constituents of Zingiber officinale on experimental carcinogenesis. Its use in inflammatory conditions was consistent with anti-inflammatory activities of its components In vitro (Kiuchi et al., 1982; Mascolo et al., 1989). Two studies suggested that these compounds suppress the proliferation of human cancer cells through the induction of apoptosis (Lee and Surh, 1998; Lee et al., 1998) and were found to exert inhibitory effects on the viability of human HL-60 (promyelocytic leukemia) cells (Lee and Surh, 1998). Moreover, results of the recent study showed that the cell viability was decreased by 35% and 89% after 5 hrs of treatment with 20 and 100 µM [6]-paradol, respectively (Lee and Surh, 1998). In another study, it was observed that [6]- paradol induced apoptosis in JB6 cells at low concentrations (up to 25 µM), but apparent necrotic cell death was resulted at concentrations greater than 50 µM (Huang et al., 1996). For the present in vitro antiproliferation studies, fresh, dried gingers, or steamed ginger (120ºC, 4 h) were extracted with methanol. For application to the cells extract were diluted in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and further diluted in RPMI medium. The data revealed that Zingiber officinale was effective (p < 0.05) at 20.0 µg/mL compared with the DMSO in both the MCF-7 and K562 cells. (Figures 1 and 3) Recent studies have been stated that Allium sativa inhibits stomach, colorectal and prostate cancer. Garlic and onion have also shown to possess anti allergic, anti bacterial and anti inflammatory property. (Shilpa Srivastava et al, 2010). Allium sativa powder/extract has shown antiproliferative activity in HL-60, K562, MCF-7 cell lines and it inhibits anchoragedependent growth of cells. Incubation of HL-60 with Allium sativa or onion oil (20 mg/mL) caused a marked suppression of HL-60 proliferation; the suppression was almost identical with those obtained by alltrans-retinoic acid (ATRA) or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). (Taiichiro Seki et al, 2000). In our present study Allium sativa was tested at different concentration as similar to Zingiber officinale. It was found that the Allium sativa was more effective (p < 0.05) at 20.0 µg/mL towards MCF-7 cells while it was more effective (p < 0.05) at 10.0 µg/mL towards K562 cells (Figures 1 and 3). The IC50 value of ginger and garlic extracts grown in RPMI for MCF-7 and K 562Cells were 10.0 and 20.0 µg/mL. The combination of Allium sativa and Zingiber officinale resulted in a potential anticancer effect at the low concentration level of 5.0 µg/mL (p < 0.05, 0.01) (Figures 1 and3) whereas the percent inhibition is higher (p < 0.05) at 10.0 µg/mL for Allium sativa and Zingiber officinale individually and in combination (Figures 2 and4). Morphological assessment of MCF-7 Cell cultures revealed that there were no morphological differences in the cultures treated with Curcumin, Allium sativa and Zingiber officinale as single agents as well as when treated with combinations. The mode of synergistic interaction between these compounds, however, was not well investigated.
CONCLUSION
Cancer is one of the extensive diseases in humans and there is substantial scientific and commercial attention in continuing discovery of new anticancer agents from natural product sources. Currently, about 50% of drugs used in clinical trials for anticancer activity were isolated from natural sources such as herbs and spices or any other related to them. (Newman and Cragg, 2007) The results showed strong inhibitory activity of extracts on human breast cancer (MCF-7) and leukemia cells (K562). According to the report of the American National Cancer Institute (NCI), the criterion of anticancer activity of the crude extracts of herbs is: IC50 ≤ 30 µg/mL (Itharat et al, 2004). In conclusion, our In vitro results on the anticancer activity of Zingiber officinale and Allium sativa showed that the beneficial effects in the breast cancer and leukemia cells in combination therapy. Therefore, more focused clinical studies are necessary to establish whether these combinations can be exploited to reach cancer blocking or remedial effects in human body.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareA STUDY OF ASSOCIATION BETWEEN C-REACTIVE PROTEIN AND FEATURES OF METABOLIC
SYNDROME
English8387Abhijit BasuEnglish Jitendra AhujaEnglishObjective — To study the clinical profile of patients with metabolic syndrome and find out the
association of CRP level with components of the metabolic syndrome.
Research Design And Methods— We conducted a cross-sectional prospective study in 50
cases of metabolic syndrome randomly selected from medical wards of a tertiary care hospital.
Total cholesterol (TC), HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, BMI, waist circumference and
prevalence of diabetes and hypertension were assessed. To define the metabolic syndrome we
used modified ATP III criteria recommended in AHA/NHLBI statement. Complete information
for the five variables needed to assess the metabolic syndrome was collected. CRP was
measured by latex enhanced immunoturbidimetric assay (high sensitivity CRP assay).
Results— Higher waist circumference cases had higher mean hs-CRP (3.235 Vs 1.950, P
EnglishINTRODUCTION The metabolic syndrome is a constellation of interrelated risk factors of metabolic origin – ?metabolic risk factors?- that appear to directly promote the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.1 The term metabolic syndrome has been described variously by different groups and various syndromes are also to be found in literature such as syndrome X, 2 deadly quartet, hypertriglycerdemic waist3 and insulin resistance syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is driving the twin global epidemics of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome is estimated to be around 20-25 per cent of the population globally. People with metabolic syndrome are twice as likely to die from and three times as likely to have a heart attack or stroke compared with people without the syndrome.4 In addition, almost 200 million people globally have diabetes and 80 percent of these will die from cardiovascular disease,5 so there is an overwhelming moral, medical and economic imperative to identify these individuals with metabolic syndrome early, so that life style interventions and treatment may prevent the development of diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease. A number of expert groups have developed clinical criteria for the metabolic syndrome. The most widely accepted of these have been produced by the WHO, the European group for the study of insulin resistance (EGIR) and NCEP ATP III.6 All Groups agree on the core components of the metabolic syndrome: obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia and hypertension. However, they apply the criteria differently to identify such a cluster.
Metabolic syndrome and C-reactive protein People with the metabolic syndrome frequently have a proinflammatory state as shown by elevated cytokines, i.e., TNF and IL-6 and acute phase reactants i.e. CRP, fibrinogen. Estimation of CRP is relatively easy to identify a proinflammatory and inflammatory condition in routine clinical practice. It has been suggested that testing CRP level in blood may be new way to access cardiovascular disease risk, finding of an elevated level support the need for life style changes. Weight reduction may diminish CRP levels and apparently will alleviate the underlying, inflammatory stimulus.
Aims and Objectives This study was conducted with the following aims and objectives:
Diagnostic criteria for metabolic syndrome: Modified ATP III criteria 7, 8 recommended in AHA/ NHLBI statement will be used for diagnosis of metabolic syndrome which is as follows:
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1968http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19681. National Cholesterol Education Programme (NCEP) expert panel on detection and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (ATP-III). Circulation, 2002: 106:3143-3421.
2. Reaven GM. Role of insulin resistance in human disease (syndrome X) an expanded definition. Ann Rev Med. 1993: 44:121-131.
3. Lemieux I, Pascot A, Couillard C, Lamarche B, Tcherno FA, Almevas N, Begeron J, Gaudet D, Tremblay G, Prud`homme D, Nadeau A, Despres JP. Hypertriglycerdemic waist: a maker of the atherogenic metabolic trial (hyperinsulinemia, hyperapolipoprotein B; small dense LDL) in men. Circulation, 2000; 102:179-184.
4. Isomaa B, Almgren P, Tuomi T et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes care, 2001; 24(4):683-9.
5. Diabetes Atlas. Second edition, International diabetes federation, 2003.
6. Executive summary of the III report of the National Cholesterol Education Programme (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult treatment panel III). JAMA, 2001; 285:2486-97.
7. Shiwaku K, Nogi A, Kitajima K et al. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome using the modified ATP III definitions for workers in Japan, Korea , and Mongolia. J occup health , 2005: 47:126-135.
8. Lorenzo C, Serrano-Rios M et al. Central obesity determines prevalence differences of the metabolic syndrome. Obes Res, 2003; 11:1480-1487
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareVARIANT ORIGIN OF LINGUOFACIAL TRUNK
English8890M. Pramila PadminiEnglish B. Narasinga RaoEnglishExternal carotid artery is a vascular system constituting the nourishment to the territorial region of head and neck. In the present report the linguofacial trunk arose from single point and ran forwards and medially and then divided into lingual and facial branches in two cadavers. Accurate anatomical knowledge of the vessels of face and neck and their variation in the
branching pattern has immense surgical importance and adds great value to the precise diagnosis in radiology.
Englishfacial artery, lingual artery, linguofacial trunkINTRODUCTION
External carotid artery is a vascular system constituting the nourishment to the territorial region of head and neck. Accurate anatomical knowledge of the vessels of face and neck and their variation in the branching pattern has immense surgical importance and adds great value to the precise diagnosis in radiology. Arterial differentiation occurs centripetally from arterial network therefore common origins occur. Lingual arteries and the arteries of facial region are often used as recipient vessels in microvascular surgery. Anatomical understanding of facial artery is important in many types of facial surgery . Knowledge of the course of lingual artery is not only a guide for catheterization during the process of superselective chemotherapy (Tatsuhiko Nakasatoa et al 20001 but also during hemiglossectomies in malignant tumours of tongue (Arnold komisar 19862 ).
Observations: Anatomical variations of the vessels of the neck region were carried out on 20 cadavers (18 male and 02 female during the years 2006-2010 ). Our results briefly are as follows:
(1) The noncommon-trunk type of the external carotid artery (in which each branch arises separately from the external carotid artery) was found in 17 cases,
(2) truncus linguofacialis type was found in 2, and
(3) truncus thyrolinguo-facial type was found in 1 case .
The lingual artery and facial artery usually take origin separately from external carotid artery. In the present report the linguofacial trunk arose from single point and ran forwards and medially and then divided into lingual and facial branches in two cadavers( fig.1, fig.2) . The lingual artery passed horizontally and disappeared underneath the hyoglossus muscle.
DISCUSSION Embryology: The ventral aorta proximal to the third arch has become the common carotid artery. It divides into ventral pharyngeal artery and internal carotid artery (future external carotid artery). The distal part of ventral pharyngeal and ventral remnants of first and second aortic arches will develop into linguofacial system. Basmajian 19933 , Shangkuan et al. 19984 , Shima et a,l. 19985 observed the presence of the linguofacial trunk in two hundred and eleven cases, 20% showed the trunk; Shangkuan et al4 observed that in twentyfive cases, 20% showed the trunk and Shima et al., 5 described that in thirty cases, 21.7% showed the trunk. Linns et al 20056 during dissections in corpses in the anterior trigone region of the neck, observed the presence of the linguofacial trunk in their survey have obtained results similar to that of above authors .
Shima, Harunobu D.D.S et al 19987 in their study of Anatomy of Microvascular Anastomosis in the Neck found truncus linguofacialis in 21.7 percent cases. In the present study linguofacial trunk is observed in 10% of cases. The difference in percentage is may be due to study in less number of cadavers.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1969http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19691. Tatsuhiko Nakasatoa,b , Kenichi Katoha , Miyuki Sonea , Shigeru Eharaa ,Yoshiharu Tamakawaa , Hideki Hoshia and Saburoh Sekiyamaa Super selective Continuous Arterial Infusion Chemotherapy through the Superficial Temporal Artery for Oral Cavity Tumors , American Journal of Neuroradiology 21:1917-1922 (11 2000) © January 2000
2. Arnold komisar, m.d., d.d.s. The applications of tongue flaps in head and neck surgery* vol. 62, no. 8, october 1986
3. Basmajian, J. V. Anatomia de Grant. 10?ed. São Paulo, Manole, 1993.
4. Shangkuan, H.; Xinghai, W. ; Zengxing, W.; Shizhen, Z.; Shiying, J. and Yishi, C. Anatomic Bases of Tongue Flaps. Surg. Radiol. Anat., 20(2):83-8, 1998.
5. Shima, H.; Luedinghausen, M. V.; Ohno, K. and Michi, K. Anatomy of Microvascular Anastomosis in the Neck. Plast and Reconstructive Surgery,101(1):33-41, 1998.
6. Lins A. C. C. S.; cavalcanti, s. J. and do nascimento, l. D. Ligadura extraoral de la arteria lingual: estudio anatómico y topográfico. Int. J. Morphol., 23(3):271- 274, 2005.
7. Shima, Harunobu D.D.S., Ph.D.; von Luedinghausen, Michael M.D.; Ohno, Kohsuke D.D.S.; Michi, Ken-ichi D.D.S. Anatomy of Microvascular Anastomosis in the Neck January 1998 - Volume 101 - Issue 1 - pp 33-41
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Figure legends 1.Fig.1-common origin of linguofacial trunk in cadaver 1 2.
Fig.2- common origin of linguofacial trunk in cadaver 2
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyAN EFFECTIVE CLUSTERING ALGORITHM FOR THE ANALYSIS OF BREAST CANCER DATA SETS USING
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS
English91101D.NapoleonEnglish M.PraneeshEnglish S.SathyaEnglish M.Siva SubramanianEnglishClustering is the process of finding groups of objects such that the objects in a group will be similar to one another and different from the objects in other groups. Dimensionality reduction is the transformation of high-dimensional data into a meaningful representation of reduced dimensionality that corresponds to the intrinsic dimensionality of the data. K-Medoids algorithm for cluster analysis is developed for low dimensional data, often does not work well for high dimensional data like microarray gene expression data and the results may not be accurate in most of the time due to noise and outliers associated with original data. Principal component analysis (PCA) is the best mean-square error sense, and linear dimension reduction technique, is being based on the covariance matrix of the variables, it is a secondorder method. The resulting reduced data set obtained from the application of PCA will be applied to a KMedoids
clustering algorithm. A new method to find the initial Medoids makes the algorithm more effective and efficient. This paper shows Amalgamation K-Medoids efficiency is better than K-Medoids.
EnglishDimensional reduction, K-Medoids Clustering, Amalgamation K-Medoids clustering algorithm, Principal component analysis.1. INTRODUCTION Data Mining refers to the mining or discovery of new information in terms of patterns or rules from vast amounts of data. Data mining is a process that takes data as input and outputs knowledge. One of the earliest and most cited definitions of the data mining process, which highlights some of its distinctive characteristics, is provided by Fayyad, Piatetsky-Shapiro and Smyth (1996), who define it as ?the nontrivial process of identifying valid, novel, potentially useful, and ultimately understandable patterns in data.?Some popular and widely used data mining clustering techniques such as hierarchical, k-means and K-Medoids clustering techniques are statistical techniques and can be applied on high dimensional datasets [2]. A good survey on clustering methods is found in Xu et al. (2005).High dimensional data are often transformed into lower dimensional data via the principal component analysis (PCA)(Jolliffe, 2002) (or singular value decomposition) where coherent patterns can be detected more clearly [4]. Such unsupervised dimension reduction is used in very broad areas such as meteorology, image processing, genomic analysis, and information retrieval [3]. Dimension reduction is the process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration, and can be divided into feature selection and feature extraction [1]. As dimensionality increases, query performance in the index structures degrades. Dimensionality reduction algorithms are the only known solution that supports scalable object retrieval and satisfies precision of query results [14]. Feature transforms the data in the high-dimensional space to a space of fewer dimensions [3].The data transformation may be linear, as in principal component analysis (PCA), but any nonlinear dimensionality reduction techniques also exist [9]. In general, handling high dimensional data using clustering techniques obviously a difficult task in terms of higher number of variables involved. In order to improve the efficiency the noisy and outlier data may be removed and minimize the execution time, we have to reduce the no. of variables in the original data set. To do so, we can choose dimensionality reduction methods such as principal component analysis (PCA), Singular value decomposition (SVD), and factor analysis (FA). Among this, PCA is preferred to our analysis and the results of PCA are applied to a popular model based clustering technique [6]. Principal component analysis (PCA) is a widely used statistical technique for unsupervised dimension reduction. K-means clustering is a commonly used data clustering for unsupervised learning tasks[15]. Here we prove that principal components are the continuous solutions to the discrete cluster membership indicators for Kmeans clustering [7].The main linear technique for dimensionality reduction, principal component analysis, performs a linear mapping of the data to a lower dimensional space in such a way, that the variance of the data in the lowdimensional representation is maximized. In practice, the correlation matrix of the data is constructed and the eigenvectors on this matrix are computed. The eigenvectors that correspond to the largest eigenvalues (the principal components) can now be used to reconstruct a large fraction of the variance of the original data. Moreover, the first few eigenvectors can often be interpreted in terms of the large-scale physical behavior of the system. The original space (with dimension of the number of points) has been reduced (with data loss, but hopefully retaining the most important variance) to the space spanned by a few eigenvectors. Many applications need to use unsupervised techniques where there is no previous knowledge about patterns inside samples and its grouping, so clustering can be useful. Clustering is grouping samples base on their similarity as samples in different groups should be dissimilar. Both similarity and dissimilarity need to be elucidated in clear way. High dimensionality is one of the major causes in data complexity. Technology makes it possible to automatically obtain a huge amount of measurements. However, they often do not precisely identify the relevance of the measured features to the specific phenomena of interest. Data observations with thousands of features or more are now common, such as profiles clustering in recommender systems, personality similarity, genomic data, financial data, web document data and sensor data. However, high-dimensional data poses different challenges for clustering algorithms that require specialized solutions. Recently, some researchers have given solutions on highdimensional problem. Our main objective is proposing a framework to combine relational definition of clustering with dimension reduction method to overcome aforesaid difficulties and improving efficiency and accuracy in KMedoids algorithm to apply in high dimensional datasets. K-Medoids clustering algorithm is applied to reduced datasets which is done by principal component analysis dimension reduction method.
2.1 Clustering Cluster analysis is one of the major data analysis methods widely used for many practical applications in emerging areas[17].Clustering is the process of finding groups of objects such that the objects in a group will be similar (or related) to one another and different from (or unrelated to) the objects in other groups. A good clustering method will produce high quality clusters with high intra-cluster similarity and low inter-cluster similarity [8]. The quality of a clustering result depends on both the similarity measure used by the method and its implementation and also by its ability to discover some or all of the hidden patterns [16].
2.2 K-MEDOIDS CLUSTERING
Clustering is the process of grouping a set of objects into classes or clusters so that objects within a cluster have similarity in comparison to one another, but are dissimilar to objects in other clusters (Han et al 2001). K-means clustering (MacQueen, 1967) and Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) (Kaufman and Rousseeuw, 1990) are well known techniques for performing non- hierarchical clustering[12].Unfortunately, K-means clustering is sensitive to the outliers and a set of objects closest to a centroid may be empty, in which case centroids cannot be updated. For this reason, K-Medoids clustering are sometimes used, where representative objects called Medoids are considered instead of centroids.[18] Because it uses the most centrally located object in a cluster, it is less sensitive to outliers compared with the K-means clustering. Among many algorithms for K-Medoids clustering, Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) proposed by Kaufman and Rousseeuw (1990) is known to be most powerful[11]. However, PAM also has a drawback that it works inefficiently for large data sets due to its complexity (Han et al, 2001). This is main motivation of this paper.
We are interested in developing a new KMedoids clustering method that should be fast and efficient[5]. It is more robust to noise and outliers as compared to k-means because it minimizes a sum of dissimilarities instead of a sum of squared Euclidean distances.A Medoids can be defined as the object of a cluster, whose average dissimilarity to all the objects in the cluster is minimal i.e. it is a most centrally located point in the given data set. The K-Medoids algorithm is a clustering algorithm related to the kmeans algorithm and the Medoidshift algorithm. Both the k-means and K-Medoids algorithms are partitional (breaking the dataset up into groups) and both attempt to minimize squared error, the distance between points labeled to be in a cluster and a point designated as the center of that cluster. In contrast to the k-means algorithm, KMedoids chooses datapoints as centers The most common realisation of k-Medoids clustering is the Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm and is as follows:
Steps: 1. Initialize: randomly select k of the n data points as the Medoids 2. Associate each data point to the closest Medoids. ("closest" here is defined using any valid distance metrics) 3. For each Medoids m 1. For each non-Medoids data point o 2. Swap m and o and compute the total cost of the configuration 4. Select the configuration with the lowest cost. 5. Repeat steps 2 to 5 until there is no change in the Medoids.
2.3 PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS ANALYSIS
Principal component analysis (PCA) involves a mathematical procedure that transforms a number of possibly correlated variables into a smaller number of uncorrelated variables called principal components. The first principal component accounts for as much of the variability in the data as possible, and each succeeding component accounts for as much of the remaining variability as possible. Depending on the field of application, it is also named the discrete KarhunenLoève transform (KLT), the Hostelling transform or proper orthogonal decomposition (POD).PCA was invented in 1901 by Karl Pearson.[1] Now it is mostly used as a tool in exploratory data analysis and for making predictive models. PCA involves the calculation of the eigen value decomposition of a data covariance matrix or singular value decomposition of a data matrix, usually after mean centering the data for each attribute. The results of a PCA are usually discussed in terms of component scores and loadings (Shaw, 2003). PCA is the simplest of the true eigenvectorbased multivariate analyses [13]. Often, its operation can be thought of as revealing the internal structure of the data in a way which best explains the variance in the data. If a multivariate dataset is visualized as a set of coordinates in a high-dimensional data space (1 axis per variable), PCA supplies the user with a lower-dimensional picture, a "shadow" of this object when viewed from its (in some sense) most informative viewpoint.PCA is closely related to factor analysis; indeed, some statistical packages deliberately conflate the two techniques. True factor analysis makes different assumptions about the underlying structure and solves eigenvectors of a slightly different matrix .
2.4 PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS (PCS) Technically, a principal component can be defined as a linear combination of optimally weighted observed variables which maximize the variance of the linear combination and which have zero covariance with the previous PCs. The first component extracted in a principal component analysis accounts for a maximal amount of total variance in the observed variables. The second component extracted will account for a maximal amount of variance in the data set that was not accounted for by the first component and it will be uncorrelated with the first component. The remaining components that are extracted in the analysis display the same two characteristics: each component accounts for a maximal amount of variance in the observed variables that was not accounted for by the preceding components, and is uncorrelated with all of the preceding components. When the principal component analysis will complete, the resulting components will display varying degrees of correlation with the observed variables, but are completely uncorrelated with one another. PCs are calculated using the Eigen value decomposition of a data covariance matrix/ correlation matrix or singular value decomposition of a data matrix, usually after mean centering the data for each attribute. Covariance matrix is preferred when the variances of variables are very high compared to correlation. It would be better to choose the type of correlation when the variables are of different types. Similarly the SVD method is used for numerical accuracy [10].After finding principal components reduced dataset is applied to KMedoids clustering with computed Medoids.
3. DATASET DESCRIPTION Experiments are conducted on a breast cancer data set which data is gathered from uci web site. This web site is for finding suitable partners who are very similar from point of personality‘sview for a person. Based on 8 pages of psychiatric questions personality of people for different aspects is extracted. Each group of questions is related to one dimension of personality. To trust of user some questions is considered and caused reliability of answers are increased. Data are organized in a table with 90 columns for attributes of people and 704 rows which are for samples. There are missing values in this table because some questions have not been answered, so we replaced them with 0. On the other hand we need to calculate length of each vector base on its dimensions for further process. All attributes value in this table is ordinal and we arranged them with value from 1 to 5, therefore normalizing has not been done. There is not any correlation among attributes and it concretes an orthogonal space for using Euclidean distance. All samples are included same number of attributes.
4. RESULTS 4.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP In all experiments we use MATLAB software as a powerful tool to compute clusters and windows XP with Pentium 2.1 GHZ. Reduced datasets done by principal component analysis reduction method is applied to kmeans clustering. As a similarity metric, Euclidean distance has been used in kmeans algorithm.The steps of the Amalgamation of K-Medoids clustering algorithm are as follows.
Phase-1: Apply PCA to reduce the dimension of the breast cancer data set
1. Organize the dataset in a matrix X.
2. Normalize the data set using Z-score.
3. Calculate the singular value decomposition of the data matrix. X
4. Calculate the variance using the diagonal elements of D.
5. Sort variances in decreasing order.
6. Choose the p principal components from V with largest variances.
7. Form the transformation matrix W consisting of those p PCs.
8. Find the reduced projected dataset Y in a new coordinate axis by applying W to X.
Phase-2 : Find the initial Medoids
1. For a data set with dimensionality, d, compute the variance of data in each dimension(column).
2. Find the column with maximum variance and call it as max and sort it in any order.
3. .Divide the data points of cvmax into K subsets, where K is the desired number of clusters.
4. Find the median of each subset.
5. Use the corresponding data points (vectors) for 6. each median to initialize the cluster centers.
Phase-3: Apply the K-Medoids clustering with Reduced Datasets.The most common realisation of k-Medoids clustering is the Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) algorithm and is as follows:
1. Initialize: randomly select k of the n data points as the Medoids
2. Associate each data point to the closest Medoids. ("closest" here is defined using any valid distance metric, most commonly Euclidean distance Euclidean distance , Manhattan distance or Minkowski distance)
3. For each Medoids m
1.For each non-Medoids data point o
2. Swap m and o and compute the total cost of the configuration
4. Select the configuration with the lowest cost.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 5 until there is no change in the Medoids.
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Breast cancer original dataset is reduced using principal component analysis reduction method. Dataset consists of 569 instances and 30 attributes. Here the Sum of Squared Error (SSE), representing distances between data points and their cluster centers have used to measure the clustering quality.
Step 1: Normalizing the original data set Using the Normalization process, the initial data values are scaled so as to fall within a smallspecified range. An attribute value V of an attribute A is normalized to V’ using Z-Score as follows:
V‘=(V-mean(A))/std(A)
It performs two things i.e. data centering, which reduces the square mean error of approximating the input data and data scaling, which standardizes the variables to have unit variance before the analysis takes place. This normalization prevents certain features to dominate the analysis because of their large numerical values.
Step 2: Calculating the PCs using Singular Value Decomposition of the normalized data matrix
The number of PCs obtained is same with the number of original variables. To eliminate the weaker components from this PC set we have calculated the corresponding variance, percentage of variance and cumulative variances in percentage, which is shown in Table1. Then we have considered the PCs having variances less than the mean variance, ignoring the others. The reduced PCs are shown in Table2. Only Sample 20 instances of 529 observations is shown in Table2.The variance in percentage is evaluated and the cumulative variance in percentage first value is same as percentage in variance, second value is summation of cumulative variance in percentage and variance in percentage. Similarly other values of cumulative variance is calculated.
Step 3: Finding the reduced data set using the reduced PCs
The transformation matrix with reduced PCs is formed and this transformation matrix is applied to the normalized data set to produce the new reduced projected dataset, which can be used for further data analysis. We have also applied the PCA on three biological dataset and the reduced no. of attributes obtained for each dataset is shown in Table 2.
Step 4: Finding intial Medoids The proposed algorithm finds a set of medians extracted from the dimension with maximum variance to initialize clusters of the KMedoids[19]. The method can give better results when applied to K-Medoids.
Step 5: Reduced datasets are applied to KMedoids algorithm with computed Medoids The clustering results shown in Figure I by applying the standard K-Medoids clustering[18] to the reduced breast cancer dataset. The SSE value obtained and the time taken in ms for reduced breast cancer datasets with original kmeans is given in Table 3.
The above results show that the Amalgamation kmediods algorithm provides sum of squared error distance and Execution time of corresponding clusters. Sse and Execution time of Amalgamation K-Medoids is less than KMedoids. K-Medoids and Amalgamation KMedoids clustering algorithm is compared and results that Amalgamation K-Medoids gives better results in its than K-Medoids Figure 1.shows graph of SSE and Number of clusters. In this figure, when number of clusters increases, sum of squared error distance values decreases.Figure 2. shows number of clusters increases, Execution time increases. The Cluster Results of BREAST CANCER DataSet of KMedoids clustering with random Medoids initialization are shown in Fig-3
5. CONCLUSION In this paper a dimensionality reduction through PCA, is applied to K-Medoids algorithm. Using Dimension reduction of principal component analysis, original breast cancer dataset is compact to reduced data set which was partitioned into k clusters in such a way that the sum of the total clustering errors for all clusters was reduced as much as possible while inter distances between clusters are maintained to be as large as possible. We Propose a new algorithm to initialize the clusters Medoids which is then applied to K-Medoids algorithm. The experimental results show that principal component analysis is used to reduce attributes and reduced dataset is applied to K-Medoids clustering with computed centroids. Efficiency of Amalgamation of K-Medoids is more than KMedoids with respect to SSE and Execution Time. Evolving some dimensional reduction methods like canonopies can be used for high dimensional datasets is suggested as future work.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1970http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19701. Chao Shi and Chen Lihui, 2005. Feature dimension reduction for microarray data analysis using locally linear embedding, 3rd Asia Pacific Bioinformatics Conference, pp. 211-217.
2. Davy Michael and Luz Saturnine, 2007. Dimensionality reduction for active learning with nearest neighbor classifier in text categorization problems, Sixth International Conference on Machine Learning and Applications, pp. 292-297
3. Maaten L.J.P., Postma E.O. and Herik H.J. van den, 2007. Dimensionality reduction: A comparative review?, Tech. rep.University of Maastricht.
4. Valarmathie P., Srinath M. and Dinakaran K., 2009. An increased performance of clustering high dimensional data through dimensionality reduction technique, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, Vol. 13, pp. 271-273
5. Hae-Sang Park*, Jong-Seok Lee and ChiHyuck Jun, ?A K-means-like Algorithm for K-Medoids Clustering and Its Performance ?,Department of Industrial and Management Engineering, POSTECH San 31 Hyojadong, Pohang 790-784, S. Korea
6. IEEEI.T Jolliffe, ?Principal Component Analysis?, Springer, second edition.
7. Chris Ding and Xiaofeng He, ?K-Means Clustering via Principal Component Analysis?, In proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Machine Learning, Banff, Canada, 2004
8. Xu R. and Wunsch D., 2005. Survey of clustering algorithms, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 645-678.
9. Yan Jun, Zhang Benyu, Liu Ning, Yan Shuicheng, Cheng Qiansheng, Fan Weiguo, Yang Qiang, Xi Wensi, and Chen Zheng,2006. Effective and efficient dimensionality reduction for large-scale and streaming data preprocessing, IEEE transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 320-333.
10. Yeung Ka Yee and Ruzzo Walter L., 2000. An empirical study on principal component analysis for clustering gene expressionData?,Tech. Report, University of Washington.
11. Wagsta_, K., & Cardie, C. (2000). Clustering with instance-level constraints. Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Conference on Machine Learning (pp. 1103{1110). Palo Alto, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
12. Rand, W. M. (1971). Objective criteria for the evaluation of clustering methods. Journal of the AmericanStatistical Association, 66, 846-850.
13. T Velmurugan - 2010 ,? Computational Complexity between K-Means and KMedoids Clustering Algorithms for Normal and Uniform Distributions of Data Points?.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareLIFESTYLE DISORDERS IN URBAN CHILDREN OF RAJASTHAN: A SURVEY STUDY.
English102109Omendra Pal SinghEnglish Laxmi SinghEnglish Abhimanyu KumarEnglishOver the last decade the pace of advancement in electronic technology has been breathtaking, resulting in quick development in all aspects of life. But dependency and excessive use of electronic technology forced people to adopt unhealthy life style. This unhealthy and inactive lifestyle in turn was adopted by children through their crucial method of learning. Therefore to find out the lifestyle disorders in Indian urban children a self selected survey was conducted by ?given questionnaires method‘ in year 2009-10. A random sample of 450 children was collected from different elementary and higher secondary schools of Jaipur, Rajasthan to find out the present lifestyle choices of the children and their involvement with various related disorders.
EnglishLifestyle disorders in children, lifestyle choices, urban children of Rajasthan.INTRODUCTION
The numerous discussions and guidelines have been proposed for lifestyle disorders in adults but a little is thought about children in this context. But the fact is that the changed lifestyle choices of adults are in tern adopted by children because it is crucial that we set a positive example for them and they learn by what we do and not by what we say. [1] The aim of present study is to find out the present lifestyle choices of urban children of Rajasthan and their involvement with various related disorders.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A self selected survey on lifestyle disorders (LSD) in children of different socioeconomic status was conducted by ?given Questionnaires method‘. A random sample of 450 children was collected from different elementary and higher secondary schools of Jaipur, India. The questionnaire was structured covering questions regarding areas like demographic, food habits, sleeping hours, physical activity, behavior, mental status etc.
The questionnaires were distributed to the children in school during child health check-up camps and instructed to get it filled by their parents. On the basis of grading and scoring method the interpretations were made. The mean score of profile was calculated on basis of final score.
OBSERVATION: The findings of the survey on lifestyle disorders in children are tabulated as below:
It is clear from the above table that out of total surveyed children, the maximum 221 (46.80%) were having the habit of proper rise. On the other hand 134 kids (29.7%) were lazy to rise in morning and 85 (18.80%) having unhealthy habit of getting up late in morning. Only 30 (6.6%) children had cultivated the healthy habit of early rise in morning. The mean score was 2.46.
Out of survey populace the majority of the children (226, 50.2 %) prefer pungent and salty taste dominant food articles. Sweet and sour eatables were the preference of 123kids (27.3%).The mean score of taste profile was 2.76.
DISCUSSION Age: Age range of the selected children for the study was 5-15 years. After 5 years of age only the child gets exposed to outer world and gets influenced by it, so lower limit of age range was kept 5 years. The upper limit of age range was 15 as after this the adolescent period starts. Majority of the children surveyed were of age group 10-15 years (76.44%), this was because the number of this age group children were more in schools. (Table no.1) Sex: The numbers of boys and girls were almost equal in the survey study a little dominated by girls (52.3%). This is because all schools surveyed were of co-education but one was exclusively girl‘s school. (Table no.2) Social economic status - The maximum children surveyed belong to middle class family (37.5%) that indicates Lifestyle disorders are becoming more prone in middle class families as now a days middle class is adopting unhealthier pattern because of being more fascinated towards junk food, spicy food and more use of T.V. and computer. The higher socioeconomic status parents are becoming more conscious about the healthy pattern of living. (Table no.3) BMI - The maximum children (52 %) were found underweight that shows children‘s nourishment is being hampered by unhealthy food habits. (Table no.4) Morning Rise - The study reveals that majority of the children rise in the morning at proper time (46.8%). This may be because they have to get up early to get ready for school. (Table no.5) Bowel Habit - The study reveals that more children (48.8%) were suffering with occasional constipation. The mean score (2.79) also indicate that tendency of the profile was towards constipated bowel habit. Irregular food habits improper sleep may be the cause of their irregular bowel habit. (Table no.6) Dietary Habit - The interpretation of dietary habit profile of children shows that maximum children were having the chance of undernourishment (51.1%) by their food preference. The mean score (2.72) of the profile also indicates that probability of getting undernourished is more in the children. This finding is supported by the BMI profile of the survey populace which shows that majority of the children were underweight. (Table no.7) Food Preference - The survey report states that majority of the children (41.1%) were having mixed (vegetarian and non-vegetarian both) dietetic preference. This is because the whole of the Muslim children (43.4%) of the survey population were of preferable mixed dietetic pattern. (Table no.8) Test Preference - The survey study reveals that maximum number of children (50.2%) like pungent and salty food items. The mean score also suggests the tendency of profile towards pungent and salty tastes. This result is supported by the fact that children in present scenario prefer more outside spicy fried food items those are deep fried, with extra spices and salt but lack the nourishing elements. These food choices of the children are responsible for ill health like constipation, poor appetite, failure to gain weight or obesity etc. (Table no.9) Hygiene Profile - Majority of the children surveyed cultivated moderate personal hygiene habits (34%). The mean score (3.41) of the group profile shows the tendency of moderate to good personal hygienic conditions. This may be because of various personal hygiene awareness programmes organized by govt. of India. (Table no.10) Study Pattern - By interpretation of study hours and study pattern of children the survey reveals that maximum kids (39.4%) were having the chance of coming under academic stress. The mean score of profile (1.56) also reveals the group tendency towards academic stress. This finding is supported by the study of Frankenhaeuser et.al. (1971) [2] which states that work overload or under load in simulated work situations (increased schooling hours, tuition hours the frequency of examinations) has effective role in developing stress (academic) in children.(Table no.11).
Concentration Profile - The survey reveals that majority of the parents say that their child is not able to concentrate while studying for long time (38.6%). The reason behind this result may be the more expectation of parents to study continuously for more hours (like more than 2-3 hours) without a break. (Table no.12).
Physical Activity - The study tells that the number of children with moderate physical activity was the maximum (42.9%). The mean score indicates that the tendency of the profile was towards moderate physical activity to sedentary habits that is because of the past time preferences by the children. Earlier time children use to play out and sports that need more physical activity were their choices of interest. But now-a-days children spend more time in front of T.V. and computer rather than indulging in physical activity. (Table no.13) Sleep - The sleep of the majority of the children (45.2%) surveyed was found disturbed. The mean score (2.84) of the profile shows the tendency in between disturbed and moderate sleep. There may be various reasons of disturbed sleep of school going children. Out of these the altered lifestyle is the main cause. To get up early in the morning is must to attend school at time, increasing academic stress, T.V. in bedroom make the child go late to sleep. Because of these reasons when the sleeping hours‘ demand is not fulfilled, sleeping disorders may occur in children. (Table no.14)
Obedience - Majority of the children were found well disciplined (44%). The mean score of the profile (3.6) shows the tendency between well disciplined and moderately disciplined in presence of father. This result is supported by another survey finding that population was dominated by girls (52.3%) over boys (47.7%). In India, girls obey more to their parents and hesitate to go against the instructions that may be the reason behind female dominant obedience profile of survey. (Table no.15)
Behavior Profile - In survey study aggressiveness was found in majority of the children (33.33%) and the mean score (2.12) of the group also shows that the tendency of profile was more towards aggressiveness. Now a days child is more fascinated by movies, film stars, their actions, stunt scenes etc., that is abundantly available on television. So when child indulge more in watching T.V., films etc it creates the feelings to fight and aggressive behavior. This may be the reason of present day unhealthy behavior of children. (Table no.16).
Mental Status - The survey tells that the anxious state of mind was found maximum among the children (45.7%). The mean score (2.68) of the profile shows the tendency between anxiety and hyper activeness. The anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder) in children may have several etiological factors but on the basis of other findings of present survey study regarding the lifestyle choices of the children, the cause of anxiety may be the improper pattern of study leading to academic stress which intern cause anxiety in children.(Table no.17).
CONCLUSION
This survey study reveals that the affected areas of lifestyle choices of urban children of Rajasthan in present scenario are dietary habits, taste preferences, bowel habit, study pattern, concentration, physical activity, sleep pattern and mental status. The present lifestyle of these children includes spending several hours in front of screen (computer or T.V.), consuming junk food and beverages, sedentary habits, reduced much needed sleep time. The study indicates that because of these unhealthy lifestyle choices ,Indian urban children have started showing the symptoms of lifestyle related somatic and psychosomatic disorders viz. stress, anxiety, depression, sleeping disorders, obesity, and constipation and computer vision syndrome.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in the references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1971http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19711. Domenick J.Maglio In Hernando News,April 15,2010
2. Frankenhaeuser M., Nordheden, B., Myrsten A. L., & Post B. (1971). Psychophysiological reactions to Understimulation and Overstimulation. Acta Psychologica. 35, 298-308.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesHEMOLYTIC, PROTEOLYTIC AND PHOSPHOLIPOLYTIC ACTIVITY OF EXOTOXIN PRODUCED BY BACILLUS SPP. ISOLATED FROM MANGROVE RHIZOSPHERE OF RATNAGIRI
English110119Sandip TodkarEnglish Rohit TodkarEnglish Shantanu KulkarniEnglish Chand BerdeEnglish Archana SawantEnglish Varsha GhadyaleEnglish Ashwini GuravEnglish Arvind KulkarniEnglishThe mangrove rhizosphere environments are unique due to the hypersline and alkaline environment they offer. Also, mangrove rhizosphere has enormous diversity of all aerobic as well as facultative anaerobic bacteria. The isolates of the exotoxin producing Bacillus spp were obtained randomly from mangrove rhizosphere of Ratnagiri district on the west coast of India. The research in this regards was carried out with three unknown strains isolated from the mangrove rhizospheres. The biochemical analysis of these three stains was performed so as to identify them up to genus level. The organisms were grown on skimmed milk agar and egg yolk agar. The strains showed all three proteolytic, hemolytic and phospolytic activity. The Strains also showed fibrinolytic activity on blood clots. The isolates were found to be potent
exotoxin producers. The nature and characters of these exotoxins has much similarity with known strains. The presence of these exotoxins might be able to indicate their survival in highly alkaline and hypersaline conditions.
EnglishRhizosphere, Mangroves Exotoxin, Proteolytic activity, hemolytic activity, Lipolytic activityINTRODUCTION
The aim of this study was to isolate members of the Bacillus species from roots of Mangroves that produces exotoxins from Ratnagiri costal area. These are found ubiquitously and are one of the genera with largest 16S diversity and environmental diversity. One clade formed by Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus polymyxa, Bacillus megaterium, and Bacillus thuringiensis and under current classification standards should be a single species (within 97% 16S identity), but due to production of secondary metabolites in terms of toxins they are considered as separate species. Many Bacillus species are able to secrete large quantities of enzymes. (Johnson et al., 1984). Bacillus amyloliquefaciens is a species of Bacillus that is the source of a natural antibiotic protein barnase (a ribonuclease), alpha amylase used in starch hydrolysis, the protease subtilisin used with detergents, and the BamH1 restriction enzyme used in DNA research. A portion of the Bacillus thuringiensis genome was incorporated into corn (and cotton) crops. The term "toxin" means the toxic material or product of plants, animals, microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, rickettsiae or protozoa), or infectious substances, or a recombinant or synthesized molecule, whatever their origin and method of production (Kenneth, 2008), (Kramer, et al.,1984). It simply means it is a biologically produced poison. Toxins are poisonous products of organisms; unlike biological agents, they are inanimate and not capable of reproducing themselves. Toxins produced by microorganisms are important virulence determinants responsible for the pathogenicity of the pathogen and/or invasion of the host immune response (Kenneth, 2008).
Bacterial toxins are by-products produced by pathogenic microbes that have taken up residence in the body. (Cecilie, et al., 2005) total of 333 Bacillus spp. isolated from foods, water, and food plants were examined for the production of possible enterotoxins and emetic toxins using a cytotoxicity assay on Vero cells, the boar spermatozoa motility assay, and a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method. Bacterium can enter a host by various means, such as consuming contaminated food or water. The type of bacterial toxins released depends on the species of invading bacteria. (Beattie, et al.1999) Toxigenesis, or the ability to produce toxins, is an underlying mechanism by which many bacterial pathogens produce disease (Kenneth, 2008). There are two main types of bacterial toxins, lipopolysaccharides which are cell associated and are often referred as endotoxins, and the other type is the exotoxins, which may be proteins, lipoproteins etc (Kenneth, 2008). In the nature there are number of Bacillus species are available that produces exotoxins out of them Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus cerus and Bacillus polymyxa are potent one. Bacillus thuringiensis also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well as on the dark surface of plants. Food born infections are also possible with certain Bacullis spp. (Lake, et al., 2000) There are however many crystalproducing Bacillus strains that do not have insecticidal properties. It has been observed that most of the studies involving important toxins,have been to study the clinical manifestations and to some extent to determining the chemical nature. In this study, it has been attempted to isolate, and characterize the biochemical properties of these toxins in vitro obtained from Mangrove rhizosphere of Ratnagiri coastal area.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This research was carried out from 10 January 2011 to 22 March2011.
Microorganism and growth medium: The organisms used in this study were isolated from roots of mangroves in the Ratnagiri coastal area. Isolation was done by using four quadrant striking method and respective biochemical‘s were done so as to determine genus level. The isolated three cultures were named as MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 (Mangrove Rhizospher Culture) The organisms could be easily cultivated on nutrient agar and mineral sea agar medium. The compositions of these 2 media are as in Table 1 and 2: The organisms were maintained on nutrient agar medium but all other studies were carried out in the mineral sea agar medium (broth). Therefore, it was decided to see the growth pattern in the mineral sea agar medium. This was done by growing the organisms in liquid medium and recording the absorbance values at 530 nm.
1.1 Determination of Caseinase and Lecithinase activity: Toxin production: The 24 h old isolated culture (MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3) from Mangrove rhizosphere were grown on nutrient agar and separately inoculated in sterile 50 ml mineral agar base liquid medium which were kept for incubation at 37ºC on a rotary shaker with a speed of 200 r.p.m. for 6, 12, 18, 24 and 48 hours. (Five conical flasks for single isolate).
1.2 Acetone precipitation: After completion of each incubation period the medium was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 20 min and cell free medium containing the crude exotoxin was precipitated by using cold acetone for 24 h. .Equal amount of acetone as that of the broth was used for the precipitation. After precipitation the mixture was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 20 min at 2ºC. The residue was dissolved in 5 ml of 25 mM phosphate buffer at pH 7.0. It was concentrated against crystals of sucrose and kept in the refrigerator at 5ºC. Such a concentrate was then used for study of Caseinase (protease) and phospholipolytic (i.e. Lecithinase) activity.
1.3 Caseinase (Proteolytic) and Phospholipolytic (Lecithinase) activity: In each plate of milk agar (the composition of which is as shown in Table 3. Agar cup method was used for the determination of these activities. In each of these cups the 0.1 ml of the above precipitate was added and they were incubated for 24 and 48 h at 37ºC respectively. Zone of hydrolysis of casein on milk agar plate was measured. This was repeated 3 times to get a standard deviation less than 10. To check the Lecithinase activity the procedure was the same except that in place of milk agar, egg yolk emulsion (the composition of which is as in Table 4) was used. The zones were measured by the soap test using CuSO4 solution.
1.4 Determination of Hemolytic activity of Exotoxin obtained from three different isolates of Mangrove rhizosphere: This method was used for the calculation of hemolytic activity (i.e. Hb content) of exotoxin produced by three isolates of and was according to the recommendations of the International Committee for Standardization in Hematology (ICSH).
1.5 Procedure for testing Hemolytic activity of exotoxin of MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 cultures: Separation of blood cells and plasma: Blood with anticoagulant was diluted with sterile saline in 1:10 proportion and 1 ml amount of this diluted blood was centrifuged at 1000rpm for 20 min at 2ºC. The sediment was washed with sterile saline (prevent hemolysis) and the final sediment was used to check hemolytic activity. The acetone precipitate suspended in 25 mM phosphate buffer was added with 5mg of washed blood cells. The mixture was incubated in water bath for 15 min at 37ºC and centrifuged at 5000rpm for 10 min. The Heme contents in supernatant were checked as per the method of Dacie and Lewis. (Dacie, J.V. et al., 1968).
Determination of protein content of MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 exotoxin: Protein content in exotoxin produced by MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 cultures were estimated by Lowry method (Plummer, 1971).
Electrophoresis: The purity of exotoxin from MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 were checked by SDS-PAGE, by the method of Laemmli et al. (1970). The bands were visualized by silver staining technique. The molecular mass of exotoxins of MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 were determined on a calibrated scale with standard marker enzyme (Phosphorylase b 98 kDa, Bovine Serum Albumin 66 kDa, Oval albumin 43 kDa, Carbonic Anhydrase 29 kDa, Soya bean Trypsin Inhibitor 20 kDa).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The strain MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 had a lag period of 1 hour and followed by an exponential phase of 3 hours. (Fig No. 1, 2 and 3) This implies that food contaminated with this organism would contain the toxin within a short period of 1 hour. (EFSA, 2004) (Fig No. 4) Caseinase (Proteolytic) and Lecithinase (Phospholipase) activity of purified (dialysed) exotoxin of strain MRC1 after 12, 18, 24 and 48 hours respectively. (Fig No. 5) Caseinase and Phospholipolytic activity of purified (dialysed) toxin of strain MRC2 after 12, 18, 24 and 48 hours respectively. (Fig No. 6) Caseinase and Phospholipolytic activity of purified (dialysed) toxin of strain MRC3 after 12, 18, 24 and 48 hours respectively. Figure No. 4 shown that at 18 hours there is highest Caseinase and Lecithinase activity for strain MRC1 than other periods and later decreases slightly. Figure No 5 also shown that at 18 hours there is highest Caseinase and Lecithinase activity for strain MRC2 than other periods and later decreases slightly. Figure No 6 shown that at 12 and 24 hours there is highest Caseinase and Lecithinase activity for strain MRC3 than other periods. Figure No. 7, 8 and 9 shown that Hemolytic activities of strain MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3. In this case, at 18 hours there is highest Hemolytic activity for all strains. Figure No.10 shows the Caseinase activity of stain MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 on Milk agar in terms of zone diameter, but at 18 hours there is maximum zone diameter is observed for all strains. (Table No.2) Figure No.11 shows the Lecithinase activity of stain MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 on Egg yolk Agar in terms of zone diameter but, again at 18 hours there is maximum zone diameter is observed for all strains. (Table No.3) In SDS-PAGE three separate bands are observed for three strains of MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3. (Figure No. 12)It is very evident that the Mangrove Rhizosphere possesses potent exotoxin producing microorganisms. The bioavailability of these microorganisms would be able to indicate their survival in highly alkaline conditions. The contamination of food items with these organisms will definitely cause food intoxication.
CONCLUSION
The exotoxins produced by three stains i.e., MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 isolated from Mangrove Rhizosphere from Ratnagiri coastal area shows Caseinase, Lecithinase and hemolytic activity at 18 hours of its incubation in Mineral medium. These strains were highly proteolytic in nature. From the present study it is concluded that, Mangrove Rhizosphere has heavily laden with tremendous diversity of various microorganisms. The purity of these exotoxins were detected by performing SDSPAGE and it shows the potent proteins responsible for the Caseinase, Lecithinase and hemolytic activity. Further identification of these strains MRC1, MRC2 and MRC3 would be possible with 16s-rRNA sequencing so as to reveal species of these three strains.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in the references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1972http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19721. Beattie, S.H. and A.G. Williams, 1999. Detection of Toxigenic strains of Bacillus cereus and other Bacillus spp. with an improved cytotoxicity assay. J. Appl. Microbiol., 82: 677-682.
2. Cecilie, F., P. Rudiger, S. Peter, H. V2ctor and G. Per Einar, 2005. Toxin-producing ability among Bacillus spp. outside the Bacillus cereus group. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 71: 1178-1183.
3. Dacie, J.V. and S.M. Lewis, 1968. Practical Hematology, 4th Edn. J and A, Churchill, UK, pp: 37.
4. EFSA (European Food Safety Authority - Scientific Panel on Biological Hazards), 2004. Opinion of the scientific panel on biological hazards on Bacillus cereus and other Bacillus spp. in foodstuffs. EFSA J., 175: 1-48.
5. Johnson, K.M., 1984. Bacillus cereus foodborne illness- An update. J. Food Protect, 47(9): 145-153.
6. Kenneth, T., 2008. Online Text Book of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, US.
7. Kramer, J.M. and R.J. Gilbert, 1989. Bacillus cereus and other Bacillus Species In: Doyle, M.P., (Ed.), Food Borne Bacterial Pathogens. Marcel Dekker, pp: 21-70.
8. Lake, R.J., M.G. Baker, N. Garrett, W.G. Scott and H.M. Scott, 2000. Estimated number of cases of foodborne infectious disease in New Zealand. NewZeal. Med. J., 113: 278-281.
9. Plummer, D.T., 1971. An Introduction to Practical Biochemistry. 3rd Edn., Tata McGraw Hill Publication, Bombay.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcarePROTEINURIA - RENAL FUNCTION EVALUATION IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
English120124Sharan BadigerEnglishPatients suffering from various kidney diseases have very few clinical symptoms and signs pointing towards renal involvement. Renal functions can be assessed by microscopic and biochemical examination of urine, biochemical determinations on plasma samples and by procedures involving administration of test substances. In this article a review on proteinuria is done which is useful in day to day clinical practice.
EnglishAlbumin, Globulin, Glomerular diseases, Proteinuria, Renal functionINTRODUCTION
A normal barrier to protein filtration begins in the glomerulus. The normal glomerular endothelial cells form a barrier and hold back cells and other particles. They are penetrated by large pores of 100nm called fenestrae that can be easily traversed by proteins. The glomerular basement traps most large proteins (>100Kda), while the foot process of epithelial cells (podocytes) cover the urinary side of the glomerular basement membrane and produce a series of narrow channels (slit diaphragm) to allow passage of small solutes and water. These slit diaphragm bridges the slits between the foot processes of the glomerular basement membrane [1]. The visceral epithelial cells are covered with negatively charged heparan sulfate proteoglycans [2]. This negative charge and size selectivity of glomerular basement membrane impedes the passage of anion molecules such as albumin, globulin and large molecular weight protein across the glomerular wall. The smaller proteins that are filtered across the glomerular basement membrane are largely reabsorbed at the proximal tubule and only small amount are excreted.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINURIA
A) BENIGN
1. Postural Orthostatic proteinuria
2. Functional
3. Transient
4. Intermittent
B) PATHOLOGICAL
1. Glomerular
2. Tubular
3. Overflow
4. Secretory
A) BENIGN PROTEINURIA
This is a transient proteinuria that occurs with normal renal function, bland urinary sediment, and normal blood pressure and without any significant oedema. 24 hour urine albumin is usually less than one gram. They do not indicate any significant renal disease and disappears on repeated testing. 1) Postural /Orthostatic Proteinuria.
This is seen in 3 to 5% of adolescents, especially in young males. It is characterized by increased protein excretion in the upright position and normal protein excretion during recumbency [3] . It is diagnosed by split urine protein excretion examination. In orthostatic proteinuria, the day time specimen typically has an increased concentration of protein, with night time specimen having a normal concentration usually less than 50 mg over eight hours [4]. In true glomerular disease there is reduced protein excretion in the supine position but it will not return to normal as with orthostatic proteinuria. Springberg found that long term prognosis of orthostatic proteinuria is benign in virtually all cases over many decades [5]. Data on renal biopsies on orthostatic proteinuria are confusing. Some showed minor glomerular changes [6] .Posture affects urinary protein excretion, probably via an increase in glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure and for change in permeability of the glomerular capillary walls [7] . An alternate explanation is entrapment of renal veins [8, 9] . 2) Functional Proteinuria It is a benign proteinuria due to changes in glomerular ultra filtration pressure and/or membrane permeability. It is seen in fever, exercise, cardiac failure, emotional stress and acute illness. Functional Proteinuria is usually less than 0.5 gm/day but may be as heavy as 5.0 gm/day (following marathon running). It disappears with the resolution of causative disorder [10] . Kallmeyer et al found that recent exercise can induce several gram of protein per litre of urine, sometimes together with haematuria and even casts so called jogger‘s nephritis [11]. Post exercise proteinuria is about 15 to 20 times the resting range of proteinuria and requires about 4 hours to regain resting value in the recovery period [12]. Poortmans et al found that proteinuria was influenced mostly by the intensity of exercise rather than its duration [13] . 3) Idiopathic Proteinuria This is seen in young healthy adults. This dipstick positive proteinuria disappears spontaneously by next clinical visit. 4) Intermittent Proteinuria This benign proteinuria is found in half of their different urine samples in absence of other renal or systemic abnormalities. B) PATHOLOGICAL PROTEINURIA This is persistent proteinuria that is detected on multiple ambulatory clinical visits.
This is seen in both recumbent and upright position and usually signals a structural renal disease. 1) Glomerular Proteinuria It is the most common cause of proteinuria in clinical practice. It is characterized by a disproportionate amount of albumin in urine [14] . Due to preservation of selectivity and large concentration of albumin in blood glomerular proteinuria is 85 to 90 % albumin, accompanied by pre-albumin, transferrin and relatively low molecular weight proteins since it contains mostly albumin. They are readily detected by stick or turbidometric methods. Glomerular proteinuria ranges from few hundred mg per 24 hours to 100 gms per 24 hours. McConnell et al on evaluation of proteinuria found that urinary excretion of more than 2 gm per 24 hours is usually a result of glomerular disease [15]. In glomerular proteinuria there is increased glomerular capillary permeability to high molecular weight anionic plasma proteins. How the glomerular barrier is damaged so that it leaks more than normal remains unclear [16]. This may be due to: -Loss of fixed anionic charge (Congenital nephrotic syndrome, minimal change nephropathy) - Detachment of epithelial podocytes from basement membrane [17] . - Immune aggregation.
- Increase in glomerular capillary pressure. The filtered protein, that reach the tubules overwhelm the limited capacity of tubular reabsorption and cause these proteins to appear in urine. Glomerular disease is classified as primary when the pathology is confined to the kidney and secondary when it is a part of multi system disorder. Glomerular proteinuria is of two types: a) Selective Proteinuria b) Non-selective Proteinuria In selective proteinuria the clearance ratio of immunoglobulin to albumin or transferrin is less than 0.10(50%). GLOMERULAR PROTEINURIA -CAUSES Primary Glomerulonephropathy: - Minimal change disease - Focal segmental glomerulonephritis - Idiopathic membranous glomerulonephritis - Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis - IgA nephropathy Secondary Glomerulonephropathy: - Diabetes Mellitus - Amyloidosis - Collagen vascular disease (Eg-Lupus nephritis) - Infections - HIV - Hepatitis B and C infection - Post streptococcal - Syphilis - Malaria - Infective Endocarditis - Drugs - NSAIDS - Penicillamine - Lithium - Heroin - Heavy metals - Gastrointestinal and lung cancers - Lymphoma 2) TUBULAR PROTEINURIA Proteinuria results from the damage of proximal tubule so that normally reabsorbed protein, principally of low molecular weight pass into the urine .This usually occurs as part of the Fanconi syndrome of proximal tubular dysfunction. Tubular proteinuria usually does not exceed 2 gm per day [18, 19] . Beta 2-microglobulin is one of the many micro globulin which make up tubular proteinuria. Normal level of Beta 2- microglobulin in urine is less than 0.4 mcg/L. It can be assessed by RIA or ELISA. The urinary albumin and Beta 2-microglobulins ratio of 10 to 1 suggests the presence of Beta 2-microglobulin. Further measurement of Beta 2 lysozyme may help in distinguishing type of urinary tract infection besides diagnosis of heavy metal poisoning [20, 21] .Urinary protein electrophoresis and/or immuno electrophoresis may aid in distinguishing tubular and glomerular proteinuria. TUBULAR PROTEINURIA – CAUSES -Hypertensive nephrosclerosis -Tubulo interstial diseases -Fanconi syndrome -Heavy metals -Uric acid nephropathy -Acute hypersensitivity -Interstitial nephritis -Sickle cell disease -Drugs (NSAID, antibiotics) 3) OVERFLOW PROTEINURIA It is due to filtration by normal glomerulus of an abnormally large amount of low molecular weight proteins, which exceeds the capacity of the normal tubules for reabsorption. It is characterized by the presence of abnormal peak or spike on urinary electrophoresis. Most often, this is a result of the immunoglobulin over production that occurs in multiple myeloma.
The resultant light change immunoglobulin fragments (Bench Jones proteins) produce a monoclonal spike in the urine electrophoresis [22, 23] . OVERFLOW PROTEINURIA – CAUSES -Multiple myeloma -Myoglobinuria - Rhabdomyolysis -Lymphoproliferative disorders 4) SECRETORY PROTEINURIA It occurs due to secretion of proteins into the urine after glomerular filtration. About 20 to 30 mg/24 hours of non plasma protein is contributed by renal tubules and lower urinary tract. Mostly they are formed by Tomm-Horsfall proteins . Some secretary IgA is added by lower urinary track including the urethral glands together with trace quantity of protein of prostatic or seminal vesicular organ [24, 25] . Tomm-Horsfall protein is secreted by the ascending thick limb and early distal convoluted tubule into the tubular fluid. It is an easily polymerized glycoprotein. They form the major constituent of renal tubular casts [26], along with albumin and traces of many plasma proteins, including immunoglobulins [27]. In myeloma, casts contain paraproteins polymerized with Tomm-Horsfall protein, and may show a micro fibrillar structure that will stain positive with Congo red, even though no amyloid is present in renal tissue. Thus, the normal 24 hours urine protein excretion does not exceed 150 mg/dl in adults and 140 mg/m2 in children and generally this corresponds to approximately 10 mg/dl. Microalbuminuria refers to elevated urinary albumin excretion with normal total urine proteins. This corresponds to albumin excretion rates in the range of 20 to 200 µg/min. It has been found a useful early marker of development of diabetic nephropathy. It is detected by RIA or ELISA technique.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1973http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19731. Flanc RS, Robert MA, Strippoli GF, Chadban SJ, Kerr PG, Atkins RC. Treatment of diffuse proliferative lupus nephritis: A Meta – analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Kidney Dis.2004; 43: 197-208.
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11. Kallmeyer G, Miller NM. Urinary changes in ultra-long distance marathon runners. Nephron. 1993; 64: 119-121.
12. Poortmans JR, Rampaer L, Walf JC. Renal protein excretion after exercise in man. Eur J Apply Physiol Occup Physiol. 1989; 48: 476 - 480.
13. Poortms JR, Labilloy D. The influence of work intensity on post exercise proteinuria. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol .1988; 57: 260-263.
14. Abuelo JG. Proteinuria: Diagnostic Principles and procedures. Ann Intern Med 1983:98; 186-191.
15. McConnell KR, Bia MJ. The Evaluation of proteinuria: An approach for the internist. Res Staff Physician .1994; 41-48.
16. Savin VJ. Mechanism of proteinuria in non inflammatory glomerular disease. American Journal of Kidney Disease.1993; 21:347- 362.
17. Daniels BS. The role of the glomerular epithelial cell in the maintainance of the glomerular filtration barrier – American Journal of Nephrology .1993; 13: 318-323
18. Almeida AF. Clinical Approach to a Patient with Renal Disease. API textbook of Medicine 7th edition. Mumbai: The Association of Physician of India: 2003.
19. Turner AN, Savill J, Stewart LH, Camming A. Kidney and Genitourinary Disease. Davidson‘s principles and practice of Medicine. 19th edition. London : Churchill Living stone; 2002.
20. Tulkensn PM, Experimental studies on Nephrotoxicity of Aminoglycosides in low doses. Am J Med. 1986; 80 (6 B): 105-114.
21. Schardijn GHC ,Statius Van Eps LW , Stout Zonnevel .Urinary B2 microglobulin urinary tract infections, Acta Clin Belg . 1980; 35:21.
22. Glassrock RJ. Proteinuria. Test book of Nephrology. 3rd edition Baltimore: William Wilkins, 1995.
23. Longo DL, Anderson KC, Plasma Cell Disorders. Harrison‘s Principles of Internal Medicine. 16th edition. New Delhi Mc Graw – Hill Medical Publishing Division; 2005
24. Beinenstock J, Tomasi TB. Secretory gamma -A in normal urine. Journal of Clinical Investigation .1968; 47: 1162- 1171
25. Rosenman E, Boss JH .Tissue antigens in normal and pathologic urines: A review. Kidney International . 1979; 16: 337-344.
26. MC Queen EG. Composition of urinary casts. Lancet .1966; 287: 397-398.
27. Rustecki GJ, Goldsmith C, Sehreiner GE .Characterization of proteins in urinary casts. Fluorescent antibody identification of Tomm Horsfall protein in matrix and serum protein in granules.New Engl J of Med. 1971; 284: 1049-1052
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyHURST'S RESCALED RANGE ANALYSIS OF EARTH QUAKE OCCURENCES IN GUJARAT
English125127B.Uma MaheswariEnglish V.AnithaEnglish P.S. Theporal IrinEnglish R.Samuel SelvarajEnglishRescaled range analysis is a statistical methodology used to analyse long records of natural phenomena and to detect the presence or absence of trend in time series by finding Hurst component. Hurst exponent is an important measurement in fractal analysis, descriptions of rough images and signals. Basically this method is used to identify when the event is persistent i.e., the tendency to continue its current direction and also anti persistent i.e, the tendency to reverse itself or it is random and unpredictable. In this study, Hurst‘s rescaled range technique was applied to a time series composed of seismic events occurred in Gujarat for a period of 1973 to 2010.In this paper, we studied the earthquake cycles and the results infer that these have the behaviour of the so called ?Joseph effect‘‘: quiet years tend to be followed by quiet years and active years by active years. The Hurst exponent was found to be 0.469, which is nearly 0.5
English1. INTRODUCTION
Earthquakes are caused by faulting; a sudden lateral or vertical movement of rock along a rupture (break) surface .There are two main causes of earthquakes. They can be linked to explosive volcanic eruptions or can be triggered by tectonic activity, with the latter being the cause of most earthquakes. Earthquake occurrence is one of the significant events in nature that causes both irretrievable financial and physical harm. The energy released from an earthquake is 10,000 times more powerful than the first atomic bomb. Apparently the prediction of earthquake is really vital, to our security. In recent times, earthquake occurrence is analyzed by various mathematical techniques like Artificial Neural Network, Fractal dynamics, Cellular Automata Hurst exponent, etc. The Hurst exponent H has broad applications for the studies on earth quakes, activities prior to geomagnetic storms, to ensure the stochastic nature of geomagnetic variations, fractal metrology for images, signals in time series analysis etc. Hurst component can distinguish a random series from a non-random series. Measurement of Hurst exponent can be applied in the power spectrum analysis, wavelet transforms, fractals and measurement of stochastic nature in time series analysis. Hurst exponent has been studied for various nonlinear processes in geophysics. In this paper, we employed Hurst‘s rescaled range technique to analyze the earthquake occurrences in Gujarat region. Lomnitz, Mandelbrot and Wallis, used Hurst‘s method to study the earthquake cycles and found that these have the behaviour called Joseph effect.[1]. Quiet years turn to be followed by quiet years and active years by active years [2].This corresponds to a Hurst exponent greater than 0.5. However, Ogata and Abe obtained values of H of about 0.5, with data from Japan and from the whole world [3].This means that successive steps are independent, and the best prediction is the last measured value [4]. The best fit for our data set gives H = 0.469, which is nearly 0.5. This result is in agreement with the one obtained by Ogata and Abe.
2. HURST?S RESCALED RANGE TECHNIQUE
We provide a concise summary of Hurst‘s rescaled range method below. To calculate the Hurst exponent, one must estimate the dependence of the rescaled range on the time span of n observation [5]. A time series of full length N is divided into a number of shorter time series of length n = N,N/2,N/4...The average rescaled range is then calculated for each value of n. For a (partial) time series of length n, X1, X2...Xn, the rescaled range is calculated as follows:
1. Calculate the mean: m.
2. Create a mean-adjusted series: Yt =X t – m for t= 1, 2..,n
3. Calculate the cumulative deviate series Z.
4. Compute the Range.
5. Compute the standard deviation S.
6. Calculate the rescaled range R (n)/S (n) and average over all the partial time series of length . Hurst exponent is estimated by fitting the power law to the data.
Hurst found that the observed rescaled range (R/ S) for many records in time is very well defined by the following empirical relation.
R/ S = (τ /2)H
Where H is the Hurst exponent, and τ is the time-span considered in the calculation. H describes the correlation between the past and future in the time series. For independent random processes with finite variances, the H value is 0.5. When H > 0.5, the time series is persistent, which means that an increasing trend in the past is indicative of an increasing trend in the future. Conversely, as a general rule, a decreasing trend in the past signifies a persistent decrease in the future. When H < 0.5, the time series is anti-persistent, which means that an increasing trend in the past implies a decreasing trend in the future and vice-versa. If H is more or less equal to 0.5 it indicates that the time series is random.
3. DATA ANALYSIS
Gujarat is located 230 N and 720 E in India. On 26 January 2001 an earthquake registering 7.9 on the Richter scale devastated Gujarat. It was the second largest recorded earthquake in India, the largest being in 1737, and was the worst natural disaster in India in more than 50 years. Hence in this paper an attempt is made to analyze the earthquake cycles of Gujarat. The earthquake data are obtained for a period of 1973 to 2010 for Gujarat from http;//neis.usgs.gov/neis/epic/epic global.html. The Hurst exponent value for 37 years was calculated using the rescaled range Technique. H was found to be 0.469 which is nearly 0.5.
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper we have shown how it is possible to measure the impact of information on the time series by using Hurst exponent H. Hurst exponent was calculated for earthquake occurrence in Gujarat region for 37 years and was found to be 0.469.This value suggests that the earthquake of Gujarat is chaotic in nature and hence predictability is not feasible for the region.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to thank the authors/editors of those journals from where the references to compile the manuscript are obtained.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1974http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19741. Lomnitz, C.: Fundamental of earthquake prediction, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994.
2. Mandelbrot, B. B. and Wallis, J. R.: Noah, Joseph and the operational hydrology, Water Resour. Res., 4(5), 909–918, 1968.
3. Ogata, Y. and Abe, K.: Some statistical features of the long-term variation of the global and regional seismicity, Int. Stat. Review,59, 139–161, 1991.
4. A. Jimenez, A. M. Posadas, and J. M. Marfil.: A probabilistic seismic hazard model based on cellular automata and information theory Nonlinear processes in Geophysics, 12, 1–16, 2005.
5. Feder,Jens.:Fractals,Newyork:plenum Press.ISBN 0-306-2851-2, 1988.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareAN ASSESSMENT OF PREVALENCE OF INJURY AMONG RESIDENTS IN BOMMANAHALLI,
BANGALORE: A COMMUNITY BASED SURVEY.
English128135Vanishree.M.KEnglish Shankar AradyaEnglish UmashankarEnglish Bindu RameshEnglishBackground:-Injury is a major public health problem. In India, it accounts for 15% of total deaths and 15% of disability adjusted life year, resulting in 3% of GDP loss for a country. Aim: - To assess the prevalence of injury and its mechanism in Bommanahalli, Bangalore. Methodology: - The study setting included Bommanahalli, a semi urban area in Bangalore with a population of two and half lakh and 21 sub areas. A sample size was determined to be 174 households
(WHO – Guidelines for conducting community surveys on injuries). A two stage cluster sampling technique was used. In the 1st stage, 6 clusters (sub area) were randomly selected. In the 2nd stage households were systematically selected till the desired household is obtained (29 households). An interview was done with the household member for demographic details, injury and its mechanism and its impact for the past one year. Descriptive statistics like mean, standard deviation, cross stabs and contingency coefficient were used. Results: - A total of 220 households were approached and 174 responded, with a response rate of 79%. This resulted in 753 persons with an age ranging from 1year to 76 years with a mean age of 26.7 years (± 15.56). In 753 persons, 52 (6.9%) had some form of injury. Analysis of mechanism of injury showed that 40.4% (21) was due to road traffic accidents and 3.8% (2), 9.6% (5), 7.7% (4), 7.7% (4), 3.8% (2), and 15.4%(8) constituted for fall, struck/hit by person or object, stab, fire, poisoning, animal bite respectively. Majority of the injuries 84.6%(44) were unintentional; 5.8% (3) and 7.7%(4) accounted for intentional and self-inflicted injuries. 38.2%(21) of the injured persons had physical disabilities like unable or difficulty in using the arm, loss of vision, hearing etc. 12.7%(7) of the injuries were medico legal, 7.3%(4) of the family members had left job to take care of the injured person.
Conclusion: - Injury causes a great burden to the society and thus should be a priority for prevention.
EnglishInjuries, Community based survey, Road traffic accidents, Burn related injuries.INTRODUCTION
Injury is recognized as a major health problem in most high income countries. It is also an important cause of death and disability in most low income countries. Injury currently accounts for 14% of all disability-adjusted life year (DALY) losses for the world‘s entire population, and is expected to increase as a health problem globally.1 WHO and the World Bank project that injury is likely to account for 20% of all DALY loses for the world‘s population by 2020, with road traffic accidents alone being the third-leading cause of DALY losses.1 In India and South-East Asia, injuries account for an estimated 15% of total deaths and 15% of DALYs. Consequently, an estimated 1.5 million people die as a result of injuries and 15-20 million are hospitalized with resulting economic losses of 3% of GDP for the country.2 Commissioned by the National Commission on Macro Economic and Health, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, supported by World Health Organization South –East Asia Regional Office has started a the project aimed at examining the burden of injuries and violence in the Indian region for the first time.3 The report measures magnitude of the problem, nature and type of risk factors for each of the external causes of injuries, current level of interventions and future directions for injury prevention policies and programmes in India. The report estimates that nearly 1,000,000 persons lose their lives with 15,000,000 hospitalizations every year in India. Road traffic injuries result in death of more than 100,000 people and hospitalization of 1.5 million people in India resulting in an estimated economic loss of 3% of GDP for the country. Driving while intoxicated is a well established risk factor for road crashes.2 Nearly 30-40% of road deaths and injuries in India are among riders and pillions of motorized two wheeler vehicles. Nearly half of these deaths and injuries are due to damage experienced by brain and nervous system. Helmets have been proven to reduce deaths, severe injuries, skull fractures, neurological disabilities, extent of hospitalization and consequent socio-economic burden1 . RTIs lead to huge social, economic and psychological burden on survivors and households due to its unanticipated happening There are several ways in which information on injuries can be obtained: from national vital statistics systems, through hospital-based surveillance, via community surveys and from specific research studies. In many settings, hospital-based surveillance and community surveys are the two main routes by which information about injuries is obtained. 4 Hospital-based surveillance systems suffer from a number of shortcomings, not least of which is the fact that they tend to underestimate the burden of injury.
Deaths due to injury that occur outside the hospital environment will not be covered by such systems; they also fail to capture those injuries that do not receive hospital attention (either because the injury was not severe enough to warrant medical treatment or because help was sought elsewhere). Community-based surveys, on the other hand, have the potential to collect detailed information on all types of injuries. Furthermore, in settings where vital statistics and hospital-based data are non-existent or unreliable, community surveys may be the only source of information.
It must be stressed, however, that community surveys are not intended to be a replacement for hospital-based surveillance, but rather that they be viewed as a useful adjunct. Nor are community surveys without limitations of their own. Not only are community surveys resource intensive (and for this reason tend to be conducted only periodically) but they are particularly prone to recall bias.1
The real extent of those killed injured and hospitalized is not clearly known due to lack of reliable data and absence of research in India. Hence a community based pilot survey was conducted with an objective to assess the prevalence of injuries and its associated factors among residents of Bommanahalli, Bangalore.
METHODOLOGY
Source of data:
A study was conducted to assess the prevalence of injuries and violence in Bommanahalli, Bangalore. The study setting included Bommanahalli, a semi urban area in Bangalore with a population of two and half lakh. It has got 21 sub areas and 44,000 households according to data collected from Municipal Corporation, Bommanahalli, and Bangalore. Persons who resided in Bommanahalli for the past 3 years were included in the study.
Sample size:-The sample size was determined to be 174 households, assuming confidence level of 95%, marginal error of 0.02 and anticipated prevalence outcome of 0.04. (WHO– Guidelines for conducting community surveys on injuries and violence).4
Sampling technique: - A two stage cluster sampling technique was used. In the first stage clusters (sub areas) were randomly selected. In this study 6 sub areas were randomly selected. In the second stage household were selected systematically in the sub areas till the desired sample is reached. (29 house hold in each sub area).
Method of data collection: - WHO Guidelines for conducting community surveys on injuries and violence survey form was used. House to house survey was carried out. Household members were interviewed and information was sought for demographic details, injury event factors, injury related disability, medical care and treatment of injury, post injury impact, injury related death, traffic related injuries, violence-related injury, suicidal behavior, poisoning related injuries, burn related injuries, drowning, fall related injuries in the past one.A detailed schedule was prepared for data collection and survey took place for a period of two months. Interview of each household member took approximately 45 minutes and approximately 10 household were visited per day. Ethical clearance was obtained by ethical committee -The Oxford Dental College and Hospital and Research Centre. Permission was obtained from the household members before the interview was done. Statistical analysis: - Data were then fed manually into the computer and proof read once. All the statistical calculations were done through SPSS (Statistical Presentation System Software) for Windows Version 15.0 Evaluation version (SPSS, 2007. SPSS Inc, New York) and Descriptive statistics/frequencies and Contingency coefficient test were employed for the analysis.
RESULTS
A total of 220 households were approached and 174 responded, with a response rate of 79% and refusal rate of 20 (9%) ,comprising a total 753 subjects of which 424 male and 329 females with mean age 26.7+15.5 with an age ranging from 1year to 76 years with a mean age of 26.7 years (± 15.56). In 753 persons, 52 (6.9%) had some form of injury. (Graph1) Majority of the injuries 84.6 % (44) were unintentional; 5.8% (3) and 7.7 % (4) accounted for intentional and self-inflicted injuries. 38.2%(21) of the injured persons had physical disabilities like unable or difficulty in using the arm, loss of vision, hearing etc. 12.7%(7) of the injuries were medico legal, 7.3%(4) of the family members had left job to take care of the injured person. (Graph2) Analysis of mechanism of injury showed that 40.4% (21) was due to road traffic accidents and 3.8% (2), 9.6% (5), 7.7% (4), 7.7% (4), 3.8% (2), and 15.4%(8) constituted for fall, struck/hit by person or object, stab, fire, poisoning, animal bite respectively. (Graph3).
DISCUSSION
A total of 174 households consisting 424 males and 329 females with the mean age 26.7 years were surveyed to assess the Prevalence of Injuries and associated factors among residents of Bommanahalli, Bangalore. The present study was undertaken as a pilot survey as there was a time constraints for the full term survey. There are several ways in which information of injuries can be obtained that is from National Vital Statistics System, through hospital surveillance or via community based surveys. Hospitals based survey suffers from number of short comings, hence a community based survey was undertaken which had advantage over the hospital based survey which includes, cases that were not reported to the hospitals, it could define the population under study, it could assess people perception regarding the causes of injury, and allowed for comparison of injury rates of among different geographic region. In the present study maximum number of injuries was found among the age group 20-24 and 25-44 (24.1 % in each group) .This is similar to study done by C.N Mock et.al on incidence and outcome of injury prevalence in Ghana, where the age group affected was 15-45 years and also in study done by Nilambar Jha et.al on Eastern Nepal showed the highest number of victims (249, 28.6%) in 20-29 years of age followed by 164 (18.9%) in the age group of 30-39 years. 1,5 A higher number of cases in this age group can probably be explained on the basis that, this is the most active period of life during which there is a tendency to take risk. This shows that people from the most active and productive age groups are involved, which causes a serious economic loss to the community. The present study revealed more of male victims compared to females in the ratio of 10:2, 44 (84.61%) and 8(15.38%). This is similar to National Health Interview Survey, USA, 1997 which showed 75.7 % of injury affected persons were male and 24.3% were female [M= 498; F= 160]. The predominance of males may be due to the fact that females lead a less active life and mostly remain indoors.6
Road traffic accidents
The present study showed 40.4% of road traffic related injuries. Male were affected more (40.9%). This is similar to study done by Robyn Norton et.al on unintentional injuries, which showed RTA accounted for 34% and among the victims, the males were 662 (76.1%) and females were 208 (23.9%) respectively. 8 Analysis of the types of vehicles showed that 31.4% of the accidents were form bus followed by two- wheelers 25.6%. Maximum incidence of RTA was in the age group of 20 to 39 years comprising 51.20%. Most common victim was pedestrian 44% followed by drivers 32.87%, and occupant 23.20%.
Burn related injuries The present study showed 7.7% of injuries due to fire belonging to the age group of 15-19 years and 25-44 years with equal male to female ratio. This is in agreement with the study conducted by Robyn Norton et al on unintentional injuries, where injury due to Fires accounted for 9%. 7 Poisonings In the present study 3.8% of the injuries were due to poisonings, in the age group of 0-4 years and 15-19 years. A higher prevalence was found in study conducted by Robyn Norton et.al on unintentional injuries, were poisonings accounted for 10%. 7.
Fall Related Injuries
In the present study fall related injury accounted for 3.8% in the age group of 20-24 years and 25- 44 years. This was similar to ?A National Health Interview Survey‘, USA 1997 July 2000, which reported 4.3% falls related injuries. A higher prevalence was found in study conducted by Robyn Norton et.al on unintentional injuries, in which falls accounted for 10%. 6, 7 Animal Bite 15.5% of the subjects were victims for animal bite in the present study. But a lesser prevalence was observed in National multicentre rabies survey on animal bites in India, which was 1.7%.8 The present study showed 5.8% intentional injuries; the WHO reports of 2001 shows a higher prevalence of injuries globally of 10.8. 9 The present study showed the 7.7% of the self inflected injuries.
Type of injury
In present study fractures were the leading type of injuries 26.9% followed by cut and open wound 21.2%. National Health Interview Survey, USA, reported Sprains and Strains the leading injury types 38.5% followed by open wounds, fractures and contusions; 29.0, 23.7, and 19.0 per 1,000 persons.7.
Place of injury The present study showed street as the most frequent place of injury followed by home .53.84% and 25% respectively (Graph4). National Health Interview Survey, 2000, reported home was the most frequently reported place of injury –which accounted for 24%. Report for the World Health Organization, on Injury and Alcohol, Emergency Department Study, Bangalore, India, 2001, a greater proportion of the injuries appeared to have taken place in subjects own homes (41.2%) and on the street 36% .7,10 In the present study 11.53% of injuries occurred in pubs and hotels, Reports by the World Health Organization shows 3.4% of injuries appeared to have occurred in pubs or Physical disability In the present study 42.32% of the subjects had physical disability because of injury (Graph5). This was similar to the study done by C.N Mock etal on incidence and outcome on injury prevalence in Ghana, were 40% of the subjects had physical disability.1
Limitations of the study Though the present study had advantages over the hospital based surveys, had its own limitations such as, small sample size, recall bias, withholding of information and use of proxy respondents can underline reliability of data collected. However with the standardized data collection at community level, the community based survey can act as a useful adjunct.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1975http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19751. Mock.C.N etal, Incidence and outcome of injury in Ghana: A Community based survey, Bulletin of World Health Organisation, 1999, 77, 12, 955-965.
2. Madan V.S. Road traffic accidents: Emergic Epidemic, Indian Journal of Neurotrauma, Vol 3, No.1, 1-3, 2006.
3. Dinesh Mohan , Social cost of road traffic crashes in India, Proceedings First Safe Community Conference on Cost of Injury, Viborg , Denmark, 2002, 33-38.
4. Sethi D, Habibula S, McGee K, Peden M, Bennett S, Guidelines For Conducting Community Surveys On Injuries And Violence WHO Library Cataloguing-inPublication Data2004.
5. Nilambar Jha etal, Epidemiological study of road traffic accident cases: A study from Eastern Nepal, Regional Health Forum, 8, 1, 15-22, 2004.
6. Krug etal, The global burden of injuries. American journal of Public Health, 90 (4):523, 2004. 7
. Robyn Norton etal, Unintentional injuries, Disease control priorities in Developing countries, Chapter 39, 737-755.
8. Sudarshan etal, National multicentre rabies survey journal of Communicable diseases 2006, 38, 1, 32-39.
9. Peden M, McGee K, Sharma G. The injury chart book: a graphical overview of the global burden of injuries. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2002.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareSTUDY OF STATUS OF PREVAILING MISCONCEPTIONS OF HIV/AIDS IN A RURAL COMMUNITY IN SOUTH INDIA
English136145Shankar REnglish Pruthvish SEnglish Varun MalhotraEnglishBackground: AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease syndrome that represents the late clinical stage of infection with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). Now with more than 5 million people estimated to be living with HIV/AIDS, its prevalence in India is second only to South Africa. India is considered to be a ?next wave? country. Most HIV infections in India are due to sexual transmission (84-86%). In the North East, however, injection of drugs is the main mode of transmission. Women account for 39% of India‘s estimated HIV/AIDS prevalence
Aim: To assess the status of prevailing misconceptions of HIV/AIDS in a rural community in South India. Methodolgy: Study Area The administrative limits of primary health center, Kaiwara, Chintamani Taluk,.Study Population People living in the administrative limits of Primary Health Center Kaiwara, which is approximately 32, 772 Study Design: Cross sectional study Sample size: 1332 Results : From the study that only 30% of the study population knew that HIV is a virus; 54% of the subjects knew all the 4 modes of transmission where as 22.40% had no knowledge about all the modes of transmission. Conclusion: The most common misconception with respect to modes of transmission was that, HIV/AIDS can be transmitted by mosquito
bites (34%). The misconceptions other than the modes of transmission like HIV being transmitted to the children by playing with the HIV affected children(14.3%) and also HIV can be transmitted by just buying vegetables from a vegetable vendor(18%) who is affected by HIV is quite prevalent among the study population.v
EnglishINTRODUCTION AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease syndrome that represents the late clinical stage of infection with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). The syndrome was first recognized in 1981, but probably existed at a low endemic level in Central Africa before epidemic HIV spread began to occur in several areas of the world during the 1970s1 . The first case of HIV disease was reported in India in 1986. Later that year, Government of India established a National AIDS Control Committee under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare to formulate a strategy for responding to HIV/AIDS in the country; it launched National AIDS Control Programme in 1987. India‘s National AIDS Control Organization (NACO), established in 1992 by the Ministry with major support from the World Bank is the implementing agency of the National AIDS Programme. Phase I of the Programme spanned 1992-1999. Phase II Programme spanned 1999-2006.Phase III Programme on span being 2007-2012. NACO has facilitated the development of 38 State AIDS Control Societies (SACS) which operate in all states and Union Territories.
Now with more than 5 million people estimated to be living with HIV/AIDS, its prevalence in India is second only to South Africa. India is considered to be a ?next wave? country Most HIV infections in India are due to sexual transmission (84-86%). In the North East, however, injection of drugs is the main mode of transmission. Women account for 39% of India‘s estimated HIV/AIDS prevalence. HIV prevalence has been increasing among pregnant women in many regions within the country. Among young people of age ranging from 15- 24, the estimated number of young women living with HIV/AIDS was almost twice that of young men2.
In the present circumstances, AIDS prevention largely depends on health education and behavioural changes based on AIDS awareness. Ignorance of the disease and of the mode of transmission of the virus can generate fear and prejudice against those who are infected and those who are providing care to the patients living with HIV/AIDS. So, by assessing the prevailing knowledge with respect to the misconception of HIV/AIDS in the community, we can delineate the role the community, the need to take effective control of the situation.
Aim: To assess the status of prevailing misconceptions of HIV/AIDS in a rural community in South India.
Review of literature: In a study by Sudha RT, et al(2005) to assess the awareness, attitudes, and beliefs of the general public toward HIV/AIDS in Hyderabad, the capital city of Andhra Pradesh, it was observed that approximately 80.63% (645/800) of the study population were sketchily aware of HIV/AIDS, but had incorrect perceptions about the mode of transmission or prevention. 3 M Steyn etal (1993) ?A study on knowledge, attitude, perception and beliefs of the general South African public regarding Human Immune Deficiency Virus and AIDS?, interviews were conducted with 5,360 participants Overall awareness of AIDS was high, but it was a mixture of appropriate and inappropriate knowledge in terms of modes of transmission, nature of disease, seriousness, prevention and cure 4 . In a study by Rimjhim M. Aggarwal (2004) on ?Determinants of Knowledge regarding HIV/AIDS among Women in India? among age group 15–49, showed that around 45% of women in the sample had heard about HIV/AIDS5 . In contrast to this, only 17% of women had heard about HIV/AIDS in the first round of NFHS conducted in 1992-93. Interestingly, although a higher proportion of women had heard about HIV/AIDS by 1998-99, their knowledge regarding prevention options was found to be much more superficial than of them in 1992-93. In a Cross-Sectional Population-Based Study by Anand D etal (2004) on Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices regarding HIV/AIDS in Dakshina Kannada District of Karnataka, India, an assessment was made on HIV/AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices among the general population in South India. Although 54% of participants knew that AIDS is caused by "HIV" virus and 44% could correctly identify all modes of transmission, 52% believed in one or more myths, 41% did not know that condoms can prevent HIV, and 18% had not heard of a condom. Higher HIV knowledge scores were significantly associated with male gender, higher education, currently married, higher frequency of reading newspapers, listening to radio or watching television, and willingnessto get tested for HIV6 . Patel R (2006) in his cross sectional study regarding knowledge, attitude and source of information on HIV/AIDS among teachers of secondary and higher secondary schools of Ahmedabad city has observed that 88% of his study subjects knew that AIDS could be transmitted by having multiple sex partners while 79% were aware of the risk due to transfusion of infected blood and use of contaminated needles. Among his study subjects 19% of males and 8% of females believed that AIDS can be transmitted by kissing an AIDS patient while 12% of females and 20% of male teachers believed that HIV patients must not be allowed to do any job or business. Only 67% of the respondents knew that AIDS could be prevented by proper use of condoms.7 . S Sarkar (2007) in his study on ?Knowledge and Attitude on HIV/AIDS among Married Women of Reproductive Age Attending a Teaching Hospital,? found, that majority i.e. 64% women belonged to the younger age group (Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1976http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19761. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. UNAIDS and the World Health Organization. AIDS Epidemic Update. 2007.
2. National Aids Control Organization. Facts and Figures. Oct 2006 Available at http://www.naco.nic.in. Accessed on 22/09/2006.
3. Sudha RT., Vijay DT and Lakshmi V. ?Awareness, attitudes, and beliefs of the general public towards HIV/AIDS in Hyderabad, a capital city from South India?. Indian Journal of Medical Science. 2005 vol 59 pp 307-316.
4. M Steyn etal, ?Study of Knowledge, attitude, perceptions and beliefs regarding HIV/AIDS? Memorandum presented to the Directorate Primary Health Care Of the development of National Health and Population Development. 1993.
5. Rimjhim M. Aggarwal and Jeffrey J. Rous, ?Determinants of Knowledge regarding HIV/AIDS among Women in India?- a document paper Department of Economics, University of North Texas. 2004.
6. Anand D etal, ?Cross-Sectional PopulationBased Study of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Regarding HIV/AIDS in Dakshina Kannada District of Karnataka, India? Indian Journal of Public Health. 2004 vol 34 (5).
7. Patel R, ?An epidemiological study regarding knowledge, attitude and source of information on HIV-AIDS among the teachers of secondary and higher secondary schools of Ahmedabad City?, India European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 16th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Nice, France. April 2006.
8. S Sarkar, M Danabalan, ?Knowledge and Attitude on HIV/AIDS among Married Women of Reproductive Age Attending a Teaching Hospital? Indian Journal of Community Medicine. 2007 vol 32.
9. K. M. Börsum and P. E. Gjermo, ?Relationship between knowledge and attitudes regarding HIV/AIDS among dental school employees and students? European Journal of Dental Education. 2004 August vol 8 (3) pp 105-110.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesKNOWLEDGE, ATITUDE AND PRACTICE OF RURAL MEN AND WOMEN ABOUT GENDER RELATED ASPECTS
English146153D.VijayaraniEnglish G. BaradhaEnglishGender disparities should be reduced at its earliest and the efforts should start from the domestic space; family as an institution should address these things primarily to create a just society. So it was decided to find out the knowledge, attitude and practice of rural men and women with children of both sexes. Sexwise comparison of knowledge, attitude and practice regarding gender-related aspects brought out the result that men had higher mean score on gender-related aspects.
EnglishKnowledge, attitude, practice, gender-related aspectsINTRODUCTION
Gender is the social interpretation of attitude, behaviour, relationships, moral and social values of an individual on the basis of sex. It refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys (Suchinmayee 2008).Any form of gender discrimination is a denial of human rights and is an obstacle to human development. Equality between women and men is seen both as a human rights issue and as a precondition for and indicator of sustainable people centered development. The family lays the foundation of inequality of sexes right from the childhood in the social process affecting their all round development. Gender disparities should be reduced at its earliest and the efforts should start from the domestic space and family as an institution should address these things primarily to create a just society (Hindu, 2010). So it was decided to trace out the knowledge, attitude and practice of rural men and women in the age group of 18 to 40 with the children of both the sexes regarding gender issues.
Objectives
Objectives To trace out the knowledge, attitude and practice of the selected rural men and women regarding gender- related aspects
To compare and analyse the knowledge, attitude and practice of the selected rural men and women regarding gender- related aspects
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The sample were selected by multi stage sampling and the sample size consisted of 1400 with 638 men and 762 women from 14 villages which included educated and illiterate men and women belonging to different castes and income levels from Virudhunagar and Aruppukottai taluks of Virudhunagar district. Six and eight villages from these two taluks respectively were selected.100 people were selected from each village by using disproportional stratified sampling in order to trace out the knowledge, attitude and practices regarding genderrelated aspects.From Virudhunagar taluk, 600 sample consisted of 273 men and 327 women and from Aruppukottai taluk 800 sample consisted of 365 men and 435women were selected. A self-made interview schedule was used to collect the attitude of rural people after developing a rapport with the respondents. Codes were allocated, appropriate scores were given and the overall total scores were calculated and percentiles were calculated. For all the positive statements, expressing a favourable attitude, the scores were fixed to range from 3 to 1, for responses ranging from always, rarely, never. And for negative statements, expressing a negative attitude, the scores were fixed to range from 1 to 3, for responses ranging from always, rarely and never. The total scores for knowledge were 15, for attitude 252 and for practice 691. The obtained scores of the selected rural people were converted into mean score for total KAP scores of 958. Codes were allocated, appropriate scores were given and total scores of the percentiles were calculated.
RESULTS
The collected data were analysed using percentiles and ?t‘ test.
1.Socio economic profile of the selected respondents
Out of the total 1400 sample, 638 and 762 were men and women respectively. Glancing at the age composition of the selected sample, 37 percent of the samples‘ age group range between 31-35 years, 32 per cent of them belonged to the age group of 36-40, 22 per cent of the sample were in the age group of 26-30 and rest of the sample‘s age ranged between 18-25. It is sad to find that 40 percent of the sample were illiterates and only 10 percent of them completed higher secondary and degree courses. The literacy level of the sample shows that illiteracy is more among women (44per cent) as compared to men (35 per cent). The percentage of the respondents who passed higher secondary and above is low among women (8 per cent) compared to men (10 per cent). This percentile disparity may be due to fear that education will make a girl less attentive to household chores and difficult to find a mate. More than half of the selected rural men and women‘s occupation is coolie only. The status of unemployment is more for women (27 per cent) as compared to men (three percent). Only four per cent of the men and women were doing farming. Three and one per cent of the women were self employed and involved in private works respectively. Six and two per cent of men and women respectively were the government employees. Communitywide classification shows that 44, 31, 24 and 1 percent of the sample belonged to BC, SC MBC and OC respectively. The impact of social change in the family structure is revealed very much in the family of 93 percent of the families which was nuclear type. Eighty five per cent of the families‘ income was below Rs. 4500, 11 per cent of them belonged to the income group of Rs.4501-7500 and only four per cent of the families‘ income was above Rs.7501.
2. Knowledge of the population sample on gender- related aspects
Knowledge of the population sample on various gender-related aspects such as marriage, childrearing practice, food, health, education,decision-making process, employment, household responsibilities, community activities, parental property, political participation and violence against women is shown in Table 1.
The study found that only nine percent of men and seven percent of women had knowledge of the legal age of marriage for boys (21); 11 percent of men and seven percent of women had knowledge of the legal age of marriage for girls (18). The aspect of, ?getting dowry is punishable‘ was known to 77 and 66 percent of men and women respectively. The right to divorce the spouse was known to 88 and 79 percent of the men and women respectively which may be due to the success of the mission on human rights. The men and women‘s mean score was 46.04 and 39.60 respectively which reflect the need for gender sensitisation on laws related to marriage. The mean score indicates that there was a significant difference between men and women‘s knowledge on gender and marriage with the ?t‘ value of 5.647 at five percent level of significance. Parents play a key role in disciplining the children. Parents‘ responsibility to take care of the children was accepted by 97 percent each of men and women. There was no significant difference in the score of men and women‘s knowledge on gender and child-rearing practice. Thus almost all the sample irrespective of the sex had similar knowledge on the aspect which is well known that both mother and father are essential to take care of the children. Table1 also showed that 82 and 61 percent of men and women respectively accepted that people need healthy food irrespective of the gender. For the knowledge on food, the mean score for men (82.45) was higher than women (61.29) with the ?t‘ value of 9.114 at five percent level of significance. It is therefore, concluded that there was a significant difference between men and women‘s knowledge on gender and provision of food. Mothers‘ priority in preparation and distribution of food to male members first then to female members, revealed the existence of gender inequality among the population sample. They also justified that male members do more heavy work, hence they are in need of more healthy food. It was found that 82 and 62 percent of men and women respectively had the awareness that both men and women are in need of health care. The mean score obtained by men (81.97) was higher than the women‘s mean score (61.54) regarding knowledge on gender and health. The ?t‘ value obtained shows that there was a significant difference between men and women‘s knowledge on gender and health of the family members. The policy of right to education up to 14 years was very well understood by 66 and 61 percent of men and women respectively. The mean score for the knowledge on gender and education obtained by men was 65.83, which was higher than women‘s mean score of 60.63, and the difference was statistically significant at five per cent level. Women were confined within their villages or nearby villages only. So, they were unaware of the rights related to education as their counterparts had. Involvement of all the family members in decision-making process was expressed by 67 and 65 percent of men and women respectively. The male members‘ mean score for knowledge on gender and decision-making process was 66.93, which was slightly higher than female members‘ mean score of 65.22. But statistically there was no significant difference between men and women‘s knowledge on gender and decision-making process. Even in this 21st century, still one-third of the population sample irrespective of the sex believed that all the family members need not be consulted while taking decisions at home. Nearly two-thirds of the population sample of both sex knew that both men and women had the right to get equal pay for doing the same job. There was no significant difference between men and women‘s knowledge on gender in relation to employment. One-third of the population sample was unaware of this right which may be due to the fact that majority of them were involved in coolie work where the wage discrimination exists. In India, people have the notion that it is the duty of female members to do all the household work. In this research it was dreadful in knowing that only 17 and 15 percent of men and women respectively had the knowledge that both men and women can do the household work equally. The obtained mean score by men (17.08) and women (15.35) showed that rural people had poor knowledge in the aspect of gender and household responsibilities and there was no significant difference between men and women regarding knowledge on gender in household responsibilities. Doing the community activities by men and women was stated by 57 and 52 percent of the selected men and women respectively. The mean score obtained by men and women was 56.68 and 53.79 respectively. Statistically there was no significant difference between men and women in knowledge on gender and community activities. The impact of human rights education was very much found during the research that four-fifths of the population sample knew about the right to property from parents. For knowledge on gender and property rights also, there was no significant difference between men and women, though the mean score for male members‘ knowledge was higher (87.62) than the female members (84.25).
The fact about women‘s poor political participation was known only to 17 and 16 percent of the selected men and women respectively. There was no difference in the mean score for knowledge on gender and political participation of the selected rural men and women and both had low mean score of 16.46 and 16.14 respectively. Fifty eight percent of men and 55 percent of women expressed that violence is punishable under law. Men‘s mean score was higher (57.68) than women‘s mean score (55.12) for knowledge about violence, but the difference was insignificant. The mean score for overall knowledge on gender-related aspects of men was higher (64.52) compared to women‘s mean score (60.07) and the difference was statistically significant at five percent level with the ?t‘ value of 4.297, proving that the selected men‘s knowledge on gender-related aspects was better than their counterparts.
3. Comparison of the mean score obtained for attitude of rural men and women about gender issues
Gender inequalities are reflected in different dimensions eroding the very vitals of social and economic justice throughout. With the objective of probing the attitude of rural people towards gender aspects related to marriage, child-rearing practice, food, health, education, decisionmaking process, employment, household responsibilities, involvement in community activities, parental property, political participation and violence against women, data were collected as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 projects the ?t‘ value for the mean score obtained by the population sample for their attitude towards gender issues related to marriage, child-rearing practice, food, health, education, decision-making process, employment, household responsibilities, involvement in community activities, property rights, political participation and violence against women. There was a significant difference between the attitude of the selected men and women towards gender issues in marriage, education and employment, which is evident from the mean score denoted in the table and the difference was significant at five percent level.
4. Comparison of mean score obtained for practice of gender-related aspects by the selected rural men and women
The statistical difference of the selected rural men and women‘s practice on gender-related aspects of marriage, child-rearing practice, food, health, education, savings, decision-making process, household responsibilities and violence against women is shown in Table 3
Difference in mean score explicit the prevalence of gender disparity among the selected men and women towards marriage, provision of food and violence against women. The ?t‘ values, 11.155, 8.054 and 21.789 for marriage, food and violence against women respectively denote that there was difference in the practice of the selected rural men and women which were statistically significant. The obtained ?t‘ values for gender-related aspects of child-rearing practice, health, education, savings, decisionmaking process and household responsibilities were statistically insignificant, hence it is concluded that there was no difference in the practice of gender-related aspects between men and women in their families. The mean score for overall practice on genderrelated aspects of men and women was 66.83 and 65.90 respectively and the difference was statistically significant at five percent level which proves that the selected men and women‘s practice on gender issues was different. Though men scored higher compared to women for overall gender-related practices but obtained mean score with less difference depicts that both sexes were in need of sensitisation regarding gender issues. The obtained mean score shows that still both the sexes follow gender discriminatory practice in their day to day life.
CONCLUSION
From this study it is concluded that the mean score for overall knowledge, attitude and practice on gender-related aspects of men was higher compared to women and the difference was statistically significant at five per cent level proving that the selected men‘s knowledge, attitude and practice on gender-related aspects was better than women.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The effort towards the awareness and sensitisation programmes for the girl child, as is being carried out by the governments to be intensified and continued Information about gender equality to be propagated through the media to sensitise the public Publications about gender issues and information to be done to change the mind of the people
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1977http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19771. Suchinmayee R, Gender, human rights and environment, Atlantic publications, New Delhi, 31-40,(2008),
2. The Hindu (2010), October 5th
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524142EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEVALUATION OF EFFECT OF COTTON DUST ON PULMONARY FUNCTIONS AND INCIDENCE OF
BYSSINOSIS IN COTTON MILL WORKERS
English154160Sujatha V PatilEnglish Praveenkumar InamadarEnglish Vijayakumar B. JattiEnglish ShobhaEnglish Prabhawati P. InamadarEnglish VinodKumar C.SEnglishByssinosis is an important occupational hazard and a type of pneumoconiosis, often observed among workers exposed to cotton, flax, and Hump dust in the cotton mills. The severity and extent of the problem are well recognized in the developed countries and control measures have been implemented to prevent the disease. This is not true, however, for the developing countries like India, where the severity and extent of the problem are not well studied and preventive measures are virtually non-existent. A review of the earlier studies on Byssinosis suggests a low prevalence of the disease in most of the Indian Textile mills. In this retrospective, epidemiological study carried out on workers in cotton mill / ginning factory of Bijapur district North Karnataka, 110 subjects were examined for different pulmonary function tests to study the prevalence of Byssinosis among the workers exposed to cotton fibers. However, our study showed a high prevalence of the disease, especially in the blow and card sections of the mill. The prevalence of byssinosis was found to be 8.95% among workers directly exposed to cotton dust. Prevalence of their respiratory symptoms among these workers is as follows: chronic cough (19.40%), chronic phlegm (7.46%), and chronic bronchitis (11.94%). The prevalence of byssinosis and other respiratory symptoms increased with increase in duration of exposure and advancement of age and are more prevalent among smokers compared to non-smokers. It can be concluded from the present study
that, the exposure to cotton dust results in decreases in pulmonary function parameters in worker at both dusty and non-dusty section of mill, which may result in onset of various respiratory disorders. The overall findings of the study of three textile mills are presented in the present paper.
EnglishByssinosis, Pulmonary function tests, Industrial exposure, spirometry, cottonINTRODUCTION
In the industrial work environment, inhalation is the commonest route of entry for most hazardous substances. Lungs, by virtue of their large surface area and direct contact with atmospheric air, are naturally the most commonly affected organs of the body in industrial situations. The cotton industry is one of the major components of the industrial network in India. One estimate has revealed that there are around 1,0.27 mills which are actively involved in processes involving cotton, flax and hemp and around 8,11,822 workers work in these mills. Occupational exposure to cotton, flax and hemp dust, leads to a disabling lung disease known as ?Byssinosis? (Meaning white thread in Greek). Byssinosis has been shows to develop in response to dust exposure in cotton processing. It is especially prevalent among cotton workers in the initial, very dusty operations where flakes are broken open, blown and carded to arrange the fibers in to parallel threads. Byssinosis has also described in other than textile sectors where cotton is processed, such as cottonseed oil mills, the cotton waste utilization industry, and the garneting, or bedding and batting industry. Byssinosis is characterized by shortness of breath and chest tightness. Symptoms are often associated with changes in pulmonary function. Most characteristic of acute pulmonary response to cotton dust exposure is a drop in FEV1 on the first day back at work after at least a 2 days layoff. Extensive studies in United States led to correlations between respirable dust, measured with a vertical elutriator and symptoms of byssinosis on one hand and cross shift reductions in flow in exposed workers which led to adoption of a threshold limit value for respirable cotton dust of 0.2mg/m3 by the occupational safety and Health Administration (NIOSH, 1994) Much research has been done on possible etiological mechanisms and effects of byssinosis. It seems likely that the mechanism of byssinosis involves stimulation of the some inflammatory receptors by endotoxin and by cotton dust. Gram-negative bacterial endotoxin contaminates cotton fiber and aqueous extract of endotoxin have produced acute symptom and lung function declines.
The severity and extent of the problem of byssinosis are well recognized in developed countries and control measures have been implemented to prevent the disease. However, this is not true for developing countries where the severity and extent of the problems are not well studied and preventive measures are virtually non-existent (Schilling Approximately 250,000workers are exposed to byssinosis in United States and over 1,000,000 worldwide (Kaye, 2004). In India several studies on byssinosis were undertaken in the past (Murlidhar, 1995, Gupta, 1969). A review of these studies provides contradictory view – some suggests a low prevalence of the disease in most of Indian textile mills (Gupta, 1969), others suggest a high prevalence of the disease (Parikh, 1989). In Northern part of Karnataka, there are many Ginning factories associated with processing of cotton. However there is no systematic evaluation of pulmonary function status of the workers working with these mills. Thus the present study was planned to measure the quantitative changes in lung functions in workers of ginning factory of Bijapur District, North Karnataka. This study is done to assess pulmonary function status of the workers of ginning factory is by measuring FVC, FEV1, FEV1% and PEFR and to find out incidence of byssinosis among the workers. This study suggests that the prevalence of byssinosis is not low in cotton mill workers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study is conducted on workers of a ginning factory, situated in Bijapur District, North Karnataka.
Experimental group: Consisting of workers of the cotton mill. Total number of subject: 110, which were divided in to two sub groups.
Group I: Workers who actually work with cotton and directly exposed to the cotton dust. All these workers work in the dustiest section of mill like spinning, Frame, Ring and Winding (Total No -67). Group II: Workers who does not actually work with cotton but work in other Departments of the mill, like, office workers and watchmen (Total No -43).
Control group: Control subjects were selected from among the male non-teaching staff members of BLDEA‘S Sri. B.M.Patil Medical College ?who represent same socioeconomic group as that of mill workers (Total No-50).
Methods of collection of Data: At the beginning of the study list of workers working in different section of the mill was obtained. The purpose of the study and content of the consent from was explained to them in their mother tongue. All the demographic data were obtained which are related the study.
Exclusion criteria: Workers with history of tuberculosis, in whom tuberculosis was strongly suspected on clinical grounds, with bronchial asthma, with positive family history of asthma and with deformities like gross kyphoscoliosis.
The clinical assessment of the subject for Byssinosis, Pulmonary function tests. Assessment of the workers for Byssinosis:
This was done for the study of only the experimental group. We used a questionnaire designed by Muralidhar, et. al in their Bombay study. Similar questionnaire was used by Parikh and National Institute of occupational Health, Ahmedabad (NIOSH, 1994).
Lung function tests: Spirometeric (FVC, FEV1, FEV1/FVC and PEFR) measurements (best of 3 readings) were carried out in the field using portable spirometer.
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
There are extensive reports of various Indian studies on cotton mill workers. Most of these studies suggested a low prevalence of byssinosis and other respiratory symptoms, among cotton mill workers in India (Kamal, 1981). By contrast with these findings, researchers in other countries have observed a high prevalence of the disease. For instance, E1 Batawi et al, observed a prevalence of 27% in card rooms (Butawi, 1964), whereas Molyneux and Tombleson found a prevalence of 24% in blow rooms and 36.8% in card rooms (Mlyxneux, 1963). In the present study, we have evaluated the prevalence of byssinosis and other respiratory disorders in cotton mill workers and compaired our findings with age group matched control subjects. The various physiological parameters studied, like, resting heart rate and resting blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic) were found to be within normal range among subjects of various groups. In the present study, we observed that 8.95% of workers directly exposed to cotton dust suffered from byssinosis. This finding is in agreement with the findings of other researcher‘s world over, which had shown that workers working in most dusty section of the mill are primarily effected by byssinosis. Schilling reported 60% incidence of byssinosis among card room workers in England and 27% incidence in Egypt (Butawi, 1964). Murlidhar et, al. also reported 30% prevalence of disease in dusty section comparable to the world statistics (Molyneux, 1963). One of the important causes of this low prevalence of byssinosis in our study is less exposure period of the subjects to cotton dust. In our study there are only three subjects who have an exposure duration more than 20 yrs. All these three subjects are suffering from byssinosis. Other three byssinotic subjects in our study has an exposure duration ranging from 15 to 20 years. Fox et al., have reported that with longer duration of exposure the prevalence of byssinosis increases (Fox, 1973). Parikh, et.al6 from their study reported that, the prevalence of byssinosis increased up to 25 years of exposure but thereafter it declines (Parikh, 1981). They proposed this might be due to the fact that some of the byssinotic workers prematurely retire owing to respiratory disability. This might be the cause why we encountered only three out of sixty seven workers with exposure duration of more than 20 years. However, 38.80% of workers in our study suffer from various other type of respiratory symptoms like chronic bronchitis, chronic phlegm and chronic cough in addition 8.95% workers suffering from byssinosis. This is consistent with the observations of Bouhuys (Bouhuys, 1967).
All these workers observed deterioration of lung function and appearance of various respiratory symptoms in workers who are exposed to cotton dust for 10 to 20 years. Analysis of age group wise distribution of workers with various respiratory disorders in our study revealed that all the byssinotic subjects belong to over 36 years age group. Most of the workers suffering from other form of respiratory symptoms belong to higher age group. Gerald J. Beck, et.al reported a gradual decline in respiratory function parameters and incidence of various respiratory symptoms in workers with both advancement of age and increase in duration of exposure (Gerald J Beck, 1982). In the course of interrogations during the study it was revealed that some of the colleagues of older employees had left the job due to health problems, notably due to shortness of breath. It is highly likely that at least few of those who left the job must have done so due to byssinosis or other respiratory disorder associated with exposure to cotton dust. Thus the prevalence of byssinosis in the present study may actually be higher than the estimated figure.
The incidence of byssinosis reported previously by various Indian observers is summarized in table no: 4 for comparison. Results of present study, almost agrees with these figures. However, Parikh has reported a higher incidence of byssinosis in their Ahamedabad mill study (Parikh, 1969). Evidences provided by various researchers suggest that byssinosis and other respiratory symptoms are more prevalent among smokers compared to non smokers (NIOSH, 1994). In our study we have observed all the workers suffering from one or other type of respiratory disorders are smokers. There are reports that smoking habit does not determine the incidence of byssinosis or other respiratory symptoms in cotton mill workers. These workers suggested that cotton dust has more powerful independent effect that smoking (Fox, 1973). However in our study, numbers of non smokers among workers were very less. The various lung function parameters like FVC, FEV1, FEV1% and PEFR showed a significant decrease in workers in comparison to control. The decrease of these parameters was more pronounced in workers who are directly exposed to cotton dust than the workers who are not directly exposed. Various researchers all over the world have observed such decline in lung function due to exposure to cotton, hemp or other dust. Gandevia reported that there is a decline in FEV1 in workers at the beginning of the week and that continues through out the week (Gandevia, 1965). However, this decrease is more pronounced in exposed group which reveals the fact that age is not the only factor responsible for such decline. These findings are in agreement with the reports of other workers who have reported age related decline in lung functions in all individuals. In our study we have observed fall in PEFR along with FVC and FEV1. PEFR in our study showed a good correlation with FEV1 showing linear fall with age; more in the exposed group than the control group. The studies using PEFR alone as an index of bronchoconstrictor response have not been reported. The present study showed that the values of PEFR were significantly lower in byssinotics. This is in agreement with the reports at other centers (Mc Kerrow, 1958). In our study we have observed a decline in all the respiratory parameters at the end of the shift in comparison to that recorded at the beginning of the shift.a Ginning factory in Bijapur were screened for presence of cotton dust induced respiratory disorders. Various pulmonary function parameters (FVC, FEV1, FEV1% and PEFR) were recording in them before and after shift and compared with age matched control subjects of similar socioeconomic group. The prevalence of byssinosis was found to be 8.95% among workers directly exposed to cotton dust. Prevalence of their respiratory symptoms among these workers is as follows: chronic cough (19.40%), chronic phlegm (7.46%), and chronic bronchitis (11.94%). The prevalence of byssinosis and other respiratory symptoms increased with increase in duration of exposure and advancement of age. It can be concluded from the present study exposure to cotton dust results in decreases in pulmonary function parameters in worker at both dusty and non-dusty section of mill, which may result in onset of various respiratory disorders. These affects increase with time in duration of exposure and advancement of age. Smoking adds to the deleterious effect of cotton dust in causing respiratory disorders among workers in cotton mill.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1978http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19781. National Institute for Occupational Safty and Health Administration. NIOSH packet guide to chemical hazards DHHS (NIOSH) Publ.1994:Washington,D.C 94-116.
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6. J R Parikh, L J Bhagia, P K Majumdar, A R Shah, and S K Kashyap. Prevalence of byssinosis in textile mills at Ahmedabad, India. Br J Ind Med. Nov-1989; 46(11): 787–790.
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9. Molyneux MKB, Tombleson JBL. ?An epidemiological study of respiratory symptoms in Lancashire mills?. Br J Ind Med.: 1963- :27:225-34.
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