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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesDETRENDED FLUCTUATION ANALYSIS OF CYCLONIC DISTURBANCE OVER THE NORTH INDIAN
OCEAN
English0609R.Samuel SelvarajEnglish R.UmaEnglishTropical cyclones are among the most destructive natural disasters of the world. The long coastline of peninsular India is frequently affected by cyclonic storms originating in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea resulting in loss of life and property in the affected region. Hence there is a need for prediction and forecasting methods for minimizing the disastrous effects of tropical cyclones. The time series data of the annual cyclonic disturbance records (for the time period 1901 - 2004) over the North Indian Ocean (comprising of Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea) has been analyzed. It is found that the behavior of the cyclonic intensity exhibits perfect power law behavior. Local changes of scaling exponents are examined. It is found that the calculated scaling exponent is larger than 0.5 indicating that cyclonic disturbance data have long-range correlations.
EnglishDetrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA), north Indian Ocean, cyclone, power law, long-term correlation, etc.INTRODUCTION
Tropical cyclones are primarily products of the long-term characteristics of the tropical general circulation of the atmosphere. Their annual frequency of occurrence over the globe is quite steady. About 80 tropical cyclones with wind speeds equal to or greater than 34 knots form in the world‘s waters every year (McBridge, J. L., 1995). Of these about 6.5% develop in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea (Neumann, C. J., 1993).Tropical cyclones over the Bay of Bengal are generally higher both in terms of their frequency and intensity. The share of Bay of Bengal comes out to be 5.5%. The principal damaging forces associated with tropical cyclone that has impacts on people and environment are the strong and violent winds, high seas and storm surge and flooding caused by heavy rain. Out of these three destructive elements a sudden rise in sea level which is termed as ?Storm surge‘ is responsible for nearly 90% of loss of life and property in the case of tropical cyclonic disasters. The periodicity of the tropical cyclones from 1890 to 1969 was studied by Raghavendra (1973) and found that the annual frequency to have a trend of 30 to 45 years. Rao and Jayaraman (1958) have analyzed the frequency data of tropical cyclones for the period of 1890-1955 employing statistical methods but found to have no trend. Prediction of the frequency of Tropical cyclones over the Oceanic region are very important as they would be helpful for both short term and long term planners towards disaster mitigation. Orun, M. and Koçak, K. (2009) used Detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) to calculate scaling exponent of daily mean temperature, daily maximum temperature, daily minimum temperature and daily temperature differences for 52 stations in Turkey. The Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) technique was introduced to investigate long-range power-law correlations. J. Alvarez-Ramirez et al. (2008) proposed an extension of the R/S method to estimate the Hurst exponent of high dimensional fractals and also commented that due to the simplicity in implementation, the DFA is now becoming a widely used method in physics and engineering. A. Sarkar and P. Barat (2005) investigated long time series of the rainfall records for All India and different regions of India and succeeded in finding evidence for power law distributions of the rainfall quantity. Peters et. al. (2002) has presented a power law behavior in the distribution of rainfall over at least four decades. In this paper, an attempt is being made to calculate the scaling exponent using the Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) for the cyclonic disturbances over the north Indian Ocean.
MATERIAL AND METHODS The Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) technique is used to calculate the scaling exponent for the cyclonic disturbance includes depression, cyclonic storm and severe cyclonic storm over the north Indian Ocean for the period from 1901 to 2004. The first step in the Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) procedure is to calculate the time series x(i) of length N.
k Y (k) = Σ [x(i) - ]
i=1
Here x indicates the mean value of x(i) ‘s. Next, the profile Y(k) is divided into N [N / n] n which is the non overlapping segments of equal length n . In the next step, the local trend for each segment is calculated by a least square fit of the data. The ycoordinate of the fitted line is denoted by Y (k)n. Then the Detrended time series for the segment duration ?n‘ as Ys (k) =Y(k) -Yn (k). The root-mean square fluctuation of the original time series and the Detrended time series is calculated by
N F(n) = {[(1/N)∑(Y(k)-Yn(k))2 } 1/2
k=1
By repeating this calculation to all segment sizes, a relationship between F(n) and n is obtained. Finally the double logarithmic plot of F(n) versus n is used to calculate the slope, which gives the scaling exponent β. The value of the scaling component β is interpreted as follows.
(i) if 0 < β < 0.5 then the time series is long-range anti-correlated
(ii) if β > 0.5 then the time series is longrange correlated
(iii) β = 0.5 corresponds to Gaussian white noise
(iv) while β = 1 indicates the 1/ f noise, typical of systems in a Self Organized Criticality (SOC).
Cyclonic disturbance data is obtained from IMD Cyclone E- Atlas. We have considered the annual frequency of cyclonic disturbance over the north Indian Ocean for a period of 104 years (1901- 2004). Table I illustrates the log value of the segment duration ?n‘ and log value of the root-mean square fluctuation of the original time series and the Detrended time series F(n) for the cyclonic storms (including depression, cyclonic storms and severe cyclonic storms) over the north Indian Ocean from 1901-2004. Fig 1 illustrates the number of annual frequency of cyclonic storms (including depressions, cyclonic storms and severe cyclonic storms) over the North Indian Ocean for the period 1901-2004. Fig 2 illustrates the Detrended fluctuation analysis of the cyclonic disturbance data over the north Indian Ocean.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The goal of Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) is to assess the long range correlation of the data involved. The long term time series of the cyclonic disturbance over the north Indian Ocean has been investigated. The value of the scaling exponent β is found to be greater than 0.5. The time series is long-range correlated (Orun, M. and Koçak, K. (2009)). We have found an evidence for power law distributions of the cyclonic behavior over the north Indian Ocean. This supports the view that atmospheric dynamics is governed by self-organized criticality.
CONCLUSION
The scaling exponent for the cyclonic disturbances over the north Indian Ocean for the period from 1901 to 2004 is calculated using the Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) technique. The value of the scaling exponent β is found to be greater than 0.5. The time series is longrange correlated.
ACKNOWLEDMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of those articles, journals and books from where the literature of this article has been reviewed and discussed
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1919http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19191. Jose Alvarez-Ramirez, Juan C. Echeverria and Eduardo Rodriguez, 2008. Performance of a highdimensional R/S method for Hurst exponent estimation, Physica A 387, 6452–6462.
2. McBride, J. L., 1995. Tropical cyclones in a warmer world, Report, WMO/TD-No. 693, No. TCP-38, WMO, Geneva, pp. 63–105.
3. Neumann, C. J., 1993. Global Overview - Chapter 1, Global Guide to Tropical Cyclone Forecasting, WMO / TC-No. 560, Report No. TCP-31, World Meteorological Organization; Geneva, Switzerland.
4. Orun, M. and Koçak, K. (2009), Applicat?on of Detrended fluctuation analysis to temperature data from Turkey, International Journal of Climatology, 29, 2130–2136.
5. O. Peters, C. Hertlien, and K. Christensen, (2002). A complexity view of Rainfall, Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 018701, 1-4.
6. Raghavendra, V. K., 1973. A statistical analysis of the number of tropical storms and depressions in the Bay of Bengal during 1890-1969, Ind. J. of Met & Geophys., 24, 125-130.
7. Rao, K. N. and Jayaraman, S., 1958. A statistical study of frequency of depressions/cyclone in the Bay of Bengal, Ind. J. of Geophys., 9, 233- 250.
8. A. Sarkar and P. Barat, 2005. Analysis of Rainfall records in India: Self Organized Criticality and Scaling, cdsweb.cern.ch/record/918484/files/05 12197.pdf
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareTHE EFFECT OF DEEP CRANIO-CERVICAL FLEXOR (DCCF) TRAINING ON SITTING POSTURE IN CHRONIC NECK PAIN
English1018Dharti HingarajiaEnglishTitle: The effect of deep cranio-cervical flexor (DCCF) training on sitting posture in chronic neck pain Objectives : The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a low load DCCF training program is effective in control of sitting posture over conventional Isometric neck Exercise (INE) in subjects with chronic neck pain. Methods: Fifty female students with chronic non-severe neck pain were randomized into experimental or control group: a low load DCCF training plus conventional INE or only conventional INE respectively for 4-week exercise program. The outcome measure was control of sitting posture during 10min computer task and VAS for intensity of neck pain Results: At the end of 4th week follow-up assessment, the experimental group revealed asignificant impr ovement in control of sitting posture. Conclusion: A low load DCCF training is effective in control of sitting posture compared to isometric neck exercise in subjects with chronic non-severe neck pain.
EnglishDCCF, Isometric Neck Exercises, Sitting Posture, Chronic neck painINTRODUCTION
Neck pain is relatively common complaints, especially with the inherent prolonged sedentary postures at study, work and at home.1 Chronic cervical spine disease is becoming increasingly prevalent in society. Estimations indicate that 67% of individuals will suffer neck pain at some stage of life.2 Neck pain tends to be a persistent and recurrent disorder, and up to 60% of persons can expect some degree of ongoing pain for many years following their first episode of neck pain.3 The overall prevalence of all types of chronic neck pain is higher in females. Almost every other woman, 48% have neck pain.4 Poor neck posture has been suggested to be a most common cause of chronic neck pain in younger age group, as trauma or severe degenerative conditions are found only in a few cases. Neck pain can be because of poor posture at work or study, such as leaning into computer, and during hobbies, such as hunching over workbench.5,6 Evidence is emerging that suggests that people with neck pain drift into more forward head posture (FHP) when distracted, 7 FHP is considered to be inefficient, increasing the antigravity load on the cervical structures instigating abnormal and compensatory activity by them and resulting in pain.8 FHP is a clinical entity that has been identified by multiple authors as a significant factor in a variety of musculoskeletal pain syndromes and also with significant musculoskeletal consequences. 9, 10, 11 The DCCF (longus colli and longus capitis) muscles have a major postural function in supporting and straightening the cervical lordosis and in maintenance of normal RHP 12,13 Recent studies have identified poor endurance and impaired activation of the DCCF muscles in people with neck pain.14,15,16,17 Evidences are available to prove the effect of different exercises and modalities to reduce pain and disability and improve muscle strength. Although static forward head posture is a common cause of chronic neck pain in younger age group at school, college and at work, very few studies carried out to evaluate the effect of exercise on posture maintenance. Among them Falla D et al, 2007 found that following intervention with an exercise program targeted at retraining the DCCF muscles, subjects with chronic neck pain demonstrated improved ability to maintain a neutral cervical posture during prolonged sitting. They compared low load DCCF training with endurance strength training for cervical flexors as a whole for maintenance of sitting posture.18 Isometric neck exercise (INE) is commonly prescribed by physiotherapists for chronic neck pain, the effectiveness of isometric neck exercise on pain and disability has been proved previously, 19 but there is no data available that this training is effective to maintain sitting posture. There is no sufficient data available to check effectiveness of low load DCCF training over INE on sitting posture. So there was need to study whether specific training of the DCCF muscles is required in rehabilitation or a more general NIE was sufficient to improve control of sitting posture in people with chronic neck pain.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This study was an Experimental study, conducted at the College of Physiotherapy, Anand. The experimental procedure was ethically revised and approved by the Research and Ethical committee of College of Physiotherapy, Anand. (Annexure-1).
This study constitutes the double blinded randomized controlled trial devoted to analyze the effectiveness of the low load craniocervical flexor training on sitting posture in people with chronic neck pain. Sample size of the study was 50. 25 subjects being in each group after randomization with age between 15 to 30 years. The study population covers the female students of College of Physiotherapy, Anand and were recruited according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria mentioned below.
Inclusion criteria:
1. Subjects with a history of chronic (between 3 months to 5 years), non severe (≤7cm on VAS) neck pain.
2. Only female students of college of physiotherapy, Anand.
3. The subjects who scored ≤15 (out of possible 50) on Neck Disability Index (NDI).
Exclusion criteria:
1. Subjects having significant history related to cervical spine i.e. trauma, surgery, any congenital deformity or neurological signs.
2. Subjects who participated in a neck exercise program in the past 12 months.
After meeting suitable criteria, the written informed consent (Annexure-2) was obtained from each subject after explaining the details of various non-invasive tests and training to be conducted and baseline measures had been measured before allocating them into two groups.
Outcome measures:
1. Sitting posture analysis:
Subjects were positioned in front of the computer in sitting with their knees in 90 degrees of flexion and their feet flat on the ground. A plumb line was positioned in the background. The starting position was standardized by placing the subject in an upright posture, which was defined as a vertical pelvic position (no anterior or no posterior tilt) with the assumption of a lumbar lordosis and thoracic kyphosis. (Figure-1A) Subjects were asked to maintain the position while they were distracted by playing the game of solitaire on the computer for 10minutes. Subjects used the mouse with their right hand and the left hand rested motionless on the desk in front of them.
Cervical and thoracic posture was measured at the beginning and at the end of the 10 minute computer task from a lateral photograph taken with a digital camera (Canon Digital IXUS 1600×1200 pixels) positioned on a tripod at a distance of 0.8 m. the axis of the lens of the camera was placed orthogonal to the sagittal plane of the patient at a height that corresponded with the seventh cervical vertebra. Markers were positioned on the tragus of the ear and spinous processes of the seventh cervical and seventh thoracic vertebrae. (Figure-1B). The digital technique used to quantify angular displacement in this study has been previously described. The technique has been shown to produce reliable angular measurements (intra class correlation coefficient [ICC] (2, 2) > .93) and the criterion validity of the technique has been established when compared to the universal goniometer by no significant mean absolute difference between the 2 measurement techniques. The angle of forward head posture was measured from a line drawn from the tragus of the ear to the seventh cervical vertebra subtended to the horizontal. The software produced a horizontal line perpendicular to the vertical plumb line captured in the background of the image. Thoracic posture was calculated as the angle between the horizontal line and a line drawn between the seventh cervical spinous process and the seventh thoracic spinous process.(figure-1C) Changes in angles from an erect starting posture (time 0) to the angles measured after 10-minute task were calculated and expressed relative to the angle at time0.
2. Pain Intesity was measured by using Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and subjects were asked to tick their perceived pain intensity at that moment.
Following baseline measurements, the subjects with chronic neck pain were randomized into experimental and control groups: a training regimen of the deep craniocervical flexor muscle training plus neck isometric exercise regimen and only neck isometric exercise regimen respectively. The allocation sequence was generated by using 2×2 random table; the progression of subjects through the exercise trial is illustrated below. (Figure-2)
Exercise Regimens: The exercise regimen was conducted over a 4- week period and subjects in each group received personal instruction and supervision by an experienced physical therapist twice per week for the duration of the trial. None of the exercise sessions were longer than 30 minutes. Subjects were asked not to receive any other specific intervention for their neck pain. All subjects were requested to practice their respective regimen twice per day for the duration of the task. The exercises were performed without any provocation of neck pain.
Training of the deep craniocervical flexor muscles followed the protocol described, by Jull et al. The exercise targets the deep flexor muscles of the upper cervical region, the longus capitis and longus colli muscles, rather than the superficial flexor muscles, the sternocleidomastoid and anterior scalene, which flex the neck but not the head. In addition, the exercise is a low-load exercise in nature to more specifically train the deep cervical flexors, rather than the neck flexors as a whole, which occurs in a head lift exercise. The exercise used a roll of towel which was placed suboccipitally to monitor the subtle flattening of the cervical lordosis that occurs with the contraction of the longus colli muscle. Subjects were instructed to "gently nod their head as though they were saying 'yes'." The physical therapist identified the target level that the subject could hold steadily for 10 seconds without resorting to retraction, without dominant use of the superficial neck flexor muscles, and without a quick, jerky craniocervical flexion movement. Contribution from the superficial muscles was monitored by the physical therapist in all stages of the training using palpation (Figure-3) Training was commenced at the level which the subject could achieve with a correct movement of craniocervical flexion and without dominant use or substitution by the superficial muscles (sternocleidomastoid, hyoid, and anterior scalene muscles). The subjects were taught to perform a slow and controlled craniocervical flexion action. They then trained to be able to sustain progressively increasing ranges of craniocervical flexion. At each level patient asked to perform 3 sessions of 10 repitions with 10 seconds hold with the 1min rest between the sessions.
Neck – isometric exercise regimen: In upright sitting position subject was asked to perform a single series of 15 repetitions with 10 seconds hold of isometric exercises for cervical flexors, extensors and left and right side flexors (Figure-4 A,B,C and D). Resistance provided at right angle from the plan of the movement by the therapist‘s one hand placed on forehead for flexion, back of the head for extension and on the sides of the head, just above the ear for side flexions. Patient was asked to place their own hand instead of therapist for home exercise. Resistance applied was judged and progressed every weekly according to patient capacity.
Both the outcome measures were assessed in the week immediately after the 4-week intervention period for both the groups.
STATISTICAL METHODS
Of the 50 participants with neck pain who participated in the study, none were lost to follow up assessment at the end of the study. All participants in the experimental group and control group received the full 8 treatments and performed their respective exercise at home twice daily, measured by home exercise record diary. No patients reported any adverse events. Unpaired t tests were used to find out homogeneity of two groups for all the parameters at baseline and to compare the outcome measurement data between two groups after 4-week intervention. Paired t tests were conducted to determine whether sitting posture (cervical and thoracic angle) and Pain intensity (VAS) were significantly different before and after the intervention. Each calculated t-value is compared with ttable value to test one tailed hypothesis at 0.005 level of significance. Data analysis software SPSS 13.0 version has been used for the data analysis of the present study.
Subject‘s descriptive data is presented in table- 1. All the descriptive data for both the experimental and control groups were homogenous for all possible confounding factors at baseline. There were no co-relation found between these parameters and cervical and thoracic angle at baseline and at the end of the study. After 4-week intervention program both the groups showed significant reduction in change of cervical and thoracic angle during 10min computer task compared with pre-intervention measurement. However after intervention the experimental group showed significantly higher reduction in change of cervical and thoracic angle during 10min computer task compared with the control group. (Table-2)
After 4-week intervention program both the groups showed statistical significant reduction in pain intensity. Mean± S.D of intensity of pain (VAS) preintervention for experimental group was 4.05±1.3 and for Control group was 4.3±1.5.
DISCUSSION
Following a 4-week intervention with either DCCF training plus INE or only INE, the participants with neck pain improved their ability to maintain an upright posture of the cervical and thoracic spine however; the group who received additional specific training targeting DCCF muscle has significantly more improvement than that of the only INE group subjects. DCCF training involves performing and holding inner range positions of craniocervical flexion, the anatomical action of the deep cervical flexor muscles. This training has been shown to increase the activation of these muscles.20 The improved ability to maintain an upright position of the cervical and thoracic spine, which was observed for the experimental group, is a direct reflection of an improved endurance of the DCCF muscles, which was also increased in this group. This improvement occurred even though there was no exercise instruction on postural correction in sitting. This finding supports that inadequate control of the head in prolonged sitting may be a functional correlate of deep cervical muscle impairment. Moreover, craniocervical flexion directly activates the deep cervical flexor musculature, 21,22 which have a relatively high density of muscle spindles.18 Improved cervical kinesthetic sense following craniocervical flexor training23 also may explain the improved ability to maintain an upright position of the cervical spine. It is notable that the only INE regimen did not influence postural parameters of the cervical and thoracic spine. Although there is some evidence to suggest that an strength regimen for the neck flexor muscles reduces neck pain,18,40,41 improves strength, 18,41 and reduces fatigue of the sternocleidomastoid and anterior scalene muscles,18 it does not appear to improve the ability to maintain an upright posture of the cervical and thoracic spine in a sitting task. Sitting posture and DCCF endurance is directly related but no relationship was found between sitting posture and strength of DCCF. Only INE improved the strength of the cervical muscles while DCCF training improved the endurance of DCCF muscles and hence the sitting posture as the DCCF have a predominantly stabilizing role providing a holding mechanism to maintain balance and stability for the head. The maintenance of cervical and thoracic postural angle with the craniocervical flexor training during the 10-minute distraction task reached statistical significance when compared with the only INE regimen. The magnitude of change in cervical and thoracic posture during 10min computer task following craniocervical flexion training is similar to the magnitude of difference observed in the asymptomatic subjects in previous study.44, 64 .
CONCLUSION
This study concluded that following intervention with an exercise program targeted at retraining the deep craniocervical flexor muscles and isometric neck exercise, subjects with chronic neck pain demonstrated improved ability to maintain a neutral cervical and thoracic posture during sitting compared with only isometric neck exercise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
There are no words to gratitude sufficient enough to thank my honorable guide Prof. C.G. Padole, Principal, College of physiotherapy, Anand, who inspired me to undertake study related to postural problem in chronic neck pain and helped me choose such a valuable topic for my dissertation. He was always willing to answer all my questions through out my study, without his direction, support and encouragement this work would not have been possible. I am thankful to ?Research Ethical Committee? of College of physiotherapy, Anand, for granting me permission to commence on the thesis. I am also thankful to my institute to providing me an opportunity to carry out research on the students who suffer from chronic neck pain and providing internet excess. I am greatly thankful to all the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. I am also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. My heartfelt thanks are due to my parents for supporting and encouraging me to pursue this work, their encouragement and love supported me throughout the study. Last but not the least I am thankful to all my subjects who participated with full cooperation and showed voluntary interest, without them this study would not have been possible. Finally I am thankful to all those who directly or indirectly contributed to this study.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1920http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19201. Jull G: Diagnosis of cervical disorders: exploring a mechanistic approach: Hong Kong. Phys. J. 2004; 22:2-6.
2. Côté P, Cassidy J D, Caroll L, Kristman V. The annual incidence and course of neck pain in the general population: a population-based cohort study. Pain 2004; 112: 267-273
3. Gore D, Sepic S, Gardner G, et al. Neck pain: a long-term follow-up of 205 patients. Spine 1987;12:1–5.
4. Michel G., Christer H. et al; ?The prevalence of neck pain-A populationbased study; Acta Orthop Scand 2002; 73 (4): 455–459
5. Fichground JS. Neck Pain. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Monograph Series 27. 2004.
6. Greigel Morris P, Larson K, Mueller Klaus K et al. Incidence of common postural abnormalities with pain in two age groups of healthy subjects. Phys Ther, 1992:72, 6:425-431
7. Szeto GP, Straker LM, O'Sullivan PB. A comparison of symptomatic and asymptomatic office workers performing monotonous keyboard work, 2: neck and shoulder kinematics. Man Ther. 2005;10: 281-291
8. Janda V. Muscle and cervicogenic pain syndromes. In:Grant R.Physical therapy for cervical and thoracic spine.2ed.clinics in Physical Therapy. Vol.17,1988. Churchill Livingstone Inc. p195-216
9. Braun BL. Postural differences between asymptomatic men and women and craniofacial patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabill,1991: 72:653-6
10. Hertling D, Kessler RM. Management of common musculoskeletal disorders, Physical Therapy Principles and Methods. 3ed, 1996. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins
11. Hanten WP, Olsen SL, Russell JL et al. Total head Excursion and Resting Head Posture – normal and patient comparisons. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 2000:62-6
12. Mayoux-Benhamou MA, Revel M, Vallee C, et al. Longus colli has a postural function on cervical curvature. Surg Radiol Anat. 1994;16:367-371.
13. Vasavada AN, Li S, Delp SL. Influence of muscle morphometry and moment arms on the moment-generating capacity of human neck muscles. Spine. 1998;23: 412-422.
14. Falla DL, Jull GA, Hodges PW. Patients with neck pain demonstrate reduced electromyographic activity of the deep cervical flexor muscles during performance of the craniocervical flexion test. Spine. 2004;29:2108-2114.
15. Falla D, Jull G, Hodges PW. Feed-forward activity of the cervical flexor muscles during voluntary arm movements is delayed in chronic neck pain. Exp Brain Res. 2004; 157:43-48.
16. Darnell MW. A proposed chronology of events for forward head posture. J craniomandibular Pract, 1983: 1: 50-4.
17. Gelb H. new concept in craniomandibular and chronic pain management. 1ed, 1994. Times mirror international Publishers Ltd, Mosby – Wolfe
18. Falla D, full G, Russell T, et al. Effect of neck exercise on sitting posture in patients with chronic neck pain. Phys Ther. 2007;87: 408-417
19. Jari Ylinen, Esa-Pekka Takala, Matti Nykänen, et al; Active Neck Muscle Training in the Treatment of Chronic Neck Pain in Women JAMA. 2003;289:2509-2516
20. Jull G, Falla D, Hodges P, et al. Cervical flexor muscle retraining: physiological mechanisms of efficacy. Paper presented at: 2nd International Conference on Movement Dysfunction; September 23-25, 2005; Edinburgh, Scotland.
21. Falla D, Bilenkij G, Jull G. Patients with chronic neck pain demonstrate altered patterns of muscle activation during performance of a functional upper limb task. Spine. 2004;29:1436-1440.
22. Falla D, Jull G, Dall' Alba P, et al. An electromyographic analysis of the deep cervical flexor muscles during craniocervical flexion. Phys Ther. 2003;83:899-906.
23. Jull G, Falla D, Treleaven J, et al. Retraining cervical joint position sense: The effect of two exercise regimes. J Orthop Res. 2006 Dec1
24. Grimmer K. The relationship between cervical resting posture and neck pain. Physiotherapy. 1996;82:45-51.
25. Jull G, Barrett C, Magee R, Ho P. Further clinical clarification of the muscle dysfunction in cervical headache. Cephalalgia 1999;19(3):179–85.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareROLE OF PHYTOMEDICINE AGAINST DENTAL PLAQUE IN FIXED ORTHODONTIC APPLIANCES (FOA)
TREATMENT- A LITERATURE REVIEW
English1931Aravind Kumar.S English Lakshmi.TEnglish Arun A.VEnglishOral diseases such as Dental caries /plaque and Periodontal diseases are caused by micro organisms belonging to the resident micro flora rather than by classic microbial pathogens. They are caused by the ecological imbalance in oral bio films. In clinical studies, an increasing incidence of incipient carious lesions and generalized gingival inflammation have been found in patients undergoing fixed orthodontic appliance. Oral microbial flora is dominated by gram positive micro organisms and hence dental plaque which is formed on the tooth surface contains gram positive cocci and bacilli. Oral health also influences the general quality of life and poor oral health is linked to chronic conditions and systemic diseases. The association between oral diseases and the oral microbiota is well established. Acidogenic bacteria like Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sobrinus, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus intermedius, Streptococcus anginosus, Lactobacillus acidophilus, streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus sanguis is an potent initiator that causes dental caries/plaques in the Patients receiving fixed appliances in the orthodontic treatment . These dental plaques are more difficult to be removed in the fixed appliances patients. Hence, in our present article, natural products like Acacia catechu willd, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Achillea millifolium, Aesculus hippocastanum, Anacardium occidentale and Eremophila Longifolia that inhibit the growth of oral pathogens, reduce the development of biofilms and dental plaque in orthodontic patients with fixed appliances is reviewed
extensively.
EnglishDental plaque, fixed appliances, orthodontic patients, phytomedicine, remedy.INTRODUCTION
Dental plaque, the biofilm that forms on the surface of teeth, can induce some of the most common diseases affecting mankind, which includes caries, gingivitis, and periodontitis.1 A healthy mouth is a premise of overall health. The oral cavity can be a mirror image of other areas of the body and many systemic illnesses are manifested in the soft tissues of oral mucosa of the mouth. When oral health is compromised, over all health can be affected 2 .The oral cavity provides a habitat for a diverse range of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. These microorganisms colonize various surface in the mouth, including the cheeks, tongue, palate and teeth. Under certain circumstances, the acidogenic bacteria may cause diseases of the oral cavity, although this usually only occurs when there is a break in, or loss of, maintenance of oral hygiene3 . Loss of oral hygiene may lead quickly to the development of oral diseases or conditions such as gingivitis, halitosis , dental plaque, dental calculus, dental caries and periodontitis. More severe outcomes of poor oral hygiene include the loss of teeth and/or bone.4.
Oral cavity is a complex ecosystem with higly divergent acid tolerant and acid-producing microbiota.acidogenic oral microbes is the key factor of Dental plaques.the primary acid tolerant bacteria associated with Dental plaque includes streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus oralis streptococcus sobrinus,Lactobacillus acidophilus, streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus sanguis ,Streptococcus intermedius, Streptococcus anginosus that surround orthodontic appliances are a common orthodontic problem in many patients undergoing Orthodontic treatment. 5-9 Such bacteria can lead to tooth enamel breakdown and potential discoloration of the tooth surface, and these aesthetic changes can persist for many years after orthodontic treatment. While the newer bonded orthodontic brackets have many advantages over the old metal bands that were fitted around each tooth, they do impede good oral hygiene, resulting in plaque accumulation and increased tooth enamel breakdown. It also has been reported thet presence of fixed orthodontic appliance greatly inhibitis oral hygiene and creates new retentive areas for plaque and debris 10 ,which in turn predisposes to increased carriage of microbes and subsequent infection .Therefore, prevention of bacterial attachment to orthodontic wires is a critical concern for orthodontists11-12 . Several literature review proves that plants as intact crude organs and their products (e.g., powdered plants, extracts, etc) have been widely used by different cultures to promote oral hygiene since antiquity13 . Hence, our present review is an attempt to generate interest among the people regarding the potential of the natural herbs like Acacia catechu willd, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Achillea millifolium, Aesculus hippocastanum, Anacardium occidentale and Eremophila Longifolia against acidogenic oral microbes in preventing and treating the Dental plaques in orthodontic patients with fixed Applainces.
PHYTOMEDICINE EFFECTIVE AGAINST DENTAL PLAQUE
Acacia catechu willd Family –Fabacea, Sub family- Mimosoideae. Parts used: Leaf, Bark, Heartwood. Pharmacological activity Acacia Catechu willd also known as Black cutch has a diverse pharmacological actions and has been widely used in traditional medicinal system to treat various diseases. The main chemical constituents of Acacia Catechu are catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate, phloroglucin, protocatechuic acid, quercetin, poriferasterol glucosides, lupenone, procyanidin, kaemferol, L-arabinose, D- galactose.D-rhamnose andaldobiuronic acid, afzelchin gum, mineral and taxifolin. 14, 15-19 Acacia catechu is highly valuable for its powerful astringent and antioxidant activities. It is commonly known as Katha which is an indispensable ingredient of Pan that is betal leaf preparation chewed in India. It is useful in dental, oral, throat infections and also as an astringent for reducing oozing from chronic ulcers and wounds. The concentrated aqueous extract known as Khair gum or cutch is an astringent, cooling and digestive, beneficial in cough and diarrhea. The extracts of Acacia catechu exhibits various pharmacological effects like antipyretic, antiinflammatory, anti diarrhoeal, hypoglycaemic, hepatoprotective, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. 14, 20-31, 33, 34 Acacia catechu is useful as a topical agent for sore gums and mouth ulcers.32
Role of Acacia catechu willd against Dental plaque
Pawar et -al explained a dentifrice / herbal tooth powder comprised of Acacia catechu, Menthol and camphor in the proportion 91%, 2.7% and 6.3% respectively. In his study it was proved that the powder of Acacia catechu was used to remove tarter, plaque, and stain and in cleansing and polishing tooth surface without producing any abrasion whereas menthol and camphor were used as flavouring agents. A clinical study on this herbal dentifrice , reported 87-95%, 70- 72% and 80-95% reductions in plaque, gingivitis and dental calculus respectively, in about 15 days of treatment. 35 Acacia catechu heartwood extract is found to be an effective antibacterial agent. A study conducted by Lakshmi.T and co workers in ethanolic and aqueous heartwood extract of Acacia catechu, proved its efficacy as a potent anti bacterial agent. Taxifolin present in heartwood of Acacia catechu is found to be responsible for its Anti bacterial effect.19 Similar study was conducted by Geetha and co workers evaluated the potency of Acacia catechu heartwood extract against dental caries causing microbes and organism associated with endodontic infections like streptococcus mutans, streptococcus salivarius, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Enterococcus faecalis using disc diffusion method.20 Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus acidophilus are potent initiator for dental plaques that results in destruction of mineralised tissues in the teeth . Hence the study suggests Acacia catechu heartwood extract is higly active on oro dental pathogens and can be applied in Dental practice for periodontal patients and Orthodontic fixed appliances patients to eradicate dental plaques, gingivitis, mouth sores and it is also applied in Endodontal treatment as Enterococcus faecalis is found to be the root cause of failure in Root Canal Treatment(RCT).
Glycyrrhiza glabra(Liquorice Root)
Family : Fabaceae/Papilionaceae
Parts Used: Root, rhizomes (powder, teas, tonics, extracts, tinctures and decoctions)
Pharmacological activity Glycyrrhiza glabra, also known as Liquoirice and sweet wood, is native to the Mediterranean and certain areas of Asia. Liquorice(Glycyrrhiza glabra), is a perennial herb which possesses sweet taste 36 Liquorice has extensive pharmacological effects for human being. liquorice is used for treating upper respiratory ailments including cough, hoarseness, sore throat and bronchitis.37,38
Liquorice extracts have been used to treat chronic hepatitis, and also have therapeutic benefit against other viruses, including human immunodeficiency virus , cytomegalovirus , and Herpes simplex. Deglycyrrhizinated liquoirice preparations are useful in treating various types of ulcers, while topical liquoirice preparations have been used to sooth and heal skin eruptions, such as psoriasis and herpetic lesions.It is used in Respiratory and digestive disorders 39 . It is also considered as anti stress and anabolic agent. Glycyrrhiza Glabra constituents possess significant antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties. Glycyrrhizin and glabridin inhibit the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by neutrophils at the site of inflammation. 40, 41 Studies also show liquoirice constituents to be effective in the treatment of eczema, 42 melasma, 43eosinophilic peritonitis, 44 postural hypotension, 45 erosive gastritis, 46and as antimalarial 47 and anti-Leishmanial agents.
Role of Glycyrrhiza glabra against Dental plaque
Manoj et al determined the antibacterial activities of Glycyrrhiza Glabra root extract in ether, chloroform, acetone on bacteria using the agar well diffusion method. The extracts showed significant antibacterial activities against two gram positive(Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) and two gram-negative (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ) bacteria.The study concluded that It can be used in the folk medicine at different parts of the world to treat many diseases including bacterial infections.49 Jian HE et al found that liquorice exhibits potent antimicrobial activity against streptococcus mutans and are now being used in lollipops to reduce caries/plaques.50 Dhanya kumar N.M and Preena sidhu proved the antimicrobial activity of Neem, Liquorice, Cinnamon,Clove and babool against Streptococcus mutans and Enterococcus faecalis .In their study it was concluded that babool and Liquorice ethanolic extract exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against streptococcus mutans an cariogenic pathogen. They suggest thatLiquorice and babool extract is beneficial against Dental caries/plaques caused by Streptococcus mutans. 51 Hence the available data suggest that Glycyrrizha glabra extract is effective against oral microbes and it can also be applied in Dental practice to treat Dental caries/plaques in periodontal patients and orthodontic fixed appliance patients where the dental plaques are difficult to be removed.it can be applied in Endodontic patients where root canal failure is major problem caused by Enterococcus faecalis.
Achillea Millifolium
Family :
Asteraceae Subfamily : Asteroideae.
Parts used :Flower, Leaf and Stem
Pharmacological activity
Yarrow, ,is closely related to chrysanthemums and chamomile. yarrow (Achillea millefolium) was named after Achilles, the Greek mythical figure who used it to stop the bleeding wounds of his soldiers. Decoctions have been used to treat inflammations, such as hemorrhoids, and headaches. The medicinally active part of the plant is the flowering tops.52 The flowers are used to treat various allergic mucus problems, including hay fever the dark blue essential oil, extracted by steam distillation of the flowers, is generally used as an antiinflammatory 53or in chest rubs for colds and influenza. The leaves encourage clotting, so it can be used fresh for nosebleeds.54 The aerial parts of the plant are used for phlegm conditions, as a bitter digestive tonic to encourage bile flow, and as a diuretic.55 aerial parts act as a tonic for the blood, stimulate the circulation, and can be used for high blood pressure. It has analgesic 56,57 amenorrhea, antiphlogistic,58,59 anti-inflammatory agent, used to control bleeding, blood clots, blood pressure , blood purifier, blood vessels , colds, chicken pox, circulation, cystitis, diabetes treatment, gastro-intestinal disorders 60, choleretic 61 dyspepsia, eczema, fevers, flu's, gastritis, glandular system, gum ailments, heartbeat , influenza, insect repellant,inflammation62 , emmenagogue63, internal bleeding, liver , lungs, measles, menses , menorrhagia, menstruation , nipples , nosebleeds, piles (bleeding), smallpox,stomach sickness, toothache, thrombosis, ulcers, urinary antiseptic, uterus (tighten and contract), gastroprotective agent64 varicose veins, vision, it may also reduce autoimmune responses.
Role of Achillea Millifolium against Dental Plaque
G. A. Van der Weijden et al evaluated in vitro inhibiting effect of a herbal extract mixture on a selected number of micro-organisms and did in vivo study related to effect of a mouthwash containing 6.3 mg/ml herbal extract mixture on plaque and gingivitis as compared to a negative control mouthrinse. The herbal extract was a mixture of: Juniperus communis (juniper), Urtica dioca (nettle), Achillaea millefolium (yarrow); 1:1:1. The in vitro analysis reveals that streptococcus mitis found susceptible with MIC value of 1mg/ml when compared to other bacterial strains. Based on in-vivo study, 45 volunteers were selected on the basis of having moderate gingival inflammation. As efficacy parameters the plaque index, modified gingival index and angulated bleeding index were assessed. In conclusion, his data suggest that the mixture of the 3 herbal extracts, Juniperus communis, Urtica dioca and Achillaea millefolium when used in a mouthrinse has no effect on plaque growth and gingival health. invitro data also provides weak Antibacterial activity but Streptococcus mitis which is an initiator for dental plaques showed significant Antibacterial activity against Juniperus communis, Urtica dioca and Achillaea millefolium.65 Beukes an orthodontist conducted an invitro study on eight medicinal plants including Achillea millifolium (Acetone,ethanolic,hexane form of extract).The control treatments were chlorhexidine and fluoride.in his study he concluded that Achilla millifolium Acetone extract exhibited low MIC value comparitively to other herbal extracts tested against acidogenic oral bacteria.66
Allium sativum Family : Alliaceae Subfamily ; Allioideae Parts used : Plant‘s Bulb, Garlic Cloves Pharmacological activity Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion genus, Allium. It has been used throughout its history for both culinary and medicinal purposes. The garlic plant's bulb is the most commonly used part .Garlic cloves are used for consumption or for medicinal purposes. Allium sativum has been found to reduce platelet aggregation 67and hyperlipidemia.68It is also an anti-diabetic agent 69 When crushed, Allium sativum yields allicin, an antibiotic70and antifungal compound It also contains the sulfur-containing compounds alliin, ajoene, diallylsulfide, dithiin, S-allylcysteine, and enzymes, B vitamins, proteins, minerals, saponins, flavonoids, and Maillard reaction products, which are not sulfur-containing compounds. Furthermore, a phytoalexin (allixin) was found, a nonsulfur compound with a γ- pyrone skeleton structure with antioxidant effects, antimicrobial effects,71 antitumor promoting effects,72 and neurotrophic effects. Garlic possess diaphoretic, expectorant, antispasmodic, antiseptic,bacteriostatic, antiviral, antihelminthic and hypotensive effects; it is commonly used to treat chronic bronchitis, recurrent upper respiratory tract infections and influenza 73 In Europe and India, garlic remedies are used to treat coughs, colds, hay fever and asthma. Many modern herbalists and folk healers still rely on garlic oil ear drops to heal the pain of a child‘s ear infection. The German Commission E recommends garlic as a supportive dietary measure to lower elevated blood lipids and as a preventive measure for age-dependent vascular changes; it does not note any contraindications74 Role of Allium sativum against Dental plaque The active component of garlic is allicin. It is antibacterial and has immune regulatory functions. Allicin destroys cell wall and cell membrane of root canal bacteria75This is used as irrigant alternative to NaOCl.
Garlic extract inhibits the growth of oral pathogens like streptococcus mutans and porphyromonas gingivalis hence used for management of dental infections in periodontal and Orthodontic Fixed Appliances patients developing dental plaques.76 Despite of its antibacterial action, Allium sativum extract also increases biofilm formation by S.mutans to orthodontic wire, likely through up regulation of glucosyl transferase expression. Garlic extract thus play an important role in increased bacterial attachment to orthodontic wires.77 MM Fani conducted an study based on in vitro inhibitory activity of garlic extract on multidrugresistant (MDR) strains of Streptococcus mutans isolated from human carious teeth. The data obtained in this study indicates that mouthwashes or toothpaste containing optimum concentration of garlic extract could be used for prevention of dental caries/plaques.78
Aesculus Hippocastanum Family : Hippocastanaceae Sub Family : Hippocastanoideae Parts used :Seed Pharmacological activity: Horse chestnut, is believed to be derived from the brown conkers that look similar to chestnuts and because a horseshoe shaped mark ( spots resembling horseshoe nails) is left on the twig when the leaves drop off in autumn.79,80 Anciently, the seed extract was used as a treatment for many ailments, including rheumatism, rectal complaints,81 bladder and gastrointestinal disorders, fever , hemorrhoids ,82 and leg cramps.83 Currently, horse chestnut seed extract (HCSE) is widely used in Europe for chronic venous insufficiency, post-operative edema, and topically for clearing skin conditions. HCSE is as an effective therapy for venous disorders and edema, The primary active constituent found in horse chestnut seed extract is aescin. Aescin is primarily an mixture of triterpene saponins present in two forms, which are distinguished by their water solubility and melting points. Other constituents include bioflavonoids (quercetin and kaempferol),proanthocyanidin A2 (an antioxidant), and the coumarins fraxin and aesculin.84Aescin from HCSE has been shown to possess anti-edematous85,86,87, antiinflammatory88,89 and venotonic properties that may be attributable to decreased vascular permeability.90 Horse chestnut has been used as an analgesic, anticoagulant, antipyretic, astringent, expectorant, and tonic. It has also been used to treat skin ulcers, phlebitis, leg cramps, cough, and diarrhea91 . Role of Aesculus Hippocastanum against Dental plaque Extract of horse chestnut bark (Aesculus hippocastanum) is one of the ingredients that gives Fortifying Mint Toothpaste, Sensitive Orange Tooth Gel for Children und Sage Mouthwash their fortifying effects. It contains aesculin, which firms the gums and has a harmonising influence on the formation and hardening processes within the body. These two opposing tendencies play an important role in the development of the teeth as the tooth grows and requires both forming and hardening 92 . Anitha and coworkers evaluated the Antibacterial efficacy of Aqueous and Ethanolic extract of Aesculus Hippocastanum against oral microbes Causing dental caries/plaque.the bacterial strains used in our study are Streptococcus mutans, streptococcus salivarius,streptococcus mitis ,streptococcus sanguis, Lactobacillus acidophilus .the antibacterial efficacy was significant against streptococcus mutans and streptococcus sanguis when compared to the other bacterial organism tested. Hence the authors suggest that Aesculus hippocastanum is highly efficient against dental plaques caused primarily by streptococcus mutans. 93 Anacardium Occidantale Family : Anacardiaceae Sub Family : Anacardioideae Parts used : Leaf and Seed coat Pharmacological activity Cashew is the common name for a tropical and subtropical evergreen tree, Anacardium occidentale Linn., in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. It is also the name for the commercially important kidney-shaped, nut like seed of this plant, which is edible when roasted or cooked 94.The Anacardiaceae family consisting of several plants with immense pharmacological activity95. Various research work carried out has proved it to be used in various diseases like dermatitis, hyperglycemia, antiviral, anti inflammatory activity. It is traditionally used in Ayurveda because of its anthelmentic activity. Anacardium occidentale is used medicinally wherever it is found growing. All parts of the plant like leaves, false fruit and bark have been traditionally used to relieve variety of ailments. The bark is said to have alternative properties .The root is considered purgative and the fruit is mainly used as antidiarrheal.agent. The tar from the bark is used as a counter irritant .As an external application it has been recommended in leprosy, ring worm, and ostinate ulcers, it is powerfully rubifacient and vesicant and requires to be used with caution96.Tannins are isolated from Anacardium occidantale97.It also possess good Antioxidant and Antimicrobial activity.98 Role of Anacardium Occidantale against Dental plaque Jozinete Vieira Pereira et al Conducted a antimicrobial analysis of an extract from stems of the cashew tree, Anacardium occidentale Linn., was evaluated on three cultures of bacteria, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus sanguis, found in dental plaque. The results showed effective inhibitory action of the extract when compared with Chlorexidine gluconate. Their study had proved that the extract from Anacardium occidentale were found to be effective for CIMA (adherence) at concentrations of 0.31mg/L for L for S. mutans and S. mitis and 0.15 mg/L for S. sanguis. The extract from the cashew tree stems showed a potential inhibitory action on the synthesis of glucan measured as the adherence to glass in sub inhibitory conditions. The data suggest that the cashew trees may have some therapeutic use in dental practice and could be used as an oral antibacterial agent to treat dental plaques.99 Eremophilia longifolia Family :Myoporaceae Subfamily : Scrophularioideae Parts used :Flowers,Fruit,Leaves Pharmacological activity Eremophila longifolia (Myoporaceae), commonly known as ?emu bush? is a large shrub that is found in the dry inland areas of all Australian mainland states 100 . Ethnobotanic literature frequently cites the Eremophila genus as an integral part of the traditional medicine of indigenous Australian populations, and E. longifolia is often considered to be the most sacred and mystical plants used within these cultures . Therapeutic uses of E. longifolia include treatments for colds, headaches, sores 101, skin ailments, eye conditions 100, boils and muscle ache 102 . Recent studies investigating the medicinal properties of the genus have demonstrated the presence of bioactivity in a number of species. In particular, extracts of a number of Eremophila species have shown inhibitory effects against Gram positive bacteria 103-107 , including antibiotic-resistant strains 108-110 . Previous studies have also revealed anti mycobacterial activity , antiviral activity ,cardioactive effects 111 and in vitro inhibition of serotonin release and platelet aggregation. Role of Eremophilia longifolia against Dental plaque E.A Palambo investigated the Antibacterial activity of solvent and aqueous extracts of Eremophilia longifolia stem and leaves against Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus. Stem ethanol extract (SEE) demonstrated growth inhibition of the two cariogenic bacteria with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.5% (w/v). His study also assessed the anticariogenic activity of SEE in terms of its effect on glycolytic pH drop, viability of cells within an artificial biofilm and cell attachment to a membrane. Preliminary phytochemical investigations suggested that the active components within SEE were phenolic compounds but unlikely to be flavonoids. His study advocates SEE as a worthy candidate for further research into alternative chemotherapeutic approaches to dental caries/plaques112 .
CONCLUSION
Dental caries/plaque is an extremely prevalent infectious disease that has been shown to be associated with serious health problems. It is an important task for the dental practioner to teach individuals to take correct actions to minimize the risk for the disease .Although there has been a slight decline in the prevalence of dental caries in many developed countries, there is an increase in occurrence amongst people of lower socioeconomic status and those within indigenous populations.The disease is associated with the colonisation and biofilm development of the Acidogenic bacteria like S. mutans , S. sobrinus S.mitis,S.sangis and Lactobacillus acidophillus . The occurrence of mutans streptocooci and streptococcus sobrinus together makes the oral environment more conductive to caries/plaque. These cariogenic pathogens utilise dietary sucrose and produce adhesive exopolysaccharides and acids which lead to plaque formation and carious lesions on susceptible tooth surfaces. Acid production by both S. mutans and S. sobrinus plays an important role in the pathology of dental caries/plaques.patients undergoing Orthodontic treatment ie.,Fixed orthodontic appliances patients frequently exposed to dental plaues.such plaques are difficult to be removed.the herbal extracts like Acacia catechu willd, Glyczyriza glabra, Achillea millifolium, Aesculus hippocastanum, Anacardium occidentale and Eremophila Longifolia were found to be effective in eradicating dental plaques caused by acid producing bacteria like streptococcus mutans,streptococcus mitis, streptococcus oralis ,streptococcus sobrinus,streptococcus sanguis and Lactobacillus acidophilus. Further studies should be carried out to explore the active component present in the plant extract which is found to be responsible for the anti cariogenic and anti bacterial activity. hence our article helps the orthodontist to know about the traditionally active medicinal plants that is highly effective in treating the dental plaques seen in fixed appliance patients. we also suggest that these extracts after undergoing toxicological studies it can be applied in human subjects to treat the dental infections.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the authors/editors of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST Nil.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesSPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SPECIES DIVERSITY OF MACROZOOBENTHOS IN HOKERA WETLAND, KASHMIR
English3241Idrees Yousuf DarEnglish G. A. BhatEnglishAnalyses of the complex interrelationship among the benthic community of freshwaters have focused to a large extent on descriptions of species and their distributions in relation to environmental variables. The distribution of the diverse fauna within wetlands is extremely heterogeneous, in part a product of variable requirements for feeding, growth, and reproduction. These requirements are strongly influenced by change in the substratum and overlying water on a seasonal basis, e.g., changes in oxygen content, and in the inputs of living and dead organic matter for food. The benthic organisms either possesses adaptive mechanisms to cope with these changes enter relatively dormant stages until more physiologically amenable conditions return, move or die. The adaptive capabilities of the benthic animals to the dynamics of environmental parameters are basic to their distribution, growth and productivity and reproductive potential. The present study was carried out during May-October 2008 to make an ecological and spatial assessment of acrozoobenthic communities in a wetland of international importance. The study revealed marked difference in the ecological presence of some of the important pollution indicator Macrozoobenthos which are used to assess water quality also benthic communities are structured both by abiotic and biotic factors along the spatial and the temporal scales. Macrobenthic animals live in an environment that is influenced by eutrophication, pollution, fisheries, removal of substrate and dumping of substrate. Macro invertebrate community responses to environmental changes are useful in assessing the impact of municipal, industrial, oil and agricultural wastes from other land uses on surface waters. During present study a few species of Annelida were found to be dominant in terms of taxa and abundance across the four sites of collection, Mollusca however, were poorly represented. Insecta, although represented by one Texon namely Chironomous sp. was abundant throughout the study period at all sites.
EnglishBiomonitoring, Benthic Community, Biological indicators, Freshwater, Nutrients, Sediments, Trophic Status, Wetland.INTRODUCTION
Kashmir valley is gifted with numerous freshwater habitats. As a consequence of human interference in the catchment area as well as inside the water bodies, many of their peculiar habitats are shrinking fast. Ecology of the flatland lakes of the valley, have greatly changed due to increase in pollution load and encroachment on water surface (Chandha, 1990). The down link state of the fresh water bodies throughout the world asks for attention as they have a great importance in food supply, irrigation, cooling of environment, industrial process, drinking, washing, cooking, recreation and tourist attraction. Limnological studies in Kashmir were probably initiated by the Hutchinson (1932). After him, a number of investigation have been carried out (Das et al.,
1969; Zutshi et al., 1978; Qadri et al., 1981; Yousuf et al., 1983; Balkhi et al., 1987; Balkhi and Yousuf et al., 1990,1992,1996). A perusal of the available literature on the limnology of Kashmir waters reveals that the benthic communities, which represent an important component in aquatic food chain, have not received much attention (Pandit and Kaul, 1981; Jan, 1987 and Mir, 1995). Analysis of the complex interrelationship among the benthic community of freshwaters have focused to a large extent on descriptions of species and their distributions within lakes and streams in relation to environmental variables. Although such analysis are essential to initial evaluations of the communities, physiologically oriented experimental analyses of the regulating environmental parameters have been utilized among the benthic communities to nearly the extent that they have been in studies of planktonic communities. The population, productivity and the trophic interrelationships of the benthic fauna are poorly understood in lakes; they are somewhat better known in running water (Hynes, 1970). Macroinvertebrate community responses to environmental changes are useful in assessing the impact of municipal, industrial, oil, and agricultural wastes and impacts from other land uses on surface waters. Four types of environmental changes for which patterns of macro invertebrates community structure changes have been documented are increased inorganic micronutrients, increased organic loading, substrate alteration and toxic chemical pollution. Increased inorganic micronutrients and severe organic pollution usually result in a restriction in the variety of macro invertebrates to only the most tolerant ones and a corresponding increase in density of those tolerating the polluted conditions, usually associated with low dissolved oxygen concentration. In some cases severe organic pollution, siltation, or toxic chemical pollution may reduce or even eliminate the entire macro invertebrate community from an affected area (Needham, 1941) The types and distributions of benthic macroinvertebrates also have been widely used as indicators quality. The distribution of certain macroinvertebrates can be quite specific because many organisms often have narrow physiological tolerance ranges (Sladecek, 1973). Several characteristics of Macrobenthos make them favorable for use in monitoring ecosystem integrity (Adamus and Brandt, 1990). The present investigation is undertaken to study Macrobenthic biological community of Hokersar, a queen wetland of Kashmir.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Samples of bottom macro fauna were collected in the months of May, July and October with the help of a 16 cm Ekman‘s Dredge (225 sq. cm. Sampling area), in triplicate at 4 sites as shown in figure 5 (I, II, III and IV). The upper 6 cm layer of the unwashed sediments was analyzed for the occurrence of benthic forms. The unrinsed samples were produced into a container and the Benthos sorted by floatation technique with sugar solution (Kajak et al., 1968). The bottom material collected by the dredge was washed through a standard sieve [0.4 mm opening mesh (256 mesh cm2 )] as recommended by Edmondson and Dinberg (1971). The contents were transferred to the labeled glass tubes and fixed in 4% formalin / 70% alcohol for detailed examination. The Macrozoobenthos were enumerated group wise and weighed in electronic balance after removing the extra moisture by means of a blotting paper. Total no. of Macrozoobenthos per meter square was calculated after Walch, 1968 using the following formula;
N = n/as x 10,000
Where
N = number of individuals / m2
n = number of organisms actually counted
a = area of transverse section of Ekman‘s Dredge (cm2 ).
s = Number of samples taken at each station The preserved material was then identified with the help of standard works (1889), Needham
(1941), Edmondson (1959), Pennak (1978), APHA (1998), and series on fauna of British India.
STUDY AREA
The present study deals with the wetland of International Importance- THE HOKERA WETLAND. Hokera Wetland is located at the Northwest Himalayan biographic province of Kashmir back of the snow dropped Pir Panchal. Hokera is a natural perennial wetland contagious to the Jhelum Basin. Hokersar is a permanent shallow wetland, situated 10 kms to the west of Srinagar on Srinagar – Baramullah highway at an altitude of 1, 584 m (a.m.s.l) and lies within the geographical coordinates of 34o 05`N 74o 42`E. It covers an area of 13.75 km2 and has a depth ranging from 0.66 – 1.22 mts. The famous wetland is fed by perennial Dudhganga stream that originates from Dudhganga watershed in Pir Panchal range of the Himalaya and Sukhnag stream from the west. Hokera is the only site with remaining reed beds of Kashmir and Pathway of 68 water fowl species like large Egret, Great crested Grebe, little cormorant, Common Shelduck, Tufted Duck and endangered white eyed Pochart, Coming from Siberia, China, Central Asia and Northern Europe. It is an important source of food, spawning ground and Nursery for fish, besides offering feeding and breeding ground to a variety of water birds. Typical marshy vegetation complexes inhabit like Typha, Phargmites, Eleocharis, Trapa and Nymphoids Species ranging from shallow water to open water aquatic flora. For studying the ecological distribution of Macrozoobenthos, 4 study sites are Chosen these are;
Site – I This is the only site at inlet where Dudhganga stream enters the Hokera wetland. It is situated near the village of Hajibagh at the entrance of the stream in the wetland.
Site – II The second site is chosen inside the wetland having open water and is only few meters away from bird watching site.
Site – III This site is also chosen inside the wetland; this site is far from bird watching site and is located in open water. Site – IV The site is located at the outlet near the village of Sozeith.
OBSERVATION AND RESULTS
Three main groups of Macrozoobenthos were mainly encountered during the investigation, viz;
A. Phylum: ANNELIDA
I. Class: Oligochaeta
1. Family; Tubificidae
i. Tubifex tubifex
ii. Limnodrilus spp.
II. Class: Hirudinidaea
1. Family: Erpobdellidae
Gammarus sp.
II. Class: Insecta 1. Family: Chironomidae i. Chironomus sp. C.
Phylum: MOLLUSCA I.
lass: Gastropoda 1. Family: Lymnaeidaea i. Lymnaea spp. II.
Class: Pelcypoda 1. Family: Sphaeridae i. Corbicula spp. Besides these a miscellaneous assemblage of water mites, turbelaria were also found during the investigation.
Spatial distribution of Macrozoobenthos Site I (Inlet)
The mean population density at this site was found to be 64.19 ind/m2 , which fluctuated from 88.88 ind/m2 in the month of May to 29.62 in the month of October. In the month of May where as lowest was recorded in the month of October. (Fig. 1).
Site II The mean population density at this site was 222.22 ind/m2 , which fluctuated from 162.96 ind/m2 in October to 266.66 ind/m2 in July. The maximum population was recorded during summer, while the minimum was recorded during autumn. Arthropoda was the most dominant group in the benthos and was followed by Annelida and Mollusca. (Fig. 2) Site III The mean population density at this site was 251.85 ind/m2 , fluctuated from 133.33 ind/m2 in October to 311.11 ind/m2 in May and July. The maximum population was recorded during summer and spring, while the minimum in autumn. Arthropods and annelids were the most dominating group in the benthos followed by Mollusca. (Fig. 3). SITE IV The mean population density at this site was 118.51 ind/m2 . The monthly population fluctuated from 103.70 ind/m2 in October to 133.33 ind/m2 in the month of July. The maximum population was recorded during summer, while the minimum in autumn. Arthropods and annelids were the most dominating groups followed by Mollusca. However, no organisms were observed during May. (Fig. 4). Qualitative and Quantative Analysis Qualitative analysis of Benthos revealed arthropoda as the dominant group contributing about 43.09% to the total macrozoobenthos followed by annelida with 22.76%, then by molluscs, 21.13% and then by others, 13.00%.
DISCUSSION
With the growth of human population the human interference in and around the water resources increase leading to the deterioration of the quality of water. Large quantities of nutrients are added through the human sewage, industrial wastes and agricultural runoff. When this occurs for a long time most of aquatic organisms perish/replaced by a few specialized organisms which are tolerant to such conditions. Since the water body is a complete ecosystem, any change in physical or chemical conditions also affects the occurrence and abundance of the organisms living there. The Hokera wetland was once regarded as the queen wetland of India and has a great importance of harbouring various types of migratory birds but due to anthropogenic process. It has greatly reduced in size and is infested with water plants; submerged emergents and free floating. It has also undergone significant changes over the years. The seasonal mean population density of Mollusca was found to be 128.38 ind./m2 that contributed to only 21.13%of the total benthos collected. Decline in the benthic fauna as a result of decreased pH have been reported in Scandinavians (Mossberg and Nyberg, 1979). Certain groups particularly Molluscs are reported to be sensitive to reduced pH (Sutcliffe and Carrick, 1973). Mossberg and Nyberg (1979) reported reduced no. of taxa in Lakes with pHEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1922http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19221. Adamus, P. R. and Brandt, K. 1990. Indicators for wetlands. In Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program ecological indicators. EPA/600/3- 90/060.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon. 406 pp.
2. A, P. H. A. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and WasteWater. 17ed. American Public Health Association. American Water Works Association Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington. D.C.
3. Balkhi, M. H., Yousuf, A. R. and Qadri, M. Y. 1990. Distributional Pattern of Copepoda in the fresh waters of Kashmir. In: Contribution to the Fisheries of inland Open Water Systems of India. Eds: A. G. Jhingran, V. K. Unnithan and A. Ghost pp 47 -51, 1990.
4. Balkhi, M.H. and Yousuf, A.R. 1996. Distributional pattern of Cladoceran Community in Kashmir Freshwater. Oriental Science ,1(2):75-81.
5. Chandha, S. K. 1990. Kashmir Ecology andEnvironment. Mitlal Publications.
6. Collins, S.L., James, F.C. and Risser, P.G. 1982. Habitat relationships of woodwarblers (Parulidae) in northern central Minnesota. Oikos, 39: 50-58.
7. Dar, I.Y and Bhat, G.A. 2010. Ecological Distribution of Macrozoobenthos in Hokera Wetland, Kashmir Himalaya. JTEHS, Academic Journals. 2(5): 63-72
8. Das, S. M. and Bisht, R. S. 1969. Ecology of some Hemiptera andColeoptera of Kumaon lakes Ind. J.Ecol. 6(1): 35 - 40.
9. Edmondson, W. T. 1959. Freshwater Biology. John. Wiley and sons Inc. New York,London.
10. Edmondson, W. T 1992. Ward and Whiple Fresh water Biology 2nd ed. Intern. Books and periodicals supply services, New Delhi. 11. Grimas, U. 1969: The bottom fauna of Lake Vattern, central Sweden, and some effects of eutrophication. Report of the Institute of Freshwater Research, Drottningholm, 49: 49-62.
12. Hutchinson, G. E. 1993. A Treatise on Limnology Vol.IV. The Zoobenthos Ed. Y. H. Edmondson. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
13. Jan, U. 1987. Studies on Macrozoobenthos of Dal Lake. Ph.D Thesis, University of Kashmir, Srinagar,190 006.
14. Hynes, H. B. N, Kaushik, N. K., Lock, M. A., lush, B. L., Stockner, G. S. Z., Wallace, R. R. and Williams, D. D. 1970. Benthos and Allochthonus organic matter in streams. J. Fish. Res. Dol. Comods. 31:545-553.
15. Kajak, Z. 1971. Benthos of standing water. P. 25 – 65. In: A manual on methods for the Assessment of secondary productivity in freshwaters (W. T. Edmondson and G. C.)
16. Kumar, A. 1996. Impact of organic pollution on Macrozoobenthos on the River Mayurakshi of Bihar. Poll. Res. 151(11):85-87
17. Lang, C. and Reymond, O. 1996. Zoobenthos as indicator of manmade perturbance in two mountain Lakes. Hydrobiologia. 334:157-191
18. Needham, J. G. 1957. A guide to the study Freshwater Biology with special reference of Aquatic Insects and other Invertebrates Animalsand Phytoplankton. Comstock. Oublishing Association, New York.
19. Mir, Farooq. 1995. Ecological Studies of Zoobenthos Community of Dal Lake, Kashmir. Ph.D thesis, Univ. of Kashmir, 190 006.
20. Mossberg, P. andNyberg, P. 1979. Bottom fauna of small and acid Lakes. Report from the Institute of Freshwater Research, Drottningholm. 58:77-87
21. Oliver, B. G., and Kelso, J. R. M. 1983. A role for sediments in retarding the acidification of hcad water lakes. Water Air Soil Pollut. 20: 379-389.
22. Pennak, R. W. 1978. Freshwater Invertebrates of United States. John. Wiley and Sons, New York.
23. Rosenberg, M. David 1992. Freshwater bio monitoring and Chironomidae, Netherlands. J. of Aquatic Ecology. 26(2- 4); 101 – 122.
24. Sladecek, V. 1973. The Role of the Invertebrate Fauna in the biological Assessment of Water Quality. A. Mol. Rapenburg, The Netherlands.
25. Stephenson, J. 1923. Fauna of British India, London andBurma Duk London, Tailor andFrances. Red Lion Court. Fleet Street. June 1923.
26. Sutcliffe, D. W. and Carrick, T. R. 1973. Studies on mountain streams in the English Lake District, I. pH, Calcium and the distribution of invertebrates in the River Duddon. Freshwater. Biol.,3:437-462
27. Ward, J. V. 1992. Aquatic Insect Ecology, Biology and Habitat. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York.
28. Welch, P. S. 1948. Limnological Methods, McGraw Hill Book, Company New York.
29. Wetzel, R. G. and Libens, G. E 2000. Limnological Analysis, 3rd edition, Springer Verlag Publications, New York.
30. Young, J. O. 1975. Life cycles of some invertebrate taxa in a small pond together with changes in their numbers over a period of three years. Hydrobiologia 45: 63–90.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEFFECTIVENESS OF STRETCHING PROTOCOL IN IMPROVING HAMSTRING FLEXIBILITY IN FOOTBALL
PLAYERS
English4248Anoop .SEnglish Fayaz R. K.English Vijesh P.V.EnglishBackground:-Stretching to hamstring muscles to improve the flexibility is routine programme in football players. Hamstring tightness is one of the predisposing factors in producing soft tissue injuries to the lower limbs in these players. Among the different stretching techniques, passive static stretching is commonly used to treat this tightness. But nowadays eccentric stretching is performed to improve the flexibility of hamstring tightness. This study compares the effect of these two stretching techniques in improving flexibility in football players. Methods: Thirty (30) football players from first divisional club with unilateral hamstring tightness were divided into three groups of 10 subject each. Group–A
passive static stretching, Group – B eccentric training and Group – C combination of passive static stretching and eccentric training. Each group received intervention for a total of 6 weeks. The outcome measures were assessed by Sit and Reach Test. Result: The analysis of data indicated that improvement in hamstring tightness was seen in all three groups as measured by sit and reach test. But on comparison of these three groups, group C showed better result than the other two groups (p< 0.01) Conclusion: Combination of static stretching along with eccentric stretching is effective than static stretching alone in improving the hamstring flexibility in football players.
decrease in the range of motion at the joint on which it acts 9M.uscle tightness usually results from inadequate or improper rehabilitation following sustained muscle injury or low levels of physical activity in individuals. 'Tight' hamstrings are proposed to be one of the main causes of hamstring strains. Hamstring tightness is defined as 30 degree loss of active knee extension with femur held at 90 degree of hip flexion 10 . Tight hamstring muscles increase the patellofemoral compressive force because of the increased passive resistance during the swing phase of ambulation and running 11 . Decreased hamstring flexibility is a risk factor for development of patellar tendinopathy and pattello-femoral pain. Hamstring tightness has been reported to be the cause of posterior pelvic tilting, reduced lumbar lordosis and exacerbation of existing pain in patients with low back pain 12 . Static stretching is one of the safest and most commonly performed stretching methods used to increase muscle length 13 . This type of stretch is applied slowly and gradually at a relatively constant force to avoid eliciting a stretch reflex. The literature supports that a static stretch of 30 seconds at a frequency of 3 repeated stretches per single session is sufficient to increase muscle length 14. It is a commonly used method of stretching in which soft tissues are elongated just apart the point of tissue resistance and then held in the lengthened position with a sustained stretch force over a period of time. Eccentric training that allows the muscle to elongate naturally and in its relaxed state, this elongation is achieved by having the subjects eccentrically contract the antagonist muscle to move the joint through the full available range in slow controlled manner to stretch the agonist muscle group 15. Eccentric resistance exercise may prevent injury to the muscle tendon unit by improving the muscle‘s ability to absorb more energy before failing. It is a better training strategy to improve the flexibility and also able to increase in strength and protect against muscle damage 16 . To prescribe suitable rehabilitative measures, it is necessary to know the effects of stretching on range of motion, but also to learn about the effects of stretching and eccentric training on muscle flexibility. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to combine the effect of passive static stretching along with eccentric training to improve flexibility of hamstrings.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Thirty young male football players randomly selected from various professional clubs in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala state in India were selected for the study. The need and significance of the study was explained to the players and consent form for participation was obtained prior to data collection. The primary inclusion criteria was the presence of unilateral Knee Extension Angle (KEA) >200 . Subjects who had an acute or chronic low back pain, hamstring tightness with pain, soft tissue injury, fracture, arthritis and inflammatory joint conditions were excluded. The ethical clearance was obtained from the Calicut University and study was conducted from January 2010 to September 2010.
Data Collection Procedure
Prior to study a consent letter was obtained from team management in order to conduct the study. Consent was obtained from 30 participants agreeing to participate in the study and they were screened for inclusion and exclusion criteria. The subjects were divided in to three groups, Group A (Passive Static Stretching), Group B (Eccentric training) and Group C (Combined Protocol of passive static stretching and eccentric training). They were grouped by randomized design. Pretest measurements were taken using goniometry for Knee Extension Angle (KEA) and sit and reach test for hamstrings flexibility prior to the stretching. Each group undergone prescribed stretching method according to the protocol specified for 6 weeks. The post test measurements were obtained after 6 weeks.
EnglishHamstring flexibility, Passive static stretching, Eccentric training.INTRODUCTION
Football is considered by many to be the most popular sport in the world and is played by at least 200 million licensed players 1 . Physiologically, football game is characterized as a high-intensity, intermittent, non-contiguous exercise 2 . About one-fourth of football injuries are musculoskeletal lesions mainly located in the thigh (17%) and the groin (8%) 3 . A large percentage of the game is performed at maximum speed, and the functional activities include accelerations, decelerations, jumping, cutting, pivoting, turning, and kicking of the ball 4 . It has been found that as many as 68% to 88% of all football injuries occur in the lower extremities 5 . Poor flexibility of hamstrings is one of the pre disposing factor for injury of this muscle group 6 . Muscular flexibility is an important aspect of normal human function. Limited flexibility has been shown to predispose a person to several musculoskeletal overuse injuries and significantly affect a person‘s level of function 7 . Hamstring plays an important role in managing the stride length during running, if the stride length is longer, then fewer contraction cycles are needed to cover the same distance. This equates to a conservation of energy, allowing for greater all longer performance prior to fatigue and a reduction in chance of injury 8 . Muscle tightness is caused by a decrease in the ability of the muscle to deform, resulting in a decrease in the range of motion at the joint on which it acts 9M.uscle tightness usually results from inadequate or improper rehabilitation following sustained muscle injury or low levels of physical activity in individuals. 'Tight' hamstrings are proposed to be one of the main causes of hamstring strains. Hamstring tightness is defined as 30 degree loss of active knee extension with femur held at 90 degree of hip flexion 10 . Tight hamstring muscles increase the patellofemoral compressive force because of the increased passive resistance during the swing phase of ambulation and running 11 . Decreased hamstring flexibility is a risk factor for development of patellar tendinopathy and pattello-femoral pain. Hamstring tightness has been reported to be the cause of posterior pelvic tilting, reduced lumbar lordosis and exacerbation of existing pain in patients with low back pain 12 . Static stretching is one of the safest and most commonly performed stretching methods used to increase muscle length 13 . This type of stretch is applied slowly and gradually at a relatively constant force to avoid eliciting a stretch reflex. The literature supports that a static stretch of 30 seconds at a frequency of 3 repeated stretches per single session is sufficient to increase muscle length 14. It is a commonly used method of stretching in which soft tissues are elongated just apart the point of tissue resistance and then held in the lengthened position with a sustained stretch force over a period of time. Eccentric training that allows the muscle to elongate naturally and in its relaxed state, this elongation is achieved by having the subjects eccentrically contract the antagonist muscle to move the joint through the full available range in slow controlled manner to stretch the agonist muscle group 15. Eccentric resistance exercise may prevent injury to the muscle tendon unit by improving the muscle‘s ability to absorb more energy before failing. It is a better training strategy to improve the flexibility and also able to increase in strength and protect against muscle damage 16 . To prescribe suitable rehabilitative measures, it is necessary to know the effects of stretching on range of motion, but also to learn about the effects of stretching and eccentric training on muscle flexibility. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to combine the effect of passive static stretching along with eccentric training to improve flexibility of hamstrings.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Thirty young male football players randomly selected from various professional clubs in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala state in India were selected for the study. The need and significance of the study was explained to the players and consent form for participation was obtained prior to data collection. The primary inclusion criteria was the presence of unilateral Knee Extension Angle (KEA) >200 . Subjects who had an acute or chronic low back pain, hamstring tightness with pain, soft tissue injury, fracture, arthritis and inflammatory joint conditions were excluded. The ethical clearance was obtained from the Calicut University and study was conducted from January 2010 to September 2010.
Data Collection Procedure
Prior to study a consent letter was obtained from team management in order to conduct the study. Consent was obtained from 30 participants agreeing to participate in the study and they were screened for inclusion and exclusion criteria. The subjects were divided in to three groups, Group A (Passive Static Stretching), Group B (Eccentric training) and Group C (Combined Protocol of passive static stretching and eccentric training). They were grouped by randomized design. Pretest measurements were taken using goniometry for Knee Extension Angle (KEA) and sit and reach test for hamstrings flexibility prior to the stretching. Each group undergone prescribed stretching method according to the protocol specified for 6 weeks. The post test measurements were obtained after 6 weeks.
Passive static stretching protocol.
1. Subject is positioned supine on a treatment plinth and instructed to relax as the examiner performed the stretch.
2. To stretch the right and left hamstrings, the hip was passively flexed to 90 and the knee passively extended until the subject report a strong but tolerable stretch.
3. The contra lateral extremity remained flat on the plinth.
4. The Static stretch has to be maintained for 30 seconds at a frequency of 3 repeated stretches per single session with 10 seconds rest interval between each stretch.
Eccentric training protocol
1. The subject lay supine with the contra lateral leg fully extended.
2. A piece of (3 feet) (0.91-m) black Theraband was wrapped around the heel and the subject held the ends of theraband in each hand.
3. Subject was instructed to keep the treatment knee locked in full extension and the hip in neutral internal and external rotation throughout the entire activity.
4. The subject was then instructed to bring the treatment leg into full flexion by pulling on the theraband attached to the foot with both the arms making sure the knee remained locked in full extension at all times.
5. As the subject pulled the hip in to full flexion with the arms, he was instructed to simultaneously resist the hip flexion by eccentrically contracting the hamstrings muscle during the entire range of motion of hip flexion.
6. The subject was instructed to provide sufficient resistance with the arms to overcome the eccentric activity of hamstring muscle.
7. The entire hip flexion took approximately five seconds to complete.
8. Then the extremity was gently lowered to ground by the subjects arm.
9. This procedure was repeated 6 times with no rest between repetitions, thereby providing a total of 30 seconds of stretching at the end range.
10. Perform three sessions in a week for 6 week
Combined protocol for passive static stretching and eccentric training
Subject is positioned supine on a treatment plinth and instructed to relax as the examiner performed the stretch.
1. To stretch the right and left hamstrings, the hip was passively flexed to 90 and the knee passively extended until the subject reports a strong but tolerable stretch.
2. The contra lateral extremity remained flat on the plinth.
3. The Static stretch has to be maintained for 30 seconds at a frequency of 3 repeated stretches per single session with 10 seconds rest interval between each stretch.
4. The subject lay supine with the contra lateral leg fully extended.
5. A piece of (3 feet) (0.91-m) black theraband was wrapped around the heel and the subject held the ends of theraband in each hand.
6. Subject was instructed to keep the treatment knee locked in full extension and the hip in neutral internal and external rotation throughout the entire activity.
7. The subject was then instructed to bring the treatment leg into full flexion by pulling on the theraband attached to the foot with both arms, making sure the knee remained locked in full extension at all times.
8. As the subject pulled the hip in to full flexion with the arms, he was instructed to simultaneously resist the hip flexion by eccentrically contracting the hamstrings muscle during the entire range of motion of hip flexion.
9. The Subject was instructed to provide sufficient resistance with the arms to overcome the eccentric activity of hamstring muscle.
10. The entire hip flexion took approximately five seconds to complete.
11. Then the extremity was gently lowered to ground by the subjects arm.
12. This procedure was repeated 6 times with no rest between repetitions, thereby providing a total of 30 seconds of stretching at the end range.
13. Perform three sessions in a week for 6 week
Outcome Measure:
Sit and reach test The test involves sitting on the floor with back and head against the wall, legs stretched out straight ahead. Shoes are removed and the sole of feet are placed flat against the box. Both knees should be locked and pressed flat on the floor with the palms facing downwards and the hands on top of each other side by side. Subject reaches forward along the measuring line as far as possible. Ensure that the hands remain level at the same one reaching for the forward than the other. After some practice reaches, the subject reaches out and holds the position as for at one- two seconds while the distance is recorded .Make sure there are no jerky movements
Data Analysis Data was analyzed using SPSS version 17.0.for windows with t-test, ANOVA and post hoc LSD test. The significance level was kept at p0.001). On post hoc analysis using LSD indicated that the difference in scores between group A and C were statistically significant. Also, group B and C showed significant difference in their scores. On comparing the mean post test scores of sit and reach test, it can be said that combination of passive stretching along with eccentric test is effective in improving hamstring flexibility in football players. Space for Table II: Space for Table III:
RESULTS
Independent t-test values indicated significant increase in hamstrings flexibility as measured by sit and reach test in subjects after the treatment in all the three groups ; group Apassive static stretching (p≤ .001), group Beccentric training (p ≤0.001) and for group C - combination of passive static stretching along with eccentric training (p ≤ 0.001).
Space for Table I: Space for Figure I: On comparing the post treatment values of sit and reach scores of the three groups using ANOVA, it evident that there exists a difference between these three groups (F2,27=8.57,p>0.001). On post hoc analysis using LSD indicated that the difference in scores between group A and C were statistically significant. Also, group B and C showed significant difference in their scores. On comparing the mean post test scores of sit and reach test, it can be said that combination of passive stretching along with eccentric test is effective in improving hamstring flexibility in football players. Space for Table II: Space for Table III:
DISCUSSION
The reviews of existing literature in the role regarding the different techniques in improving hamstring flexibility reveals a confusing picture so as to which technique out of eccentric training and passive static stretching is best for the purpose. So the current study was undertaken to investigate the effectiveness of a combined protocol of eccentric training along with passive static stretching on hamstring flexibility in football players. A comparison of the pre-post test values of sit and reach test for the groups shows that there is significant improvement in all the three groups. Thus it may be said that these techniques are effective individually in improving hamstrings flexibility in football players. But comparing the effectiveness among the three groups, the individuals who got combination of passive static stretch and eccentric stretch experienced a better flexibility in their hamstring muscles than the players who received the these techniques individually. Thus it is evident from this study that the combination of stretching techniques of static and eccentric type is ideal in improving the hamstring flexibility in football players. The increase in range of motion and flexibility often reported after the combination of stretching techniques involves the biomechanical, neurological and molecular mechanisms. The biological and molecular consequences of the application of stretch to muscle appear to be known. Force transmission is likely to occur through a chain of proteinprotein interactions and may lead to a chain of biological signals and ultimately to myofibrillogenesis. The potential mechanisms may be the phosphorylation of integral membrane proteins and associated cytoskeletal molecules, the secretion of selective growth factors, regulated by an autocrine or paracrine mechanism, and changes in the intracellular ion flux through stretch-activated ion channels. The scientific basis of the combination of stretching techniques may actually be found in the cellular and molecular adaptive mechanisms of a muscle fiber. When a substance is exposed to a passive force (stretch), it will deform according to its material properties, and when a relatively low force is sustained for a long period of time, most materials will deform in a time-dependent manner. This creep property is a result of the visco-elastic properties of the material. Nearly all tissues exhibit this property including muscles. The mechanism behind the increased flexibility with eccentric hamstring activity through the full range of motion is unclear. Skeletal muscle has a large adaptation potential induced by eccentric contraction and morphological changes are related to addition of sarcomeres in series16 and this could be an reason in improvement of hamstring flexibility after eccentric stretching. Thus whatever may be biomechanical explanations for the improvements in the hamstring flexibility following static and eccentric stretch, hamstring muscle flexibility less than 20? in football players is serious matter of concern as it can lead to significantly higher risk for sports injuries. To overcome this, these players should be encouraged to stretch the hamstring muscles both statically and eccentrically as routine event along with the warm up sections of practices. Even though the study was done as methodologically sound as possible, certain limitations couldn‘t avoided. The study was done on young male football players and the sample size was small. Also only one outcome measurement was taken. Hence authors suggest that further studies can be done on female population and also on other sports rather than football with larger sample size and additional outcome measurements..
CONCLUSION
A combined protocol of passive static stretching and eccentric training can be advocated for improving the hamstrings flexibility in football players thereby preventing the tightness related muscle injuries for the players.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discusse
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1923http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19231. Derk T, Witvroue E, Danneels L and Asselman P. Muscle flexibility as a risk factor for developing muscle injuries in male professional soccer players.The American Journal of Sports Medicine 2003;31(1):78-80
2. Tyler TF, Nicholas SJ and Campbell RJ.The association of hip strength and flexibility with the incidence of adductor muscle strains in professional ice hockey players. Am J Sports Med 2001;29(3):124-128.
3. Engebertesen A H and Mykelebust G. Intrinsic risk factors for hamstring injuries among male soccer players. The American J of Sports Med 2010;38:68-73
4. Less A and Nolan L. The biomechanics of soccer; A review. J Sports Sci 1998;16: 211-234 5. Chomiak J, Junge A and Peterson L.Severe injuries in football players influencing factors. AmJ Sports Med 2000;28:58-68
6. Clanton T O and Coupe K J. Hamstring strains in athletes diagnosis and treatment.The Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons 1998;6(4):237-239
7. Bandy WD and Irion JM. The effects of time and frequency of static stretching on flexibility of hamstring muscle. J Sports Physical Therapy 1997; 77:1096-1098
8. Barlow A et al. Effect of massage of the hamstring muscle group on performance of the sit and reach test. Br J Sports Med 2004; 38(3):349-351
9. Zachezeweski JE, Sally RW and Barnes MR J. Improving flexibility in physical Therapy. Lippincott Co, Philadelphia 1989.
10. Gajdosij RL and Lusin G. Hamstring muscle tightness. Physical Therapy 2005;63:1083-1090 11. Dvorak J, Junge A and Chomiak J. Risk factors analysis for injuries in football players. Am J Sports Med 2000;28:69-74.
12. Wendell L. Unresolved controversies in back management of Orthopaedic and Sports. Physical Therapy 1988;9(7):1213- 1216.
13. Weijer CD and Gorniak H. The effect of static stretch and warm up exercise on hamstring length over the course of 24 hours. Journal of Orthopedic Sports Physical Therapy 2003;33(12):727-732.
14. Bandy WD, Iron JM and Briggler M. Effect of time on static stretching and dynamic ROM on the flexibility of hamstring muscle. J of Ortho Spots Physical Therapy 1996;27(4):295-300.
15. Russell TN and William DB. Eccentric Training and Static Stretching Improve Hamstring Flexibility of High School Males. Journal of Athletic Training 2004;39:254-258
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcarePREVALENCE RATE OF URINARY TRACT INFECTION IN RURAL SECTOR OF SINGUR, WEST BENGAL, INDIA: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN DIABETIC MALE AND FEMALE PATIENTS
English4952Baladev DasEnglish Kazi Monjur AliEnglish Payel MajumderEnglish Debasis DeEnglish Kausik ChatterjeeEnglish Debidas GhoshEnglishThe present study was conducted to determine the prevalence of urinary tract infection among diabetic
patients and causative pathogens also. A total of 200, out of which 95 patients were male and 105
female patients were included in the present study. Diabetic state of the patients was assessed as per the
guidelines of World Health Organization (WHO). For bacteriological study, urine samples were
processed according to standard microbiological techniques. Identification of the species of
microorganisms was performed by Gram‘s staining as well as by biochemical tests as per standard
method. Only urine culture showed >105 colony forming units (CFUs/ml), were considered for UTIs
infection and processed for antibiotic sensitivity test. Here, the results indicated that the urine sample of
36.1 % female patients and 12.6 % male patients were showed significant growth in culture media.
From Gram‘s staining and biochemical tests it may be stated that the Streptococcus faecalis,
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Klebsiella oxitoka,
Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are present in the
culture those are causative pathogens for urinary tract infection. The results of the present study
enlighted that in our study area the prevalence of UTIs was high in diabetic female than diabetic male
patients.
EnglishDiabetes, Uropathogens, Urinary tract infection, Gram‘s stainingINTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus is the most common endocrine disease characterized by hyperglycemia, abnormal lipid and protein metabolism along with long term complications like retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy etc. (Ali et al., 2009). Diabetes mellitus has long been suspected as a risk factor for community acquired infections. The urinary tract is the principal site of infection in diabetes (Ronald and Ludwig, 2001). The belief that diabetes, a common metabolic disorder estimated to affect 16 million persons in the US, is associated with a higher risk of UTI is widespread (Patterson and Andriole, 1997). Diabetes results in several abnormalities of the host defense system that might result in a higher risk of certain infections (Sridhar, 2002). These abnormalities include immunologic impairments, such as impaired migration, intracellular killing, phagocytosis and chemotaxis in polymorphonuclear leukocytes from diabetic patients (Valerius et al., 1982) and local complications related to neuropathy, such as impaired bladder emptying (Hosking et al., 1978). Several severe and less commonly encountered UTIs are thought to occur more frequently in diabetic patients (Ankel, 1990). Recently, a study reflected that in Europe, asymptomatic bacteriuria was more prevalent among women with diabetes (26%) than in women without diabetes (6%) (Geerlings, 2000). Different risk factors such as age, duration of diabetes, sexual intercourse, glycemic control and chronic complication of diabetes are associated with UTIs (Geerlings, 2002). Despite the clinical and economic significance of UTI in diabetes, research interest and activity have been inadequate. Some studies have shown that both common and rare infections are more prevalent among patient with diabetes than among the general population (Hu et al., 2004). Patients with diabetes appeared to have an increased risk of asymptomatic bacteriuria and urinary tract infection (Boyko et al., 2002) and of skin and mucous membrane infection, including Candida infections (Joshi et al., 1999; Pozzilli, 1994). Side by side, foot infections are the most common soft-tissue infections in patients with diabetes including osteomyelitis, amputation etc. (Joshi et al., 1999). In the light of existing report, the present study was carried out where the aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of urinary tract infection along with identification of causative pathogens in the rural population of Singur, West Bengal, India.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Selected 200 diabetic subjects having age group 21-60 years were studied. Diabetic state of the patients was confirmed based on WHO criteria (WHO, 1999). Medical histories of all patients were recorded. Freshly voided mid-stream urine samples were collected in a clean sterile disposable container. Physical examination of the urine like volume, color, appearance, odor, and specific gravity of the urine samples were conducted as per standard method (Godkar and Godkar, 2003). After completion of physical examination, urine samples were quickly transported to the microbiology laboratory. Here, urine sample were processed according to standard microbiological techniques for culture study. Then identifying the species of the microorganisms, Gram‘s staining as well as different biochemical tests were performed (Dubey and Maheshwari, 2004) and antimicrobial sensitivity was also assessed following standard protocol (Bauer et al., 1966). Only urine culture showed >105 colony forming units (CFUs/ml) were considered for UTIs infection and processed for antibiotic sensitivity test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total number of diabetic patient in the present study was 200, out of which 95 patients were male and 105 patients were female. Physical examination of urine reveals that out of 95 male patients, 23 (24.2 %) patients showed different abnormal features of urine where 32 (30.4 %) female patient out of 105 showed abnormal features of urine. Several bacteriological studies usually reveal the involvement of gram negative enteric organisms that commonly cause urinary tract infections, such as E. coli, Klebsiella species and the proteus species (Bova et al., 1985). In the present study, microbial culture of urine sample indicated that 38 (36.1 %) female patients and 12 (12.6 %) male patients were showed significant growth. Identification of microorganisms by Gram‘s staining as well as by biochemical tests (Table 1) reflected that Streptococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Klebsiella oxitoka, Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are present in the culture those causes UTIs in diabetic patients and these findings were supported by other reports (Bova et al., 1985; Geerlings et al., 2002). Several factors may responsible for the susceptibility of UTIs of diabetic patients. Various aspects of immunity are altered in patients with diabetes. Polymorphonuclear leukocyte function is depressed, particularly when acidosis is present and phagocytosis may be affected (Gallacher et al., 1995). Antioxidant systems involved in bactericidal activity may also be impaired (Muchova et al., 1999). As lower urinary concentration of cytokines has been shown to correlate with a lower urinary leukocyte cell count in diabetic patients (Hoepelman et al., 2003), so it may contribute to the increased incidence of UTIs in this patient group. Hyperglycemia by itself does not predictably increase bacterial rates of multiplication (Geerlings, 1999) although neutrophils are impaired in the presence of higher urinary or tissue glucose concentration and indirectly helps to increase the chances of infection. Under some circumstances urine may be inhibitory or even bactericidal against small inoculi of uropathogens (Kaye, 1968). Micturition abnormalities secondary to diabetic neuropathy occurs in most of the patients with longstanding diabetes and increased residual urine. Alteration of chemical composition of urine in diabetes mellitus can alter this bactericidal ability of urine and some support the growth of microorganisms. This presumably accounts for some of the increased morbidity as well as most of the increased susceptibility to infection (Sawers et al., 1986). Finally it may be concluded that UTIs in patients with diabetes are common. The results of the present study enlighted that in our study area the prevalence of UTIs is high in women with diabetes than in male diabetic patients.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1924http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19241. Ali KM, Bera TK, Mandal S, Barik BR and Ghosh D (2009). Attenuation of diabetic disorders in experimentally induced diabetic rat by methanol extract of seed of Holarrhena antidysenterica. Int J Pharm Tech Research 1: 1205-1211.
2. Ankel F, Wolfson AB, Stapczynski JS (1990). Emphysematous cystitis: A complication of urinary tract infection occurring predominantly in diabetic women. Ann Emerg Med 19: 404-406.
3. Bauer AW, Kirby WMM, Sherris JC, Turck M (1966). Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized singles disk method. Am J Clin Pathol 45: 493-496.
4. Bova JG, Potter JL, Arevalos E, Hopens T, Goldstein HM, Radwin HM (1985). Renal and peri renal infection: to the role of computerized tomography. J Urol 133: 375- 378.
5. Boyko EJ, Fihn SD, Scholes D, Chen CL, Normand EH, Yarbro P (2002). Diabetes and the risk of urinary tract infection among postmenopausal women. Diab Care 25: 1778-1783.
6. Dubey RC, Maheshwari DK (2004). A textbook of microbiology. 1st edition (Reprint), S. Chand and Company Ltd. New Delhi, India.
7. Gallacher SJ, Thomson G, Fraser WD (1995). Neutrophil bactericidal function in diabetes mellitus: evidence for association with blood glucose control. Diabet Med 12: 916-920.
8. Geerlings SE, Brouwer EC, Gaastra W, Verhoef J, Hoepelman AI (1999). Effect of glucose and pH on uropathogenic and non uropathogenic Escherichia coli: studies with urine from diabetic and non diabetic individuals. J Med Microbiol 48: 535-539.
9. Geerlings SE, Stolk RP, Camps MJ, Netten PM, Hoekstra JB, Bouter KP (2000). Asynptomatic bacteriuria may be considered a complication in women with diabetes. Diab Care 23: 744-749.
10. Geerlings SE, Meiland R, van Lith EC, Brouwer EC, Gaastra W, Hoepelman AI (2002). Adherence of type 1-fimbriaeted E. coli to uro epithelial cells: Move in diabetic women than in control subjects. Diab care 25: 1405-1409.
11. Godkar PB, Godkar DP (2003). Text book of medical laboratory technology. 2nd edition, Bhalani Publishing House, Mumbai, India.
12. Hoepelman AIM, Meiland R, Geerlings SE (2003). Pathogenesis and management of bacterial urinary tract infections in adult patients with diabetes mellitus. Int J Antimicrob Agents 22: 35-43.
13. Hosking DJ, Bennett T, Hampton JR (1978). Diabetic autonomic neuropathy. Diab Care 27: 1043-1054.
14. Hu KK, Boyko EJ, Scholes D (2004). Risk factors for urinary tract infections in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 164: 989-993.
15. Joshi N, Caputo GM, Weitekamp MR, Karchmer AW (1999). Infections in patients with diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 341: 1906-1912.
16. Kaye D (1968). Antibacterial activity of human urine. J Clin Invest 47: 2374-2375.
17. Muchova J, Liptocova A, Orszaghova Z (1999). Antioxidant systems in polymorphonuclear leucocytes of type 2 diabetes mellitas. Diabet Med 16: 74-78.
18. Patterson JE, Andriole VT (1997). Bacterial urinary tract infections in diabetes. Infect Dis Clin North Am 11: 735-750.
19. Pozzilli P, Leslie RDG (1994). Infections and diabetes: mechanisms and prospects for prevention. Diabet Med 11: 935-941.
20. Ronald A, Ludwig E (2001). Urinary tract infections in adults with diabetes. Int J Antimicrobial Agents 17: 287-292.
21. Sawers JS, Todd WA, Kellett HA (1986). Bacteriuria and autonomic nerve function in diabetic women. Diab Care 9: 460-464.
22. Sridhar CB, Anjana S, Mathew JT (2002). Acute infections. In: Ahuja MMS, Tripathy BB, Sam Moses GP, Chandalia HB, Das AK, Rao PV, editors. RSSDI Text Book of Diabetes Mellitus. Hyderabad, India.
23. Valerius NH, Eff C, Hansen NE, Karle H, Nerup J, Soeberg B, Sorenson SF (1982). Neutrophil and lymphocyte function in patients with diabetes mellitus. Acta Med Scand 211: 463-467.
24. World Health Organization. Part I: Diagnosis and Classification of diabetes mellitus. Geneva: Department of non communicable Disease Surveillance. WHO;1999. Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareA COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SERUM ADENOSINE DEAMINASE ENZYME AND SERUM FERROXIDASE ALBUMIN RATIO IN DIAGNOSIS OF PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS
English5358Thakur GajwaniEnglish Jitendra AhujaEnglishSerum adenosine deaminase enzyme and Serum ferroxidase and albumin levels were determined in 50 newly diagnosed patients of tuberculosis, as Case. Fifty age and sex matched healthy individuals were taken as controls. Mean ± SD of serum adenosine deaminase and serum ferroxidase in controls and case was found to be 22.90±3.87U/L,873.82 ± 117.44 IU/L, and 56.73±14.43 U/L, 1708.74±283.57 IU/L, respectively. Serum adenosine deaminase enzyme and Serum ferroxidase in case was significantly higher as compared to controls (pEnglishSerum adenosine deaminase enzyme (ADA), Albumin, Ferroxidase, Diagnosis, Tuberculosis.INTRODUCTION
TB is a major disease burden in India which causing a very high morbidity and mortality, leading to 3 million death annually in India. Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria have infected 9.27 million people in year 2007, globally and about 2 million incident cases of TB were in India (1, 2). In addition, difficulty in diagnose to TB early is one of the main barrier in limit the spread and early treatment of this disease. A positive AFB smear and /or culture of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is gold standard for diagnosis but it is time consuming.(3) Usually diagnosis is based on clinical presentation, radiologic finding and positive tuberculin and BCG tests. Under such circumstances Antitubercular therapy therapy is started empirically .It therefore becomes vital to find some rapid and useful tests for the early and accurate diagnosis of tuberculosis. Various workers have tried different biochemical tests from time to time, which may help confirm the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Adenosine deaminase (ADA), an enzyme essential for the propagation and the differentiation of lymphocytes, particularly Tcells, so that estimation of its activity has been used for observation numerous diseases of altered immunity (4). The serum activity of ADA altered in diseases that cause a cellmediated immune reaction such as lung cancer, tuberculosis, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. (5, 6). ADA is an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolytic and irreversible deamination of adenosine to inosine and 2‘-deoxyadenosine to 2‘- deoxyinosine (7). This enzyme is mainly distributed in the lymphoid tissues. It has been reflected on as a marker of T-cell activation (8). Serum ceruloplasmin is a blue α-2; copper transporting globulin synthesized in liver microsomes and possesses ferroxidase activity (9). It also contains an antioxidant property in serum by oxidizing ferrous iron which could otherwise act as a catalyst in generating toxic free radicals (10). Increases in the level of serum ceruloplasmin were observed in new cases of pulmonary TB either sputum positive or negative which come down with antitubercular treatment in due course of time and shows that level of serum ceruloplasmin are related with the activity of the disease process (11). Albumin, a major plasma protein has been reported low in pulmonary TB (12). This study aims to find an evaluation of serum Adenosine deaminase enzyme, serum ferroxidase, albumin and ferroxidase: albumin ratio in the diagnosis of pulmonary TB and a comparison of these two tests serum ADA and ferroxidase: albumin ratio which one is better in diagnosis of Tuberculosis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in Department of Biochemistry, Geetanjali Medical College, Udaipur, in collaboration with Department of TB. and chest, Geetanjali Medical College, Udaipur between march 2010 and January 2011 .Fifty cases of pulmonary TB were taken for the present study whose were freshly diagnosed, sputum positive .Fifty age and sex matched healthy subjects without any history of pulmonary TB were also included in the study as controls. In all cases serum adiponectin deaminase, serum ferroxidase and serum albumin levels were studied. Permission was taken from the Institutional Ethics.
ADA Adenosine + H2o--------------? Ammonia + Inosine Alkaline
Ammonia + Phenol +Hypochloride-----------------? Blue indo phenol complex
Medium
This method of serum ADA estimation is based on the principle of Guisti G Galanti methods of Committee. Informed consent has been taken in English or local language if applicable.
Inclusion criteria for pulmonary TB
Cases diagnosed as a ?new case? of tuberculosis; Possessing at least two positive sputum smear test positive for Acid Fast Bacilli; Radiographic abnormalities consistent with pulmonary tuberculosis, A decision by physician to treat with a full course of anti-TB Chemotherapy, non tubercular pulmonary diseases: a decision by physician .
Exclusion criteria for pulmonary TB
Patients with extra pulmonary TB and/or patients requiring surgical intervention, chronic pulmonary TB (receiving at least two courses of anti-TB treatment for more than six months), Presence of secondary immunodeficiency states: HIV, organ transplantation, diabetes mellitus, treatment with corticosteroids. A detailed clinical history was taken and thorough physical examination was carried out in every subject. A set of investigations including three consecutive (spot-early mornings-spot) sputum samples examination, Mantoux test, Postero-anterior chest x-ray and ESR by Westergren method were carried out on study group. Serum ADA estimation was done in healthy controls, pulmonary tuberculosis patients.
Principle
Adenosine deaminase hydrolyses adenosine to ammonia and inosine. The ammonia formed further reacts with a phenol as hypochloride in an alkaline medium to from a blue color indophenol complex with sodium nitroprusside acting as a catalyst. Intensity of the blue colored indophenols complex formed is directly proportional to the amount of ADA present in the sample.
This method of serum ADA estimation is based on the principle of Guisti G Galanti methods of enzymatic analyses 1974 (13). For the determination of Adenosine deaminase activity in serum, plasma, and biological flu-ids, ADA MTB diagnostic kit from Microxpress a division of Tulip diagnostics (P) Ltd has been used.Serum albumin was estimated by Autopak kit from Roche, USA on ?HITACHI 902? Clinical Chemistry analyzer. Serum ferroxidase was estimated by a Kinetic method of Somani and Ambade (14) on Spectrophotometer. Statistical analysis was carried out using the software program ?SPSS?
RESULTS
Control Group Fifty normal individuals aged between 20 years - 55 years [32 Males (64.0%) and 18 females (36.0%)] were included as controls. In this group the serum ADA activity level ranged from 13.4 to 29.3 U/L with a mean value of 22.90±3.87 U/L as mentioned in Table 1. Serum ferroxidase levels in controls ranged from 690 IU/L to 1180 IU/L with a mean of 870± 117.44 IU/L units and the serum albumin were ranged from 3.0 g/dl to 4.7 g/dl with a mean of 3.5± 0.33.g/dl. The calculated ratio of ferroxidase and albumin were ranged from 17.89 IU/g to 34.70 IU/g with a mean of 25.02± 4.5 IU/g. Case Group Fifty TB patients aged between 19 years - 62 years [35 Males (70.0%) and 15 females (30.0%)] were included as case. Values of serum ADA were varying from 40.3U/L to 97.65 U/L and the mean ± SD were 56.73± 14.43 U/L. The mean ± SD of ferroxidase (IU)/Alb (g) ratio in case was 60.05 ±14.46 IU/L and albumin were ranged from 2.91 g/dl to 4.7 g/dl with a mean 2.91± 0.41 g/dl.
Three groups of patients according to age 0-25 yrs, 26-50 yrs and ≥ 51 yrs was formed, as shown in Table 2. The diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis was based on ESR, Sputum AFB, Serum ADA, Mantoux test and chest x-ray. Serum ADA level was positive in 50 (100.0 %) ferroxidase 50 (100.0 %) and ferroxidase (IU)/Alb (g) ratio cases 50 (100%) followed by 30 (60%) in Mantoux test, 34 (68.0%) in chest x-ray, 39 (78%) in sputum AFB and 27 (54%) in ESR.
DISCUSSION
We evaluated 50 patients, the most prevalent complaint among the 50 subjects was cough as it was found in all (50) patients, then expectoration was found in 33(66%) patients, dyspnea in 15 (30%) patients, Heamoptysis in 9 (18%) patients, chest pain in 5(10%) patients, fever in patients 40 (80%) and toxemic manifestations in 13 (26%) patients. Although mycobacterial culture is sensitive and standard for diagnosing tuberculosis, the time for diagnosis requires a minimum of 2-3 weeks, whereas a negative result is available after 8 to 12 weeks (15). Acid fast bacilli smear, the rapid screening method for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis, is insensitive for detecting mycobacteria among tuberculosis patients (16).The management of pulmonary TB becomes difficult due to this long incubation period. Patient are getting a delayed diagnosis or an unwanted administration of antituberculosis drugs if decisions taken by the clinician without culture results (15). Recently Some molecular and accurate tests are available like in vitro nucleic acid direct amplification tests (DATs) and Polymerase Chain Reactions (17,18), Inspite of appearance of these a positive AFB smear and/ or culture of mycobacterium is still remain the ?gold standard? for diagnosis and follow up (15,16). To overcome these difficulties, we necessitate different biochemical parameters to assist in early diagnosis of pulmonary TB. Mishra et al. assessed serum ADA levels of 51 children with confirmed tuberculosis and 20 healthy controls showing significant increase in the first group with a p-value of Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1925http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19251. World Health Organization. The World Health Report: Global tuberculosis control. 2009: 110.
2. Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme: Key factor and Concepts. New Delhi: Central TB Division, Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare; 1999.
3. Lalit Kant. Improving detection of infectious cases. Indian J Tuberculosis. 2001; 48: 115-6. 4.
4 Martinez-Hernandez D, Arenas-Barbero J, Navarro-Gallar F, Garcia-Esteban R, Santos-Sancho JM, Gomez-de-Terreros FJ. Adenosine deaminase in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [letter]. Clin Chem. 1988; 34: 1949.
5. Ioanna Samarai, Petros Bakakos, Dora Orphanidou, Pangiota Latis , Sofia Katsimpoula, Georgios S. et al, Adenosine Deaminase Activity in Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis and Lung Cancer, Adv Clin Exp Med. 2007;16:533–5.
6. Hitoglou S, Hatzistilianou M, Gougoustamou D, Athanassiadou F, Kotsis A, Catriu D. Adenosine deaminase activity and its isoenzyme pattern in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol 2001; 20: 411-6.
7. Gakis C. Adenosine deaminase (ADA) isoenzymes ADA1 and ADA 2: diagnostic and biological role. Eur Respir J 1996; 9: 632-3.
8. Fischer D, Van den Weyden MB, Synderman R, Kelley WN. The role for adenosine deaminase in human monocyte maturation. J Clin Invest 1976; 58: 399- 407.
9. Raju KS, Alessandri G, Ziche M, Gullino PM. Ceruloplasmin, copper ions, and angiogenesis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1982;69:183-8.
10. Dumitriu L, Bartoc R, Ursu H, Purice M. Significance of high levels of serum malonyldialdehyde (MDA) and ceruloplasmin (Cp) in hyperhypothyroidism. Endocrinology 1988; 26(10):35-8.
11. P.O. Motiani, S.K.luhadia, R.S. Gupta and G.S. Sharma Serum ceruloplasmin levels in relation to activity of pulmonary tuberculosis Ind j. Tub. 1983, 30, 152)
12. Onwubalili JK. Malnutrition among tuberculosis patients in Harrow, England. Eur J Clin Nutr 1988; 42: 363-6.
13. Giusti G. Adenosine deaminase. In Bergmeyer H.V.Ed. Methods of enzymatic analysis. Vol-2, New York Academic press, 1974:1092.
14. Somani BL, Ambade V. Novel composition for Kinetic Assay of Ceruloplasmin. Clin Chem 2005; 51(6): Suppl A90 15.
15.Bradley SP, Reed SL, Catanzaro A. Clinical efficacy of the amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis direct test for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1606-10
16. Murray PR, Elmore C, Krogstad DJ. The acid-fast stain: a specific and predictive test for mycobacterial disease. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92 (4): 512-3. 17.
17.Pfyffer GE, Kissling P, Wirth R, Weber R. Direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in respiratory specimens by target-amplified test system. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32: 918-23
18. Roth A, Schaberg T, Mauch H. Molecular diagnosis of tuberculosis: current clinical validity and future perspectives.Eur Respir J 1997; 10: 1877-91
19. Mishra OP, S Yusaf, Z Ali, G Nath, BK Das. Adenosine deaminase activity and lysozyme levels in children with tuberculosis. J. Trop. Paediatr. 2000;46:175-8. 1
20. Khalid Hassanein,Hossam Hosny,Randa Mohamed, Wagdy Abd El- Moneim Role of adenosine deaminase (ada) in the diagnosis of Pulmonary tuberculosisy Egyptian Journal of Bronchology Vol. 4, No. 1, June, 2010
21. Saeed Aminiafshar, Masoomeh Alimagham, Maryam Keshtkar Jahromi, Latif Gachkar, Babak Haghighat, Mitra Keshtkar Jahromi , Termeh Aminiafshar, Serum Adenosine Deaminase Level as an Indicator ofPulmonary Tuberculosis Activity versus Other Infectious Diseases. Tanaffos (2004) 3(12), 19-23
22. P.O. Motiani, S.K.luhadia, R.S. Gupta and G.S. Sharma Serum ceruloplasmin levels in relation to activity of pulmonary tuberculosis Ind j. Tub.1983, 30, 152
23. Shinghvi, Maitra BB. Ceruloplasmin activity in pulmonary tuberculosis. Ind J Chest and Allied Dis 1977; 14(3): 110
24. Sudha K, Rao KV, Rao SN. Oxidative stress and antioxidants in tubercular meningitis. Ind J Clin Biochem 2002; 17(1):34-41
25. Adebisi SA, Oluboyo PO. The usefulness of serum albumin and urinary creatinine as biochemical indices for monitoring the nutritional status of Nigerians with pulmonary TB. Niger Postgrad Med J 2003; 10 (4): 247-50.
26. Batra H.S.,Singh P. ,Somani B.L.,Gupta A., Sampath S.and Ambade V. Serum ferroxidase albumin ratio as a marker in pulmonary tuberculosis Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry, 2007 / 22 (2) 106- 108)
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareROLE OF DRUGS IN ORTHODONTIC TOOTH MOVEMENT
English5962Darshan.D.D.English Saqib HassanEnglish Anil KumarEnglish Vijay Kumar C N.EnglishThere is no drug with out any side effect or adverse reaction, adverse drug reaction is an unwanted or harmful reaction experienced following the administration of a drug or combination of drugs under normal conditions of use and suspected to be related to the drug. Hence in dentistry even the orthodontist also should pay a close attention to the drug consumption history of each and every patient. Since many drugs have shown inhibitory effect on tooth movement. The purpose of this article is to describe the drugs which are commonly affecting the rate of tooth movement.
EnglishAdverse effects, Drugs, Orthodontic tooth movement.INTRODUCTION
Orthodontic tooth movement is basically a biologic response towards a mechanical force. The movement is induced by the prolonged application of controlled mechanical forces, which create pressure and tension zones in the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone, causing remodeling the tooth sockets.1 Apart from drugs users, patients who consume vitamins, minerals, and other compounds, for the prevention or treatment of various diseases, can also be found in every orthodontic practice. Some of these drugs may have profound effects on the short and long term outcomes of orthodontic treatment. However, in many cases little is known on the nature of this interaction between specific drugs and orthodontic tissue remodeling, thereby increasing the risk of negative effects.2 Orthodontists should take proper medical history of the patient and also should know the effect of drugs on the tooth movement, because many drugs have shown the retarded tooth movement
Drugs that promote or retard orthodontic tooth movement
1 Promoter drugs:
These agents basically enhance bone resorption. They couple with the secondary and primary inflammatory mediators and enhance tooth movement. They are prostaglandin,3 leucotriens,4 cytokines,5 vitamin,6 osteocalcin,7 and corticosteroids.8
Prostaglandins and analogs
Remodeling activities associated with inflammatory reactions induced by mechanical stimuli form the biological basis for orthodontic tooth movement. Certain eiconsanoids (PGs and leucotrienes) released from paradental cells in sites of compression and tensions have significant stimulatory effects on bone remodeling. This finding led researchers to inject PGs locally at the site of orthodontic tooth movement, to enhance the bone remodeling process, and thereby enhance the pace of tooth movement. Yamasaki et al found an increased number of osteoclasts in rats alveolar bone after local injection of PGE1. A similar regimen in human subjects increased significantly the rate of canine and premolar movement.9 Relaxin Relaxin has been known for decades as a pregnancy hormone. It is released just before child birth to loosen the pubic symphysis, so that the relaxed suture will allow widening of the birth canal for parturition. It has also been shown to have effects on a multitude of other physiological processes, including the regulation of vasotonus, plasma osmolality, angiogenesis, collagen turnover, and renal function. Relaxin‘s influence on soft tissue remodeling and on several mediators that stimulate osteoclast formation and this has attracted attention from orthodontics researchers.10 Parathyroid Hormone: Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is produced by the parathyroid glands to regulate serum calcium concentration. In the kidneys, PTH increases renal calcium reabsorption and stimulates the excretion of urinary phosphate. In bone PTH can induce a rapid release of calcium, but also mediates longer term changes by acting directly on osteoblasts and indirectly osteoclasts. PTH affects osteoblasts‘ cellular metabolic activity, gene transcriptional activity, and multiple protease secretion. Its effects on osteoclasts occur through the production of RANKL, a protein that plays a crucial role in osteoclast formation and activity.10
Vitamin D: In 1988, Collins and Sinclair demonstrated that intraligamentous injections of a vitamin D metabolite, 1,25- dihydroxycholecalciferaol (1,25D), caused an increase in the number of osteoclasts and the amount of tooth movement during canine retraction with light forces in cats. Similar results were observed that local application of vitamin D enhanced the rate of tooth movement in rats; according to the authors, this effect was due to the well-balanced bone turnover induced by vitamin D.11 Thyroid Hormones: Thyroid hormones play an essential role in the normal growth and development of vertebrates. They enhance the response to growth hormone, stimulate cartilage growth and differentiation, and promote bone maturation and resorption. In bone remodeling, they act directly by stimulating the action of osteoclasts but they also have an indirect effect through growth factors that are closely related to bone metabolism, such as insulin-like growth factor I (IGH-1), which is produced locally in bone cells by the action of thyroid hormones. The clinical applications of these drugs still need to be clarified.10 II
Suppressor agents:
These agents basically reduce bone resorption.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs:
Investigation into the mechanisms involved in the transduction of mechanical forces into biological responses began in the 1970s. Harell and colleagues, in 1977, observed the synthesis of prostaglandins from osteoblasts like cells cultured on orthodontic screws, which had been cemented to the bases of Petri dishes. In an interesting practical application of these findings, Yamasaki and colleagues, in 1980, found that indomethacin, a non-steroidal cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1 and COX-2) inhibitor, reduced bone resorption and orthodontic tooth movement in rats. These authors also demonstrated that the local injection of prostaglandin E-1 and E-2 into the submucosa overlying orthodontically treated teeth doubled the rate of tooth movement, both in monkeys and in humans. Because prostaglandins appear to be important in the process of tooth movement, it has been suggested that the use of over-the-counter NSAIDs by orthodontic patients can significantly alter the efficacy of tooth movement. Recently, Jerome and colleagues showed that Celebrex (Registered trademark of Pfizer, Inc., New York, NY) administered in rats during the application of orthodontic forces did not interfere with tooth movement and appeared to offer some protection against root resorption.10,12,13 Bisphosphonates: This class of pharmacological agents selectively inhibits osteoclasts. It has been used to treat bone metabolism disorders such as osteoporosis, bone diseases and bone pain from some types of cancer. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that orthodontic tooth movement can be inhibited by the topical application of bisphosphonates. Further studies are required before these drugs can be used in clinical orthodontic therapy. Orthodontists should also be aware of their interactions. In 2005, Schwarz reported an important case of female orthodontic patient who was being medicated with Zometa to control bone metastases related to breast cancer. At the time the patient began treatment with this drug, when the premolar spaces were about one-third closed, all orthodontic movement stopped.14,15,16 Corticosteroids: The increasing use of glucocorticoid therapy for many inflammatory and autoimmune diseases should alert clinicians to the variations from normal bone turnover that may be caused by this steroid. In animal experiments, high doses of glucocorticoid have actually made the animals osteoporotic. In 2004, however Kalia and colleagues evaluated the rate of tooth movement in rats during short and long term corticosteroid therapy. They demonstrated that bone remodeling seemed to slow down in acute administrations, whereas the rate of tooth movement increased in chronic treatment. Clinically these results suggest that it is possible to treat patients undergoing corticosteroid therapy with a minimum adverse effect. Patients who are within the short term phase of drug use may be advised to postpone orthodontic treatment or because their bone turnover will be delayed, should be scheduled for appliance adjustments at long intervals.17
Echistatin and RGD peptides:
Another approach made recently was local injection of echistatin and arginine-glycine-spartic acid (RGD) peptides on rats to prevent tooth movement, thereby enhancing anchorage. Dolce et al made the first attempt in this aspect and reported that ELVAX-40 (a nonbiodegradable, non-inflammatory, sustained release polymer) could be used to deliver integrin inhibitors like echistatin and RGD peptide agents (known to perturb bone remodeling), to reduce tooth movement at a local level. Recent research has even demonstrated decrease in root resorption following orthodontic force application after administration of echistatin. Further research is progressing in this area at different laboratories worldwide. It is clear from the ongoing discussion that up till now no well-established means are available to promote or retard orthodontic tooth movement in clinical setting.18
Acetaminophen:
Acetaminophen (paracetamol) a weak COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitor that also reduces urinary prostaglandin levels after systemic administration, has shown no effect on orthodontic tooth movement in guinea pigs and rabbits. Comparative studies and our clinical experience have demonstrated that acetaminophen is effective for controlling pain and discomfort associated with orthodontic treatment.
Sex hormones:
Estrogen is considered the most important hormone affecting bone metabolism in women. It inhibits the production of cytokines involved in osteoclastic activation and bone resorption, such as interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor-a. Miyajima and colleagues, in 1996, attributed a female patient‘s slow turnover of alveolar bone to her menopausal status and to the estrogen supplement she had been taking for three years. The inhibitory effect of androgens on bone resorption has been demonstrated, but their influence on orthodontic tooth movement has not been clarified.19
CONCLUSION
Orthodontists should be aware that many patients use drugs on a daily basis, and all these drugs have therapeutic effects, as well as side effects, that may inhibit orthodontic forces. Therefore close attention should be given to the drug consumed by each and every patient during the course of orthodontic treatment. These drugs may slow down the rate of orthodontic tooth movement, which will eventually increase the total treatment duration.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1926http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19261. 1 Reitan K. Biomechanical principles and reactions. In: Graber TM, Swain BF, editors. Current orthodontic concepts and techniques, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co; 1985.
2. Isaacson RJ. Your patients are on drugs. Angle Orthod 2000:70(2);96-96.
3. Yamaski et al: clinical application of PGE 1 upon orthodontic tooth movement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1984;Jun:508- 518.
4. Abbash Mohamed et al: Leucotriens in orthodontic tooth movement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1989;95:231-237.
5. Laurariwasaki et al: Tooth movement and cytokines in gingival crevicular fluid and whole blood in growing and adult subjects. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2005:128;483-491.
6. MK Collins et al: the local use of vitamin D to increase the rate of orthodontic tooth movement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1988;94:278-284.
7. Yasuhiro Kobayashi et al: Effect of local administration of Osteocalcin on experimental tooth movement. Angle Orthod 1998;68:259-266.
8. Michael B. Ashcraft: the effect of corticosteroids induced osteoporosis on orthodontic tooth movement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1992;102:310-319.
9. Yamasaki K. Shibata Y, Imai S, Tani Y, Shibasaki Y Furihara T. Clinical application of prostaglandin E1 (PGEI) upon orthodontic tooth movement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1984;85:508- 518.
10. Gustavo hauber gameiro, Joao sarmento pereira-neto, Maria beatriz borges de araújo magnani, Darcy flávio nouer. J Clin Orthod 2007; 2: 73- 78.
11. MK Collins et al. The local use of vitamin D to increase the rate of orthodontic tooth movement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1988;94:278-284.
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14. Nase JB, Suzuk JB. Osteonecrosis of the jaw and oral bisphosphonate treatment. J Am Dent Assoc 2006;137: 1115-1119.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareANTIMICROBIAL AND CYTOTOXIC ACTIVITIES OF LARVAL EXTRACT OF MUSCA DOMESTICA (HOUSE
FLY)
English6369Mohammad Nasir Uddin AhamadEnglish Suman MojumderEnglish AsingEnglish Dwaipayan SikdarEnglishThe principle objective of this study was to investigate the presence of antimicrobial activities in the larvae of insect Musca domestica (house fly). For this purpose, the body wall of the insect larvae were injured by a sterile hypodermic needle and then the larval extract were prepared in acidic (pH 5.0), neutral (pH 7.0) and alkaline (pH 8.0) buffers or water. These extracts were used for the screening of antimicrobial activities against 11 bacteria and 10 fungi by an agar disc diffusion assay and by poisoned food technique respectively. All the three extracts showed inhibition against 2 bacterial species viz., Salmonela typhi, Bacillus subtilis and 5 fungi viz., Macrophomia phaseolina , Fusarium equiseti ,
Colletrotrichum corchori, Alternaria alternate and Rhizopus species. The acidic extract also showed inhibition against bacteria Escherichia coli. Of the three extracts, acidic extract showed highest inhibition against all the microbes. Cytotoxic activity (LC50) of the acidic, neutral and alkaline extract was found to be 141.2 μg/ml, 152.2 μg/ml and 149.5 μg/ml respectively.
EnglishAntimicrobial, Cytotoxic, Extract, inhibition, Musca domestica.INTRODUCTION
Microorganisms have developed resistant to many antibiotics and this has created immense clinical problems in the treatment of infectious diseases[1]. The increase of microbial resistance to antibiotics has led to a continuing search for newer and more effective drugs [2] . Insects are among the oldest and the most successful groups of animals occupying this planet. An essential feature of the success of insects has been their ability to invade and to exploit a diverse range of ecological niches. Insects have evolved and, in many situations, thrived in environments replete with potentially parasitic and pathogenic competitors. Disease in insect populations may reduce vigor, productivity, and ultimately survival of individuals and thus may contribute to the regulation of population levels. The ubiquitous presence of both infectious organisms and metazoan parasites in ecosystems occupied by insects has exerted a strong selection pressure for insects resistant to infection. Thus modern species of insects may represent the most extensive summary of successful defensive strategies against infection in the animal kingdom. Indeed, several early studies of antimicrobial defense mechanisms in animals were performed using insect models [3] . The presence of antimicrobial activities and the purification of many peptides responsible for these activities in numerous insects have been reported so far [3]. Antibacterial peptides have been isolated from the haemolymph of Sarcophaga peregrina (flesh-fly) larvae [4] and from the haemolymph of immunized pupae of Hyalophora cecropia (cecropia moth) [5] . The housefly (Musca domestica) belonging to the Diptera grows and survives in dirty places. So it is reasonable to think that the insect could have strong antimicrobial activities. The aim of the present study is to test the antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities in the housefly larvae as a part of our attempt to isolate and purify new antimicrobial agents.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection of larvae and preparation of extract:
Larvae of Musca domestica was collected from the rotten cow dung from Chittagong University campus. Larvae were washed in tap water first and then in distilled water in a sieve. Then the larvae were anesthetized by (after) keeping them on ice for 5 min. The larvae were then injured with a sterile stainless steel hypodermic needle. One prick per animal was used to induce the antimicrobial activity. 2 gm of larvae were homogenized separately in 5 ml of distilled water (A), 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 8.0 (B) and 0.1 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0 (C) for 10 min in a glass homogenizer keeping it at 40 C. The homogenates were centrifuged at 10 000 rpm for 10 min at 40 C in a sorvall refrigerated centrifuge. Supernatant was collected and stored at -200 C until use.
Antibacterial activity test of the extract:
The antibacterial activity was determined by disc diffusion method [6] against eleven bacterial strains, which included four gram positive and seven gram negative organisms and kindly provided by the Department of Microbiology, University of Chittagong. The strains were Escherichia coli ATCC25922, Shigella dysenteriae AE14612, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6538, Bacillus subtilis BTTC17, Bacillus cereus BTTC19, Bacillus megaterium BTTC18, Shigella sonnei CRL, Salmonella typhi AE 14296, Salmonella paratyphi AE14631, Vibrio cholera AE14748 and Pseudomonus aeruginosa. In brief, filter paper discs of 5 mm in diameter were individually impregnated with 20 µl/disc of the larval extracts (each group) and then placed onto the solidified agar plates previously inoculated with tested microorganisms. The plates were incubated at 370 C for 24 h. The antimicrobial activities were measured from zone of inhibition expressed in mm. Tetracycline was used as standard at the dose of 35 µg/disc as positive control. The experiments were carried out in triplicate.
Antifungal activity test of the extract:
The in vitro antifungal activities were tested by poisoned food technique [7]. Ten fungi, collected from the Department of Microbiology, University of Chittagong, were used for this study. They were Macrophomina phaseolina, Alternaria alternate, Curvularia lunata, Colletotrichum corchori, Penicillium sp, Aspergillus niger Aspergillus fumigates, Aspergillus flavus, Rhizopus sp and Fusarium equiseti. The potato dextrose agar (PDA) was used as a culture medium. The larval extract of every group was mixed separately with sterilized PDA to obtain a final concentration of 15 µg of protein/ml. From this, 20 ml medium was poured into separate petridish and allowed to solidify. For each fungus, inoculum was done by placing a 5 mm mycelium block obtained from a five days old culture of the test fungi on PDA at the centre of each plate in an inverted position. The inoculated plates were incubated at 28±20 C for 5-7days. A control set was maintained in each experiment using only PDA as growth medium. The antifungal activities were measured from the diameter of fungal colony expressed in mm. All the antifungal results were compared with the standard antifungal antibiotic Nystatin (100 μg/ml PDA). The percentage inhibition of radial mycelia growth of the test fungus was calculated as follows: % Inhibition = (C-T/C) × 100 Where, C = diameter of the fungal colony in the control petridish T = diameter of the fungal colony in the treated petridish.
Determination of cytotoxic activity or lethal concentration 50 (LC50):
In vitro lethality bioassay of the larval extract of M. domestica was performed to detect cytotoxicity following the method described by [8]. Brine shrimp (Artemia salina Leach) eggs were hatched in seawater (3.8 gm sea salt per liter distilled water) under the light of a lamp for 48 h yielding large number of larvae (nauplii). Then 3 ml of seawater was given to 10 vials. Afterwards, with the help of micropipette specific volumes (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30 µl) of each extract (A- 29.2 µg/µl, B-34.2 µg/µl and C- 20.0 µg/µl of protein) were transferred from the stock solutions to the vials to get final sample concentrations summarized in table 3. With the help of the Pasteur pipette 10 living nauplii were kept to each of the vials. Alive nauplii were counted after 24 h and the median lethal concentrations (LC50) were calculated by trend linefit linear regression analysis of the obtained data. The experiments for each extract were carried out in triplicate.
Acute toxicity studies upon swiss albino mice:
The acute toxicity evaluation was performed on mice with 30–35 g and 6–8 weeks in age of either sex. Ten mice were randomly divided into two equal groups: control group in which water was administered and experimental group in which extract was administered. Larval extracts were administered by intraperitoneal route at a high dose of 2 gm protein/kg body weight. The animals were observed during the following 10 days for detection of any behavioral change, poisonous symptoms, food consumption, growth rate and mortality.
Determination of protein concentration in the larval extract:
The protein concentration in the extract was measured by Lowry‘s method [9]. In brief, different aliquots of standard BSA solution (250 µg/ml) were pipetted out in different tubes along with the aliquots of extract in separate tubes. Equal amount of alkaline copper sulphate was added in each tube and then allowed to stand for 15 min. Equal amount of Folin-ciocalteau reagent was added in each tube and the tubes were left for 30 min. Blue color was formed which was measured at 650 nm against a proper blank where no protein solution was used. The protein concentration of the extract was calculated from the standard curve.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The antibacterial and the antifungal activities of injured larval extract, prepared in different pH, of Musca domenistica were determined against eleven bacterial species and ten fungi. In antibacterial activity assay, the results were compared with those produced by the standard antibiotic tetracycline (35 µg/disc).The sensitivity of the bacteria towards the extract and standard have been shown in table 1. All the extracts showed antibacterial activities against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria but in a very species specific way. In case of extract C, highest activities were found against gram positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis (19 mm) and gram negative bacteria, Salmonella typhi (20 mm) whereas relative weak activities were found against gram positive bacteria, Echerichia coli (10 mm). Similarly the extract A exhibited the zone of inhibition of 16 mm against Bacillus subtilis and 17 mm against Salmonella typhi, whereas extract B produced that of 5 mm and 15 mm respectively. In comparison, the standard drug tetracycline produced zone of inhibition against Bacillus subtilis (20.6 mm), Salmonella typhi (23.3 mm) and Echerichia coli (16.4 mm). No activities were found against the other tested bacteria. Similar antibacterial activities of the flesh-fly larval extract against strain specific bacteria have been reported previously [4]. The chemical compositions of housefly larvae (dry weight/dry starting material weight, w/w) are protein (54.47%), carbohydrate (12.04%), fat (11.60%), crude fiber (5.70%) and ashes (11.43%), indicating a high content of protein [10]. We suppose that the active molecules in housefly larvae may be some peptides. Chernysh et al. (2002) [11] isolated two antiviral and anti-tumor peptides from the blow fly Calliphora vicina (Diptera). Lepidoptera have been reported to produce several antibacterial peptides in response to septic injury [12] . The presence of multiple antibacterial activities in various Lepidoptera indicates that these proteins have different lethal effects or different antibacterial specificities and together construct a potent defense system to prevent bacterial infection [4] . The inhibition of fungal radial mycelial growth by the larval extract is presented in Table 2. Nystatin (100 µg/ml) was used as standard antibiotic. The results were compared with standard as 100% zone of inhibition. The extracts (15 µg of protein/ml) inhibited the growth of five fungi out of the tested ten. Maximum inhibition was found against Rhizopus sp (83.35%) and Colletotrichum corchori (80%) with extract C. Considerable inhibition was found against Alternaria arternata (75%), Fusarium equiseti (71.66%) and Macrophomina phascolina (60%). The extract A also showed inhibitions against Rhizopus sp (66.66%), Fusarium equiseti (62.50%), Alternaria arternata (14.28%) and Colletotrichum corchori (42.85%), whereas extract B showed little inhibition. No inhibition was found against the other tested fungi. Septic injury in H. virescens larvae results in the production of an antifungal peptide, heliomicin [12]. Lijima et al. (1993) [13] also reported the presence of an antifungal peptide (AFP) from the hemolymph of a Sarcophaga peregrine (flesh fly) larva. Cytotoxic activities of larval extracts are presented in Table 3. The extracts exhibited toxicity towards brine shrimp. The extracts showed different mortality rate at different concentrations. The mortality rate of brine shrimp was found to be increased with the increase of protein concentration. A plot of log concentration of the sample versus percent of mortality showed an approximate linear correlation between them (plot not shown). The cytotoxic concentration of extract A that killed 50% of brine shrimps within 24 h of exposure was 152.2 µg/ml. None of the shrimps died on exposure to the 29.2 µg/ml concentration, while 7 out of 10 shrimps died at the 175.2 µg/ml concentration of this when exposed same time period. For extract B, the LC50 was calculated as 149.5 µg/ml. None of the shrimps died within the 24 h exposure to extract C up to 40 µg/ml concentrations. This extract produced an LC50 of 141.2 µg\ml. Cytotoxic test depicts the extracts may contain antitumor or pesticidal peptides. However, this cannot be confirmed without further higher and specific tests [14] . This is the first report of cytotoxicity of house fly larval extract on brine shrimp larvae. House fly larval extract exhibited highest activity against bacteria and fungi around pH 5.0, but the activity continuously decreased when the pH was changed to alkaline values. On the contrary, the higher cytotoxic activity was showed at neutral pH, but the activity continuously decreased when the pH was changed either to acidic or to alkaline values (Fig 1), although very little difference in LC50 values was observed among extract A, B and C. This may be due to the fact that the charge forming, distribution and conformation of the molecules were different under different pH, which resulted in the different antimicrobial efficiency. A decrease in pH of the medium has been shown to cause protonation of the ionizable carboxylic acid side chain, leading to an increase in hydrophobicity and consequent aggregation [15] . It is generally accepted that increasing the hydrophobicity of the nonpolar face of the amphipathic α-helical peptides would also increase the antimicrobial activity [16] . In the studies of acute toxicity on mice, no external manifestation of toxic syndrome or death was observed within 10 days after injection of different extracts at a single dose of 2 gm/kg body weight through intraperitoneal route. This route was chosen as an effort to avoid interfering factors such as absorption, pH of the stomach and intestines, enzymatic activity of the digestive tract and first-pass metabolism [17] . At the moment nothing is known about the mechanism of the lethal effect of this extract on microbes. Because there is no acute toxicity against the extract on experimental mice, we only assume that the insect could be used as a good source for developing antimicrobial agents and knowledge of these antimicrobial compounds will lead to better control of human pathogens.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1927http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19271. Davis J. Inactivation of antibiotics and the dissemination of resistance genes. Science 1994; 264: 375-382.
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5. Hultmark D, Steiner H, Rasmuson T, Boman HG. Purification and properties of three inducible bactericidal proteins from hemolymph of immunized pupae of Hyalophora cecropia. Eur J Biochem 1980; 106(1): 7-16.
6. Baur AW, Kirby WMM, Sheris JC, Turck M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by standardized single disc method. Am J Clin Pathol 1966; 44: 493-496.
7. Miah MAT, Ahmed HU, Sharma NR, Ali A, Miah SA. Antifungal activity of some plant extract. Bangladesh J Bot 1990; 19(1): 5-10.
8. Meyer BN, Firrigni NR, Putnam JE, Jacobson LB, Bichols DE, Mclaughlin JL. Brine shrimp: a convenient bioassay for active constituents. Planta Med 1982; 45: 31-34.
9. Lowry OH, Rseebrough N J, Farr AL, Randall RJ. Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J Biol Chem 1951; 193: 265-276.
10. Li GH, Zhong CZ, Zhong LB, Le CL, Lu HP. Nutritional evaluation of extracted housefly (Musca domestica) protein. Entomological knowledge (in Chinese) 1997; 34: 347–350.
11. Chernysh S, Ki SI, Bekker G, Pleskach VA, Filatov, NA, Anikin VB, Platonov VG, Bulet P. Antiviral and antitumor peptides from insects. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (US) 2002; 99: 12628–12632.
12. Lamberty M, Ades S, Uttenweiler JS, Brookhart G, Bushey D, Hoffmann JA et al. Isolation from the lepidopteran Heliothis virescens of a novel insect defensin with potent antifungal activity. The journal of biological chemistry 1999; 274 (14, 2): 9320–9326.
13. Lijima R, Kurata S, Nator, S. Purification, characterization, and cDNA cloning of an antifungal protein from the hemolymph of Sarcophaga peregrine (flesh fly). J Biol Chem 1993; 268:12055-12061.
14. Khan MAA, Prasanta P, Islam MT, Biswas NN, Sadhu SK. Cytotoxicity, antimicrobial and neuropharmalogical evalution of ethanolic extract of Pistia stratiotes L. Inter research j pharm 2011; 2(2): 82-92.
15. Datta A, Dube A, Jain B, Tiwar A, Gupta PK. The Effect of pH and Surfactant on the Aggregation Behavior of Chlorin p6: A Fluorescence Spectroscopic Study (para). Photochemistry and Photobiology 2002; 75(5): 488–494.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.?*‘A= water, B= 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 8.0, C= 0.1M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0 ?a‘ Standard antibacterial antibiotic
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareEMERGING PATTERN OF ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY IN PATIENTS DIAGNOSED CTS - A STUDY IN INDIA
English7080Lata D ParmarEnglish Vikas DoshiEnglishContext: Establishment of classification of CTS on various basis have been reported. However surgery or conservative‘ intervention may still remain a dilemma. In last 2 years we had electro diagnosis data collected of patients clinically diagnosed and electro physiologically confirmed CTS.Aim: to study if the emerging pattern of NCS can be categorized. Design: Hospital based, Retrospective Analysis Methods and Material: Data CTS patients referred for NCS analyzed afterelectro physiologically confirmation. The data were grouped on the basis of SML. Statistical analysis used: Descriptive statistics, Regression analysis Results: Total No. of cases 70, females 64, males 06, age range 23 – 72 yrs. Clinically involved hands Rt.19, Lt.23 and 28 bilateral. No. of hands electro physiologically normal (sensory latency EnglishNerve conduction studies, classifications, electro diagnosis, treatment outcome.INTRODUCTION
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is one of the most common entrapment but none of the tests are diagnostic on their own. The gold standard test is nerve conduction studies (NCS) however; they are associated with false positive and false negative results. The severity of the condition definitely needs to be spelt as conservative treatment may be attempted first unless there is a progressive motor and sensory deficit or severe electrophysiological abnormalities1,2,5,6,7,9,14,17. Conservative treatments include Physiotherapy, modification of daily activities, immobilization by wrist splint, non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, diuretics, and intra carpal and oral steroids. Splinting is used and has been recommended by several investigators.1, 2, 6 . However, in moderate to severe cases, surgery may be the only treatment that provides cure. The establishment of severity / classification of CTS on different basis have been reported1,2,3,7,9,14,23,25,26. However surgery as the ?option‘ may still remain a dilemma. In last 2 years we had electro diagnosis data collected of the patients clinically diagnosed and electro physiologically confirmed CTS.
The aim of the study therefore was in retrospect to:
Study the emerging pattern of NCS if it can be categorized.
The objective was:
Identify and study the electrophysiological changes in a clinically diagnosed, electro physiologically confirmed CTS patient.
METHODS
The study was conducted at ? K M Patel Institute of Physiotherapy, Shree Krishna Hospital, Karamsad, approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the institute.
Study Design: Retrospective Analysis The data of clinically diagnosed CTS, referred for NCS was taken up for analysis after electro physiologically too, it was confirmed.
Inclusion Criteria. The data, of all the cases clinically diagnosed CTS by a competent medical personnel, and which were electro physiologically too confirmed as CTS, were included for analysis. Exclusion Criteria The data of known case of any underlying systemic diseases such as diabetes, hypothyroidism, etc was excluded. Patients with wrist joint pain, trauma with involvement of the median nerve or cervical radiculopathy were also excluded. No patient was pregnant. The study included the data analysis of total 70 cases which satisfied the inclusion / exclusion criteria. The electro physiological studies in these cases were done using standardized method32. The norms are as established of the upper limb nerves in our laboratory.
Median neuropathy is defined as Distal Motor Latency (DML) above 4.5 ms or wrist-digit sensory latency above 3.7 ms 16. Sensory symptoms are crucial for the diagnosis of CTS, therefore the data was divided in to various groups for study as shown below on the basis of sensory latency. These five groups were as follows:
Median nerve sensory latency (SML) (in ms)
< 3.59 I
3.6 – 4.59 II
4.6 – 5.59 III
5.6 – 6.59 IV
> 6.6 V
Sensory unrecordable
There were 31 cases affected either unilaterally or bilaterally who had SML 4.4 ms
2. Prolonged Sensory Median Latency (SML) >3.7 ms
which were electro physiologically too confirmed as CTS, were included for analysis.
Exclusion Criteria
The data of known case of any underlying systemic diseases such as diabetes, hypothyroidism, etc was excluded.
Patients with wrist joint pain, trauma with involvement of the median nerve or cervical radiculopathy were also excluded.
No patient was pregnant.
The study included the data analysis of total 70 cases which satisfied the inclusion / exclusion criteria. The electro physiological studies in these cases were done using standardized method32. The norms are as established of the upper limb nerves in our laboratory.
Median neuropathy is defined as Distal Motor Latency (DML) above 4.5 ms or wrist-digit sensory latency above 3.7 ms 16. Sensory symptoms are crucial for the diagnosis of CTS, therefore the data was divided in to various groups for study as shown below on the basis of sensory latency.
Group
I
II
III
IV
VI
3. Slowing of Sensory Nerve Conduction Velocity (SNCV) digit II < 50 m / sec
4. Inter latency difference between ipsi lateral median and ulnar sensory (ILDMU Sensory) (digit II and V ) >0.5 ms
5. Inter latency difference between the distal motor latencies of ipsi lateral median and ulnar (ILDMU Motor) > 1.1 ms
Normal Values of electrophysiological parameters (mean ± SD) established in the department on 70 cases (unpublished)
RESULTS
Total numbers of cases were 70 The numbers of females 64 and the numbers of males 06 The age range of the subjects varied between 23 – 72 yrs Total numbers involved with Right hands: 19 Total numbers involved with Left hands: 23 Total numbers involved Bilateral hands were: 28 Total numbers of hands clinically and electro physiologically normal were: 15 Total number of hands with sensory latency ≤ 3.05 were 31 of this 16 hands were symptomatic, either Left, Right, or bilateral hand involved. As compared to norms the average sensory conduction velocity (50.851 m/sec) was in the lower normal limit and the ILDMU sensory (0.734ms) higher than cut off value 0.4 ms , the SML (2.69 ms) and Sensory Nerve Action Potential (SNAP) amplitude (64.125 µv) still well within normal limits. The average DML (3.502 ms) is again on the upper limit, Compound Motor Action Potential (CMAP) amplitude (15.615mv) and average motor conduction velocity (53.214 m/s) are in normal limits. The average F-minimum latency of median (FMLM) was seen to be minimally prolonged compared to ipsi lateral ulnar. The range of SML in the symptomatic subjects varied from 2.33ms to 13.54ms. The asymptomatic hands also showed SML varying between 2.33 and 5.42 TABLE I a and b shows data of various groups; GROUP I: Total number of hands with SML < 3.59 were (Right) 31 and (Left) 36, the average latency of this group 2.8729 (0.3205) ms and 2.9886 (0.3840) ms respectively, apparently within normal limits, but ILDMU Sensory is increased Right 0.8919 (0.4188) ms and Left 0.9850 (0.3852) ms. The average SNCV of the median nerve was 49.087 (6.625) m/s of the Right median and 46.6731 (6.3714) m/s of the Left side, both showing slowing. The average SNAP amplitude however was 51.88 (19.65) µV on the Right side while it was 55.767 (28.398) µV on the Left side which are compatible with the norms except for the higher SD.
The average DML was 3.8527 (0.7089) of Left median and was 3.7106 (0.6263) of the Right median both although in upper normal limit are still less than < 4.4 ms an accepted cut off. The FMLM in this group was also seen to be prolonged compared to ipsi lateral ulnar bilaterally (table III). Referring further table Ia and b we can see that progressively as we proceed from the 1st group, the SNCV progressively significantly decreases and the ILDMU Sensory significantly increases. The SNAP also shows progressive reduction. This pattern is seen both on the right and the left side. Also prolonged DMLs were seen from group II onwards and in the group V the DML were markedly prolonged ie; DML (Left) was 7.4180 (2.7315) and DML(Right) was 7.6400 (3.5619). In the group VI in which the median sensory was unrecordable the DMLs were markedly prolonged. The average DML was 9.20 on the right and 7.085 ms on the left respectively. The regression analysis of both the right and the left side show that as the SML increases the ILDMU Sensory increases. The regression lines for right and left sides are as follows with corresponding R2 values (graphs 1 and 2). ILDMU Sensory = -1.969 (0.988)*SMLL with R 2 value 0.985 for the left (graph 1) and ILDMU Sensory = -1.920 (0.974)*SMRL with R 2 value 0.969 (graph 2). High values of R2 suggest that the regression models are valid for prediction. Similarly we have obtained regression lines for sensory median conduction velocity, it decreases with increasing ILDMU (graph 3and4). In relation to the motor latencies also this was statistically significant bilaterally but apparently not effective for prediction (Table II). FMLM are consistently prolonged progressively compared to ipsi lateral ulnar, bilaterally, as seen in table III, although statistically significant, effectiveness for prediction is poor, R2 values as shown in the table II. In the present study the retrograde degeneration is obvious from group I and does not show drastic difference across the groups.
DISCUSSION
Our data clearly indicates the female preponderance with regards to CTS. Sensory symptoms are crucial for the diagnosis of CTS 1, 2, 6, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 30. Sensory conduction studies have been preferred to motor conduction studies in CTS by almost all, we found only one article which has concluded striking and unusual electrophysiological finding when compared to idiopathic CTS, they found predominant DML abnormality instead of SML. They state that there was a distinctly different pattern of involvement of all fascicles of the median nerve not sparing the motor fascicles as in some mild idiopathic CTS11 . Various studies have considered SML as Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1928http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19281. Manente G., Torrieri F., Di blasio F., Staniscia T., Romano F., and Uncini A., An innovative hand brace for carpal tunnel syndrome: A randomized controlled trial. Muscle Nerve. 2001; 24: 1020–1025.
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SMRL – Sensory Median Right Latency,
SMRA – Sensory Median Right Amplitude
SMRCV – Sensory Median Right Conduction Velocity SURL – Sensory Ulnar Right Latency,
SURA – Sensory Ulnar Right Amplitude
SURCV – Sensory Ulnar Right Conduction Velocity
ILDMU – Inter Latency Difference Median and Ulnar
SMLL – Sensory Median Left Latency,
SMLA – Sensory Median Left Amplitude
SMLCV – Sensory Median Left Conduction Velocity
SULL – Sensory Ulnar Left Latency,
SULA – Sensory Ulnar Left Amplitude
SULCV – Sensory Ulnar Left Conduction Velocity
ILDMU – Inter Latency Difference Median and Ulnar
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesFOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND RETAIL SECTOR IN INDIA: STRATEGIC ISSUES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
English8191Anil Kumar B.KoteEnglish P.M.HonnakeriEnglishIndian retail industry is one of the sunrise sectors with huge growth potential. According to the Investment Commission of India, the retail sector is expected to grow almost three times its current levels to $660 billion by 2015. However, in spite of the recent developments in retailing and its immense contribution to the economy, retailing continues to be the least evolved industries and the growth of organized retailing in India has been muchslowerascompared to rest of the world.
Undoubtedly, this dismal situation of the retail sector, despite the ongoing wave of incessant liberalization and globalization, stems from the absence of an FDI encouraging policy in the Indian retail sector. In this context, the present paper attempts to analyse the strategic issues concerning the influx of foreign direct investment in the Indian retail industry. Moreover, with the latest move of the government to allow FDI in the multi brand and retailing sector, the paper analyzes the reason why foreign retailers are interested in India, the strategies they are adopting to enter India and their prospects in India. The Findings of the study point out that FDI in retail would undoubtedly enable India Inc to integrate its economy with that of the global economy. Thus, as a matter of fact FDI in the Buzzing Indian retail sector should not just be freely allowed but should be significantly encouraged.
EnglishRetail sector, Globalization, Liberalization, foreign direct investment, Strategic issues and Implications.INTRODUCTION
The Indian retail industry is the fifth largest in the world. Comprising of organized and unorganized sectors, retail industry is one of the fastest growing industries in India, especially over the last few years. With growing market demand, the industry is expected to grow at a pace of 25-30% annually. The Indian retail industry is expected to grow from Rs. 35,000crore in 2004-05 to Rs. 109,000 crore by the year 2010. The Indian retail industry is the most promising emerging market for investment. In 2007, the retail trade in India had a share of 8-10% in the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of the country. In 2009, it rose to 12%. It is also expected to reach 22% by 2010(Kearney, A.T).According to the Investment Commission of India, the retail sector is expected to grow almost three times its current levels to $660 billion by 2015. It is expected that India will be among the top 5 retail markets then. The organized sector is expected to grow to $100 bn and account for 12-15% of retail sales by 2015(Singhal 1999). However, in late 1990's the retail sector has witnessed a level of transformation. Though initially, the retail industry in India was mostly unorganized, however with the change of tastes and preferences of the consumers, the industry is getting more popular these days and getting organized as well. According to a report by Northbride Capita, the India retail industry is expected to grow to US$ 700 billion by 2010. By the same time, the organized sector will be 20% of the total market share. India being a signatory to World Trade Organization‘s General Agreement on Trade in Services, which include wholesale and retailing services, had to open up the retail trade sector to foreign investment. There were initial reservations towards opening up of retail sector arising from fear of job losses, procurement from international market, competition and loss of entrepreneurial.
Opportunities. However, the government in a series of moves has opened up the retail sector slowly to Foreign Direct Investment (?FDI?). In 1997, FDI in cash and carry (wholesale) with 100 percent ownership was allowed under the Government approval route. It was brought under the automatic route in 2006. 51 percent investment in a single brand retail outlet was also permitted in 2006. FDI in Multi-Brand retailing is prohibited in India. Despite all the advantages that come along foreign investment in any sector of the economy, it is to be noted that FDI in India is not liberally allowed in all sectors including the retail sector, where FDI is either absolutely forbidden on the grounds of national interest, or, other sectors where the existing and notified sectoral policy does not permit FDI beyond aceiling.In this context, the present paper attempts to analyze the strategic issues concerning the influx of foreign direct investment in the Indian retail industry. The entire discussion is spread across Seven sections, the first being the introduction. Section II Gives the brief explanation to Growth potential for organized retail in India. Section III deals with the FDI Policy in India with regarding to Retailing Sector. Section IV highlights the strategic issues concerning the Indian retail sector; section V focuses on the strategic implications of FDI in the retail sector in India; while section VI assesses the role of FDI in boosting the organized retail sector in India. Section VII concludes the discussion and also puts forth some recommendations for exploiting the potential of the Indian retail sector through the positives of foreign direct investment.
GROWTH OF THE POTENTIAL FOR ORGANIZED RETAIL IN INDIA
The retail business in the country is estimated to grow at the rate of 13% per annum to USD 590 billion in 2011-12 from USD 322 billion in 2006-07, according to a study by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER). Additionally, the unorganized retail sector is expected to grow at about 10% per annum to USD 496 billion in 2011-12 from USD 309 billion 2006- 07. FDI in Multi-Brand retailing is prohibited in India. FDI in Single-Brand Retailing was, however, permitted in 2006, to the extent of 51%. Between April, 2006 and March, 2010 FDI inflow of USD 194.69 million was received, comprising 0.21% of the total FDI inflows during the period, under the category of single brand retailing.
Organized vs. Unorganized Retail
Organized retail makes for 75-80% of total retail in the developed countries, whereas the unorganized retail enjoys the dominating share in the developing countries. In the past few years developing countries have witnessed the opening and spreading of the modern retail outlets like hypermarkets, superstores, supermarkets, discount and convenience stores etc, which have a wide presence in the developed world. However, the unorganized retail outlets continue to dominate the overall retail scene in the developing countries. This in turn implies that the wholesalers and distributors who carry products from industrial suppliers and agricultural producers to these markets remain a critical part of the supply chain.
Rationale for FDI in retail trading
It is believed that foreign direct investment (FDI) can prove to be a powerful catalyst which can spur competition in the retail industry. This in turn will lead to supply chain improvement, development of skill and manpower, betterment in the agricultural segment as well as improved efficiencies in small and medium scale industries. Increasing FDI in the retail segment is also believed to help expand the market size, which in turn will help enhanced productivity. As a result the government also stands to gain by way of increased GDP, tax income and employment generation. With the consistently growing demand pressure, the unorganized retail segment will have to make way for the organized markets. In addition, the unorganized segment will fall short of addressing the growing demand for retail given the relatively weak financial state of unorganized retailers as well as the space constraints which restrict their expansion plans. Impact on Consumers It is believed that the overall consumer spending has witnessed an increase backed by the entry of the organized retail. Even though unorganized retail markets come with their set of benefits which include consumer goodwill, credit sales, bargain potential, ability to sell loose items, convenient timings, and home delivery, the consumers most certainly stand to gain from the expansion in organized retail on multiple counts. In addition, proximity remains a major comparative advantage for the unorganized outlets. However, it has been witnessed that the organized retail outlets have proved to provide better savings to the less well-off consumers other than providing saving to all the income groups in general.
THE FDI POLICY IN INDIA WITH REGARDING TO RETAILING SECTOR.
Definition of Retail In 2004, The High Court of Delhi defined the term ?retail‘ as a sale for final consumption in contrast to a sale for further sale or processing (i.e. wholesale). A sale to the ultimate consumer. Thus, retailing can be said to be the interface between the producer and the individual consumer buying for personal consumption. This excludes direct interface between the manufacturer and institutional buyers such as the government and other bulk customersRetailing is the last link that connects the individual consumer with the manufacturing and distribution chain. A retailer is involved in the act of selling goods to the individual consumer at a margin of profit.
FDI Policy in India
FDI as defined in Dictionary of Economics (Graham Bannock et.al) is investment in a foreign country through the acquisition of a local company or the establishment there of an operation on a new (Greenfield) site. To put in simple words, FDI refers to capital inflows from abroad that is invested in or to enhance the production capacity of the economy. Foreign Investment in India is governed by the FDI policy announced by the Government of India and the provision of the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) 1999. The Reserve Bank of India (?RBI‘) in this regard had issued a notification, which contains the Foreign Exchange Management (Transfer or issue of security by a person resident outside India) Regulations, 2000. This notification has been amended from time to time. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India is the nodal agency for motoring and reviewing the FDI policy on continued basis and changes in sectoral policy/ sectoral equity cap. The FDI policy is notified through Press Notes by the Secretariat for Industrial Assistance (SIA), Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP).The foreign investors are free to invest in India, except few sectors/activities, where prior approval from the RBI or Foreign Investment Promotion Board (?FIPB‘) would be required.
FDI Policy with Regard to Retailing in India
It will be prudent to look into Press Note 4 of 2006 issued by DIPP and consolidated FDI Policy issued in October 2010. Which provide the sector specific guidelines for FDI with regard to the conduct of trading activities. a) FDI up to 100% for cash and carry wholesale trading and export trading allowed under the automatic route. b) FDI up to 51 % with prior Government approval (i.e. FIPB) for retail trade of ?Single Brand‘ products, subject to Press Note 3 (2006 Series) c) FDI is not permitted in Multi Brand Retailing in India.
STRATEGIC ISSUES CONCERNING RETAIL SECTOR IN INDIA
Retailing is the largest private industry in India and second largest employer after agriculture. The sector contributes to around 10 percent of GDP. With over 12 million retail outlets, India has the highest retail outlets density in the world. This sector witnessed significant development in the past 10 years from small unorganized family owned retail formats to organized retailing. Liberalization of the economy, rise in per capita income and growing consumerism has encouraged large business and venture capitalist in investing in retail infrastructure. The importance of retail sector in India can be judged from following facts (a)Retail sector is the largest contributor to the Indian GDP (b) The retail sector provides 15%employment (c) India has world largest retail network with 12 million outlets (d) Total market size of retailing in India is U.S $ 180 billion (e) Current share of organized retailing isJust 2% which comes around to $3.6 trillion (f) organized retail sector is growing @ 28% per Annum. The Indian retail sector is very different from that of the developed countries. In the developed countries, products and services normally reach consumers from the manufacturer/producers through two different channels: (a) via independent retailers (?vertical separation‘) and (b) directly from the producer (?vertical integration‘). In the latter case, the producers establish their own chains of retail outlets, or develop franchises. On the other hand, Indian retail industry is divided into organized and unorganized sectors.Organised retailing refers to trading activities undertaken by licensed retailers, that is, those who are registered for sales tax, income tax, etc. These include the corporate-backed Supermarkets and retail chains, and also the privately owned giant retail businesses. Unorganized retailing, on the other hand, refers to the traditional formats of low-cost retailing, for example, the local kirana shops, owner manned general stores, paan/ beedi shops, convenience stores, hand cart and pavement vendors, etc. Unorganized retailing is by far the prevalent form of trade in India – constituting 98% of total trade, while organisedtrade accounts only for the remaining 2% – and this is projected to increase to 15-20 per cent by 2010 (Singhal 2009). Nonetheless the organized sector is expected to grow faster than GDP growth in next few years driven by favorable demographic patterns, changing lifestyles, and strong income growth. Liberalization of the Indian economy, increase in spending per capita income and the advent of dual income families‘ also help in the growth of retail sector. Moreover, consumer preference for shopping in new environs, availability of quality real estate and mall management practices and a shift in consumer demand to foreign brands like McDonalds, Sony, Panasonic, etc. also contributes to the spiral of growth in this sector. Furthermore, the Internet revolution is making the Indian consumer more accessible to the growing influences of domestic and foreign retail chains. Reach of satellite T.V. channels is helping in creating awareness about global products for local markets. About 47% of India's population is under the age of 20; and this will increase to 55% by 2015. This young population, which is technology-savvy, watch more than 50 TV satellite channels, and display the highest propensity to spend, will immensely contribute to the growth of the retail sector in the country. Moreover, the retail sector also acts as an important employment absorber for the present social system. Thus, when a factory shuts down rendering workers jobless; or peasants find themselves idle during part of the year or get evicted from their land; or the stagnant manufacturing sector fails to absorb the fresh entrants into the job market, the retail sector absorbs them all.
STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS OF FDI IN RETAIL
In spite of the recent developments in retailing and its immense contribution to the economy, it still continues to be the least evolved industries and the growth of organized retailing in India has been much slower as compared to rest of the world. Over a period of 10 years, the share of organized retailing in total retailing has grown from 10 per cent to 40 percent in Brazil and 20 percent in China, while in India it is only 2 per cent (between 1995-2005). One important reason for this is that retailing is one of the few sectors where foreign direct investment is not allowed. Within the country, there have been protests by trading associations and other stakeholders against allowing FDI in retailing. On the other hand, the growing market has attracted foreign investors and India has been portrayed as an important investment destination for the global retail chains (http://www.articlesbase.com).The need for larger FDI is because India is at a stage where it needs US investments, technology, and management policies to sustain and enhance its economic growth. In 2006, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in India amounted to US$37 billion, out of which only $5billion was from the US. This was not a very encouraging figure in view of the goal of increasing the GDP by 34-36%. India still requires an FDI component equal to 4% of the GDP. The US needs to invest more in various sectors of the Indian economy. As such, India is rated as the 2nd best economy to invest in, after China. India is looking forward to a high growth rate of almost 16% – double that of the current 8%. Hence, there is a distinct need for larger FDI. There are other necessities which a larger FDI will cater to viz., employment generation, income generation, technology transfer, and economic stability. Hence, the need for larger FDI is a pressing situation these days in India. Foreign countries are well aware of This and many of them are taking extra initiative to invest in the Indian economy. retail sector both at the domestic and as well as at the international front and it seems that the government is giving the matter a very pensive and careful consideration. Some of the factors that have contributed to this trend are the evident profits in the ever growing but conserved Indian retails sector, reduction in tariff, cheaper real time communications, and cheaper transport. The main reasons for such an unequivocal demand stems from the realization that (i) while the retail sector requires heavy investment for expansion, there is hardly any local capital left in the capital markets as a consequence of global financial meltdown, and (ii) efficient management of multi-brand, multiproduct, multi location retail, especially in the area of back-end operations, require heavy dose of technology, which over the years has been developed and perfected by foreign players.
ASSES THE ROLE OF FDI IN BOOSTING THE ORGANIZED RETAIL SECTOR IN INDIA
Economic reforms taken by Indian government in 1991 makes the country as one of the prominent performer of global economies by placing the country as the 4th largest and the2nd fastest growing economy in the world. India also ranks as the 11th largest economy in terms of industrial output and has the 3rd largest pool of scientific and technical manpower. Continued economic liberalization since 1991 and its overall direction remained the same over the years irrespective of the ruling party moved the economy towards a market – based system from a closed economy characterized by extensive regulation, protectionism, public ownership which leads to pervasive corruption and slow growth from 1950s until 1990s.In fact, India‘s economy has been growing at a rate of more than9% for three running years and has seen a decade of 7 plus per cent growth. The exports in 2008 were$175.7 bn and imports were $287.5 bn. India‘s export has been consistently rising, covering 81.3% of its imports in 2008, up from 66.2% in 1990-91. Since independence, India‘s BOP on its current account has been negative. Since 1996-97, its overall BOP has-been positive, largely on account of increased FDI and deposits from Non – Resident Indians (NRIs), and commercial borrowings. The fiscal deficit has come down from 4.5per cent in 2003-04 to 2.7 per cent in 2007-08 and revenue deficit from 3.6 per cent to 1.1per cent in 2007- 08.As a result, India‘s foreign exchange reserves shot up 55 per cent in 2007-08 to close at US $309.16 billion – an increase of nearly US $110 billion from US $199.18 billion at the end of 2006-07. Domestic saving ratio to GDP shot up from 29.8% in 2004-05 to37.7% in 2007-08. For the first time India‘s GDP crossed one trillion dollars mark in2007. As a consequence of policy measures (taken way back in 1991) FDI in India has increased manifold since 1991 irrespective of the ruling party over the years, as there is a growing consensus and commitments among political parties to follow liberal foreign investment policy that invite steady flow of FDI in India so that sustained economic growth can be achieved. Further, in order to study the impact of economic reforms and FDI policy on the magnitude of FDI inflows, quantitative information is needed on broad dimensions of FDI and its distribution across sectors and regions. Thus, FDI in retailing is favored on a number of grounds. The global retailers have advanced management know how in merchandising and inventory management and have adopted new technologies which can significantly improve productivity and efficiency in retailing. The entry of large low-cost retailers and adoption of integrated supply chain management by them is likely to lower down the prices. Also FDI in retailing can easily assure the quality of product, better shopping experience and customer services. They promote the linkage of local suppliers, farmers and manufacturers, no doubt only those who can meet the quality and safety standards, to global market and this will ensure a reliable and profitable market to these local players. As multinational players are spreading their operation, regional players are also developing their supply chain differentiating their strategies and improving their operations to counter the size of international players. This all will encourage the investment and employment in supply chain management. Moreover, joint ventures would ease capital constraints of existing organized retailers and FDI would lead to development of different retail formats and modernization of the sector. Therefore, FDI in retail would undoubtedly enable India Inc to integrate its economy with that of the global economy. FDI will help to overcome both – the lack of experience in organized retailing as well as lack of trained manpower. FDI in retail would reduce cost of intermediation and entail setting up of integrated supply chains that would minimize wastage, give producers a better price and benefit both producers and consumers. From the stand point of consumers, organized retailing would help reduce the problem of adulteration, short weighing and substandard goods (Bhukta 2009). FDI will not just provide access to larger financial resources for investment in the retail sector but simultaneously will rationally allow larger supermarkets, which tend to become regional and national chains – (i) to negotiate prices more aggressively with manufacturers of consumer goods and thus pass on the benefit to consumers; and (ii) to lay down better and tighter quality standards and ensure that manufacturers adhere to them. Moreover, consumer goods manufacturers generally prefer supermarkets since they not just offer a wide range of their products and services, so the consumer can enjoy single-point shopping, but simultaneously they by their attractive presentation and tempting retailing strategies also account for an increasing share of consumer product sales. Also, the fact that a well-known chain of supermarkets procures its goods from a known manufacturer becomes as tamp of quality. Moreover, with the availability of free flow of finance in conjunction with advent of healthy inflow of FDI, the supermarkets will be in a better position than small retailers to make shopping a pleasant experience by making investments in much needed infrastructure facilities like parking lots, coffee shops, ATM machines, etc. It can thus be safely contended that with the possible advent of unrestrained FDI flows in retail market, the interests of the retailers constituting the unorganized retail sector will not be gravely undermined, since nobody can force a consumer to visit a mega shopping complex or a small retailer/ sabji mandi. Consumers will shop in accordance with their utmost convenience, where ever they get the lowest price, max variety, and a good consumer experience. Moreover, it is to be noted that the small retailers will still remain in good business owing to Economic growth and FDI are closely linked with international trade. Countries that are more open are more likely to attract FDI inflows in many ways: Foreign investor brings machines and equipment from outside the host country in order to reduce their cost of production. This can increase exports of the host country. Growth and trade are mutually dependent on one another. Trade is a complement to FDI, such that countries tending to be more open to trade attract higher levels of FDI.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In recent times the consumer are showing much greater confidence and in a due response the retail players in the market are veering towards aggressive expansion plan. These developments are clearly signaling an affluent time for retail sector. As the organized retails pace in India continues to grow, it is likely to see a number of initiatives in the near future. Companies are likely to combine expansion with innovative measures as they look to ensure profitability in difficult times. Players need to increase their investments in retail ancillaries and retail logistics to ensure sustained benefits. As a survival strategy, moves are on to allow FDI in the multi-brand retailing sector and there is fresh flow of equity investment in this sector which will definitely give the Indian retail sector a much needed boost. The advantages of allowing unrestrained FDI in the retail sector
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcarePHYSICAL FITNESS INDEX STATUS OF CYCLISTS IN BIJAPUR DISTRICT WITH SUPPLEMENTATION OF
ANTIOXIDANT (ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL)
English9295Patil Sumangala MaheshEnglish Aithala ManjunathaEnglish Patil Mahesh. JEnglish Dhanakshirur Gopal BEnglishAims andObjective: Exercise increases oxygen consumption and causes a disturbance of intracellular pro-oxidants-antioxidant homeostasis. Athletes are exposed to acute and chronic stress that may lead to increased generation of oxidative species. Hence oxidative stress increases in athletes, Hence oxidative stress increases in athletes. Antioxidant supplementation is supposed to reduce the cell damage caused due to oxidative stress. However the total scenario regarding use of antioxidant supplementation during endurance exercise is still not clear. Hence an approach has been made in the present study to assess the Physical Fitness Index status of cyclists of Bijapur district with supplementation of Antioxidant (alpha-tocopherol). Material and Methods : Forty cyclists belonging to age group 18-19 years, trained under District youth service and sports office were selected as study group. They were divided in to two groups, one experimental (n=19) taking vitamin E (Tab. Evion 200mg/day) and another placebo group (n=18) taking (Tab.pudin hara/day) for 21 days. Control group were selected randomly among 1st MBBS students of BLDEA‘sSri BM Patil MC, Bijapur. The Anthropometrical measurements like Age(yrs), Height (cms), Weight (Kg), BSA(sq.mts), BMI(Kg/m2) and Body fat %, Lean body mass were recorded. Physical Fitness Index (PFI) was measured by using Harvard step test. Result and Conclusion: There was no significant difference in age, height, weight, BSA, BMI and lean body mass, Body fat % between control and study group(p>0.05),But mean score of PFI in study group(84.68 +9.79) is significantly higher than control(74.25+3.3) where p0.05). In conclusion supplementation of Vitamin E has got no beneficial effect on Physical Fitness Index in Cyclists, But antioxidants may helpin reducing the markers of oxidative damage after exercise.
EnglishPhysical Fitness Index Cyclists, Antioxidant, alpha- tocopherolINTRODUCTION
Highly physically active persons who can perform well in various sports and possessing higher values of Physical Fitness Index have capacity to yield larger amount of energy, can perform better in athletic field activities. Determination of PFI is one of the important criteria to asses the cardiopulmonary efficiency of a subject. Use of physical fitness score as obtained from Harvard Step Test(HST) as a tool for ascertaining the cardiopulmonary fitness status of a subject, especially in field situation has been advocated world over1 .The American Alliance for Health, Physical, Education Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) recommended this test to study health related physical fitness program in youth 2 .It is also used as a tool to select highly physically active persons who can perform well in various sports, games or industrial occupation. Exercise increases oxygen consumption, causes disturbance of intracellular prooxidantantioxidant homeostasis. Athletes are exposed to acute and chronic stress that leads to suppression of immune system, increased generation of oxidative species thus increase oxidative stress. Dernbach.,et al 1993 suggested exercise induced hyperthermia triggers oxidative stress by promoting mitochondrial uncoupling. Vina J.,et al 2000 3,4reported exhaustive exercise generates free radicals, treatment with antioxidants such as vitamin E and C protects in part against free radical mediated damage in exercise. So the Antioxidant supplementation is supposed to reduce the cell damage due to oxidative stress. Vitamin E deficiency can increase free radical induced tissue injury, decreases life span of cells and diminishes physical activity5 . These findings were highly suggestive of fact that a bout of exercise might outstrip the inherent capacity of the protective endogenous antioxidant enzyme system necessitating greater protection and this added protection could come in the form of an exogenous supplement. Sen, C K,20016 in his review mentioned antioxidant supplementation is likely to provide beneficial effects against exercise induced oxidative tissue damage. Experts agree that if used prudently, oxidants and antioxidants may serve as potent therapeutic tolls. Efforts to determine individual needs of athletes and a balanced diet rich in antioxidant supplements are highly recommended. However total scenario regarding use of antioxidant supplementation during endurance exercise is still not clear. In view of this we have assessed the physical fitness index status of cyclists by supplementation of antioxidant (alphatocopherol) in experimental and placebo group in comparison to non athletes(controls).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Forty cyclists belonging to age group 18-19 years, trained under District youth service and sports office were selected as study group. They were divided in to two groups, one experimental (n=19) taking vitamin E (Tab. Evion 200mg/day) and another placebo group (n=18) taking (Tab.pudin hara/day) for 21 days. Control group were selected randomly among 1 st MBBS students of BLDEA‘s BM Patil MC, Bijapur. The ethical clearance was obtained from Ethical committee of BLDEMC as per RGUHS requirements. After ruling out cardiopulmonary disorders, subjects were asked to come in the morning hours (7-9am) to laboratory 1 hr. after having light breakfast. The Anthropometrical measurements like Age(yrs), Height (cms), Weight (Kg), BSA(sq.mts), BMI(Kg/m2)and Body fat %, Lean body mass were recorded. Physical Fitness Index (PFI) was measured by using Harvard step test 7 .Each subject completed up and down task (24steps/min) on an 18 inch bench for 3 mints or until exhaustion. Exhaustion is defined as when the subject could not maintain the stepping rate for 15 per second. The physical fitness index (PFI) score was calculated as follows: PFI = Duration of exercise in seconds x 100 5.5 x pulse rate (1-1.30 minute after exercise)
STATISTICS
All the values are expressed in mean + SD. Significance of the difference was calculated by applying ?Z‘ test and?t‘ test. P value 0.05), But the mean score of PFI in study group was significantly higher than control (p0.05). The comparative values of PFI in experimental and placebo subjects before and after supplementation of respective drugs did not show any statistical significant difference (p>0.05). Our observation is in agreement with Peterson, et al 11, Jake man and Maxwell 12 in which there was no effect of vitamin E supplementation on serum CK after the race for 7 days and Lawrence et al 13 , Weight, et al 14 also found that antioxidant supplementation does not have any beneficial effect on increasing swimming endurance. Others have reported that supplementation of vitamin E and Co-enzyme Q10 for marathon runners for three weeks before race found no change in lipid peroxidation or CK response after race when compared with controls15 . Therefore in conclusion, our study supports the generally accepted view that antioxidant supplementation does not help in increasing endurance capacity of athletes but may help in reducing the markers of oxidative damage after exercise. The prime role of antioxidants on cardiopulmonary efficiency in endurance athletes is yet to be answered.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1930http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19301. Sunil K R, Das, et al. Determination of physical fitness Index (PFI) with modified Harvard Step Test (HST) in young men and women. Ind J Physiol and Allied Sci., 1993 Vol.47, No.2 p73-76.
2. Safrit M J. (1986) Introduction to measurement in physical education and exercise science. (Times Mirror Ed), Mosby College Publishing, p.250.
3. TATEISHI N, T HIGASHI, et al. Rat liver glutathione: possible role as a reservoir of cysteine. J Nutr. 107; 51: 1977.
4. Vina J, Gomez, Cabrera M C, Lloret A et al. Free radicals in exhaustive physical exercise: mechanism of production and protection by antioxidants. IUBMB – Life. 2000 Oct – Nov; 50(4-5): 271-7.
5. Chanden K Sen. Oxygen toxicity and antioxidants: State of the Art. Ind J Physiol Pharmacol. 1995; 39 (3): 177-196.
6. Sen C K. Antioxidants in exercise nutrition. Sports-Med. 2001; 31 (13): 891-908.
7. Neisner J S, Laurie J A. Human Biology - A guide to field methods. 2nd Edition, Oxford and Edinburgh; Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1969; 325-328.
8. Mahajan B K. (1991) Methods in Biostatistics, 5th Edition, Jaypee Publications P129-153.
9. P K Gupta and A K De. Assessment of cardiopulmonary efficiency in athletes and non-athletes, Ind J Physiol Pharmacol 1991; 35(4), 245-248.
10. S Chaterjee and Anirban Mitra. The relationship of physical fitness score with different morphological parameters and VO2 max on adult female athletes and nonathletes. Ind J Physiol and Allied Sci; Vol 55, No1, 2001: p7-11.
11. Emil Wolsk Petersen, Kenneth Ostrowski, Tobias Ibfelt, Myriam Richelle, Elizabeth Offord, Bente Pedersen. Effect of vitamin supplementation on cytokine response and on muscle damage after strenuous exercise. Am J Physiol –Cell Physiology. 280(6): C1570.1575, June 2001. p1-12.
12. Jakeman P, Maxwells. Effect of antioxidant: Vitamin supplementation on muscle function after eccentric exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1993; 67(5): 426-430.
13. Jeffrey D Lawrence, Richard C. Bower, Winston P. Riehl, Jack L. Smith. Effects of -tocopherol acetate on swimming endurance of trained swimmers. Am J Clin Nutr. 28: 205-208, 1975.
14. Lindsay M Weight, Timothy D Noakes, Dimitri Labadarios, John Graves, et al. Vitamin and mineral status of trained athletes including the effects of supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr. 1988; 47: 186-91.
15. Kaikkonen J, Kosonen L, NyyssonenK. Effect of combined coenzyme Q10 and Da-tocopheryl acetate supplementation on exercise induced lipid peroxidation and muscular damage: a placebo-controlled double-blind study in marathon runners. Free Radic Res 1998; 29:85.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareTHE INFLUENCE OF AMPICILLIN ON THE CORROSION INHIBITION OF MILD STEEL IN 1N HYDROCHLORIC ACID SOLUTION
English96104S. HariKumarEnglish S. KarthikeyanEnglishThe effect of an antibiotic ampicilin is studied for use as a low cost and ecofriendly corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in acidic environment. The corrosion inhibition effect is investigated using weight loss, Tafel polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and hydrogen permeation studies. The inhibitor showed 80% inhibition efficiency at 15x10-4M concentration of ampicillin. Potentiodynamic polarization suggests that it is a mixed type of inhibitor. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to investigate the mechanism of corrosion inhibition.Hydogen permeation easurements indicated that the compound behave as cathodic inhibitor ,but predominantly under mixed control. Diffused reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) studies confirmed only the mere adsorption of Ampcilin on mild steel surface and not influence on the surface morphology. he adsorption of this compound on mild steel surface obeys Temkin‘s adsorption isotherm.
EnglishCorrosion test, electrochemical techniques, adsorption1.INTRODUCTION
Mild steel is an important category of materials due to their wide range of industrial applications. It is used in many industries due to its excellent mechanical properties. These are used in industries as pipelines for petroleum industries, storage tanks, reaction vessels and chemical batteries(1). Acids are widely used for Pickling, Descaling, Acid Cleaning, Oil Well acidizing and other applications. Due to their high corrosive nature acids may cause damage to the system components. Various methods are used to decrease the corrosion rate of metals in acids, among the different methods use of inhibitors is most commonly used (2-7). The use of corrosion inhibitors is most economical and practical method to reduce electrochemical corrosion. Heterocyclic compounds containing heteroatoms such as S, N and O act as effective corrosion inhibitors for mild steel in acid media and have been the subject of many publications(8-11). Organic compounds have been widely used as corrosion inhibitors for metals in acidic media(12-18). The effective and efficient corrosion inhibitors were those compounds which have π bonds and contains hetero atoms such as sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorous which allows the adsorption of compounds on the metal surface(19-23). The organic inhibitors decrease the corrosion rate by adsorbing on the metal surface and blocking the active sites by displacing water molecules and form a compact barrier film on the metal surface. The most of the organic inhibitors are toxic , highly expensive and environment unfriendly. Research activities in recent times are geared towards developing the cheap, nontoxic and environment friendly corrosion inhibitors.
The present paper describes a study of corrosion protection action of Ampicillin on mild steel in 1N HCl using weight loss, electrochemical techniques and hydrogen permeation studies. Ampicillin is a antibiotic with π-electrons, heteroatoms S, N and O. The molecule is big enough (Molecular Mass- 403.45) and sufficiently planar to block more surface area (due to adsorption) of mild steel. These factors favour the interaction of ampicillin with the metal. As far as we know no concrete report has been published so for Ampicilin in 1N HCl with use of electrochemical techniques ,hydrogen permeation and diffuse reflectance spectra. Hence the present study. The structure of the ampicillin is shown in the fig.1. Different concentrations of inhibitor were prepared and there inhibition efficiency in acidic media was investigated. 2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION; 2.1. Materials and Methods; Mild steel specimens of size 1x4 cm2 were used for weight loss and electrochemical studies. The surface of each specimen was abraded with different emery papers and washed with acetone. The cleaned samples were then washed with double distilled water and finally dried. Electrochemical experiments were performed using a three electrode cell assembly with mild steel samples as working electrode, platinum as counter electrode and saturated calomel (SCE) as the reference electrode. AR grade Hydrochloric Acid and doubly distilled water were used to prepare 1N acid for all experiments. 2.2. Inhibitor; Ampicillin was purchased from medicine shop as a trade name Ampicillin capsules (Biocilin capsules) and used without further purification. Ampicillin is a N-S heterocyclic compound containing four oxygen atoms, three nitrogen atoms and one sulphur atom. Hence it is expected to act as a good inhibitor. The range of the concentrations of inhibitor used for the inhibiton is from 5x10-4 to 15x10-4 . 2.3. Mass Loss Studies; Different mild steel samples were immersed in hanging positions in 1N HCl solution containing different concentrations of inhibitors for three hours. Samples were weighed before and after immersion and weight differences were determined. The degree of surface coverage (θ) and percentage inhibition efficiency (IE %) were calculated from the following equations Surface Coverage (θ) = W0 –W /W0 Inhibition Efficiency (IE %) =(W0 –W /W0) X 100 Where W0 and W are the weight losses of mild steel without and with the inhibitor respectively. It was assumed that the surface was saturated with adsorbed inhibitor molecules, that is θ = 1. 2.4. Tafel Polarization Studies; Electrochemical measurements were carried out in a conventional three - electrode cyclindrical glass cell, using CH electrochemical analyzer. Before recording the polarization curves the solution was deaerated for 20 min. and the working electrode was maintained at its corrosion potential for 10 min. until a steady state was obtained. The mild steel surface was exposed to various concentrations of ampicillin in 100mL of 1N HCl at room temperature. The inhibition efficiency (IE%) was calculated using the equation Inhibition Efficiency (IE %) =(I0 –I /I0) X 100 Where I0 and I are the corrosion current density without and with the inhibitor respectively. The potentiodynamic current-potential curves were recorded by changing the electrode potential automatically from -750mV to +150mV versus the open circuit potential. The corresponding corrosion current (I corr) was recorded. Tafel plots were constructed by plotting E versus log I. Corrosion Potential (E corr), corrosion current density (I corr) and cathodic and anodic slopes (βc and βa) were calculated according to known procedures. 2.5. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy; Impedance measurements were carried out in the frequency range from 0.1 to 10000 Hz using an amplitude of 20 mV and 10 mV peak to peak with an AC signal at the open-circuit potential. The impedance diagrams were plotted in the nyquist representation. Charge transfer resistance (Rct) values were obtained by substracting the high-frequency impedance. The percentage inhibition efficiency was calculated from the equation Inhibition Efficiency (IE%)=( Rct - R‘ct /Rct ) x 100 Where R‘ct and Rct are the corrosion current of mild steel with and without inhibitor respectively. 2.6 Hydogen permeation studies The hydrogen permeation study was carried out using an adaptation of modified Devanathan and Stachurski‘s , two compartment cell . Hydrogen permeation current were obtained in the absence and presence of ampicilin used in the present study. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Mass loss studies; The values of inhibition efficiency (IE%) and the corrosion rate (CR) obtained from weight loss method at different concentrations of ampicillin are summarized in table-1. It follows from the data that the weight decreased and therefore corrosion inhibition increased with increase in inhibitor concentration. It was also observed that corrosion rate decreased with increase in inhibitor concentration. It is evident from the table that ampicillin inhibits the corrosion of mild steel in HCl solution at all the concentrations used in the study i.e. 5x10-4 to 15x10-4 . Maximum inhibition efficiency was obtained at the concentration 5x10-4 . The increased inhibition efficiency and decreased corrosion rate might be due to the increased adsorption and increased surface coverage (θ) of inhibitor on mild steel surface with increase in concentration. 3.2. Tafel Polarization; Polarization curves for mild steel in 1N HCl at Various concentrations of ampicillin are shown in the fig. 2. The values of corrosion potential (E corr), current densities (I corr), anodic tafel slopes (βa), cathodic tafel slopes (βc), surface coverage(θ) and inhibition efficiency as a functions of ampicillin concentration were calculated from the curves are shown in table 2. It is evident from the figure that cathodic tafel slopes (βc) remain almost unchanged with increasing inhibitor concentration. This indicates that hydrogen evolution is activation controlled and the addition of inhibitor did not change the mechanism of cathodic hydrogen evolution reaction (24,25). It is observed that the inhibition efficiency increased with increasing ampicilin concentration and exhibited both cathodic and anodic inhibition through adsorption on the mild steel surface blocking active sites(26). There is no definite changes observed in the corrosion potential(E corr). According to Riggs (27) and others if the displacement in E (i) is >85mV with respect to E, the inhibitor can be seen as a cathodic or anodic type, (ii) if displacement in E is Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1931http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19311. Zhang, J.; Liu, J.; Yu, W.; Yan, Y.; You, L.; Liu, L.. Cores. Sci. 52 (2010) 2059..
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareCARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSES TO ISOMETRIC HANDGRIP TRAINING IN NORMOTENSIVE MEDICAL
STUDENTS
English105110Prashanth PEnglish Shankarappa VEnglish Varun MalhotraEnglish A.R. GorkalEnglish SivagamiEnglish ShobanaEnglishObjective: The study was designed to assess the effects of isometric handgrip training on cardiovascular system, using handgrip dynamometry and comparing the results between trained and untrained groups. Materials and Methods: Study subjects consisted of 30 healthy adult normotensive medical students in the age group of 18-22 years. Age and sex matched adults who were not active in sports or in physical activities constituted the control group (n= 30) Hemodynamic parameters; blood pressure and heart rate were recorded and evaluated after a defined protocol of handgrip dynamometer at rest and post exercise. BP and HR were recorded with the help of Sphygmomanometer, stethoscope, and ECG machine.There was no change in resting blood pressure and heart rate between the subject and control group
before the training sessions. There was significant decrease in resting blood pressure and heart rate in trained subject group when compared to untrained control group after 5 weeks of training sessions.
EnglishIsometric hand grip exercise; Handgrip dynamometer; blood pressure; heart rate.INTRODUCTION
Cardiovascular responses to isometric handgrip exercises have been studied in different sportsmen of different categories. It has shown that regular exercise training reduces both adrenergic and pressure response to isometric exercises. The same data is lacking in medical students. The study was designed to assess the effects of isometric handgrip training on cardiovascular system, using handgrip dynamometry and comparing the results between trained and untrained groups.
METHODOLOGY
MATERIALS & INSTRUMENTS: The study group consisted of trained medical students in the age group of 18-22 years In the study, the data was compared before and after the isometric hand grip training in normotensive medical students.
INSTRUMENTS:
1. HANDGRIP DYNAMOMETER(HGD):
The device used to measure the grip strength is called dynamometer. It is widely accepted and handgrip strength measurements provide an objective index of the functional integrity of the upper extremity. The handgrip dynamometer is easy to handle and reliable in its measurements. The handgrip dynamometer used in our study is the Spring handgrip dynamometer. Dynamometer was appropriately calibrated from time to time by the set of instructions and recommendations in the manual.
II. ECG machine
III. Mercury sphygmomanometer and Stethoscope
IV. Stop watch
All the subjects were normotensive and were without history of hypertension, cardiovascular, renal, musculoskeletal, neurological disorders. Subjects with acute medical illness and or on any medication were excluded from the study and control groups. Method of study: The exercise testing was performed in the normal room temperature with bright light. Subjects were studied before and after the training sessions of isometric handgrip exercise. Hemodynamic changes like BP,HR, and MVC (Maximal Voluntary Contraction) before and at the end of training programme were recorded. BP was recorded by mercury sphygmomanometer and stethoscope.HR was recorded by using ECG machine. Isometric exercise was performed by HGD. The duration of the static exercise is of 3min timed by stopwatch or performed till fatigue. The subjects were instructed not to hold their breath during the handgrip to avoid performing the Valsalva maneuver.
METHOD OF SELECTION OF SUBGROUPS: 30 healthy, normotensive, untrained volunteers of 18-22 years of age are selected.
PROCEDURE OF STUDY: Heart rate and Blood pressure were measured before and after 5wks of IHG training.
30 subjects were trained using unilateral IHG of the dominant arm for a total of 5wks.Each subjects attended four of 3-mins bouts of IHG at 30% MVC while sitting with the working arm extended towards the front. Each bout was separated by a 5-mins rest period. Before every training session, each subject‘s MVC value was determined at the highest value obtained on three attempts, separated by 1 min of rest.
DISCUSSION
This study has showed that there is marked decrease in Blood pressure and heart rate to sustained isometric handgrip exercise training performed by the Medical students when compared to controls. Trained subjects had a significant lower dynamic response to the isometric handgrip exercise compared to age and sex matched untrained controls. In a study which conducted 6wk of isometric handgrip training, showed attenuation in sympathetic nerve activity in their subjects as measured by microneurography. The authors proposed that the decrease in sympathetic nerve activity was probably secondary to a reduction in muscle chemoreceptor stimulation. Surprisingly, a reduction in blood pressure did not accompany the decrease in sympathetic nerve activity and the investigators speculated that the method of blood pressure measurement may have attributed to their nonsignificant finding. Alternatively, they proposed that vasoconstriction in other vascular beds(e.g. mesenteric and renal)might override any blood pressure reductions resulting from the decrease in sympathetic nerve activity in skeletal muscle 1-10. In the present study we did not measure muscle sympathetic nerve activity so we are unable to offer any further insights. In recent investigation, a reduction in muscle sympathetic nerve activity that was accompanied by a decrease in lactate production during forearm exercise training. They suggested that venous lactate served as a useful marker of metabolic by-product production during exercise 11-17. Perhaps the reduction in sympathetic nerve activity resulted from a decrease in metabolic accumulation following training. If this is the case, endurance forearm training might have the potential to decrease anaerobic metabolism and increase aerobic metabolism during exercise18, 19. Other investigators have suggested that the measurement of muscle sympathetic nerve activity can be used as an indirect index of chemosensitive muscle afferent activation. This is because there is little or no increase in sympathetic nerve activation during handgrip work until the chemoreceptors are stimulated by a decrease in muscle PH and other metabolites20 . Another physiological adaptation documented following training is an increase in blood flow to the exercising muscle. It is uncertain as to whether the increased flow is the result of reduced sympathetic vasoconstrictor influences and/or the result of increased intrinsic vasodilatory activity. The study reported that after 4 weeks of handgrip exercise, a localized training induced increase in forearm blood flow occurred, that was associated with an increase in vascular vasodilatory capacity21,22. The increase in blood flow resulted from a decrease in minimal peripheral resistance. This adaptation could possibly explain the attenuated blood pressure response seen in our investigation.
CONCLUSION
The current study shows that 5 wks of unilateral IHG training elicits reduction in mean arterial pressure at rest. Although the reported reduction in arterial pressure appears modest, recent studies indicate that small reductions in diastolic arterial pressure in the population would have significant health benefits13. A 2-mmHg drop in diastolic arterial pressure would lead to a 17% decrease in hypertension as well as a 6% reduction in coronary heart disease and a 15% reduction in stroke related events. A 5 to 6mmHg reduction in diastolic pressure decreased coronary heart disease and stroke incidents by 16% and 38%, respectively. Thus the arterial pressure reduction reported in this study would have an important impact on this cardiovascular related illness. Furthermore, our results support the concept that isometric training is an effective modality in the prevention of hypertension.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Ethical clearance has been obtained from ethical committee Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeshwara Medical College, Mysore and informed consent from subjects was taken.
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7. Crews DJ, Landers DM. A meta analytic review of aerobic fitness abd reactivity to psychosocial stressors. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987; 19: 114-120.
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10. Bevergard BS, Shepherd JT. Circulatory effects of stimulating the carotid arterial stretch receptors in man at rest and during exercise. J Clin Invest. 1996; 45: 132- 142.
11. Eckberg DL, Sleight P. Human Baroreflexes in health and disease. Newyork :OxfordUnivpress.1992;pp.3- 299.
12. Iellamo F,Hughson Rl,Castrucci F,Legramante JM,Raimondi G,Peruzzi G,and Tallarida G. Evaluation of spontaneous baroreflex modulation of sinus node during isometric exercise in healthy humans. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol.1994;267:994-1101.
13. Iellamo F, Legramante JM, Raimondi G,Peruzzi G.Baroreflex control of sinus node during dynamic exercise in humans : effects of central command and muscle reflexes. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol.1997;272:1157-1164.
14. Rowell LB,O‘Leary DS. Reflex control of circulation during exercise: chemoreflexes and mechanoreflexes. J Appl Physiol. 1990;69:407-418.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareDETERMINANTS OF PERINATAL MORTALITY: A CASECONTROL STUDY
English111116Bellara RaghavendraEnglish Aravind KarinagannanavarEnglishBackground: Perinatal mortality includes both stillbirths and early neonatal deaths. Perinatal mortality rate serves as a sensitive index of maternal and neonatal care. The increased risk of death is seen in low socio economic status, high and low maternal age, high parity, severe anemia, preeclampsia and low birth weight. Objectives: To study the determinants of perinatal mortality. Methodology: A case control study was conducted from January 2011 to August 2011 at ijayanagar Institute of Medical Sciences, Bellary. The study included 150 cases and 150 controls. Data was analysed using epi-info software version 3.4.3. Tests like proportions, Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was done. Results: The study revealed that anemic mothers (OR 1.3-5.0 at 95%CI), mothers with preeclampsia (OR 1.0-5.1 at 95%CI), mothers who had consanguineous marriages (OR 4.1-16.6 at 95%CI) and low birth weight of the baby (OR 3.1-13.3 at 95%CI) emerged as independent risk factors for perinatal death. Conclusion and Recommendations: Factors potentially amenable to intervention would be improving the maternal nutritional status and adolescent health by proper implementation of existing health programs and reducing the maternal morbidity by providing proper antenatal care and
proper referral services.
EnglishRisk factors, Perinatal deathINTRODUCTION
Perinatal mortality includes both stillbirths and early neonatal deaths because the factors responsible for these types of deaths are often similar. It gives a good indication of the extent of pregnancy wastage as well as the quality and quantity of health care available to mother and new born. Perinatal mortality rate serves as a sensitive index of maternal and neonatal care. It also reflects the general health and sociobiologic features of mothers and infants. The perinatal deaths are 10 times higher in developing countries compared to developed countries. In India about 1.5 million deaths occur every year. The SRS estimates for perinatal mortality rate in India for the year 2007 was about 37 per 1000 live births and stillbirths1 The perinatal mortality rates are significant to capture late fetal deaths and early neonatal deaths and to ensure favorable outcome of pregnancy and survival of child after birth by adequate maternal and neonatal care. Inspite of many health programs directed towards reducing the perinatal mortality rates, still we have not made any dent in perinatal mortality which remains high. A number of social and biologic factors are known to be associated with perinatal deaths. The increased risk of death is seen in low socio economic status, high and low maternal age, high parity, heavy smoking, bad obstetric history, malnutrition, severe anemia, preeclampsia, birth injuries, birth asphyxia and low birth weight babies are more risk for death1 . With this background we attempted to study the contributing and facilitating factors for perinatal death.
OBJECTIVES:
1) To study the factors associated with perinatal deaths.
METHODOLOGY We conducted a case control study from January 2011 to August 2011 at Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vijayanagar Institute of Medical Sciences, Bellary. The study included 150 cases (late fetal deaths i.e. 28 weeks gestation and more and early neonatal deaths i.e. within 7 days of birth,2 ) and 150 controls (mothers who‘s baby survived after 7 days of birth). After taking written consent from the study subjects data was collected using pretested predesigned semi structured questionnaire. However those mothers who did not give consent for the study were excluded. Proforma was used to collect the information on socio-demographic characteristics, risk factors for perinatal death through face to face interview. Data was analysed using epi-info software version 3.4.3. Tests like proportions, Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was done.
RESULTS
In our study we found that nearly 69% mothers belong to age group between 20-35 years with a range of 15 to 40 years, nearly 68% were from rural area, around 48% were illiterates, 65% were from lower socio-economic class according to modified B G Prasad classification, nearly 60% had nonconsanguineous marriage and around 66% were from nuclear family (Table 1). The mean age (in years) of cases was 23.3+3.3 and controls was 23.0+3.3, which are comparable with respect to age groups.
Our study revealed that the perinatal deaths were more among the teenage mothers, mothers from rural area, illiterates, mothers who had consanguineous marriage, mothers belonging to lower socioeconomic status, joint family, multigravida, unbooked case, anemic mothers, mothers with preeclampsia, preterm babies, male babies and low birth weight. All the variables showed statistically significant association with perinatal deaths except for teenage pregnancy and educational status of mother (Table 2). These significant variables were subjected to multiple logistic regression analysis and we found that anemic mothers, mothers with preeclampsia, mothers who had consanguineous marriages and low birth weight of the baby emerged as independent risk factors for perinatal death (Table 3).
DISCUSSION
With the decline of infant mortality rate to low levels in many developed countries, perinatal mortality has assumed greater significance as a yard stick of obstetric and pediatric care before and around the time of birth. Although perinatal period occupies less than 0.5% of the average life span, there are more deaths within this period than during the next 30-40 years of life in many developing countries like India3 .Therefore it is important to know the risk factors of perinatal deaths so that better preventive measures can be framed to reduce the deaths. Our study revealed that the perinatal deaths were more among the teenage mothers, mothers from rural area, illiterates, mothers who had consanguineous marriage, mothers belonging to lower socioeconomic status, joint family, multigravida, unbooked case, anemic mothers, mothers with preeclampsia, preterm babies, male babies and low birth weight. Similar risk factors were revealed in a study conducted by Fazili F, Mattoo GM where the perinatal mortality was significantly higher among illiterate mothers, in extremes of age, among those living in joint families, and those having incomplete antenatal care. Perinatal mortality was low among the higher socioeconomic classes4 . Another similar study conducted by Dasgupta S, Saha I, Lahiri A, Mandal AK showed that 53.6% of the perinatal deaths involved primiparas and 22.8% involved mothers of parities above 3. 35.1% of mothers in perinatal mortality cases presented with pregnancyrelated risk factors, including toxemia (14.8%), severe anemia (13%), and antepartum hemorrhage (2.6%). In 494 (85.9%) of the 575 deaths, antenatal care was absent or inadequate5 which is in consonance with our study risk factors. One more study conducted by Kumar MR, Bhat BV, Oumachigui A. among the 6,048 babies born from January 1984 to December 1985 showed that Unbooked cases accounted for the majority of perinatal deaths during both the periods. The overall mortality rates in unbooked cases were three to four times higher than booked cases. Among the various causes of still births, antepartum hemorrhage and uterine rupture, septicemia, birth asphyxia and prematurity were the major cause of early neonatal deaths6 . A community based prospective study was conducted in Karnataka by Chandrashekar S etal, among 13,214 births showed that breech deliveries and babies of multiple pregnancies had a very high perinatal mortality rate. The previous bad obstetric history of the mother, parity and sex of the newborn were among the other important factors influencing the perinatal mortality rate7 . Using multiple logistic regression our study revealed that anemic mothers, mothers with preeclampsia, mothers who had consanguineous marriages and low birth weight of the baby emerged as independent risk factors for perinatal death. All the socioeconomic variables became insignificant after being adjusted for other variables. Thus, the effect of socioeconomic variables is probably mediated through other more proximate maternal biological, antenatal, and intra-partum factors, and in the study population, socioeconomic status appears not to have had significant independent effects on the risk of perinatal mortality. This is important because changes in socioeconomic status are generally not within the scope of the health sector, while modification of proximate factors, such as antenatal care or nutritional status, may be possible through health interventions. A study conducted by Sachar RK, Soni RK showed that the maternal weight less than 40 kg, height less than 152 cm, body mass index < 20, illiteracy, a birth to conception interval less than 100 weeks, prematurity, late registration and home delivery were found to be significant on univariate analysis on multiple logistic regression, the full model identified the significance of all the risk factors except late registration8 . In a study conducted by Malvankar DV et al. showed that poor maternal nutritional status, absence of antenatal care, and complications during labour were independently associated with substantially increased risks of perinatal death. Estimates of attributable risk derived from the prevalence of exposures in the population survey suggest that improvements in maternal nutrition and antenatal and intrapartum care could result in marked reductions of perinatal mortality9 . Similar risk factors were revealed by many other studies conducted elsewhere where the important of determinants of perinatal deaths were maternal malnutrition, inadequate antenatal, intranatal and postnatal care, and premature and low birth weight babies which are amenable for prevention. In this regard Government of India has taken number of health initiatives directed towards preventing maternal malnutrition through ICDS (Integrated Child Development Services) services where nutritional supplements are given for pregnant women, lactating mothers and adolescent girls. The intergenerational cycle of growth failure theory is that small adult women are more likely to have lowbirth-weight babies, in part because maternal size has an important influence on birth weight. Children born with a low birth weight are more likely to have growth failure during childhood. Thus, in turn, girls born with a low birth weight are more likely to become small adult women. This cycle is accentuated by high rates of teenage pregnancy, as adolescent girls are even more likely to have low-birthweight babies10. To provide proper care during pregnancy, the Government of India has started IMNCI (Integrated Management Of Neonatal And Childhood Illness) to provide better newborn care and Janani Suraksha Yojana to promote institutional deliveries under RCH program (Reproductive and Child Health) and upgraded the Primary Health Centers for delivering MCH services round the clock under NRHM.
CONCLUSION
Our study concludes that maternal factors like maternal malnutrition, absence of antenatal care, maternal complications like preeclampsia, consanguineous marriage, teenage mothers and multiparous women and fetal factors like low birth weight, preterm babies and male babies were associated with substantially increased risks of perinatal death.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Factors potentially amenable to intervention would be improving the maternal nutritional status and adolescent health by proper implementation of existing health programs and reducing the maternal morbidity by providing proper antenatal care and proper referral services. Promoting institutional delivery for better newborn care. Educate girls about normal age for conception and importance of non consanguineous marriages. Maternal education is a long term intervention.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars who articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1933http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19331. Parks textbook of Preventive and social medicine 21st edition, Banarsidas Bhanot, 2011:490
2. UNICEF(1989) the state of the world‘s children 1989.
3. Meredith Davis, J.B. (1983). Community Health, Preventive Medicine and Social Services, 5th edition, Bailliere Tindall.
4. Fazili F, Mattoo GM.?Epidemiology of perinatal mortality: a hospital based study? JK Pract. 1999 Jan-Mar;6(1):41-5.
5. Dasgupta S, Saha I, Lahiri A, Mandal AK. ?A study of perinatal mortality and associated maternal profile in a medical college hospital.? J Indian Med Assoc. 1997 Mar;95(3):78-9.
6. Kumar MR, Bhat BV, Oumachigui A. ?Perinatal mortality trends in a referral hospital? by Indian J Pediatr. 1996 MayJun;63(3):357-61.
7. Chandrashekar S, Rao RS, Chakladar BK, Krishnan L, Nair NS. ?Perinatal mortality in a rural district of south India?. Indian J Pediatr. 1998 SepOct;65(5):709-15.
8. Sachar RK, Soni RK. ?Perinatal mortality in rural Punjab--a populationbased study? J Trop Pediatr 2000 Feb;46(1):43-5.
9. Mavalankar DV, Trivedi CR, and Gray RH. Levels and risk factors for perinatal mortality in Ahmedabad, India, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 69(4): 435-442 (1991)
10. United Nations System • Standing Committee on Nutrition. Sixth report on the world nutrition situation; Maternal nutrition and the intergenerational cycle of growth failure, chapter 3, page no.64
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesNITRATE REDUCTASE ACTIVITY DECREASES DUE TO SALINITY IN MUNGBEAN (VIGNA RADIATA) L WILCZEK VAR. HUM_1
English117124Burhan M PadderEnglish R M AgarwalEnglish Zahoor A KalooEnglish Seema SinghEnglishSalinity can have damaging effect on plant growth either because of toxicity of specific ions or as a result of osmotic stress. Concentration of a salt has a significant role in this. Influence of two salts (NaCl and KCl) on germination and early growth of mungbean is being reported in this communication. Germination of Vigna radiata cv Hum-1 was reduced by higher concentration (100mM) of salts particularly sodium chloride. Radical length increased in treatments having lower concentrations (10mM) of sodium and potassium chloride, however, higher concentrations reduced radical length as well. All NaCl treatments and higher concentrations of potassium decreased plumule growth however plumule growth increased in 10mMKCl. Fresh and dry weight of different organs also exhibited more or less similar trends. Nitrate reductase activity reduced in sodium chloride treatments, however seedlings raised with potassium chloride treatments showed enhanced nitrate reductase activity.
EnglishMungbean, Nitrate reductase activity, Salinity stress, Vigna radiata.INTRODUCTION
Mungbean Vigna radiata L (wilczek) is considered as one of the important legume crops characterized by a relative high content of proteins rich in leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, valine, isoleucine and certain vitamins (Oplinger et al., 1990). Mungbean is also an important pulse crop with exploited medicinal properties. Salinity is the presence of soluble salts in the soils or water which can cause stress or death to crops and vegetation, increase soil erosion, pollute drinking water and damage roads, fences, railways, buildings and natural ecosystems (Abrol, 1986). During their growth and development plants are exposed to abiotic (high and low temperature, salinity, drought, radiation etc.) and biotic (pathogen, fungus etc.) stress factors, which decrease their yield and affect the quality of their products (Habashy et al., 2008). Moreover, over 6% of the world's total land area is affected by salinity and sodicity (Munns, 2005). Most crops are salt sensitive or hypersensitive plants (glycophytes) in contrast to halophytes which are the native flora of saline environments. Some halophytes have capacity to accommodate extreme salinity because of very special anatomical and morphological adaptations or avoidance mechanisms (Flowers et al., 1986).The tolerance of salt stressed plants is dependent on their ability to accumulate inorganic solutes from external media in their tissues. Sodium chloride is one amongst the most frequently accumulated salt in soil suffering from salinity. Sahu et al., (1999) and Misra et al., (1999) found that salinity caused decrease in photosynthetic pigment content and photosystem II electron transport activity in mungbean plants. Potassium is an essential macronutrient that plays a vital role in the regulation of plant growth and development (Mengel and Kirkby, 2006; Agarwal et al. 2009). It has been reported to alleviate the severe effects of a number of biotic and abiotic stresses including drought (Umar and Bansal, 1995; Umar, 2006). Yield improvement under drought conditions may be brought about by devising management strategies, like application of potassium fertilizers, which maximize the amount of water available to the crop (Turner and Begg, 1981; Loomis 1983; Mahadhar et al., 1996). Nitrate reductase enzyme (NR) represents the rate limiting step in nitrate assimilation and can be used as a marker to estimate the capacity of plant roots and shoots to assimilate external N (Beeverz and Hazeman, 1980; Oaks, 1994). Salinity is considered to be the major factor influencing crop production in mungbean hence an attempt has been made in the present investigation to find out the general and possible salinity effects of different concentrations of KCl and NaCl on mungbean.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seeds of mungbean (green gram) Vigna radiata cv. Hum - 1 were taken from Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindhia Agricultural University, Gwalior. Healthy and uniform seeds were surface sterilized with 0.01% mercuric chloride solution for 2-3 minutes followed by thorough washing with distilled water, thereafter the seeds were allowed to germinate in petri plates lined with filter paper. Stress was imposed by germinating and raising the seedlings in different concentrations of NaCl and KCl solutions. Seeds treated with distilled water served as controls.
Germination percentage and growth characteristics were recorded in a routine manner. After 72 hours of sowing, the seedlings were taken and processed for the determination of activity of nitrate reductase. In vivo nitrate reductase was assayed following
Srivastava, (1974) as followed by Tiwari (1996) as outlined below: Fresh material (0.3g) was cut into small pieces and put into 5 ml tubes filled with incubation medium (0.1m phosphate buffer with 200mM KNO3 and 0.5% n-propanol v/v at 7.5 pH, maintained in dark for two hours at 30°C. Subsequently aliquot (1ml) was taken and sulphanilamide (1ml of 1% in 3NHCl) and napthethylene diamine hydrochloride (1ml of 0.02%) were added to it followed by thorough mixing. Thereafter, it was allowed to develop colour for 25 minutes and finally optical density was recorded at 540nm. Nitrate reductase activity was calculated using standard curve of nitrite and expressed in terms of µ mole nitrite produced/hr/g of the fresh weight.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Germination of Vigna radiata cv Hum-1 was reduced by higher concentration (100mM) of salts particularly sodium chloride (63.33%) in 100mM of sodium chloride and (67.14%) in 100mM KCl as compared to (77.7%) in control. Decrease in germination percentage was in accordance with the results obtained by Misra and Diwedi (2004) in green gram (Phaselous aureus). Highest radical length was recorded with treatments having lower concentrations (10mM) of sodium and potassium chloride this could be near to optimal concentration for growth however, at higher concentration radical length was reduced. Highest plumule length was recorded in KCl (10mM). In all NaCl treatments and higher concentrations of potassium decreased plumule growth was obvious. The reduction was greater in sodium chloride treatments in case of plumule length as well (Table 1). Decrease in shoot and root length of mungbean in NaCl treatment (200mM) has also been reported earlier (Haleem and Mohammed, 2007; Akbari et al., 2008 Saffan, 2008 and Saha et al. 2010). However, we found some enhancement particularly in radical length at low concentration (10mM) of salts. The fresh and dry weight of different organs also exhibited more or less the same trend (Table 2).The results are in accordance with the findings of Musyimi et al. (2007) in Avocado seedlings grown at high salinity which resulted in large reductions in fresh and dry weight production of both shoot and root. Highest moisture percentage of radical, leaf and plumule was recorded in control and least in 100mMNaCl. Decrease in moisture percentage with increasing salinity stress is on the lines of the results reported by Meloni et al. (2004) in Prosopis alba at 600mML-1 of NaCl. Stress was comparatively greater in NaCl than KCl as in 100mMNaCl growth was strongly inhibited and so much that no sample of leaves and plumule were recovered. Increase in concentration from 10-100mMKCl resulted in increased nitrate reductase activity and the highest value observed was in plumule 100mMKCl treatment (0.666 µmol nitrite produced/ hr/g/fresh weight). Hence nitrate reductase activity was reduced in sodium chloride treatments, however, in potassium chloride treatments nitrate reductase activity showed an increase. Such observations have also been reported by Haleem and Mohammed 2007; Aslam et al., 1984, Garg et al., 1990, Dubey, 1998; Hageman and Flesher 1960; Badruddin and Dutta 2004 and Arulbalachandran 2009. Sharma and Agarwal (2002) have also reported increase in nitrate reductase activity due to potassium treatments.
The increase being greater in treatments where potassium was used as KNO3. Accompanying anions also showed an impact on the uptake of potassium as well potassium supplementation also led to depletion of nitrogen in the medium as a consequence of improved nitrogen utilization. Improved growth traits and nitrate reductase activity in potassium treatments has been reported earlier as well (Tiwari et al., 1996). However, for the present experiments we used only potassium chloride and not potassium nitrate which is reported to have greater impact on different growth parameters.
CONCLUSION
The germination of Vigna radiata cv Hum-1 was reduced by higher concentration (100mM) of salts particularly sodium chloride however, increase in radical length was recorded in treatments having lower concentration (10mM). In all NaCl and higher potassium treatments decrease in plumule growth was obvious. The reduction was greater in sodium chloride treatments in case of plumule length as well. Nitrate reductase activity was reduced in sodium chloride treatments, however, in potassium chloride treatments nitrate reductase activity showed an increase.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful to the Head School of Studies in Botany Jiwaji University Gwalior, 474011 India, for providing necessary laboratory facilities to carry out this work. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1934http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19341. Abrol I.P. (1986) Salt affected soils An Overview. In: Approaches for incorporating drought and salinity resistance in crop plants. (Eds.) VL Chopra and RS Paroda, oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
2. Agarwal RM, Tomar Nisha Singh, Singh Keshav and Sharma GL (2009). Potassium induced changes in flowering plants. In: Flower Retrospect and Prospect (Professsor Vishwambhar Puri Birth Centenary Volume) SR Scientific Publication, Delhi 110553 pp 158-186
3. Akbari Nasser, Barani Mohsen and Ahmadi Hadi; (2008). Effect of GA3 on Agronomic Traits of (Vigna radiata L wilczek) irrigated with different levels of saline water. World Applied Sciences Journal 5(2): 199-203
4. Arulbalachandran D, Ganesh Sankar K and Subramani A (2009). Changes in Metabolites and Antioxidant Enzyme Activity of Three Vigna Species Induced by NaCl Stress American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 2 (2): 109-116
5. Aslam M, Huffaker RC and Rains DW (1984). Early effects of salinity on nitrate assimilation in Barley Seedlings. Plant Physiol. 76: 321-325
6. Badruddin M and Dutta RK (2004). Nitrogen Requirement of Tomato. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 9(1): 75-78
7. Beevers L and Hageman RH (1980). Nitrate and Nitrite reduction, In: The biochemistry of Plants, Eds. Stump PK and Cou. E E. Academic Press, New York, USA, 115-168
8. Dubey RS (1998). Nitrogen metabolism in plants under salt stress (eds.) Jaiswal P K, Singh R P and Gulati A Strategies for improving Salt tolerance in higher plants 129-157 Oxford, IBH Pub. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
9. Flowers TJ, Troke PF and Yeo AR (1977). The mechanism of salt tolerance in Halophytes. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol., 28: 89-121
10. Flowers TJ, Hajibagheri MA and Clipson NJW (1986). In Halophytes. The Quart Rev. Biol. 61: 313-337 11. Garg BK, Kathju S, Vyas SP and Lahiri AN (1990). Effect of Saline water irrigation on tolerant and sensitive wheat varieties under desperate soil fertility conditions. Ann. Arid Zone 29: 179-189
12. Habashy NR, Zaki RN and Mahmood Awatef A (2008). Maximizing tomato yield and its quality under salinity stress in a newly reclaimed soil. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 4(12): 1867-1875
13. Hageman RH and Flesher D (1960). Nitrate reductase activity in corn seedlings as affected by light and nitrate content of the nutrient media. Plant Physiol. 35: 700-708
14. Haleem Abdel and Mohammed MA (2007). Physiological aspects of Mungbean plant (Vigna radiata L wilczek) in response to salt stress and Gibberelllic acid treatment. Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 3(4): 200-213
15. Loomis RA (1983). Crop Manipulation for efficient use of water An overview. In: Limitations to efficient water use in crop production, 345-374
16. Mahadhar UV, Modak SI, Patil RA and Khanwilkar SA (1996). Effect of moisture regimes, nitrogen and potassium on mustard. J. Pot. Res. 12(2): 217-220
17. Melonii Diego Ariel, Gulotta Marta, Rosalia Martinez, Carlos Alberto and Olivia Marco Antonio, (2004). The effects of salts stress on growth, nitrate reduction and proline and glycinebetaine accumulation in Prosopis alba. Braz. J., Plant Physiol. 16(1) Londrina
18. Mengel K and Kirby EA (2006). Principles of Plant Nutrition 5th edition, Springer publications 439-447
19. Misra N, Dwivedi UN (1990). Nitrogen assimilation in germinating Phaselous aureus under saline stress. J. Plant physiol. 135: 719-724
20. Misra AN, Sahu SM, Misra Meena, Ramaswamy NK, Desai TS, Misra M, Horvath G and Szigeti Z, (1999). Sodium Chloride salt stress induced changes in thylakoid pigment-protein complexes, photosystem II activity and thermoluminescence glow peaks. Stress Synergisms in plants. Proceedings of an international workshop at Tata, Hungary. Zeitschrift-fur-Natrforschung. Section C, Biosciences, 54: 640-644
21. Misra, Neelam and Dwivedi UN (2004). Genotypic difference in salinity tolerance of green gram cultivars. Journal of Plant Science. 166(5): 1135-1142
22. Musyimi DM, Netondo GW and Ouma G (2007). Effects of Salinity on Growth and photosynthesis of Avocado Seedlings. International Journal of Botany 3(1): 78-84
23. Munns R (2005). Genes and salt tolerance: bringing them together. New Phytol. , 167: 645-663
24. Oaks A (1994). Primary Nitrogen assimilation in higher plants and its regulation. Can. J. Bot. 72: 739-750
25. Oplinger ES, Hardman LL, Kaminski AR, Combs SM, and Doll JD (1990). Mungbean, Alternative Field Crops Manual University of Wisconsin Extension, Cooperative Extension.
26. Saffan Samia El-Sayeed (2008). Effects of salinity and osmotic stresses on some economic plants. Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 4(2): 159-166
27. Saha K and Gupta K (1998). Effect of triazoles and CCC on growth yield and metabolism of mungbean plants under salinity stress. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 3(2): 107-111
28. Saha Papiya, Chatterjee Paramita and Biswas Ashok K (2010). NaCl pretreatment alleviates salt stress by enhancement of antioxidant defense system and osmolyte accumulation in mungbean Vigna radiata L wilczek. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 48: 593 600
29. Sahu SM, Misra AN, Misra M, Ramaswamy NK, Desai TS and Garab G, (1998). Sodium chloride Salt Stress induced changes in thylakoid pigment protein complexes and Photosystem II activity of Vigna radiata seedlings, photosynthesis mechanisms and effects. Proceedings of the XI International congress on photosynthesis, Budapest, Hungary 4: 2625-2628
30. Sharma GL and Agarwal RM (2002). Potassium induced changes in nitrate reductase activity in Cicer arietinum L. Indian. J. Plant Physiol. 7(3): 221-226
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesTHE EFFECT OF UNCOLLECTIBLE PREMIUM CONNECTED WITH CREDIT TERMS OF INSURANCE SERVICE COMPANIES IN ETHIOPIA
English125134D.GuruswamyEnglishEthiopian Insurance Corporation has many competitors in the Insurance Industry. Recently, there are fifteen private owned Insurance Companies those become the major competitors of the Ethiopian Insurance Company. Now a days Insurance Companies are attractive for new customers and retain the existing one by using different mechanisms. Among these mechanisms selling insurance policy with credit option is one of the customers attracting strategy. Consequently, collection of the accumulated trade debt balance of these credit sales has become one of the difficult problems of the EIC. The general objective of this study is to investigate the effect of uncollectible premium in connection with credit terms of insurance policy in EIC, Mekelle zone, Tigray. The present study is a case study and both primary as well as secondary data are used in this study. In order to examine the aspects of performance, appropriate financial ratios are used. The overall conclusion is that there is a serious problem which the corporation is facing in its credit management process.
EnglishCredit Management, Ethiopian Insurance Corporation, Premium, Service.INTRODUCTION
The insurance business in Ethiopia in its modern application is a recent phenomenon. A branch of foreign insurance company known as ?Boise fire insurance company? was opened by an Austrian in Addis Ababa in 1923. For the first time in Ethiopia the company paid compensation to client in 1929 for damage to his store caused by fire. Beginning from this time until the Italian invasion of 1936 some foreign Insurance companies were operating through their agents. During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia from 1936-1941, Italians Insurance companies operated and non–Italian companies were closed down. During the pre-military government the Ethiopian economic policy was designed in such a way that encourages the establishment and growth of private owned insurance companies in the economy. But after the military government came to power in 1974 the corporation came in to existence by taking over all assets and liabilities of the thirteen private insurance corporations were nationalized in January1975, and amalgamated to create Ethiopian Insurance Corporation. As result of this action the industry was monopolized by Ethiopian Insurance Corporation for about a couple of decades. After the down fall of the military government the existing government comes up with attractive, as well as ideal economic policy which highly encourages the establishment and expansion of privately owned insurance companies to operate in the insurance industry owning to this conductive economic policy, more than seven privately owned insurance companies joined the insurance industry since 1991 Ethiopian insurance corporation was established by proclamation No.68/ 1975 on 1st January 1976. Currently, EIC operating the insurance industry with a grand mission of producing its customers all efficient and reliable insurance services which cover life, property, and liability risks. EIC provides its service by giving a paramount importance to its customer‘s safety and satisfaction by making use of the right mix of expertise, and cost effective strategies. EIC established with birr 11 million in 1976, and re-established as public enterprise under proclamation number 201/94 with birr 61 million paid up capital. Ethiopian Insurance Corporation was among the huge financial institutions that provide services to their customers for the sake of profit making considering the following objective:
Engage in all classes of insurance business in Ethiopia.
Ensure the insurance service reach the broad mass of people.
Ethiopian Insurance Corporation is expected to be competitive and profitable as other insurance companies by attracting new customers and providing the required services in an efficient way to hold their existing customers.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Ethiopian Insurance Corporation has many competitors in the Insurance Industry. Recently, there are fifteen private owned Insurance Companies those become the major competitors of the Ethiopian Insurance Company. Now a days Insurance Companies are attractive for new customers and retain the existing one by using different mechanisms. Among these mechanisms selling insurance policy with credit option is one of the customers attracting strategy. Consequently, collection of the accumulated trade debt balance of these credit sales has become one of the difficult problems of the EIC. There are some indicators that customers with long and huge unpaid debt balance called debtors, are shifting to another company as a means of escaping, at least temporally from their debt strain. When the insurance company is demanding settlement to the uncollectible premium may array due to the problem credit policy of EIC. Customers are unable to settle their obligations due to their own problems or it may be related to poor receivables management of the company. The researcher focused on these fundamental problem areas and to indicate inefficient areas in order to correct weakness of EIC in Mekelle zone. As to the best of the researcher‘s knowledge, there is no previous research work on ?the effect of uncollectible premium in connection with credit terms of EIC in Mekelle Zone, Tigray.? This; therefore is the rational for undertaking this study to fill gap.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The general objective of this study is to investigate the effect of uncollectible premium in connection with credit terms of insurance policy in Ethiopian Insurance Corporation, Mekelle zone, Tigray by considering the following specific objectives:.
1. To show the effect of uncollectible premium on the operating activity of EIC
2. To indicate the effect of uncollectible premium on the profitability of the company
3. To show the methods and procedures of credit policy analysis adopted by the company
4. To identify the major reasons for uncollectible premium in the company
5. To detect the fundamental areas of uncollectible premium in the company
6. To analyze the strengths and weakness of the company‘s credit policy
METHODOLOGY
The present study is a case study. In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives, the researcher collected and revived relevant documents and reports from both secondary and primary data sources. The primary data are collected from the insurance users and from the personnel‘s (staff members) of the corporation by conducting interviews. Random sampling technique is used in order to select the Insurance users and personnel‘s of the corporation for conducting interviews. The secondary source for this study is from Annual Reports of the company, documents, news papers, articles and books. In order to examine those aspects of performance from 2007 to 2009 appropriate financial ratios are used to analyze the EIC balance sheet and income statement. It is extremely used upon the analysis of financial statement of EIC and seeks to detect any inefficient areas and explain the cause and effect of uncollectible premiums due to the credit sale of insurance policies in EIC.
SIGNIFIACNE OF THE STUDY
This study may have due importance for facing different kinds of uncollectible premium and to take corrective actions or be aware of the employers and the customers especially in insurance corporations.
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This paper is concerned only with the effect of uncollectible premium in connection with credit terms of insurance service of Ethiopian Insurance Corporation, Mekelle zone and the study period was limited from 2007 to 2009.
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTION
As pointed out in the data source the subjects or targeted population of the research are the insurance users and staff members with the objective of knowing the reasons of uncollectible premium from the credit sales insurance service and its consequence. In addition, Annual reports of EIC from year 2007-2009 are important source of data which is presented using tables. Now the researcher describes the insurance services to the customer and the objective of EIC before describing the reasons of uncollectible premium. Modern business practices permit delivery of goods and services without immediate payments. This practice is also common in insurance policy transaction. Insurance company‘s sales, insurance policies on account and the insured agree to pay the premium on some specific date in the future. The primary inspiration of providing insurance services on credit is to fill the gap between the real need of insurance service and temporally financial strain of the insured to effect immediate payment for it. This in return strengthens good business relationship between the insured and the insurer, and helps insurer to achieve its sales target. Ethiopian Insurance corporation has a mission of protecting the public from unexpected and accidental loss in providing customer focused; efficient and reliable insurance services. The main objective is to raise its profitability and market share by providing efficient, reliable and cost effective insurance services To attract new customers and retain the exiting one‘s insurance companies introduced a provision of insurance services in credit terms and sometimes they can extend the term of outstanding credits. Consequently collection of the accumulated trade debt balances has become one of the difficult problems of the insurance. Reasons for uncollectible premium Based on the interview, the researcher has summarized the following reasons for uncollectible premium. The primary benefit of credit sales could be summarized to increase profits through increasing sales. Due to the fast environmental changes and with other factors the expected amount of premiums was collected partially or may not be collected at all. These situations may lead the company to incur financial loss and if it was material the company may become bankrupted. There are many reasons for the receivables that become uncollectible where as the problem of uncollectibility may arise due to the companies weakness or customers failure to meet the contract. Among the problems which have mentioned from the company in Mekelle zone side weakness of customer selection procedure, lack of clarity in terms of setting credit terms (such as credit limits, credit period, settlement discounts) and inefficient collection policy were the major ones. Whereas, customers negligence that is customers are unwillingness to continue with the service or when the customer business become bankrupted, the customer fails to meet the insurance contract. Credit term is a sales attraction mechanism and the longer the time a company allows its customers to pay the greater the volume of sales and also the profits. However, the longer the credit terms the greater the amount of debtors and the greater the possible strain on the company‘s‘ liquidity. But in order to minimize the uncollectible premiums and also to improve the profitability of the company a sound and effective credit policy is necessary.
The effect of uncollectible premium
The effect of uncollectible premium on the EIC, Mekelle zone is summarized as per the interview results. There is a common truth that, for a given level of return there is also certain level of risk attached with it (that is high returns to high risk). In any business when goods or services are provided in credit there is a risk of uncollectible. The main difference is the probability of this uncollectible from one company to another and from one business to another depending on the firm‘s internal and external environmental conditions and also due to customer‘s behaviors. Ethiopian Insurance Corporation provides its services on credit for governmental organizations, public agencies, financial organization and also private sector. Hence EIC sets restrictions in the provision of credit to its customers to reduce the risk of uncollectibility. Regarding to the down payment of any governmental organization has the chance to get various insurance services without any down payment. Whereas, for private companies to get insurance services in credit the company have to pay 50% of the down payment in cash immediately when enters in to the contract. Note that life related insurance services were not provided in credit terms for any sector. A credit policy should outline a company‘s strategic and operations requirements from credit sales. It is not sufficient to provide credit to customers, but it is also necessary to evaluate what the company expects from this credit sales i.e., increased sales, attract new customers, improved profitability and increased market share. It is obvious that all of the above are driven with the aim of producing profitable growth and not as service to be abused by customers. Whatever credit terms a company (EIC) may like to offer it can be limited by the practice of the industry; and the choice of which customers to sell is really a question of the level of risk of non- payment that is considered acceptable with every credit sale, there is some level of risk that the customer will either take a considerably long time to pay or may not pay at all. The uncollectible of this premium has many side effects on the financial activity, profitability and solvency of the company. The financial activity of EIC was classified as life and non- life business activity. EIC provides insurance services in credit term only for non life business related actives, although there are other kind‘s life of credit provided under life business activities, such as sundry debtors, staff debtor‘s prepayments and deposits. Interest and rent receivable are the major debtor accounts for the credit provided. Among the effects of uncollectible premium the reduction of profitability was the major one. Uncollectible premiums are reflected as an expense on provision for doubtful debts account under non- life business profit and loss account. In this situation, it is necessary to consider how much portion should take in each sector as uncollectible premium (i.e., governmental sector, public agencies, private sector and financial institution).
Table-1 about here
Table-1 shows that the amount of uncollectible premium of governmental sector is decreased from year to year (from 2007 to 2008 and 2009). As it can be further observed from table, the share of 82% uncollectible in the year 2007 is declined to 25% in the year 2009. Furthermore, as per the interview results the decreased trend of uncollectible premium is as a result of privatization of the government companies. The average rate of uncollectible for this sector was 61.7%. It concludes that the amount of collection is increased from time to time in contrast uncollectible premium is decreased at increasing rate.
Table-2 about here
As it can be seen from the Table-2 that the amount of uncollectible premium of public agencies is decreased from 2007 to the next year and in 2009 all credit sales were collected and on average rate of uncollectible premium was 37.7% for each year (From 2007-2009). Generally the credit sales collection is increased at an increased rate from time to time and uncollectible premium is decreased and it becomes zero in 2009. From this one can conclude that the uncollectible premium becomes zero in the year 2009 for public agencies.
Table-3 about here
As it can be seen from the Table-3 indicates that the level of uncollectible premium of private sector. The rate of uncollectible premium of this sector as shown is decreased from year to year at a moderate rate. On average the rate of the amount of uncollectible premium covers 18.67% from the total credit sales in a given three years. It concludes that the above table shows the amount of collection is increased from year to year like that of government sector and public agency but the uncollectible premium is decreased continuously since various government policies have been changed over the past decades and EIC highly focused on private sector credit policy.
Table-4 about here
As it indicated in Table-4 that financial institutions are the smallest class of customers when it compared with other three classes of customers. The credit sales amount is decreased from year to year. The uncollectible premium is decreased at an increased rate from 2007-2008 and increased at an increased rate in 2009. On average the percentage of uncollectible for this sector was 23.3% in the given three years. To summarize the above four sectors, next to private sector, financial institutions covers the least average rate of uncollectibility compared with the other two sectors (government sector and private sector).
Table-5 about here
As it shown in the Table-5 that the uncollectible premium is decreased from year to year similarly the credit sales amount also has been declined for consecutive years. In 2007, an uncollectible premium covers 26.5% of the total credit sales and this rate becomes decreased for the year 2008 and 2009 to 20% and 14% respectively. As it shown, the rate of uncollectible amount is decreased from year to year. Its receivables are not collected timely; the provision of credit terms may become a means of resource wastage rather than a profit generating mechanisms. Improving with the process of collecting these uncollectible premiums is necessary to consider legal cost, time value of money and other related costs. It is obvious that credit option of providing insurance services is driven with the aim of producing profitable growth. Then the objective of the company is assumed to choose the credit policy that takes in conjunction with its other policy decisions to maximize its expected profits. It is known that the credit policy cannot be formulated without reference to constraints. The liquidity position of a company presents obvious constraints, the production capacity, management capacity and risks are the major effects of uncollectible premium. When these problems, reaches the high level, the company‘s business activity fell down and become bankrupted. In order to minimize this risk and to create conducive business environment it is necessary to establish a sound and efficient credit policy. Customer selection procedures, credit terms and efficient collection policy matters should given attention in establishing the credit policy. Now it is an important to observe; EIC‘s credit policy and procedure, the strategies used in credit granting in EIC, and the problems in EIC credit control and its management.
Credit policy and procedure of EIC
For number of years, employees of the corporation are faced serious problems in managing credit sales. A great number of directives were issued from different offices of the corporation. The directives are simply to give solution to the problems at hand. As these directives are many in number and are issued from different offices, it was very difficult to implement them and also to exercise adequate control towards their implementation and their suitability to meet the needs of the market. After taking some years, the corporation is able to prepare its credit policy directives and procedures in 1995. This policy directives and procedures repealed all the previous directives issued through out the years. But these documents are also too cumbersome to comprehend and implement it. There were wide oppositions to these documents among the staffs regarding to the implementation of the directives.. Recently, the corporation produced yet another credit policy and procedure at the end of year 2000. The policy requires the corporation to comply with the laws and regulation of the government, directives of the National Bank of Ethiopia and the strategy and credit policy of the corporation in its management of credit. In addition to this, the policy is based on certain principles which emphasize meeting of the profit motive of the corporation. The corporation credit policy requires that a credit audit be conducted by the responsible body. The credit audit is to be performed by credit audit unit, which is outside the credit unit, and which directly reports to the board of management of the corporation and have an access to the president of the corporation. The main task of credit review is independently reviewing the quality and management of credit risk all over the corporation. The review included all sorts of activities undertaken in credit management. The unit responsible for credit review is required to produce a report that includes findings, conclusions and recommendations.
Strategies used in credit granting in EIC
Based on the out comes, the corporation may consider one or the combination of the following strategies, to meet the interest of both customers and the corporation.
- Convince the customers that defaulting damages their names and social standing and make them pay past due balances.
- Re-scheduled the credit by reviewing the terms and preconditions, at the same time the customers can be requested to pledge additional security and to pay a portion of the credit as a good gesture.
- Allow the customers to liquidate the asset of their company at their own terms and conditions.
- Not every credit that defaults (becomes uncollectible) is immediately forwarded
to the work out credit unit. Normally a credit is considered as defaulted staring from the first day repayment is past due but this does not mean that EIC start taking action, rather it waits until the customers are not able to prepay for 90 days. During this time, the corporation tries to inform the customers through the servicing branches, giving them oral and written reminders. And these credits that reach the critical stage, despite the branches efforts will be transferred to workout loans unit.
- In accounting, when goods and services are provided in credit the transaction is recorded in special ledger account (for example account receivable or notes receivable). After that the company can estimate what portion of its credit sales become uncollectible. These uncollectible debts are known as doubtful debts.
- After under going through the work out credit process, some credits cannot be recovered for various reasons. Therefore, when EIC is left with no other option of recovery of the premium as a result the company takes foreclosure and litigation as the next step. Some of the situations, which might lead EIC to foreclosure are:
The business has turned out to be insolvent and incapable of generating cash to repay the claims incurred.
The borrowers or their business fails to pay minimum cash down payment required by the agreement.
The borrowers become uncooperative to resolve the problems amicably.
Problems of credit management in EIC
During the interview the respondents pointed a number of problems which are the main causes of the premium to be uncollectible in the EIC. Although when EIC provides its insurance service in credit (future payment) to its customers, EIC considers some situations but there are problems in the process of credit provision. Based on the interview results the problems are classified into internal and external for convenience. The respondents believe that the following are main problems that contributed to the poor performance of the corporation which is expressed by the rising level of uncollectible premiums. The internal problems are as follows:
- Lack of unified policy and procedure for along period of time even though a new economic system was adopted in Ethiopia. This resulted in introduction of a number of directives issued by different authorities which created a lot of confusion among staffs of the corporation that employed in the credit management including control.
- The introduction of inflexible stringent and unmanageable credit policy and procedure which was desired to prevent certain practices and to strengthen control without considering the problems associated with it.
- A very long service delivery time which was caused by task duplications at various stages of the corporation in the inexperience of the credit staff in processing the customer request.
- A very long property valuation and documents checking process irrespective of the type of customer and requested products type.
- Absence of research work to prove the credit staff with appropriate information about the national, international, geographical, sector information which could increase their performance.
- Poor negotiation skill from the credit staff side and absence of any guidance to this effect from the top management and absence of standards, which creates lack of confidence to the staffs. Where as the external problems are mentioned below:
- Absence of record keeping, which creates difficulties in preparing true financial statement
- Absence of adequate cooperation from various government offices to provide information
- Strategies directives issued by the National Bank of Ethiopia such as indiscriminate credit information requirement irrespective of the type, size and the credit contract.
- The communicative effort of the problems raised above caused poor credit management in EIC. This was expressed by customer dissatisfaction, long credit processing time, inefficiency in credit assessment and decision making, employee dissatisfaction, reduce customer loyalty to EIC, lack of creativity and initiative from the credit staff, loss of marketing shares inefficient manpower utilitarian, resource utilitarian and the increasing rate of uncollectible premium were out comes of the problems
CONCLUSIONS
The structure of the insurance industry in Ethiopia is changing with the changes made in policies of the various governments. It is able to see that the corporation provided insurance services in credit with classifying customers as government sector, public agencies, private sector and financial institutions. It is observed from the totaled amount of uncollectible premiums the provision held for the bad debt credit by corporation. The researcher can conclude that there is a serious problem which the corporation is facing in its credit management process. The fact that EIC is not able to quickly adjust to the new economic order is a great weakness in the corporation‘s credit management process. In the earlier years, the corporation is more traditional in its credit management outlook. Moreover, the credit management process was highly bureaucratic. Whatever is the amount and the type of credit the request of the customer should pass through a number of units and practically, no value addition can be observed at the level of most units. Therefore, it was simply a waste of time and can be considered as that the corporation was never been customer oriented. It is because of all the above short comings that the problems mentioned in the body of the paper are able to come in to picture. Clearly setting the credit terms(such as credit limits, credit period, settlement discount ) and efficient collection policy, and customer awareness and willingness to continue with the service or when the customer business become bankrupted, the customer not fails to meet the insurance contract.
ACKNOLEDGEMNT
The author is thankful to management of Ethiopian Insurance Corporation (Mekelle Zone) for cooperation and providing various issues of annual reports. The author is also thankful to insurance users and personnel‘s (staff members) of the EIC for providing the relevant information to carry out this research.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyWEB-BASED EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS: A CHANGING SCENARIO OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA
English135140S. P. ShindeEnglish V. P. DeshmukhEnglish B. S. SawantEnglishTechnological change permits new activities and makes new activities superior in many important ways over the previous method of operation and creates long lasting innovations in society. Web-based teaching and learning is rapidly emerging as a predominant paradigm in the delivery of education in society. Internet is the ocean of knowledge. This ocean can be made available to all students as early as possible in their life. So Information Technology & related tools can be introduced in school education by using World Wide Web as education delivery medium. The WWW is used to provide information with great prospect and extend learning outside space and time boundaries. The remarkable developments in IT and networking have opened the doors of education. In the era of IT e-learning can be efficiently used for different types of education. Most of the population of India is in the rural areas where literacy rate is poor due to the lack of educational facilities. This paper discusses the present scenario of education in India, the key related to Web based education / learning has potential to meet the perceived need for flexible pace, place & face.
EnglishEducation Technology, Internet, WWW, web-based education (WBE), online education, E-tutoring, Web Based Technology (WBT)INTRODUCTION
“Education is an important indicator of social development”
1. Education Scenario in India:
The Indian Constitution resolves to provide quality education to all and in an effort to fulfill the educational needs of the country specifically for the diverse societies and cultures of the country the government has chalked out different educational categories: Elementary education, Secondary education, Higher education, Adult education, and Technical and Vocational education is nothing but the development of the whole individual and nurturing the potentials inherent traits. The lowest level of education that was necessary to attain this goal was basic or primary and secondary. But now in this super fast era, when borders have lost their existence, education needs to meet the additional demands of present time. Due to globalization, the whole world has become a global village. So now education must be used as a useful tool raise awareness of environment, peace, culture, social diversity, increased competitiveness and the concept of a global village. After independence, the scenario changed and education became more than a tool. In the present world, education is being used as a means of becoming a global citizen. Today, the world is full of information flowing freely. Now anyone can get any information on just about any subject under the sun with the help of the World Wide. The internet has enabled us to know different cultures and to have an insight into the world happenings. To work in this more competitive world, we have to be potent enough to survive. Education gives us that powerful tool by which we can leave a life of worthiness it is only through improving the educational condition of a society that the multifaceted progress of its people can be guaranteed. The scenario of the schools has also been changed. Now the schools are well equipped with all modern technically sound devices that facilitate the learning environment. The use of projectors, DVDs, smart boards, and other modernized devices is an indication that India is also developing in an equal pace with the whole world. Apart from this, different international schools are also making their appearance in India. India is now being placed among the best education provides country of the world. But the impact of education can be seen more in the urban life than in rural India. Impact of globalization can be seen in case of online technique of learning. Now children residing in distant parts of the country can take the benefit of lectures that are being delivered in some other parts of the country exclusively through the online mode. This has become possible because of the Internet and the World Wide Web. Parents can now apply for their child‘s admission online. This is beneficial to many parents because it saves their time and is economical as well. Basic Structure of Education in India The basic structure of education India follows creating a sturdy base for the students. There are basically four stages of schooling in India which are primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary/high school. In an average, the schooling in India goes through duration of 12 years, staring from Class 1 to Class 12th (10+2). The Indian Government is dedicated to provide the elementary education for everyone i.e Primary and Secondary for the ones aging between 6-14 years. Then the upper primary and secondary school student‘s ages between 11 to 15 years, which is planned between classes 6 to 10 and the higher secondary school ages ranges from 16-17 i.e for classes eleven and twelve. However in some parts of the country there is a concept of middle/upper primary schools for class six to eight. Higher Education in India sometimes offer focus in particular field which includes technical schools like Indian Institute of Technology etc. also including related colleges and universities.
Categories of schooling in India
The main categories of schooling offered in India are:
• The state government controlled schools under which a large chunk of students are enrolled.
• The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), New Delhi
• The Council for Indian School Certificate Examinations (ICSE), New Delhi
• National Open School
2. Need for Web Based Technologies
In the presence of social diversity in India, it is difficult to change the social background of students, parents and their economical conditions. Therefore the only option left for us is to provide uniform or standardize teaching learning resources or methods. For high quality education throughout India there must be some nationwide network, which provides equal quality education to all students, including the student from the rural areas and villages. The solution to this is Web-Based Learning. Three features are vital to the future of web-based education: interactivity between users (students, instructors, and administrators), speed of delivery, flexibility in relation to time and location of use.
Web Revolution
The objective of web delivered education is to provide tele-education for the place or time constrained students and also to maximize the utilization of instructional technology in an effort to enhance the absorption of knowledge. The growing role of the Internet as the main communication and information delivery channel in society at large will make web-based learning environments an important vehicle for delivering educational programmes to more students at a lower cost. The early 1990‘s witnessed the web revolution, and its impact on computerized learning environments was dramatic. By the mid- 1990‘s the first World Wide Web (WWW) based learning environment appeared and facilitated Internet use in academic learning environments. Considering the impact of Internet tele-education, it can be said that it is bringing the issue of offcampus/off-classroom course-work to the foreground and into an unavoidable recognition emphasizing more education to more people in more places. Courses offered over the Internet can be full courses, with sole Internet interaction or may be supplementary to an in campus course, in which case the student, faculty interaction remains on a face-to-face basis. Properly designed, structured and offered Internet courses may result in significant competitive advantage for an educational institution. The Internet as a learning medium lies both in integrating relevant visual, oral and textual materials and in providing access to these materials.
Web Based Education in India:
Increased Internet access has transformed computers from mere computing machines to drivers of the Information age. India has rightly recognized the access to Internet. Government of India, has Visualized the role of Information Technology in the contemporary world setup as a high power .Online education is the most existing segment in the Indian IT application programmes. University Grants Commission‘s Country Wide Classroom popularity and the programmes of AVRC and EMRC have created a sensation amongst the student‘s community. A host of eeducation sites continue to enter the market with focused offerings linking up student and teachers almost on a daily basis. The emerging new medium is acting as a effective supplement to the traditional teaching learning programmes. The country with it IT super strength is in the midst of a ?dotcom‘ wave. Multimedia packages prepared for learners incorporate a range of technologies print, audiotapes, video tapes, interactive radio counseling, one way video/two way audio teleconferencing, television lessons, CD-ROMs and web-based content delivery and so forth Sharma( 2001). These days‘ major changes are taking place in the educational system. This is because society itself is changing into one in which knowledge work becomes ever more important along with information and communication technologies affecting the economies. The trends and technological developments have envisioned ?global learning infrastructure‘ in which educational institutions have changed drastically paving the way for radical transformation of the educational system. Benefits of Web based education is clear:
classroom independence and platform independence
The main trends envisaged may be listed as follows;
Increasing growth of students
Different types of students
Flexible learning arrangements in which campus, building is no longer central to the educational process.
Inclination towards life long learning.
Learning to learn-fast, obsolescence of knowledge emphasizes the need to refresh on regular basis.
The monopoly of educational institutions forced the organizations to offer external market to education.
Changing behaviors of students in their choices about how and where to be educated.
The developments in the communication technologies have become handy to solve very critical problems of education; Through Internet where the course material can be offered independently of time and place.
Modularization makes it to offer different and flexible learning routes.
Ever increasing number of students has access to Internet, either at home or at the institution.
Costs of Internet is slowly coming down More and more information is made available through the WEB.
So, it can be envisaged that the future learning environment would be:
student-centered
interactive and dynamic
enabling group work on real world problems
enabling students to determine their own learning routes
Emphasizing competencies like information literacy to support life long learning
Therefore learning through Internet is a active learning, which implies that students don't limit themselves to resources supplied by their instructors, but also that the students search for new materials themselves in order to solve problems at hand and to develop their competencies continuously. Web-based learning is being developed rapidly in recently years. It is getting more and more popular because Internet gives us the best hope for the less expensive, more accessible, higher quality education (Jones, 1999).Web education denotes the processes where network technologies such as the Internet are used to make connections among students, teachers, and educational materials (Muirhead, 2000). Schools are providing on-line content and services by way of the web, and they are trying to adopt information architecture that can support interactivity, speed, and flexibility (Sharma). Web based models support services and applications that include conferencing system, chat rooms, bulletin boards, e-mail, virtual conference areas, online exams, etc. These models would also enhance course communication and collaboration while concurrently improving the quality of learning materials. The online web-based educational delivery method moves courses from a "talkinghead," instructor-centered, passive student model to an independent learning, student-centered, empowering model (Rack and Cantu, 2000). The driving forces for web-based education are: an increase in population, changing student demographics, demand for learner-centric programs, the increasing pressure on reducing costs on education 3. E-Tutoring Students is India and the education system is growing in a multiple manner as the internet penetration, option of learning while sitting at home and saving money is led to increase popularity of e-tutorials. "An increasing number of school and college going students are now getting enrolled for online classes which provides them practical insights and individual attention in the comforts of their home at a time convenient to them," said the survey. E-tutoring does not require any significant investments but a basic software and hardware set up to support multimedia and internet connection to facilitate interactive study sessions via e-mails and engaging in live discussions and video conferencing. There are several websites which offer e-tutoring and the student can pay with his credit or debit card. E-tutorial is a niche sector that provides limitless world of knowledge as there are various online learning programs that complement every student's unique learning needs.
4.CREATING AN ONLINE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
The obvious advantages to online training have tempted many instructors to jump too soon to exploit WBT. To create an effective online learning environment, it is important to pause and consider a few practical and pedagogical issues, including the online roles of instructor and student, the best type of technology tools to use, and the process of collaboration. It is also important to consider how materials will be distributed, how students will be assessed, and how specialized software will be incorporated into the learning environment.
Roles The instructor must accept the role of facilitator (as opposed to leader) in the learning process. This change requires moving from the ?chalkand-talk? role to a ?guide-on-the-side? role. It is also important that instructors realize that selfdirected learning requires high motivation on the part of the students.
Technology Students must have access to a standard Web browser and Internet connection. Instructors must of course be familiar with HTML tools and the process of converting a traditional course for use on the Web.
Collaboration tools Effective collaboration between the instructor and students is crucial. Instructors must be familiar with the many Internet technologies that support effective communication and collaboration, including e-mail, group discussion lists, textbased chat facilities, and even desktop videoconferencing.
Material distribution The Web provides a platform for delivering not only the text materials that a class might need, but also the multimedia requirements as well, including audio and video streams of instructor lectures. Instructors must be familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of current technologies even if other people will be converting classroom lectures into digital video for the Web because understanding what the Web is capable of doing will help determine the Web site‘s content.
Student assessment Computer-based testing, sometimes called computer-managed instruction (CMI), can provide instant feedback on student comprehension of course materials. But this type of managed testing can‘t work unless instructors accept assignments and provide feedback to students electronically.
CONCLUSION
With introduction of Web Based Education at school level our children and youngsters will grow as ?Computer kids?. Use of Internet for education has a potential to change many aspects of our lives. Thus WBE is Platform independent, convenient in access, cost saving, easily updated contents and with emerging technologies it can be made more effective. Web-Based Learning adds human support through on-line tutor, extending the scope of what can be effectively taught into many new subject areas. More supporting material can be made available through web site links to other documents and systems. With all these important features incorporated in Web Based Learning system it will enhance the quality of education in our country at all levels i.e. Primary, Secondary and Higher Education. Problems with web based education in India needs strong support. The Internet has been in existence for almost two and a half decades and began to extend into schools about 15 years ago. First it entered universities and then moved to schools. Internet has not made any miracle as such, but it did provide an opportunity to expand learning options for teachers and students who were fortunate enough to have Internet access, a few computers, and appropriate guidance on
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1936http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19361. Sharma S, Fred L K, Kitchens1, Queen Esther Booker, BEYOND LANGUAGE AND DISTANCE BARRIERS: A WEB SERVICES MODEL FOR DISTANCE AND DISTRIBUTED LEARNING
2. Roberts Tim S: THEORY AND PRACTICE IN WEB-BASED DELIVERY, Central Queensland University
3. Dr. B. V. Pawar: Web Based School Education In India: Problems, Considerations, Approaches & Important Features Of Web-Based Learning Environment
4. Thomas D. Lynch and Cynthia E. Lynch, Web-Based Education ,The Innovation Journal: An Issue on Processes and Tools Volume 8, Issue 4 (September - December, 2003) www.innovation.cc/scholarlystyle/lynchs-education.pdf
5. Partha Pratim Ray, WEB BASED ELEARNING IN INDIA: THE CUMULATIVE VIEWS OF DIFFERENT ASPECTS, Indian Journal of Computer Science and Engineering Vol. 1 No. 4 340- 352
6. Kathryn A. Marold, Delivering Web-Based Education,2009, IGI Global Category: IT Education 985-987
7. Yavuz ERDOGAN, Servet BAYRAM, Levent DEN?Z,FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTAND ATTITUDES IN WEB BASED EDUCATION, International Journal of Instruction January 2008 ? Vol.1, No.1, ISSN: 1694-609X ? www.e-iji.net
8. Kunjal M,Deepankar B,Web Based Educational Systems: An Application of Information & Communication Technology ,Towards Next Generation E-Government Page 230-235
9. B. Price Kerfoot, Paul R. Conlin,Thomas Travison, Graham T. McMahon, Web-Based Education in Systems-Based Practice: A Randomized Trial,ARCH INTERN MED/VOL 167, FEB 26, 2007 ,Page 361- 366 WWW.ARCHINTERNMED.COM
10. Kyriakos V. Mamoukaris, Nikoleta E. Delchanidou, Anastasios A. ,EVALUATION OF WEB-BASED EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS, Journal of Business Education vol1 , Academy of Business education 2000
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyHEAT MASS TRANSFER AND THERMOPHYSICAL ANALYSIS FOR DOUBLE SLOPE STEP TYPE SOLAR
STILL
English141148S.KalaivaniEnglish S.Rugmini RadhakrishnarEnglish B.SelvakumarEnglishIn this communication, an attempt has been made to find out the heat transfer coefficients such as internal and external heat transfer modes and thermophysical properties such as dynamic viscosity, density, thermal conductivity, latent heat of evaporation and saturated vapour pressure for active solar distillation system. It is observed that the distillate output (the yield) increases significantly with the top cover cooling study. Double slope step type solar still of area 1 m2 is constructed using a single piece of mild steel. Acrylic cover with 10° slope ensures a very good transmission of solar radiation inside the still. The distillate water productivity is in the range of 1.758 litres to 1.805 liters per day for still performance study. Similarly the instantaneous efficiency for still performance study is in the range of 17.84% to18.25%.
EnglishSolar Still, Heat Transfer Modes, Radiation, Acrylic, Distillate Yield, Efficiency1. INTRODUCTION
It is a well known fact that fresh water is necessary for the continuity of all life. The global fresh water shortage, particularly in remote areas, presents an international problem. The problem is more severe in desert countries, particularly in India, where water shortage is a serious problem. In India, the urgent need for fresh water is concentrated in the coastal regions, which constitutes a considerable development area. Since the transportation of fresh water to these areas is difficult and not economic, desalination systems are essential. Many of these countries, however, enjoy an abundant and free solar energy with high intensity so that solar distillation is a promising way of supplying these regions with fresh water. H.P. Garg and H.S. Mann [1] indicated that about 26% of the heat input to the basin-type solar still is lost through its base, and an improvement of about 7% in the distilled water can be obtained per year by using sawdust insulation of 25 mm thick. Abdel-Salam et al., [2] studied the effect of insulation on the performance of unsymmetrical solar stills under steady state conditions. They concluded that a reduction in the thermal conductance of the still insulation from 4.0 to 0.4 W/m2 °C increased its productivity rate by 16.5% at a constant heat flow rate. Several research results were published where heat transfer coefficients are calculated theoretically for various operating conditions by M. A. S. Malik et al., [3]. They concluded that heat flows inside the still are calculated generally by assuming that transfer mechanisms such as convection and mass diffusion take place simultaneously and the total heat transfer rate is calculated by adding the individual quantities. Baum and Bairamov [4] found in an experimental solar still, operating under controlled conditions, that the evaporation and condensation processes are interrelated in such a manner that they intensify each other, hence evaluation of them separately may lead to errors. Comparison of a double basin solar still with that of single basin solar still was investigated by A.A. Al-Karaghouli and W.E. Alnaser [5] with different top cover angles. Numerical simulation for natural convection flows in a triangular cavity submitted to a uniform heat flux using the Control Volume Finite Element Method have been analysed by Ahmed Omri et al., (6). The study provides useful information‘s on the flow structure sensitivity to the governing parameters, the Rayleigh number and the tilt angle, on the thermal exchange. M. Boukar and A. Harmim [7] studied the parametric studies of a vertical solar still under desert climatic conditions. El-Nashar [8] modeled a hybrid system solar/MED, using solar collectors to produce the heating fluid (instead of LP Steam) to feed the first evaporation stage. Performance evaluation of a modified design of a single slope solar still was studied by Salah Abdallah et al., [9]. Results concluded that inclusion of internal mirrors improved the system thermal performance up to 30%, while step-wise basin enhanced the performance up to 18% and finally the coupling of the step-wise basin with sun tracking system gave the highest thermal performance with an average of 38%. The objective of the present study was to improve the performance of a traditional double slope solar still through a design modification: using step-wise water basin instead of flat basin. The modification can increase the solar still capability to capture more solar energy. System performance can be increased by proper utilization of the latent heat of condensation for further distillation. The daily distilled output may be increased by maximizing the temperature difference between the evaporating and condensing surfaces. This condition is achieved either by increasing the evaporation surface or decreasing the condensation surface temperatures. The former is increased by feeding thermal energy to the basin from an external source; the latter is decreased by flowing water uniformly over the outer surface of the glass cover.
2. Construction of Double Slope Step Type Solar Still:
Double sloped solar desalination unit with total evaporation area of 1m2 is made using galvanized iron sheet of thickness 24gauge. There are four trays each having basin area of 0.15 m x 0.70 m on each sides of the still. There is a center tray of basin area 0.23 m x 0.70 m. In order to avoid the leakages between the joints in trays and is made by using a single G.I. sheet. It is folded in such a way to form the steps. The sidesof each step basin trays are bent upwards to a height of 0.10 m. Base of the still are blackened with paint for good absorption of solar radiation.
The top cover is provided for the solar still using Acrylic sheet of 3 mm thickness. A slope of 10 is provided from the center of the basin to the end of basin to receive the direct solar radiation more nearly perpendicular to the absorbing surface. The Acrylic cover required for this slope is 0.74 m for each slope on both sides. The height from the basin and cover is maintained 0.10 m for all the step basins. The outer cover is made up of Wood of thickness 0.015 m. The dimension of outer cover box is 0.154 m x 0.80 m x 0.22 m respectively. Saw dust and glass wool makes the bottom and side insulation. A stainless steal water collection segment of dimension 0.80 m x 0.03 m x 0.04 m is placed at the end of acrylic cover on both ends of the stepped basin. A cross sectional view of double slope step type acrylic top cover solar still is shown in Fig (1).
3. Experimental Arrangement:
The double slope step type solar still unit is placed with an orientation in the North-South direction. The performance of the still has been studied for number of days and its readings on clear sunshine days have been recorded. The experimental study is started from 9am. The basin is filled with water of 15 litre of saline water. The pre-calibrated thermocouples are fixed at the appropriate places and it is connected to the digital thermometer to measure the air temperature (Ta), water temperature (Tw) inside the still and top acrylic cover temperature (Tg). A thermometer with an accuracy of 0.1 C is used to measure the ambient temperature (Tamb). Amount of total solar insolation (H) and the amount of distilled water collected at the outlet are recorded at regular intervals. A measuring jar is kept at the distilled water outlet and the collection is recorded at the regular intervals.
4. Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients:
For the most normal range of operation for a conventional solar still, the most commonly used relationship to evaluate heat and mass transfer coefficients and it is proposed by R.V. Dunkle [10]. The study carried out by S. Adhikari et. al., [11] for verifying the applicability of Dunkle‘s relationships over a wide range of operating temperatures within a solar still reported that Dunkle‘s relationships behave well in the lower temperature ranges. So R.V. Dunkle‘s [10] relationship needs the modification in the higher ranges of temperatures. Thus they proposed a relationship for evaluating heat and mass transfer coefficients including higher temperature ranges as follows.
4.1 Internal Heat Transfer Rate at Inside the Still:
Heat transfer inside the still is predicted by using equation proposed by M.A.S. Malik et. al., [12]. Heat is transported inside the still by free convection of air. It releases its enthalpy upon air, which is coming in contact with the glass cover. The heat transfer per unit area per unit time due to convection is
here R1 and R2 are constants evaluated by fitting the saturation vapor pressure data in the range of interest to a straight line. In usual analysis of solar still, the water surface and the glass cover are considered as infinite parallel planes. Using Stefann‘s Boltzmann‘s constant, heat transfer per unit area per unit time due to radiation is given by
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The performance of double slope step type acrylic solar still is analyzed on normal sunny days. The radiative heat transfer (Qrw), convective heat transfer (Qcw) and evaporative heat transfer (Qew) for internal heat transfer rates inside the still are predicted. Similarly heat transfer rates outside the still by conduction heat transfer (Qb), external heat transfer through radiation from the acrylic cover (Qra) and heat transfer from acrylic cover to atmosphere by convection (Qca) are also estimated. The instantaneous efficiency and overall efficiency are calculated for all the studies. The thermal conductivity of water is analyzed and it is observed in the range of 0.02672108 to 0.02886952 Wm-2 °C-1 . Dynamic viscosity of water is predicted and is in the range of 1.8578x10-5 to 1.9871x10-5 Nsm-2 . The density of water is predicted for the still under these experiments and it is observed as 1.164163 to 1.06586248 kgm-3 . Since thermal conductivity of an acrylic material is very low so the influence of condensation by the top cover is less difference in between top cover without and with cooling. Fig (2) shows the variation of insolation and distilled water collection with respect to time. Insolation increases linearly with time and reaches the maximum value from 12 p.m to 2 p.m and then decreases. Radiation received during this study is in the range of 386.46 W/m2 to 1002.39 W/m2 . The maximum distilled water collection is in the range of 10 ml to 206 ml. The amount of daily distillate yield collected is in the range of 1.681 liters/day to1.805 liters/day. Fig (3) shows the variation of temperature for water, air, top cover and ambient with respect to time for still. The maximum temperature rise in water, air, top cover and ambient are around 70.5 C, 75 C, 46 C and 35.5 C respectively. Fig (4) shows the variation of instantaneous efficiency and performance ratio of the still with respect to time. The instantaneous efficiency is increased according to the time. The variation of the efficiency observed during the study is in the range of 2.59 % to 30.76 %. Overall efficiency of the system for still performance is in the range of 16.16% to 18.22%. Performance ratio values are observed in the range of 3 % to 29.98 % for still performance study. This shows that the value of performance ratio increases according to increase in distillate output. Fig (5) shows the latent heat and saturated vapour pressure inside the still. It shows that the latent heat decreases initially with respect to time. It reaches low value at 1:00 p.m and starts to increase with respect to time because the temperature at this region is more. So it shows that the latent heat is decreased in this region at higher order of temperature. Most of incoming radiation is utilized for evaporation at this stage. Latent heat value is observed in the range of 2422073.45 to 2354675.86 J kg−1 . Saturated vapor pressure starts to increase with respect to time and it reaches the peak value at 1:30 P.M to 2:00 P.M. Saturated vapor pressure reaches maximum value when water collection is more and tends to decrease when water collection decreases. Saturated vapour pressure are predicted in the range of 4262.48 to 18111.53 Pa. Fig (6) shows the variation of Grashof number and Nusselt number with respect to time. Both Grashof and Nusselt number increases with respect to time. The Nusselt number value and Grashof number value is almost nearer to each other for both the studies. Grashof number is found to be around 5123.01 to 271519.10. Nusselt number values are observed in the range of 1.65 to 4.46 Heat transfer coefficients predicted under internal and external heat transfer modes for still performance is shown in table below:
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1937http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=19371. H.P. Garg & H.S. Mann, ?Effect of Climatic, Operational and Design Parameters on the Year Round Performance of Single-Sloped and Double Sloped Solar Stills Under Indian Arid Zone Conditions?, Solar Energy, Vol. 18, pp. 159-64, 1976.
2. M.S. Abdel-Salam, S.H. Soliman, M.A. Mohamad & H.M.S. Hussein, ?Effect of Insulating Materials on the Performance of Unsymmetrical (L-type) Solar Stills?, AlAzhar Engineering Third International Conference, Vol. 7, pp. 361-369, 1993.
3. M. A. S. Malik, G. N. Tiwari, A. Kumar, and M. S. Sodha, ?Basic Heat and Mass Transfer Relations?, Solar Distillation, a Practical Study of a Wide Range of Stills and Their Optimum Design, Construction and Performance, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1982).
4. V. A. Baum and R. Bairamov, ?Heat and Mass Transfer Processes in Solar Stills of Hotbox Type?, Int. J. Solar Energy, Vol. 8, Issue. 3, pp.78-82, 1964.
5. A.A. Al-Karaghouli and W.E. Alnaser, ?Experimental Comparative Study of the Performances of Single and Double Basin Solar-Stills?, Applied Energy, Vol.77, pp. 317–325, 2004.
6. Ahmed Omri, Jamel Orfi and Sassi Ben Nasrallah, ?Natural Convection Effects in Solar Stills?, Desalination, Vol. 183, pp. 173-178, 2005.
7. M. Boukar and A. Harmim, ?Parametric Studies of a Vertical Solar Still under Desert Climatic Conditions?, Desalination, Vol. 168, pp. 21–28, 2004.
8. A.M. El-Nashar, ?The Economic Feasibility of Small SolarMED Seawater Desalination Plants for Remote Arid Areas?, Desalination, Vol. 134, pp. 173–186, 2001.
9. Salah Abdallah, Omar Badran and Mazen M. Abu-Khader, ?Performance Evaluation of a Modified Design of a Single Slope Solar Still?, Desalination, Vol. 219, pp. 222–230, 2008.
10. R.V. Dunkle, ?Solar Water Distillation: Roof Type Still and a Multiple Effect Diffusion Still?, International Development in Heat Transfer, A.S.M.E., Proc. International Heat Transfer, Part V, University of Colorado, pp. 895, 1961.
11. S. Adhikari, Ashvini kumar and G.D. Sootha, ?Simulation Studies on a MultiStage Staked Solar Still?, Solar Energy, Vol. 54, No. 5, pp. 317 – 325, 1995.
12. M.A.S. Malik, G.N. Tiwari, A. Kumar and M.S. Sodha, ?Solar Desalination?, Pergamon Press, New York, U.S.A, 1982.
13. J.A. Duffie and W.A. Beckman, ?Solar Energy Thermal Process?, John Wiley and Sons, New York, U.S.A, 1974.
14. S. Tayoma, T. Aragoki, K. Murase and T. Sumura, ?Simulation of a Multi-Effect Solar Distillers?, Desalination, Vol. 45, pp. 101 – 108, 1983.
15. D.B. Brooker, F.W. Bakker-Arkma and C.W. Hall, ?Drying Cereal Grain?, AVI West Port, U.S.A, 1978.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524144EnglishN-0001November30TechnologySTUDY ON LEAKAGE POWER REDUCTION TECHNIQUES AND ITS IMPACT ON 16NM CMOS
CIRCUITS
English149158R. UdaiyakumarEnglish K. SankaranarayananEnglish M.ValarmathyEnglishHigh leakage current is becoming a significant contributor in power dissipation of CMOS circuits whenever threshold voltage, channel length and gate oxide thickness are reduced. Threshold voltage scaling, results in the substantial increase of sub threshold leakage current. To maintain reasonable short channel effect (SCE) immunity, while scaling down the channel length, oxide thickness has to be reduced in proportion to the channel length. But, decrease in oxide thickness results in increase in the electric field across the gate oxide. In this review paper, attempts are made to analyze the previously published works in the specified area. Some of the power optimization techniques have been verified with 16nm Silicon On Insulator (SOI), High K Dielectric, Strained Silicon Predictive Technology Model (PTM) files in ISCAS C17 benchmark circuit.
EnglishLeakage Current, ITRS, MTCMOS, SCCMOS, FTS, SS, GALEOR, LECTOR, PTM1. INTRODUCTION
As per International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), the number of transistors per circuit will continue to increase as predicted by Moore‘s law, whereas the transistor sizes will continue to shrink and it is expected to keep the total chip size within practical and affordable limits. From a technology perspective, the continuous increase in the integration density proposed by Moore‘s Law was made possible by a dimensional scaling [1]. The Integration density is increased by reducing the critical dimensions while keeping the electrical field constant. With increasing Integration density as well as aggressive technology scaling, power consumption has become a major challenge in digital system design and Power Optimization become the major problem of the microelectronics industries. Despite a decreased supply voltage, the total power will continue to increase. The reduction of the supply voltage is dictated by the need to maintain the electric field constant on the ever shrinking gate oxide. Unfortunately, to keep transistor speed within (proportional to the transistor ?on? current) the acceptable limit, the threshold voltage must be reduced too, which results in an exponential increase of the ?off? transistor current, i.e. the current constantly flowing through the transistor even when it should be ?non-conducting?. As projected by, power will continue to be a limiting factor in future technologies. There is an increasing need to address power issues in a systematic way at all levels of the design process.
2. POWER COMPONENTS IN CMOS CIRCUITS
In CMOS circuits, the overall power consumption shall be from three components namely static, dynamic and short circuit power.
In submicron technology dynamic power consumption (Pdynamic) contributes significantly to overall power consumption. Every time a capacitive node switches from VSS to VDD, energy of CL V 2 DD is consumed. It depends on the switching activity of the signal. Signals in CMOS devices transit back and forth between two logic levels resulting in the charging and discharging of parasitic capacitance. This is the dominant factor of power dissipation (transient switching). For a small instant of time both PMOS and NMOS will be ?on? simultaneously. The duration depends on the input and output transition (rise and fall times). So a direct path exists between VDD and VSS (short circuit). The current flowing through this short circuit path will be the peak current and denoted as IPeak and the Power consumed to this current is known as Short Circuit power (Pshortcircuit). When a CMOS integrated circuit is not switching, there should be no DC current paths from VDD to VSS and the device should not draw any supply current at all. However, due to the inherent nature of semiconductors, a small amount of leakage current flows across all reverse-biased junctions on the integrated circuit and responsible for static power consumption (Pstatic). These leakages are caused by thermally-generated charge carriers in the diode area. As the temperature of the diode increases, so do the number of these unwanted charge carriers also increases [2]. As the device dimensions shrinks, the leakage current increases and has become a major contributor to the total power Consumption. The major leakage mechanisms contribute to the total leakage are identified as: Sub threshold leakage, Gate leakage, Reverse biased drainsubstrate and source-substrate junction BandTo-Band-Tunneling leakage [3-4].
In scaled devices each of these leakage components increases drastically resulting in a dramatic increase in the total leakage current. Moreover, each component depends differently on the transistor geometry (gate length (Lg), Source-Drain extension length (LSDE), oxide thickness (Tox), junction depth (Yj), width (W)), the doping profile (channel doping (Ndep) and ?halo? doping (Npocket) concentration), the flatband voltage (Vfb), and the supply voltage (Vcc) [4].
3. LEAKAGE CURRENT MECHANISMS
Six short-channel leakage mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 1.
a. I? is the reverse-bias p-n junction leakage;
b. I2 is the sub threshold leakage;
c. I3 is the oxide tunnelling current;
d. I4 is the gate current due to hot-carrier injection;
e. I5 is the Gate- induced drain leakage current ;
f. I6 and is the channel punch through current.
Currents I2, I5 and I6 are off-state leakage mechanisms, while I? and I3 occur in both ON and OFF states. I4 can occur in the off state, but more typically occurs during the transistor bias states in transition.
To suppress the power consumption in lowvoltage circuits, it is necessary to reduce the leakage power in both the active and standby modes of operation [3]. The reduction in leakage current has to be achieved using both process- and circuit-level techniques. At the process level, leakage reduction can be achieved by controlling the dimensions (length, oxide thickness, junction depth, etc.) and doping profile in transistors. At the circuit level, threshold voltage and leakage current of transistors can be effectively controlled by controlling the voltages of different device terminals [drain, source, gate, and body (substrate)] [5].
4. LITERATURE SURVEY
From a very detailed study of various papers relating static power optimization in CMOS devices, some circuit level techniques that consume less power have been selected for detailed analysis on their impacts on static CMOS circuit implemented with 16 nm process technology. They are Input vector control, dynamic threshold CMOS (DTCMOS), Genetic algorithm (GA), Panoptic dynamic voltage scaling (PDVS), Dual threshold, Multi threshold voltage CMOS (MTCMOS), Body bias control, Programmable Dual VDD, Power gating, Minimum leakage vector (MLV), Zerodelay ripple turn on (ZDRTO), Gate- level dualthreshold static power optimization (GDSPOM) based on STA, Dynamic power cutoff technique (DPCT), Single electron transistor (SET), Self controllable voltage level (SVL) method, Independently driven double gate FinFET (IDDG- FinFET),GALEOR and LECTOR method.[6] Detailed explanations of all these techniques and their impacts and percentage of power savings wherever possible are also given. Anderson and his colleagues [7] proposed a novel approach in their paper that the leakage current in a digital CMOS circuit depends strongly on the state of its inputs.
They have considered only the active leakage power and ignored leakage in the unused part of FPGA. The average leakage power for passing logic ?1? is substantially smaller than the average leakage power for passing logic ?0‘. The reason behind these is, when logic 1 (Vdd) is applied to the drain terminal of an ON NMOS transistor, a weak ?1‘ (Vdd-Vth) occurs at the source terminal. This weak ?1‘ leads to reduction in sub threshold leakage power in other multiplexer transistors that are being in OFF state. In this paper they have assigned a polarity to each signal in an FPGA so that it enables signals to maintain majority of the time in logic 1 state. This is possible due to the static probability (fraction of time a signal spends in the logic 1 state) property of digital signals. If the static probability of a signal is greater than 0.5, it spends more than 50% of its time in logic 1 state. A unique property of FPGA is that it does not require any area or delay penalty for signal inversion. The signal inversion is achieved by permuting the bits in the SRAM cells of each downstream Look Up Table (LUT). Permuting is just interchanging the contents of the top two SRAM cells in the downstream with the bottom two SRAM cells in the LUT. Each signal must be checked whether it can be inverted. The optimization was performed in 90nm commercial FPGA with 1.2V. The improvement in power saving using this technique is 25% with no impact on circuit area or delay and requires no hardware changes. Shah [8] et.al proposed silicon on insulator dynamic threshold transistor (SOIDTMOS) technique for low leakage and high current drive.
Leakage current increases as Vdd and Vt scales down as the drive strength of transistors depends on the relation Vdd-Vt Reduction in Vt will cause an exponential increase of device sub threshold leakage, so that the static power increases to unacceptable levels. In DTMOS technique threshold voltage is dynamically controlled by connecting the body to the gate. For voltage greater than 0.6V the drain/body diode starts conducting so there is need for current limiters. Moreover this technique has two drawbacks, one is increased area and the other is larger gate capacitance. This is commonly known as ?DTMOS? in USA and ?MTCMOS? (Multi-threshold CMOS) in Japan. As the voltage on the gate rises, the body voltage is forward biased and hence leads to drop in Vt . This technique is mostly suitable for synchronous circuits. Hung [9] et.al proposed a genetic algorithm based power optimization framework, for minimizing total power consumption using multiple Vdd, multiple Vth, device sizing and stack forcing and have maintained system performance. The overhead created by insertion of level converters have also been taken into account. They verified the experimental results with a number of circuit topologies such as SRAM decoder, multiplier and 32bit carry adder using the 65nm benchmark technology. They have concluded that the combination of the above four power reduction techniques is more effective for low power. This is the first joint optimization technique that uses more than three techniques. Genetic algorithm (GA) is a class of search and optimization method. The solutions are encoded into a binary string known as the chromosome. Instead of working with a single solution, the search begins with a random set of chromosomes known as the initial population.
The optimization flow is an iterative procedure. The circuit size ranges from 8 to 1050 gates. Benton [10] et.al proposed panoptic dynamic voltage scaling (PDVS). PDVS uses header switches to switch each component between several available supply voltages. Instead of changing voltages between large rails, the header switch provides fast and efficient voltage transitions. Adding extra header switches gives only few percent of total leakage due to reduced VDS across the headers. A large header width results in lower channel resistance thus decreasing the voltage drop. In PDVS system the bulk terminal of the active circuit should be connected to the virtual rail. PDVS can greatly improve the efficiency of a system. One drawback in PDVS is that noise is created in the global VDD rail that results from switching the header for the particular block. Ndubuisi Ekekwe [5] et.al presented several device and circuit level techniques to control static power dissipation. Device level includes controlling the doping profile and physical dimension of transistors.
Circuit level involves manipulation of Vth and source biasing of the transistor. In dual threshold method high Vth is assigned to devices in non-critical paths and low Vth to devices in critical paths [11]. This is applicable both in the standby and active mode. In multi threshold voltage control method a high Vth device is connected in series to a low Vth block, thereby creating a virtual power rail instead of connecting the block to the main power rail. . In active mode of operation high Vth transistors are switched on and hence the low Vth transistors operate at high speed. The insertion of NMOS is preferable to PMOS because the on-resistance is lower at the same width. But use of these transistors increase circuit delay and area. Body biasing a transistor is another effective way for reducing the active and standby leakage power. Vth is increased by applying a reverse body bias and therefore the sub threshold leakage current is reduced. In standby mode, a strong negative bias is applied to the NMOS bulk and the PMOS bulk is connected to the VDD rail. Since Vth is related to the square root of the bias voltage a significant voltage level is needed to raise Vth. Gayasen [12] et.al proposed a programmable dual VDD architecture in which low VDD is assigned to non-critical paths, and high VDD to the timing critical paths in the design. This technique has an average power saving of 61% in 65nm technology. The VDD of each block is connected between VDDH and VDDL by using two high VT (supply) transistors. The ON/OFF of each supply transistor is set controlled by a configuration bit which is done by VDD assignment algorithm. In their technique level conversion takes place only at the CLB pins. They have experimented using two algorithms high to low (h2l) and low to high (l2h). In h2l all the CLB‘s are initially kept at high voltage and then some of them are changed to low VDD. The h2l performs better than the l2h. D. Helms [13] presented design techniques to reduce leakage power at all levels of abstraction. In power gating technique an additional transistor is implemented between gate and ground or between gate and supply or even both. This technique has low switching speed as well as low leakage currents. But this requires additional area. In Minimum leakage vector (MLV) technique a data input is identified such as the overall leakage is minimized and this input is forced to the block when it becomes idle. This reduces an average leakage power of 20-50%. Carlos [14] et.al proposed a zero delay ripple turn on (ZDRTO) wakeup technique for gated asynchronous pipelines. In ZDRTO power gating technique the wakeup latency of downstream stages is hidden by the computational latencies of upstream stages hence wake up is ?zero delay?. The pipeline stages are grouped into clusters each having its own sleep transistors and associated local power nets. They had evaluated their technique in 65 and 90nm technologies running at 25°C.
They had applied this technique in a 128-bit advanced encryption standard (AES) encryption/decryption standard because of its complexity, wide data path and low duty cycle. Chung [15] et.al proposed gate level dual threshold static power optimization (GDSPOM) based on static timing analysis for high speed and low power SOC applications. In 90nm technology it has 50% less leakage power consumption compared to single low- threshold cell library. Static timing analysis is done to report the cells that are swapped from HVT to the low voltage type (LVT). Moreover it calculates the signal propagation delay of each path individually. GDSPOM replaces minimum amount of cells from HVT to LVT and hence results in least leakage power. It does not alter the design architecture and hence there is no area overhead. Baozhen YU [16] in his research work presented dynamic power cutoff technique (DPCT) to reduce the active leakage power. In his technique he has first identified the switching window for each gate during transitions using static timing analysis.
Then he optimally partitioned the circuit into different groups based on the minimal switching window. Finally he has introduced power cutoff transistors to each group. The power of each gate is turned on only during a small timing window with each clock cycle that results in significant active leakage power savings. Using, DPCT he has achieved an excellent power saving of 73.6% active leakage power and 34.7% of total power under process variations. He has used 70nm CMOS Berkeley Predictive Models, a BSIM3v3 model, for his simulation. Gates having same switching window are treated as one group and the power connections of all gates within the same group are controlled by one pair of power cutoff MOSFETs, a pMOSFET and an nMOSFET. To minimize the extra delay caused by the cutoff MOSFETs, the size of cutoff MOSFETs has to be appropriate. The cutoff control signals are generated by the cutoff control generator using the global clock signal. One pair of cutoff control signals is required for each group, one for nMOSFET and the other for pMOSFET. One special case of using DPCT is that a gate in one group drives another gate in another group. The advantage of the MSW is that its width only depends on the maximal delay of the gate itself, which is usually less that 1/10th of the worst-case circuit delay in big circuits. By turning on the power of a gate only within its switching window, the gate can make transitions only when all of its inputs are ready. This automatically balances the delay differences between the inputs of each gate.
Therefore, glitches, which are unnecessary transitions of the output due to different delays on inputs, are automatically eliminated. He also implemented the layouts of a 16-bit multiplier and c432 using DPCT. The 16-bit multiplier with DPCT saves 54.7% of the total power, 85.7% of the active leakage power and 38.1% of the dynamic power with 7.7% delay overhead and 8.6% area overhead. The c432 circuit with DPCT saves 22.5% of the total power, 73.6% of the active leakage power and 2.3% of the dynamic power with 9% delay overhead and 13.7% area overhead. A.Venkataratnam et.al [17] proposed single electron transistor (SET) method for developing nanoscale logic circuits. In their paper they have designed CMOS architecture based NAND and NOR gates using set style and studied their characteristics. In their design the layout is a small conducting island coupled to the source and drain that are capacitively coupled to control gates and one or more input gates. SET uses quantum effects to perform operations similar to conventional CMOS transistors. The charges in single electron devices are transported in a quantized way rather than continuously.
Complementary operation can be achieved by controlling the charge on the island. From there simulation they have observed that the gate bias should be 0.1V for NMOS and 0.3V for PMOS for the SET to operate. They have performed their simulation using SET-SPICE model. Shyam Akashe [18] et.al designed 1KB SRAM cell using self controllable voltage level (SVL) method. They have observed that this method has an average power saving of 5.4% compared to the conventional memory cell array and speed remaining constant. They have implemented using 45 nm technology. The USVL circuit is constructed as a wide channel pull-up pMOSFET switch (pSW) and multiple nMOSFET resistors connected in series. Similarly, the L-SVL circuit incorporates a wide channel pull-down nMOSFET switch (nSW) and multiple series-connected pMOSFET resistors (pRSm). When the load circuit is active both the pSW and nSW are turned on, but the nRS1 and pRS1 are turned off. Thus the U SVL and L-SVL circuits can supply a maximum supply voltage and a minimum ground-level voltage respectively, to the active load circuit. Thus, the operating speed of the load circuit can be maximized. Varun P. Gopi [19] et.al proposed independently driven double gate FinFET (IDDG- FinFET) scalable to 10nm that maintains the sub threshold factor for a given gate length. IDDG FinFETs have been proposed for dynamic threshold-voltage control and transconductance modulation. Since channel is formed on the side vertical surface of the Si-fin, the current flows parallel to the wafer surface.
The heart of the FinFET is a thin Si fin, which serves as body of the MOSFET. The poly-Si film greatly reduces the Source/Drain series resistance and provide a convenient means for local interconnect and making connections to the metal. A gap is etched through the poly-Si film to separate the source and drain. A single IDDG transistor can operate as two transistors with common source and drain terminals. The proposed IDDG FinFET has a sub threshold slope of 72mV/decade, threshold voltage of 150mV, DIBL of 46mV/V with a minimum threshold voltage roll off. The simulation was performed using SILVACO. Srinivasa Rao [20] et.al presented two techniques GALEOR (Gated Leakage transistor) and LECTOR (Leakage Controlled Transistor) to reduce the leakage power. They have designed a full adder using the above two techniques, estimated power and compared it with the conventional CMOS full adder. They simulated in TANNER tool in 250 nm technology. In LECTOR technique two leakage control transistors (a p-type and a n-type) are introduced within the logic gate for which the gate terminal of each leakage control transistor (LCT) is controlled by the source of the other. One of the LCTs is always ?near its cutoff voltage? for any input combination. The significant feature of LECTOR is that it works effectively in both active and idle states of the circuit, resulting in better leakage reduction. It is based on the observation that ?a state with more than one transistor OFF in a path from supply voltage to ground is far less leaky than a state with only one transistor OFF in any supply to ground path.? GALEOR technique reduces the leakage current flowing through the NAND gate for all possible input combinations by introducing stack effect. In GALEOR technique, a gated leakage NMOS transistor is placed between output and pull-up circuit and a gated leakage PMOS transistor is placed between output and pull-down circuitry.
5. Analysis of various Leakage current reduction Techniques
5.1 Experimental Setup
In this paper, we have used a CMOS equivalent ISCAS85 c17 benchmark circuit for analysis. C17 benchmark circuit consists of 6 two input NAND gates and requires 24 MOS Transistors for its implementation. Simulation is performed in TSPICE platform for conventional and various power optimized circuits using 16nm Low Power, High K-Dielectric, strained Silicon, SOI technology PTM model files[21]-[22]. We have compared the average power consumed by the circuit with and without various power optimization techniques. The CMOS c17 circuit is shown in Figure 2.
5.2 RESULTS On Simulation, Comparison of Power results for various optimization Techniques implemented with ISCAS85 c17 Benchmark circuit are tabulated below. Snap shot of the power (Figure 3(a) and 3(b) ) and output simulation results (Figure 4(a) and 4(b)) for a conventional c17 bench mark circuit are shown below:
6.CONCLUSION
In nanoscale CMOS devices, leakage current is becoming a major contributor to the total power consumption. With current technology and devices with decreasing threshold voltage levels, Sub threshold and gate leakage are becoming dominant sources of leakage power. To manage the increasing leakage in nano scale CMOS circuits, solutions for leakage reduction have to be sought both at the process technology and circuit levels. At the process technology level, a lot of research works are taken for replacing SiO2 with high K materials for the gate insulation to reduce gate tunneling current and improve short-channel characteristics. From Table 1, it is observed that, at the circuit level, transistor stacking (active mode), multiple threshold devices techniques (static mode) can effectively reduce the leakage current in nanoscale CMOS circuits.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
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