Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcarePREVALENCE OF NECK PAIN AMONG DESKTOP AND LAPTOP COMPUTER USERS IN UNIVERSITY STAFF AND STUDENTS
English0610Andrew Shashi ReggieEnglish Lalithambikai SakthimuruganEnglish Shalini PeriasamyEnglish Mohd Safuan bin Abd HalimEnglish Kalyana ChakravarthyEnglish Girish NEnglishThe usage of computers is increasingly prevalent in the current generation, especially in student population. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSDs) are common problems in people who spend a substantial amount of time using computers. Among various WRMSDs, neck pain is one of the commonest problems faced. The main objective of this study is to find out the prevalence of neck pain among desktop and laptop computer users in both university staff and students. The study was conducted by distributing questionnaires to a total of 328 computer users between 19 and 50 years of age of which 110 are desktop users and 218 were laptop users. The ergonomical evaluation on site of the participants was also done for the desktop users and various positions used by laptop users were evaluated. The data obtained was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The prevalence rate and the percentage of various positions used by computer users were also assessed. It can be concluded that the prevalence of neck pain among laptop computer users is higher than desktop computer users in this cross sectional study.
EnglishNeck pain, Desktop, Laptop, prevalenceINTRODUCTION
The use of deskto and laptop computers is common in the current generations. Although the desktop and laptop computers are used both at the office and at home, desktops are more often used in the office, while laptops are more often used at home. However, the use of laptop computers is increasingly prevalent in educational environments. Their size and portability make them practical devices for both teaching staff and students. The laptop computer was originally created for military and business executives, but now almost anyone can have an access to a laptop. Laptop computers are becoming so fast and powerful nowadays, that they are replacing desktop computers even in educational environments[1] . A person who uses a desk that is too low and a seat that is too high will have to lean forward adapting an awkward posture. This will result in negative effects on his or her physical workload, health and overall performance. Besides this, there is reduction in nutritional exchanges at inter-vertebral discs which is an effect of postural fixity while sitting continuously for long hours and in the long run may promote their degeneration [2] . Most laptops have its screen hinged to the keyboard and it is not detachable, which may also result in awkward body postures, especially to the neck when in use. Because of its portability, the laptop can be used in various sitting and lying positions. There is an increase in neck discomfort and cervical spine torque when laptop computer users were compared to laptop station users [3] . Problems that occur are pain and discomfort over neck, shoulder, elbow, forearms, wrist, fingers, upper and lower back as well as eye irritation and headaches. Neck pain is the pain from the base of the skull (occiput) to the upper part of the back and extending laterally to the outer and superior bounds of the scapula. Pain in the lower cervical spine is commonly referred to the upper extremity. Pathology in this region leads to neck pain alone, arm pain alone, or both neck and arm pain. Symptoms include neck and/or arm pain, headaches, restricted range of motion, paresthesia and radicular signs. In the United Kingdom, the one year incidence of neck pain is 17.9% in the 18-75 year old general population. The one year prevalence of neck pain among adults ranges from 12.1% to 71.5%. However, the point prevalence of neck pain ranges from 12% to 34% [4] . Most studies look at the prevalence and contributing musculoskeletal risk factors of desktop users or laptop users alone, but none of them compare both. Among various musculoskeletal disorders seen in computer users, highest prevalence is neck pain and back pain. Studies show that 66% of male and 70% of female computer workers suffer from neck pain [5] . MATERIAL AND METHODS A cross sectional study was performed in Manipal university campus, India by distributing questionnaires to 328 computer users aged between 19 and 50 years. The desktop computers were mostly the clerical staff of constituent colleges of the university and the laptop users were the students of engineering and medical colleges. 110 of them are desktop users and the remaining 218 are laptop users. The desktop users included in the study were those who use the desktop for more than 30 hours per week and have been working in the computer set up for at least 3months. The laptop users included in the study were those who use the laptop for at least 12 hours per week and have been using the laptop for at least 3 months. All individuals with any previous history of diagnosed neck disorders were excluded from the study. The informed consent has been obtained from all the participants and the questionnaires were distributed. The questionnaire given to the subjects had simple questions in English and the queries related to the questionnaire were answered by the investigators. The data obtained from all the participants was analyzed using descriptive statistics.
STATISTICAL METHODS
Descriptive statistics, mean and standard deviation were tabulated using SPSS 16.0 software.
RESULTS
18 out of the 110 desktop users presented with neck pain and 72 out of the 218 laptop users presented with neck pain.
DISCUSSION
The results show that prevalence of neck pain is high in laptop users compared to desktop users. This is observed, despite the fact that the duration spent by desktop users on the computer is more than on laptop users. Most common position used by laptop users is sitting on chair with back support, laptop on table. Prevalence among laptop users is highest in positions; sitting on chair with back support, lying on tummy and lying on back. The desktop users were mostly older individuals with a mean age of 35 as compared to laptop users with mean age of 22.06. But, the prevalence was comparatively higher in young laptop users. This shows that the neck pain is a most common work related musculoskeletal disorder in younger individuals these days. Even though, the duration of usage was less among laptop users in comparison with desktop users, the prevalence of neck pain was more among laptop users. This could me mainly attributed to awkward postures used by the laptop users and poor ergonomical designs. As there is increased prevalence of neck pain among computer users, ergonomic evaluation and further management to prevent and treat these problems and the effect of the interventions have to be studied in further research. Majority of the desktop users are of age group 19-29 years, while majority of laptop users are of age group 19-24 years. Majority of the desktop users are of the female gender, while majority of the laptop users are of the male gender. Further research can be focused on the effect of ergonomical advices and modifications at the worksite to reduce the risk of neck pain in computer users. CONCLUSION The prevalence of neck pain is more in laptop users at the very young age, the reasons being use of awkward positions or postures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank the staff of Manipal University for their guidance throughout the study and for allowing us to conduct the study. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1818http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18181. Moras R, Gamarra T. A survey of ergonomic issues associated with a university laptop program. J Education and Human Development. 2007; 1:1-15.
2. Salvendy. Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics. 3 rd ed. Wiley 2006.
3. Berkhaut A, Hendriksson-Larsen A, Bongers P. The effect of using laptopstation compared to using a standard PC on the cervical spine torque, perceived strain and productivity. Applied Ergonomics. 2004; 35:147-152.
4. Green BN. A literature review of neck pain associated with computer use: public health implications. J Canadian Chiropractic Association. 2008; 52(3);161- 167.
5. Das B, Ghosh T. Assessment of Ergonomical and Occupational Health Related Problems Among VDT Workers of West Bengal, India. Asian J Med Sciences. 2010; 1:26-31.
6. Misailidou V, Malliou P, Beneka A, Karaginnidis A, Godolias G. Assessment of patients with neck pain: a review of definitions, selection criteria, and measurement tools. J Chiropractic Med. 2010; 9:49-59.
7. Singh S, Wadhwa J. Impact of Computer Workstation Design on Health of Users. J Hum Ecol. 2006; 20(3):165-170.
8. Chaffin, Anderson, Martin. Occupational Biomechanics. 4 th ed. Wiley; 2006.
9. Chengalur, Rodgers, Benard. Kodak‘s Ergonomic Design for People at Work. 2 nd ed. Wiley; 2004.
10. Magee DJ. Orthopedic Physical Assessment. 5 th ed. Elsevier; 2009.
11. Grant R. Physical Therapy of the Cervical and Thoracic Spine. 3rd ed. Churchill Livingstone 2002.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareEFFICACY OF TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL NERVE STIMULATION (TENS) IN TREATMENT OF NEUROPATHIC PAIN IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETIC NEUROPATHY
English1117Anjan DesaiEnglish Khushbu DesaiEnglishIntroduction: Diabetic Neuropathy is a peripheral nerve disorder caused by diabetes that leads to pain in periphery. Many patients are limited in their physical activity by pain. The study conducted to assess the effect of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) application for reduction of pain in patients with diabetic neuropathy. Aim of study: The main objective of this study is to compare the effectof TENS on Diabetic Neuropathy patients in reduction of pain and improving single limb stance.
Materials and Methodology: Study Design: An experimental comparative study. Sample Selection: A sample of 30 patients diagnosed as diabetic neuropathy were taken from after giving due consideration to inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Sample size: Total 30 including Control Group (Group A): The patients in this group were given therapeutic exercise training only and Experimental Group (Group B): The patients in this group were given treatment with TENS application and therapeutic exercise training. Inclusive Criteria: Patients of diabetic neuropathy affecting unilateral lower limb defined as ? 50% loss of strength and sensation of foot relative to non-affected side and complain of pain duration ? 5 months. Exclusion Criteria: Patients with age group between the 50-60 years and Patients with other pathological conditions of foot i.e. gout, spondylolysthesis, gangrene and spinal disease. Outcome measures: Visual analogue scale and Single limb stance. Results: The subject‘s parameters calculated by using Paired t test for within group comparison and unpaired t test used for between group comparisons. The mean and standard deviation of the measurement were also calculated. The training induced changes were significantly greater in the experimental group than the control group in Visual analogue scale and Single limb stance. Conclusion: It concluded that the treatment with TENS has good effect on Diabetic Neuropathy patients in reduction of pain and improving single limb stance.
EnglishDiabetic Neuropathy, Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)INTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus is clinical syndrome characterized by hyperglycemia due to absolute or relative deficiency of insulin (1); the incidence of diabetes among age increased 90% from 4.8 per 1,000 in 1995-1997 to 9.1 in 2005-2007(2) . Lack of insulin causes the various metabolic imbalances leading to irreversible functional & structural changes in cell body with these of vascular and nervous system being affected the most, among people suffering from diabetes mellitus, 45% of patient will have neuropathy during the course of disease(3) . Diabetic neuropathy is a peripheral nerve disorder cause by diabetes, is characterized by gradual loss of sensations i.e. touch , temperature, vibration with loss of coordination and balance leading to weakness and wasting of muscles of hands and feet(4) . Diabetes changes the way nerve use glucose leading to accumulation of sorbitol & depletion of substance called myoinositol within the nerves.(5) Excessive blood sugar decreases the level of nitric oxide present in the blood leading to constriction of small vessels supplying a nerves contributing to nerve damage. The damaged nerve fiber sends incorrect signals to other pain centers giving rise to Neuropathic pain (6) . The main objective of the treatment is to decrease pain & improve single limb stance with simplify possible regimen. Medical management concentrates on oral hypoglycemic drugs aided by use of non–steroidal anti-inflammatory drug along with exercise and dietary changes. Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) is a specific therapeutic approach to control the Neuropathic pain in patients with diabetic neuropathy (7). TENS either activates the gate control mechanism or induces the release of endogenous opiate substances to relieve pain (11) . Neurological Rehabilitation programme aim at reducing pain, improve single limb stance, functional mobility, activities of daily living, quality of life and perhaps survival in patients with diabetic neuropathy. Many patients with diabetic neuropathy are limited in their physical activity by pain (12). Subjects undergoing treatment with TENS may be beneficial effect in diabetic neuropathy patient to reduce severity of pain and improving the single limb stance (13) . The study conducted to determine whether the TENS has effective on Diabetic Neuropathic pain.
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
Study Design:
An experimental comparative study.
Materials: Control Group (Group A): Tuning fork, Inch tape, Digital stopwatch, goniometer and TENS.
Sample size:
A total number of 30 patients diagnosed as diabetic neuropathy selected and divided in two groups. The study carried out as before and after study design with control group.
Control Group (Group A):
The patients in this group had given treatment with therapeutic exercise to reduce pain.
Experimental Group (Group B):
The patients in this group had given treatment with TENS application and therapeutic exercise to reduce pain.
Study setting:
The study was conducted on patients diagnosed as diabetic neuropathy, which were referred for physiotherapy management from neurology ward of South Central Railway Hospital, Secunderabad and experiment was conducted at Sri Sai Physiotherapy Clinic, Kothapet, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Duration:
Treatment given for 20 minutes/sessions, 2 sessions /day for 5 days in a week for the both groups for 1 month.
Subject selection criteria:
Inclusion Criteria:
- Diabetic neuropathy affecting unilateral lower limb defined as ≥ 50% loss of strength and sensation of foot relative to non-affected side.
- Complain of pain duration ≥ 5 months.
Exclusion Criteria:
- Age group was between 50-60 years.
- Pathological conditions of foot: gout, spondylolysthesis, gangrene and spinal disease.
Parameters:
Visual Analogue Scale: Visual analogue scale is a most valuable and highly subjective measure mental scale that tries to measure a characteristic or attitude that has to range across a continuum of values. Visual analogue scale used for determine the intensity of pain. The amount of pain that patient feels ranges across a continuum from none to an extreme amount of pain. Operationally a Visual analogue scale is usually horizontal line, 10 cm. in length, encored by word descriptors at each and patient‘s marks on the line that the point that they feel represents their perception of current state. The left side of the line represents no pain. Moreover, the right side represents the worst pain. Visual analogue scale is consistent reliable and easy to use and took less time to administer. Visual analogue scale used before and after to measure effectiveness of treatment and a patient‘s progress. Visual analogue scale is a valid and reliable measure of chronic and acute pain intensity.
Single Limb Stance:
Single limb stance is an objective type of gait variable in which one extremity is in contact with the ground or supporting surface. Foot placed pointing straight forward in relation to reference line in the frontal and sagittal planes. The other leg was flexed 90 degree at hip and knee with both arm hang at side. Patients were instructed to stand as motion less as possible, look straight ahead at the point on wall 65cm. away. Patients informed to be in position until the time they can, with normal time about 60 seconds.
Procedure
Technique of application: Every session started with 5 minutes assessment of sensation, range of motion and muscle strength. In prone lying position, TENS given with high frequency rectangular pulse shape, Pulse width between 200 to 400 µsec, Pulse rate between 60 to 100 Hz, Intensity between 44 to 60 mA and single channel surface electrode was used.
Group A: Subjects in the control group given only therapeutic exercise program. The total exercises training time was 20 minutes daily for 5 to 6 days in a week with total duration of 4 weeks.
Group B: Subjects in experimental group given treatment with Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation along with exercise programme for pain reduction. The total training time was 20 minutes daily for 5 to 6 days in a week with total duration of 4 weeks.
RESULTS
Paired t test used for within group comparison and unpaired t test used for between group comparisons. Within group comparison
The Visual Analogue Scale and Single Limb Stance have shown a mean improvement indicating the effect of treatment in Group B patients who had beneficial effects. Exercise only did not show an improvement in a short duration of 4 weeks. The mean improvement in the patient‘s condition measured using visual analogue scale and single limb stance indicating the reduction of pain achieved by treatment in this study. Visual analogue scale had a significant improvement. The ?t? value indicates the significant change in experimental group than the control group. DISCUSSION The study measurements assessed for preexercise and post-exercise sessions of both Group A and Group B. The post exercise parameters assessed by paired ?t? test and the formulated ?t? values were compared with the table values with a degree of freedom 14. The study demonstrated that in diabetic neuropathy patients, treatment with the TENS reduces pain and improves single limb stance. The study conducted with great care to ensure familiarization with the treatment and the length of the training session as prescribed in clinical trials. Diabetic neuropathy contributes to pain and reducing single limb stance (4). The measurement recorded after the treatment period in both the groups has variations. The experimental group, who treated with TENS, had significant variations indicating the reduction of pain and improvement in single limb stance. There have been earlier studies that reported significant reduction in pain by treatment with TENS. (9) The study showed that TENS administration was followed by reduction, but not abolition of pain in lower extremity at all painful sites. Finally, the reduction in pain intensity reported here is typical of that observed in patients with diabetic neuropathy who were treated with TENS (7) . The earlier studies for reduction of pain in diabetic neuropathy had shown that TENS could relive the pain by altering nociceptive
transmission in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord (15). The other mechanism requires that stimulation delivered to the spinal cord segments that innervate the painful area via ventral rami of spinal nerves(17), however also innervate the skin of lower back via dorsal rami. Thus, TENS delivered to the dorsal columns reduced the Neuropathic pain in patients with diabetic neuropathy. CONCLUSION The level of significance of visual analogue scale and single limb stance had shown change after the treatment with TENS and had proved reduction of pain in diabetic neuropathy patients. The calculated ?t? value greater than tabulated ?t? value in parameters, standing that the results are highly significant and so the hypothesis goes in favor of the Experimental hypothesis with the reduction in pain and improvement in single limb stance. Thus the study concluded by rejecting null hypothesis and accepting the experimental hypothesis. The experimental hypothesis of the study states, ?There is a significant reduction in pain and also improvement in single limb stance by treatment with Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation application in patients with Diabetic Neuropathy.? ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Authors are sincerely grateful to the god who showered his blessings and his helping hand for our research. Sincerely Authors are thankful to our principal who helped us in every walk of our research and his support. The knowledge he shared and his encouragement helped us a lot. Authors would like to mention special thanks to my entire faculty who were always a standing rock for our great work. Authors are privilege to thank our respected elderly subjects without whom this research was not been possible. Authors heartily thankful to authors, journals and books from where references for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Conflict of Interest: None
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1819http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18191. The Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus: Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care 20: 1183–1197, 1997.
2. State-Specific Incidence of Diabetes among Adults, Participating States, 1995-1997 and 2005-2007. October 31, 2008 / 57(43); 1169-1173.
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6. Chance P., Lebo R. et al: Motor and Sensory neuropathy in peripheral neuropathy 1981.
7. Kumar D., Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy: Amelioration of pain with Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. Diabetes care 1997, 20:1702-1705.
8. J B Dingwell and associates study in patients with diabetic neuropathy contribute to pain and reduction in single limb stance. J Neurol.2000; 53:789-793.
9. Mannheimer J.S. Electrode placement technique. In clinical Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation 1984; 331-495.
10. Galer BS and associates: Development and preliminary validation of a pain measure specific to Neuropathic pain. Neurology 1997; 48:332-338.
11. Garrison D and Foreman R suggested that there is decreased activity of spontaneous and noxiously evoked dorsal horn cells by Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation application. Pain1994; 58:309-315.
12. ANN M. ARING, M.D., Riverside Methodist Hospital, Columbus, Ohio. Am Fam Physician. 2005 Jun 1; 71(11):2123- 2128.
13. Forster E.L. et al: Effect of Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on pain following Diabetic neuropathy. Neurol.106:1343-1348.
14. Wall J C and Scarbrough J: Use of multimemory stopwatch to measure gait parameters. J Ortho Sports Phys Ther. 1997; 25:277.
15. Lamontage A.: electrophysiological studies in diabetic neuropathy. Am. Neurol. 1990; 27:574-578.
16. Walker SC et al: Gait pattern alteration by sensory stimulation in diabetic patient with peripheral neuropathy. Arch Phy Med Rehab.1997; 78:853.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareGASTROENTERITIS OUTBREAK INVESTIGATION IN KURUGOD VILLAGE, KARNATAKA
English1824T Gangadhara GoudEnglish Bellara RaghavendraEnglish Ramesh .KEnglish Sameena A R BEnglish Aravind KarinagannanavarEnglishBackground: Outbreaks of gastroenteritis are common in India. Most of the gastric infections increase due to humid weather condition, which in turn facilitates bacterial proliferation. Gastroenteritis continues to be transmitted in environments characterized by inadequate water supply and poor sanitation. Aim: 1) To find the source of infection 2) To propose control measures. Materials and methods: On 10th February 2010, Kurugod village reported a cluster of gastroenteritis cases. A case of gastroenteritis was defined as occurrence of more than 3 loose/watery stools and vomiting. Then our team searched for cases of gastroenteritis in that village by house to house survey and inspected the sanitation and water supply
system. We collected water specimens from the affected areas for laboratory investigation. Results: The
outbreak started on 10th February 2010, peaked on 17th and lasted till 20th February 2010. Total 245 cases
were found in that village, out of that 230 cases of were reported in Kurugod A (attack rate: 2.21/1000, no
deaths). The attack rate was highest among children aged 0-5 years (5.06/1000) and females were more
affected (2.59/100). Water analysis was done from 11 different places of Kurugod area, the reports
confirmed that water was unfit for drinking and chlorine was totally absent in 6 water samples of
Kurugod A. Conclusion and Recommendation: This outbreak was due to contaminated water supply.
To prevent recurrences in the future, we recommended that tanks should be cleaned and chlorinated
periodically.
EnglishOutbreak, gastroenteritis, water contamination, ControlINTRODUCTION
Gastroenteritis commonly known as stomach flu is an inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, caused by common viruses, bacteria and parasites. Infection may lead to acute gastroenteritis, cholera and even viral hepatitis. The term gastroenteritis is most frequently used to describe acute diarrhea. It is not strictly accurate because it doesn‘t give an indication of the causative organism, partly because of lack of laboratory services, and partly because it is impossible and economically unjustifiable to confirm each case of diarrhoea by laboratory examination1 . Gastric problems follow a seasonal trend, most of the gastric infections increase due to humid weather condition, causing the bacteria to proliferate more rapidly spoiling the food article and water and thus, increasing the risk of infection. Gastroenteritis continues to be transmitted in environments characterized by inadequate water supply and poor sanitation. To control outbreaks, WHO recommends emergency interventions, including excreta disposal, sanitary measures and water quality monitoring2, 3 . However, Gastroenteritis persists in India, including in Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh. Kurugod is a village located in Bellary district, Karnataka state. On 10th of February Kurugod Community Health Centre reported a sudden increase in gastroenteritis cases. We investigated this cluster to identify the source of transmission and to propose control measures.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
On the 10th February we got a phone call from District Health Office that there is a gastroenteritis outbreak in Kurugod. It is a village with geographical coordinates of 15° 20' 0" North, 76° 51' 0" East and 28 kilometres from Bellary. A rapid response team from VIMS, Bellary went to Kurugod. First we went to health facility and did line listing of all the cases and prepared a spot map. The index case was of a 3 year old female child who had gastroenteritis reported on February 10th morning at around 6 am. Then we entered the field area; a case of gastroenteritis was defined as the occurrence of three or more episodes of loose stools and at least one episode of vomiting. Kurugod village is divided into two geographical areas, Kurugod A and Kurugod B. Kurugod A has 10363 populations, Kurugod B has 10045 populations. With the help of predesigned, semi-structured questionnaire we did a house to house survey and collected information regarding date of onset, age, sex and place of residence, occupation and also information on drinking water, drainage system and any recent common events attended by the household members. Cholera outbreak was ruled out by doing Hanging drop preparation. We calculated attack rates with respect to age, sex and ward (the local geographic sub-division) using projected, standardized 2010 population estimates. The clustering of cases was found in Kurugod A where people consumed water supplied from a water tank situated uphill near the dwelling place. This led us to suspect the source of outbreak. We inspected the water tank, water pipelines, other sources of water supply, the drainage system and the sewage lines and collected water specimens from different wards and sent them for water quality testing.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In our study we found that more than one third of the cases (36.5%) were in the age group of less than 10 years and females (57.9%) were more affected compared to males (42.1%). This may be due the fact that both women and children will be present in the household most of the times and thereby more chances of exposure to the source of infection (tap water) and more over children are more susceptible for the infection due less immunity compared to adults (Table I). In India diarrhoeal disease is major public health problem among children under the age of 5 years. During 2005, about 1.07 million cases of acute diarrhoea were reported in India with 2040 deaths4 . But the actual incidence must be many folds. Since the advent of National Diarrhoeal Disease Control Programme, it has made a significant contribution in averting deaths among children under the age of 5 years, which was evident in our study where there was no mortality5 .
Most of the cases had a habit of open air defecation (89.5%), no household purification of water (95.2%) and in 90.4% of the cases the source of drinking water was from tap water (Table II). This finding highlights the importance of improved water supply, excreta disposal, domestic and food hygiene. Without an adequate supply of clean water it is extremely difficult to promote personal and domestic hygiene. Simple hygienic measures like hand washing with soap before preparing food, before eating, before feeding a child, after defecation, after cleaning a child who has defecated and after disposing of a child‘s stool should be promoted6 . Most of the pathogenic organisms are transmitted primarily or exclusively by the faecal-oral route. Faecal-oral transmission may be waterborne, food borne or direct transmission which implies an array of other faecal-oral routes such as via fingers or fomites or dirt which may be ingested by young children7 .
We identified 245 cases, out of which 230 cases of gastroenteritis were from Kurugod A area and 15 cases were from Kurugod B area. The attack rate in Kurugod A was 2.21% and attack rate in Kurugod B was 0.14% and there were no deaths. The attack rate was highest among the 0–5 age group (5.06/100), females (2.59/100) and in Indranagar (3.8/100), Pinjar colony (2.3/100), Halegode (2.5/100). All these areas got water supply from same tank. Kurugod B with a population of 10045 had only 15 cases (6.2%) (Table IV), where the water supply was from a different tank
The outbreak started on 10th February 2010, peaked on 17th and lasted till 20th February 2010 (Graph I). The epidemic curve showed sudden rise and fall with no secondary waves and all cases occurred within one incubation period of disease thereby indicating common source of infection which might have resulted due to contamination of water.
There was no history of common exposure like festival, ceremony or event to be suspected as common source. But however there was a common source of drinking water from the uphill water tank which accounted for the majority of cases. Water analysis was done from 11 different places of Kurugod and among the sampled water, 6 samples report confirmed that water was unfit for drinking and chlorine was totally absent in the water sample and all these 6 samples were from Kurugod A. To address this problem Government of India had started National Water supply and Sanitation Programme in 1954 and in 1972 a special programme known as Accelerated Rural Water supply Programme was launched to supplement the previous programme. Recently Government of India has launched “Swajaldhara”, in 2002, where the Panchayats and communities have the power to plan, implement, operate, maintain and manage all water supply and sanitation schemes8 . Here the role of Government has shifted from direct service delivery to that of planning, policy formulation, monitoring and evaluation and partial financial support. On completion of the project gram panchayat or village water and sanitation committee manages the project. But however effective steps must be taken for capacity building of village water and sanitation committee for better implementation of the project.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The outbreak started on 10th February 2010, peaked on 17th and lasted till 20th February 2010. The attack rate of Kurugod A was 2.21/100 and it was highest among the 0–5 age group (5.06/100) and females (2.59/100). This outbreak was caused by contaminated water from the uphill tank; the same was confirmed by water analysis report. As a result of our investigation, immediate measures were taken by the authorities like distribution of chlorine tablets to all the households and chlorination of water in uphill tank. Apart from this, the health workers were trained and oriented to help prevent diarrhoea by convincing and helping community members to adopt and maintain certain preventive practices such as clean drinking water, use of plenty of water for hygiene, use of sanitary latrines and personal hygiene and community was educated about the water borne diseases and household methods of water purification. In co-ordination with Village Sanitation Committee a plan for construction of sanitary latrines, regular maintenance of water tanks and replacing leaking water pipelines in a phased manner was chalked out to prevent recurrences in future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors acknowledge the services of health personnel of Kurugod Community Health Centre and also Bellary district health authority for their support. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1820http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18201. ?Surveillance and Control of Acute Diarrheal Diseases?, EURO reports serial no 44 Copenhagen, WHO 1981.
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3. WHO. Global task force on cholera control. First steps for managing an outbreak of acute diarrhoea. WHO/CDS/CSR/NCS/2003.7 Rev.1, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Retrieved October 10, 2011. Website: http://www.who.int/healthtopics/cholera.
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7. R G Feachem (1984) Bull WHO 62 (3) 467- 476.
8. Swajaldhara, Department of Drinking Water Supply, Ministry of Rural Development, GOI, Retrieved November 28, 2011. Web site: http://ddws.nic.in / swajaldhara / html / faq.htm.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcarePROSTHODONTIC REHABILITATION WITH TOOTH SUPPORTED, BILATERAL BALANCED CHARECTERISED OVERDENTURE: A CASE REPORT
English2529Harshitha AlvaEnglish Krishna Prasad D.English Anupama Prasad D.EnglishA 53yr old male patient reported with a chief complaint of missing teeth causing difficulty in speech and
mastication. On examination, the maxillary arch was completely edentulous and in the mandibular arch
33, 34, 43 and 44 were present. Discussion: Conventional mode of treatment for patients with few
remaining teeth was to render them completely edentulous and provide a complete denture prosthesis.
However with the advent of overdenture concept, this trend changed thereby preventing alveolar bone
resorption, providing better load transmission, maintain sensory feedback and achieving better stability
of denture with emphasis on psychological benefit of not being completely edentulous. An overdenture
fabricated with balanced occlusion, besides providing increased retention also enhances the stability of
the prosthesis. Conclusion: This case report describes the fabrication of a tooth supported charecterised
overdenture with bilateral balanced occlusion.
EnglishTooth supported overdenture, stability, retentionINTRODUCTION
An overdenture is a complete or removable partial denture that has one or more tooth roots or implants to provide support1 . The concept of overdentures was first presented at the World Dental Congress in 1861 by Butler, Roberts and Hays and the current concept was presented at the American Dental Association during the1970 annual meeting in Las Vegas2 . This procedure significantly prolonged the life of remaining teeth in comparison with the conventional complete dentures prosthesis. Successful Endodontics of the abutment is the key to success of an overdenture therapy. It allows for short clinical crown which creates adequate space for the overlying denture base and artificial tooth. Moreover the shortened crown also changes the crown to root ratio thereby enhancing bone support. The second important factor is the added retention for the denture by retaining the root and at the same time there is significantly lower resorption of the alveolar bone1 .
Overdenture therapy has certain merits and demerits. Preeminent among the merits are conservation of natural teeth and concomitant reduction of residual ridge atrophy. Stability and support of the overdenture also can be better in comparison with a conventional complete denture prosthesis. In addition, sensory feedback of the periodontal receptors is maintained and masticatory performance is also enhanced. Demerits of the overdenture treatment include the need for inevitable treatment which requires additional time and increased cost3 . A comparative analysis of the chewing efficiency of patients revealed that with natural dentition, the chewing efficiency was measured to be 90%, 59% for complete denture wearers and 79% for patients with overdentures4 . A tooth supported overdenture with bilateral balanced occlusion, besides providing good retention also enhances the stability of the prosthesis. Balanced occlusion makes possible the greatest use of masticatory power so that the food may be properly prepared for digestion. Case report: A 53year old male patient reported with a chief complaint of missing teeth causing difficulty in chewing and speech. Clinical examination revealed completely edentulous maxillary arch and partially edentulous mandibular arch. Teeth present in the mandibular arch were 33, 34, 43 and 44 (fig 1). Periodontal findings of the remaining teeth revealed gingival recession but no pocket formation and mobility. Hence it was concluded that these teeth could serve as potential abutments for the overdenture. The treatment plan was divided into two phases. In phase 1, the remaining teeth were treated endodontically and phase 2 included prosthodontic intervention. Steps in fabrication: After intentional endodontic therapy of the abutments, primary impression was made using appropriate stock trays with irreversible hydrocolloid impression material (Zelgan plusDentsply). Diagnostic casts were mounted on a semi-adjustable articulator to analyse the interarch space and treatment was planned accordingly. Due to inadequate inter-arch space treatment with only primary coping was planned. All the four abutments were prepared to receive the copings with torpedo shaped diamond bur (Diamond Point, C&FG, Dentsply, U.S.A.) (fig 2). Single stage impression was made using putty and light viscosity vinyl polysilioxane impression material (3M ESPE, Express, U.S.A.) and the working cast poured with dental stone (Type III). Wax patterns for the copings were fabricated on the master cast and casted. The copings were trimmed , polished and cemented over the prepared abutments with a permanent luting cement (GIC type I, GC Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). Maxillary and mandibular impressions were made with irreversible hydrocolloid alginate (Zelgan plus-Dentsply). Customised special trays were fabricated on the casts obtained from these impressions using acylic resin (DPI-cold cure). Border moulding and secondary impression was made using putty and light viscosity vinyl polysilioxane impression material (3M ESPE, Express, U.S.A.) respectively and master casts were obtained. Base plate and occlusal rims were fabricated on the casts. Jaw relations along with face bow transfer was recorded and transferred to an NonArcon semi adjustable articulator. Teeth arrangement was carried out to attain a tentative bilateral balanced occlusion and centric relation was recorded using alu wax to verify the predetermined centric position and a protrusive record was also made at 6mm protrusion. This protrusive record was then used to determine the condylar guidance. A condylar guidance of 30o on right and 35o on left side was obtained. The lateral guidance for each side was calculated using Hanau‘s formula and was found to be 16o and 18o for right and left side respectively. Using these values the tentative arrangement of teeth and their angulations were altered to attain a proper bilateral balanced occlusion. Dentures were processed after try-in of the waxed up dentures. The prosthesis was charecterised using acrylic stains at the packing stage to simulate natural appearance and enhance esthetics. After remounting and correction of occlusal discrepancies, the denture was trimmed, polished and denture insertion was carried out (fig 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). DISCUSSION Edentulism leads to impairment of both esthetics and functions hence having a psychological impact on the patients. In the past, patients with minimum teeth were rendered completely edentulous with the fabrication of complete dentures. But now, preventive Prosthodontics emphasises on the importance of any procedure that can delay or eliminate future problems. The basic concept of overdentures is based on the preservation of residual hard and soft tissues. Overdentures are designed to distribute the masticatory load on the edentulous ridge and the abutments. An overdenture transfers occlusal forces to the alveolar bone through the periodontal ligament of the retained tooth roots and thereby enhancing the proprioceptive reflex5 . It maintains teeth as a part of the residual ridge aiding in added support. Instead of soft, movable tissues, the denture rests on tooth pilings enabling the denture to withstand much greater occlusal load without any movement. Crum and Runey in a 5-year study found that retention of mandibular canines for overdentures led to preservation of alveolar bone6 and Rissin et al found that patients with overdentures had a chewing efficiency which was one-third higher than that of complete denture wearers7 . Although an overdenture therapy has various advantages, certain disadvantages include caries susceptibility or periodontal breakdown of the abutments due to poor oral hygiene, abutment encroach the inter-occlusal distance, bony undercuts and at times esthetics can also be compromised. Historical literature recommends atleast one tooth in each quadrant for cross arch stabilisation of the overdenture8 . Here, an overdenture supported by four natural teeth (two in each quadrant) was provided with bilaterally balanced occlusion. Bilateral balance help to seat the denture in a stable position during mastication, swallowing thereby enhancing the retention and stability of the denture and health of the oral tissues. Even during bruxing activity, a balanced denture is more stable.
CONCLUSION
The concept of overdentures provides means of reducing resorption of the denture foundation area. The key to successful overdenture therapy lies in proper case selection, abutment evaluation and preparation, patient motivation, home care instructions as well as periodic recall. A prosthesis so designed provides a functional and esthetic solution to the edentulous state of the patient.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whoso articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also greatful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1821http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18211. Dostalova T, Radina P, Seydlova M, Zvarova J, Valenta Z. Overdenture - implants versus teeth - quality of life and objective therapy evaluation. Prague Med Rep. 2009;110(4):332-42.
2. Fenton A.H.: The Decade of overdenture: 1970–1980. J. Prosthet. Dent 1998 Jan; 79(1):31–36.
3. Ettinger R. L., Jokobsen J. R.: A Comparison of patient satisfaction and dentist evaluation of overdenture therapy. Community Dent. Oral Epidemiol. 25: 223–227.
4. Pavlatos J.: The Root-supported overdenture using the locator overdenture attachment. Gen. Dent. 2002 Sep-Oct;50(5):448-53; quiz 454-5.
5. Jain DC, Hegde V, Aparna IN, Dhanasekar B. Overdenture with accesspost system: A clinical report. Indian J Dent Res. 2011 MarApr;22(2):359-61.
6. Crum RJ, Rooney GE. Alveolar bone loss in overdentures: a 5 year study. J Prosthet Dent. 1978 Dec; 40(6):610-3.
7. Rissin L, House JE, Manly RS, Kapur KK. Clinical comparison of masticatory performance and electromyographic activity of patients with complete dentures, overdentures, and natural teeth. J Prosthet Dent. 1978 May; 39(5):508-11.
8. Abraham PA, Koka P, Murugesan K, Vasanthakumar M. Telescopic overdenture supported by a combination of tooth and an implant: a clinical report. J Indian Prosthodont Soc. 2010 Dec;10(4):230-3. Epub 2010 Dec 9.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareTO EVALUATE CARDIORESPIRATORY FITNESS & THE EFFECT OF BODY MASS INDEX ON CARDIORESPIRATORY FITNESS IN YOUNG HEALTHY MALES
English3035V. PrabhaEnglish B.R. DoddamaniEnglish SureshbalajiEnglishBackground and objective: Obesity is a serious & widespread problem globally. Reduced cardio respiratory fitness in young adults has emerged as an important factor for developing cardiovascular co morbidities later in middle age. Maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) is the internationally accepted parameter to evaluate cardio respiratory fitness. Numerous clinical investigations have established a strong association between low cardio respiratory fitness and mortality. Increased body fatness is an additional factor for developing cardiovascular diseases. Hence, the current study was designed to evaluate cardio respiratory fitness in terms of VO2max in young healthy males and to study the relation between body mass index and cardio respiratory fitness. Methodology: Hundred young healthy male subjects in the age group of 18 to 25 years were included in this study group. Body mass index was measured as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters square. Cardio-respiratory fitness in terms of VO2max was assessed by following the protocol of Queen‘s College Step Test. Results: There was a significant negative correlation between body mass index (BMI) and VO2max (ml/kg/min) (r = -0.66, pEnglishVO2max, QCT, BMIINTRODUCTION
Obesity is a serious & widespread problem globally. Technological developments & modern day commodities have driven most people into sedentary life style leading to chronic diseases like hypertension, heart disease, chronic low backache & obesity. Maximal oxygen consumption is considered the gold standard of cardio-pulmonary and muscle cell fitness. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) is the highest rate of oxygen consumption attainable during maximal or exhaustive exercise. VO2max is internationally accepted parameter & is the first choice in measuring a person‘s cardiopulmonary status & it is a fundamental measure of physiological functional capacity to exercise. Those who are more fit have higher VO2max and can exercise more intensely and longer than those who are not as well conditioned. The prevalence of cardiovascular disease has increased substantially over the past two decades in younger population (1). Reduced cardiopulmonary fitness is associated with increased cardiovascular disease (2). Unfavorable cardiovascular risk profiles are found in youth with low levels of cardiovascular fitness and high percentage of body fat. Numerous risk factors for cardiovascular diseases including hypertension, diabetes and hypercholesterolemia are suspected to be influenced by fitness (3, 4) and these factors may mediate the association between low cardio respiratory fitness and mortality. Obesity is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Earlier studies have demonstrated the importance of low cardio respiratory fitness in young adulthood as a factor for developing cardiovascular co morbidities later in middle age (1). Hence, the current study was designed to evaluate cardio respiratory fitness in terms of VO2max and its relation with body mass index in young healthy male subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study group comprises of hundred young healthy males from Kolar city in the age group of 18-25yrs. Hundred apparently healthy male subjects were selected from Kolar city and examined. They were asked to fill a questionnaire to assess their physical activity status. The experimental protocol was fully explained to the participants to allay apprehension. They refrained from any energetic physical activity for 2 to 3 hours before the test. Informed consent was taken from all the subjects. The study was approved by institutional Ethical Committee. Experimental design: Data is collected by calculating body mass index and assessing VO2max indirectly by Queen‘s college step test. Weight was measured using calibrated weighing machine in light clothing and bare feet and height was measured using measuring scale in centimeters which was fixed to the wall. All experiments were performed at room temperature. Body mass index was calculated using the formula: BMI = weight (kg)/height (m2 ) Measurements of body weight (anthropometry) are used to reflect body fat in clinical settings as these measurements provide rapid and cheap way to estimate body fat. Queen?s College Step Test: Step test was performed using a stool of 16.25 inches (41.30cms) height. Stepping was done for a total duration of 3 minutes at the rate of 24 cycles per minute which was set by a metronome. After completion of the exercise the subjects were asked to remain standing comfortably and the carotid pulse rate was measured from the 5th to 20th second of recovery period. This 15 second pulse rate was converted into beats per minute and the following equation was used to predict VO2max (5). PVO2max (ml/kg/min) = 111.33 - (0.42 x pulse rate in beats per min) Statistical analysis: The results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). A p value of Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1822http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18221. Mercedes R, Samuel S, Stephen S et al. Cardio respiratory fitness in young adulthood and the development of cardiovascular disease risk factors. JAMA 2003; 290:3092-3100.
2. Shephard RJ, Allen C, Benade AJS et al. The maximum oxygen intake. An international reference standard of cardio respiratory fitness. Bull World Health Org.1968;38:757-764.
3. Meigs JB, Wilson PW, Cupples LA, Nathan DM, Singer DE, Agostino RB. Risk variable clustering in insulin resistance syndrome. The Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes 1997;46:1594-1600.
4. Kraus WE, Houmard JA, Duscha BD. Effects of the amount and intensity of exercise on lipoproteins. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1483-1492.
5. Chatterjee S, Chatterjee P, Bandyopadhay A. Validity of Queen‘s College Step Test for use with young men. Br J Sports Med 2004;38: 289 -291. 38.
6. Rocchini AP. Obesity and blood pressure regulation. In: Bray GA, Bouchard C, James WP, editors. Handbook of Obesity: Etiology and pathology.2nd Ed. New York: Markel Dekker; 873-897.
7. Manson JE, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE et al. Body weight and mortality among women. N Engl J Med 1995;333:677-685.
8. Ozcelick O, Aslan M, Ayar A et al. Effects of body mass index on maximal work production capacity and aerobic fitness during incremental exercise. Physiol Res 2004; 53:165-170.
9. Wei M, Gibbons LW, Mitchell TL et al. The association between cardiorespiratory fitness and impaired fasting glucose and type 2 diabetes mellitus in men. Ann Med 1999;130:89-96.
10. Perseghin G, Price TB, Petersen KF. Increased glucose transport, phosphorylation and glycogen synthesis after exercise training in insulin resistant subjects. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1362.
11. Melanson EL, Freedson PS. The effect of endurance training on resting heart rate variability in sedentary adult males. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001;85:442-449.
12. Hager RL, Tucker LA, Seljaas GT. Aerobic fitness, blood lipids and body fat in children. Am J Public Health 1995;85(12):1702-1706.
13. Chatterjee S, Chatterjee P, Bandyopadhyay A. Cardiorespiratory fitness of obese boys. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2005; 49:353- 357.
14. Watanabe K, Nakadomo F, Maeda K. Relationship between body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness in Japanese junior high school boys and girls. Ann Physiol Anthropol 1994;13(4);167-174.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17TechnologyEXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF A CI ENGINE FUELED WITH SOYBEAN BIO DIESEL
English3644N. Ravi KumarEnglish Rajesh GunturEnglish Shamali S.VEnglish Y.M.C. SekharEnglishThe use of alternate fuels in compression ignition (CI) engines is increasing day by day in the form of blends with diesel. Biodiesel is a non–toxic, biodegradable and renewable alternative fuel that can be used with little or no engine modifications. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the biodiesel produced from soybean oil on single cylinder high speed diesel engine. Both performance and emission characteristics were studied in the range of no load to full load. The experimental results have showed that the brake thermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency of soybean biodiesel are better than diesel. Smoke is reduced by 19 % at part loads and NOx emissions are marginally increases at all loads with biodiesel operation.
EnglishBio fuels, high speed diesel engine, bsfc, emissions, soybean methyl estersINTRODUCTION
Depletion of fossil fuel resources increasing with each passing day and raising the demand of fuels. Concurrently, increasing stringent regulations, pose a challenge to science and technology. Global Warming and Environmental pollution are also a serious threats which have been caused by excessive use of fossil fuels for transportation. Now a day‘s biodiesel is the most promising source of renewable energy with high potential to replace petroleum-derived diesel fuel, because of similarity in chemical properties. Biodiesel, as an alternative fuel of diesel, is described as fatty acid methyl or ethyl esters from vegetable oils or animal fats. Biodiesel is renewable, oxygenated and ecofriendly [1].
Vegetable oils are obtained largely from grains of different plant species. There are two methods of oil extraction. One is by physical process (pressing) and other is by chemical (solvent). Soybean is a very flexible grain that gives the products widely used in agro-chemical industry and food industry. Besides it is a raw material for extraction of oil for bio fuel. About 20% of oil is available in soybean grain. Countries like United States, Brazil, Argentina, China and India are producing Soybean large in content. [2]. Grau et al. [3] stated that straight vegetable oil can be used directly in diesel engines with minor modifications. It is proposed a small-scale production system for self supply in agricultural machinery. Plenty of literature is available related to research of engine performances and its emissions when using biodiesel. Misra and Murthy [4] reported the main advantages of vegetable oils are its life cycle, as it is a closed cycle. Crops take CO2 via photosynthesis from the atmosphere. Oil is extracted from these crops which can be used as a fuel directly or after the pertinent transformations. As a result of transformation, CO2 will be produced and the same can be absorbed by the plants. The main disadvantages of vegetable oils, compared to diesel fuel, are higher viscosity, lower volatility, and the reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon chains. The problems meet in long term engine use. Basha et al. [5] presented a review paper on biodiesel production, combustion, emissions and performance. The study reported that short-term engine tests were very promising when using vegetable oils as fuels, but the long-term test results showed higher carbon built up, lubricating oil contamination and engine failure. It was reported that the combustion characteristics of biodiesel are similar as diesel. The engine power output was found to be equivalent to that of diesel fuel. Van Dam et al. [6] presented the potential and economic feasibility of large-scale bio energy production from soybeans for national and international markets. Jinlin Xue.et.al [1] reviewed the effect of biodiesel on engine performance and emissions. He reported that with biodiesel (especially with pure biodiesel), engine power will drop due to the loss of heating value of biodiesel. But Some other authors found that the power loss was lower than expected (the loss of heating value of biodiesel compared to diesel) because of power recovery. Yucesu HS and Cumali I [7] found that the torque and power reduced by 3–6% for pure cotton seeds biodiesel compared to diesel, and they claimed that the heating value of biodiesel was less 5% than that of diesel. But they contributed to the difficulties in fuel atomization instead of the loss of heating value. Lin et al. [8] found that the maximum and minimum differences in engine power and torque at full load between petroleum diesel and 8 kinds of vegetable oil methyl ester fuels were only 1.49% and −0.64%, 1.39% and −1.25%, respectively, due to higher viscosity, higher BSFC (brake specific fuel consumption), higher oxygen content and higher combustion rate of biodiesel. M. Canakci and J. H. Van Gerpen [9] compared the engine performance and emissions for petroleum biodiesel and soybean biodiesel. They found that the oxides of nitrogen increased by 13% for soybean oil methyl ester.
The conversion of the biodiesel fuel‘s energy to work was equal to that from diesel fuel. Most of researches agreed that the fuel consumption of an engine fueled with biodiesel becomes higher because it is needed to compensate the loss of heating value of biodiesel. Armas et al. [10] found that the BSFC of B100 biodiesel, which the LHV (low heating value) was 12.9% lower than that of BP15,had increased approximately 12% compared to the BP15 on a 2.5 L,DI and TU, common-rail diesel engine operated at the speed of 2400rpm and torque64Nm. Generally With increase in load, the brake specific fuel consumption of biodiesel decreases due to increase in the brake power.
Gumus M and Kasifoglu S [11] showed that the BSEC initially decreased with increasing of engine load until it reached a minimum value and then increased slightly with further increasing engine load for all kind of fuels. Many literatures showed that NOx emissions increase with the increase in content of biodiesel. Lujan et al. [12] tested on a HSDI, 4- cylinder, 1.6 L, TU diesel engine fueled by biodiesel and its blends B30, B50 and B100. The authors observed that the increase in NOx emissions for B30, B50 and B100 could be scored at 20.6%, 25.9% and 44.8%, respectively. Aydin H and Bayindir H [13] investigated engine performances and emissions of CSOME and its blends (B5, B20, B50 and B75) on a single-cylinder DI and AC diesel engine.
It could be observed that the increasing content of biodiesel in the blends resulted in the reduced NOx emissions, and all blends except for B5 decreased the NOx emissions in the study. Sahoo et al. [14] compared three kinds of biodiesels from jatropha, karanja and polanga oil and their blends (B20, B50 and B100) and found that the biodiesels from karanja and polanga oil and their blends had the trend of the NOx increase with the increased content of biodiesel, but there was variation for jatropha oil biodiesel because the NOx emissions value for JB100 was lower than that of JB20. According to most of literatures it is common trend that CO emissions reduce when diesel is replaced by pure biodiesel. Krahl et al. [15] obtained about 50% reduction in CO emissions for biodiesel from rapeseed oil compared to low and ultra low sulphur diesel.
Banapurmatha et al. [16] compared the CO emissions for JOME, SOME and HOME with that of diesel on a single-cylinder, 4-stroke, DI, WC, and CI engine at a rated speed of 1500 rpm. They reported that significant increase in CO emissions for pure biodiesel compared with diesel. Puhan et al. [17] reported that the HC emissions reduced average around 63% for biodiesel compared with diesel. M. Mani.et al. [18] studies the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engine using waste plastic oil.
Their experimental results showed that a stable performance with brake thermal efficiency similar to that of diesel. Carbon dioxide and unburned hydrocarbon were marginally higher than that of the diesel baseline. The toxic gas carbon monoxide emission of waste plastic oil was higher than diesel. Smoke reduced by about 40% to 50% in waste plastic oil at all loads. The majority of the works reported in literature studied biodiesel produced from feed stocks with relatively low free fatty acids. The biodiesel was generally prepared using alkaline– catalyzed processes that were similar to those used for high–quality soybean oil. In the present work biodiesel is produced from raw soybean oil by Transesterification and tested on single cylinder slow speed diesel engine for finding the performance and emission characteristics at different loads.
PREPARATION OF SOYBEAN OIL BIODIESEL
The use of vegetable oils in place of diesel fuel in conventional diesel engines requires certain modification of their properties like viscosity and density. Transesterification is the general term used to describe the important class of organic reactions, where an ester is transformed into another ester through interchange of alkyl groups and is also called alcoholysis. Transesterification is an equilibrium reaction and the transformation occurs by mixing the reactants. In the transesterification of vegetable oils, a triglyceride reacts with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or base, producing a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters and glycerol. In the base-catalyzed process, the transesterification of vegetable oils proceeds faster than the acid-catalyzed reaction.
The biodiesel is obtained from soybean oil in the following steps
1. The soybean oil is filtered using surgical cotton to eliminate the water and particulate matter.
2. The oil is heated to 100oC temperature and maintained for 15 minutes. It is allowed to settle for one day for removal of water.
3. 6.5 grams of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added to 0.12 liters of methanol and stirred thoroughly to produce sodium methoxide.
4. Half of the prepared sodium methoxide is poured into the unheated mixture and the mixture is stirred for five minutes. This will neutralize the sulfuric acid.
5. The mixture is heated to 55oC and the whole reaction is maintained.
6. After heating for one hours the oil should be poured into decanter
7. Glycerin is removed and it is ready for water wash
8. water wash should be done with Phosphoric acid.
PROPERTIES OF THE BIO-DIESEL
The property of soybean oil biodiesel was found in the fuels laboratory. The results obtained are shown in Table 1.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
In the present work a four stroke single cylinder, water cooled, direct injection, vertical diesel engine, was tested for soybean oil biodiesel operation. The specifications of the engine are given in table 2. A Schematic of the experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 2. Air flow was determined using air box method by measuring the pressure drop across a sharp edge orifice of the air surge chamber with the help of a manometer. The diesel flow was measured by noting the time of fixed volume of diesel consumed by the engine. The speed of the engine was measured by help of digital tachometer. The loading is applied on the engine using rope brake dynamometer. The exhaust gas constituents HC, CO, CO2, NOx, O2 are measured using AVL DiGas 444 gas analyzer and smoke opacity was measured using AVL 437C smoke meter.
UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
Errors will creep into all experiments regardless of the care which is exerted. Errors and uncertainties in the experiments can arise from instrument selection, condition, calibration, environment, observation, reading and test planning. Uncertainty analysis is needed to prove the accuracy of the experiments [19]. The percentage uncertainties of various parameters like brake power and brake thermal efficiency were calculated using the percentage uncertainties of various instruments given in
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this section we investigate the performance and emission characteristics of a high speed diesel engine at various loads from no load to full load fuelled with soybean oil biodiesel and compared with standard diesel.
Specific Fuel Consumption
Figure 3 shows the variation of specific fuel consumption with brake power. It is observed that with increase in brake power the specific fuel consumption is decreases for both diesel and soybean oil. Further it is noticed that compared with diesel the specific fuel consumption of the engine increases when soybean oil is used. At part loads the increase in specific fuel consumption is 5.4% but as the load increases this value decreases and reached to 0.37% at full load. Therefore the specific fuel consumption of the engine at full load (maximum power) is nearly same when it is operated with diesel and soybean biodiesel.
Mechanical Efficiency
The variation of mechanical efficiency with brake power is shown in figure 4. It can be observed from the figure that at rated power the mechanical efficiency is 62.2% for Diesel and 62.7% for soybean biodiesel. It is clear that the mechanical efficiency of soybean oil is very close to diesel from no load to full load.
Brake thermal Efficiency
Figure 5 shows the variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power. It is found that with increase in brake power the brake thermal efficiency also increases. It is observed that at any load condition the brake thermal efficiency of soybean oil is greater than diesel. At part load conditions the percentage increase in brake thermal efficiency is 7% but with increase in brake power this value also increases and reaches 13% at full load.
Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen are the important emission in diesel engines. The oxides of nitrogen in the emissions contain nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The formation of NOx is highly dependent on in-cylinder temperature and oxygen concentration. Figure 6 shows the variation of oxides of nitrogen with brake power. It can be observed that NOx emission increases in the soybean bio diesel operation. At part load conditions the increase in NOx emissions is 40% whereas it reduces as the load increases and reached the value of 12.7% at full load.
Smoke
Smoke is nothing but solid soot particles suspended in exhaust gas. Figure 7 shows the variation of smoke with brake power. Smoke opacity varies from 9.8HSU to 80.3 HSU for diesel operation and from 3.2HSU to 79.1 HSU for soybean biodiesel. It can be noticed that the smoke level for soybean biodiesel is lower than diesel at part load and full loads. The reason for the reduced smoke is the availability of premixed and homogeneous charge inside the engine well before the commencement of combustion. Higher combustion temperature, extended duration of combustion and rapid flame propagation are the other reasons for reduced smoke Carbon Monoxide Generally the CO emissions in diesel engines are low because they operate with excessive air. CO emission is toxic and must be controlled. It is an intermediate product in the combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel, so its emission results from incomplete combustion. The variation of carbon monoxide with load is shown in figure 8. The concentration of CO emissions varies from 0.02% to 0.05% for diesel and for soybean bio diesel it is in between 0.03-0.04%. the results showed that from no load to 60% load the CO emissions are low with soybean bio diesel operation, but at full load this will slightly increase than diesel. The sudden increase in CO emission at higher loads is due to higher fuel consumption.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the experimentation conducted on single cylinder high speed diesel engine operated with diesel and soybean biodiesel.
Soybean Biodiesel showed high brake specific fuel consumption than the diesel for same power developed due to its lower calorific value
Increase in Brake thermal efficiency was observed when the engine fueled with soybean biodiesel.
Mechanical efficiency with soybean Biodiesel is higher at all the loads when compared to Diesel fuel.
NOx emissions is higher for soybean biodiesel by 12.7% at full load due to more availability of oxygen
Smoke reduced by 19% at part loads and 2% at rated power in soybean biodiesel compared to diesel operation
CO emissions are increased with soybean biodiesel compared to diesel operation
Nomenclature
CO carbon monoxide
HC hydro carbon
NOx oxides of nitrogen
CO2 carbon dioxide
HSU Hatridge smoke unit
BTDC before top dead centre
Y total percentages of uncertainty
X1 uncertainty of NOx
X2 uncertainty of unburned hydro carbon
X3 uncertainty of carbon monoxide
X4 uncertainty of smoke opacity
X5 uncertainty of brake power
X6 uncertainty of fuel consumption
X7 uncertainty of brake thermal efficiency
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi for their financial support vide project grant AICTE/MODROBS. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1823http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18231. Jinlin Xue, Tony E. Grift , Alan C. Hansen, ?Effect of biodiesel on engine performances and emissions?, renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 15 (2011) 1098–1116.
2. Roberto Guimarães Pereira,Oscar Edwin Piamba Tulcan,Valdir de Jesus Lameira, Dalni Malta do Espirito Santo Filho,and Ednilton Tavares de Andrade, “Use of Soybean Oil in Energy Generation?, Recent Trends for Enhancing the Diversity and Quality of Soybean Products, pp 301-320.
3. Grau, B.; Bernat, E.; Antoni, R.; JordiRoger, R. and Rita, P., ?Small-Scale Production of Straight Vegetable Oil from Rapeseed and its use as Biofuel in the Spanish Territory?, Energy Policy, Vol. 38, Issue 1, (January 2010), pp. 189-196.
4. Misra, R. and Murthy M., ?Straight Vegetable Oils usage in a Compression Ignition Engine - A Review?. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 14, Issue 9, (December 2010), pp. 3005-3013.
5. Basha, S.; Gopal, K. and Jebaraj, S., ?A Review on Biodiesel Production, Combustion, Emissions and Performance?, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 13, Issues 6-7, (AugustSeptember 2009), pp. 1628-1634.
6. Van Dam, J.; Faaij, A.; Hilbert, J.; Petruzzi, H. and Turkenburg, W. (2009). Large-Scale Bioenergy Production from Soybeans and Switch grass in Argentina: Part A: Potential and Economic Feasibility for National and International Markets. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 13, Issue 8, (October 2009), pp. 1710-1733.
7. Yucesu HS, Cumali I?, ?Effect of cotton seed oil methyl ester on the performance and exhaust emission of a diesel engine?, Energy Source Part A 2006; 28:389–98.
8. Lin B-F, Huang J-H, Huang D-Y., ?Experimental study of the effects of vegetable oil methyl ester on DI diesel engine performance characteristics and pollutant emissions?, Fuel 2009; Vol 88:1779–85.
9. M. Canakci, J. H. Van Gerpen, Comparison of engine performance and emissions for petroleum diesel fuel, yellow grease biodiesel, and soybean oil bio biodiesel, American Society of Agricultural Engineers,2003, Vol. 46(4): 937–944.
10. Armas O, Yehliu K, Boehman AL., ?Effect of alternative fuels on exhaust emissions during diesel engine operation with matched combustion phasing?, Fuel, 2010, 89:438–56.
11. Gumus M, Kasifoglu S., ?Performance and emission evaluation of a compression ignition engine using a biodiesel (apricot seed kernel oil methyl ester) and its blends with diesel fuel?, Biomass Bio energy 2010; 34:134–139.
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13. Aydin H, Bayindir H., ?Performance and emission analysis of cottonseed oil methyl ester in a diesel engine?, Renew Energy 2010; 35:588–92.
14. Sahoo PK, Das LM, Babu MKG, Arora P, Singh VP, Kumar NR, ?Comparative evaluation of performance and emission characteristics of jatropha, karanja and polanga based biodiesel as fuel in a tractor engine?, Fuel 2009;88:1698–707.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareFALSE BELIEFS ABOUT AIDS, LEPROSY AND CANCER AMONG RURAL POPULATION IN SOUTH INDIA
English4550Rajkumar PatilEnglish Mohsin ShaikhEnglish Mohd. Iqbal KhanEnglish M RaghaviaEnglishObjectives: 1.To determine misconceptions associated with AIDS, Leprosy and Cancer.
2. To see the association of literacy with misconceptions. Materials and methods: A community based cross sectional study was conducted to determine the misconceptions about AIDS, Cancer and Leprosy in the Rural Pondicherry. A pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire was used. One village was selected randomly for the study, under the field practice area of Rural Health Centre. Besides socio-demographic information, questionnaire included sections on misconceptions related with diseases. Data were analyzed using SPSS software. Simple proportions and Chi square test were used wherever required. Results: Total 339 subjects were interviewed. Commonest misconception about AIDS was ?HIV Infected pregnant mother will surely transmit infection to child? (55.6%). Regarding misconceptions about Leprosy commonest (21.5%) was ?leprosy can‘t be cured completely? and for Cancer commonest misconception was ?Cancer can‘t be prevented? (31.9%).There were no significant differences about leprosy and Cancer misconceptions between illiterates and literates. Conclusion: In our study we found that misconceptions about diseases are deep rooted and there are insignificant differences between literates and illiterates.
EnglishMisconception, belief, awareness, AIDS, Cancer, leprosy, LiteracyINTRODUCTION
Awareness is must to remove the stigma associated with certain diseases. Knowledge of an individual about a disease, its prevention and treatment is based on the beliefs formed by any community. Beliefs are based on centuries of trial and error and may be beneficial or harmful. Majority of the rural population believe that wrath of Gods and Goddesses, evil eye, spirit or ghost intrusion are supposed to be the cause of diseases. Inspite of the various developments in education, medical and health fields, people believe in different misconceptions associated with diseases. These misconceptions are false beliefs which are harmful or may not be beneficial at all. Among various chronic diseases AIDS, Leprosy and Cancer are some important diseases with regard to misconceptions. Various programs are planned and implemented in India to raise awareness among people regarding HIV/AIDS, but still the knowledge is lacking specially in poor rural communities. Of the estimated people living with HIV, 60% reside in rural areas1 .Stigma associated with leprosy is due to inadequate or incorrect knowledge about the disease and its curability2 . Burden of leprosy has been reduced in India but still stigma is associated with it. Cancer is a public health problem globally. People think Cancer can‘t be prevented but in early stages cancer can be treated effectively. If warning signs of cancer are not ignored then it is possible to prevent further spread. Scientific information about these diseases are lacking in rural population due to various reasons. As information about these factors i.e. customs, habits, beliefs and superstitions was lacking in rural Pondicherry, we planned and conducted a study to understand the misconceptions about AIDS, Leprosy and Cancer in Rural Pondicherry.
Objectives
1. To determine misconceptions associated with AIDS, Leprosy and Cancer among rural population of Pondicherry.
2. To see the association of literacy with misconceptions
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A community based cross sectional study was planned to see the misconceptions about AIDS, Cancer and Leprosy in the Rural Pondicherry. A pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire was used. One village was selected randomly for the study, under the field practice area of Rural Health Centre, Manappet, of Department of Community Medicine of A.V. Medical College,Pondicherry. After training, Resident Interns carried out interviews during January to February 08. Door to door survey was done to collect the information.
One person from each family was interviewed. Houses with locked doors on three consecutive visits and persons who didn‘t give consent were excluded from the study. Before interview subjects were informed about the purpose of the study and informed consent was obtained. Besides socio-demographic information, questionnaire included sections on misconceptions related to AIDS, leprosy and Cancer. For study purpose, literate is defined as a person who can read and write with understanding in any language. The data collected was analyzed using SPSS software. Simple proportions and Chi square test were used wherever required. P value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
RESULTS
Total 339 subjects were interviewed, of these 218 (64.3%) were females and 35.7% were males. Most common age group was 18-45 yr. (Table 1) Commonest misconception about AIDS was ?HIV Infected pregnant mother will surely transmit infection to child? (55.6%). Regarding misconceptions about Leprosy commonest was ?leprosy can‘t be cured completely? (21.5%) and for Cancer commonest misconception was ?Cancer can‘t be prevented? (31.9%). (Table 2) As literacy is considered to be an important determinant for health and disease we compared the various misconceptions between illiterates and literates in our study. In our study 136 subjects (40.1%) were illiterates and 203 subjects (59.9%) were literates. 44.1% of illiterates compared to 63.5% literates believed that ?HIV infected pregnant mother will surely transmit the HIV infection? and this misconception was significantly different between these two groups. (Table 3) There were no significant differences about leprosy misconceptions between illiterates and literates. (Table 4) Regarding the misconception that cancer can‘t be prevented, there was no difference between illiterates (30.9%) and literates (32.5%). There were no significant differences about other cancer misconceptions also between illiterates and literates. (Table 5).
DISCUSSION
Prevailing beliefs and attitudes have great impact on the practices in a community for the prevention, control and treatment of a disease.3 Knowledge of cultural practices in an area is necessary for a physician, which helps him to deal with needs of the patient effectively4 Commonly people with HIV/AIDS are discriminated and rejected by their families. The disease is directly linked to the person‘s sexual behavior and this is the reason for hiding the disease status of the affected. Rural people are not much aware of HIV and AIDS. Most of them believe that mosquito bite, sharing fomites and touching infected person can spread AIDS.
In a study by Sudha et al5 88.4% of literates were aware of the HIV infection compared to the awareness of infection in 12.7% of persons with low literacy. In the above study 64% were unsure of the transmission through mosquito bite. In our study we found that 19.8% subjects believed that mosquito bite can transmit HIV Infection. Similar results were seen in a study by Yadav et al6 20.8% subjects thought that HIV can be transmitted by living with an HIVinfected person and 18.6% thought that HIV could be transmitted by a mosquito bite. In above study it was found that literate young people were more aware of HIV/AIDS than illiterate. In our study the misconception ?touching infected person can cause AIDS? was seen in 13.3% of subjects, similar finding was observed in a study by Vaz7 also.
Early diagnosis and treatment depends on voluntary reporting which implies awareness of the disease and its management. Regarding complete cure of leprosy, 47% among illiterates and 61% literates told that it can be cured. Other misconceptions about leprosy were also seen more commonly in illiterates. In a study in Kolkata by John AS8 most of respondents felt that leprosy is curable and knew where to obtain treatment, a large percentage of the population didn‘t know the early signs and symptoms of leprosy and the importance of early treatment. As compared to 78.5% in our study who told that Leprosy can be treated; almost 100% subjects were aware of curability of Leprosy in another study.9 Educational activities such as group discussion, posters and use of slogans are an integral part of health services to educate patients, their families and the general communities on leprosy and its treatment, in order to dispel ignorance, misconceptions and prejudices.10, 11 In our study we found that 18.6% subjects believe that Cancer can be spread by close personal contact while in a hospital based study by Shiyam Kumar et al12 it was found that cancer was thought to be a contagious disease by 27.5% of patients.
Regarding the misconception that cancer can‘t be prevented, there was no difference between illiterates (30.9%) and literates (32.5%). According to 26.5% cancer can‘t be cured while in a study by Shiyam Kumar et al12 only 7% subjects told that cancer can‘t be cured. Similar misconception about infectiousness of cancer was observed in a study by Ray K13 where 21.3% subjects were having the idea that cancer is an infectious disease, which was creating a problem of isolation from the family. In same study 58.3% subjects believed that cancer is curable in early stage, in our study 73.4% told that Cancer can be cured.
CONCLUSION
In our study we found that misconceptions about diseases are deep rooted and there were insignificant differences between literates and illiterates. Literacy alone can‘t change attitude or influence behavior. Motivation is also required to adopt the new practices. More research is required in the field of misconceptions and their scientific facts. Health education strategies can be planned based on the study, to remove the false beliefs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to thank all the participants of study. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors, editors and publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1824http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18241. International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and Macro International (2005) National Family Health Survey 3, Vol I. Mumbai: IIPS.315-77.
2. World Health Organization Expert Committee on Leprosy. 7th Report, WHO Technical Report Series 847 WHO, Geneva, 1997.
3. Kagawa Singer M. A Socio-cultural perspective on cancer control issues for Asian Americans. Asian Am Pac Isl J Health 2000; 8: 12-7.
4. Hausman AV. Measuring social aspects in the physician patient relationship. Health Marketing Quart 2004; 21: 3-26.
5. Sudha RT, Vijay DT, Lakshmi V. Awareness, attitudes, and beliefs of the general public towards HIV/AIDS in Hyderabad, a capital city from South India. Indian J Med Sci [serial online] 2005 [cited 2012 Mar 30]; 59: 307-16. Available from: http://www.indianjmedsci.org/text.asp?2005 /59/7/307/16506
6. Yadav SB, Makwana NR, Vadera BN, Dhaduk KM, Gandha KM. Awareness of HIV/AIDS among rural youth in India: A community based cross-sectional study. J Infect Dev Ctries 2011; 5(10):711-6.
7. Vaz FS, Ferreira AM, Kulkarni MS, Motghare DD. Sexual risk behaviors and HIV/AIDS awareness among males in rural community in Goa. J.Commun.Dis. 38 2006; 1: 74-8.
8. John AS, Rao PSSS. Awareness and attitudes towards leprosy in urban slums of Kolkata, India. Indian J Lepr 2009; 81:135- 140.
9. Barkataki P, Kumar S and Rao PSS. Knowledge of and attitudes to leprosy among patients and community members: a comparative study in Uttar Pradesh, India. Lepr Rev 2006; 77: 62–8.
10. Myint T, Thet AT, Htoon MT, Win M. A comparative KAP study of leprosy patients and members of the community in Hlaing and Laung-Lon townships. Ind J Lepr 1992; 64: 313–24.
11. Croft RP, Croft RA. Knowledge, attitude and practice regarding leprosy and tuberculosis in Bangladesh. Lepr Rev 1999; 70: 34–42.
12. Kumar S, Shaikh AJ, Khalid Sana, Masood N. Influence of Patient‘s Perceptions, Beliefs and Knowledge about Cancer on Treatment Decision Making in Pakistan. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2010; 11(1):251-5.
13. Ray K, Mandal SS .Knowledge about Cancer in West Bengal - a Pilot Survey. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2004; 5(2): 205-12.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17TechnologyA NOVEL SPUTTERING TECHNIQUE FOR REDUCING PLATINUM LOADING IN PEM FUEL CELLS
English5157S S DimbleEnglish Ramesh PEnglish S.P DuttaguptaEnglishHydrogen is considered as the alternate fuel for the next generation vehicles. Thus PEM fuel cells which are used as the conversion devices from chemical energy to electrical energy have large potential in vehicle market. It uses Platinum as the catalyst, the cost and availability of Platinum is one of the major contributors to the commercialization of PEM fuel cell. onventional technologies of Pt deposition such as spraying, brushing, decal layer etc. require 0.3-0.5 mg/cm2 of catalyst on carbon support for effective catalyst utilization. The attempt to reduce the Pt loading below 0.1 mg/cm2 results in drastic degradation of performance due to low catalyst utilization. It is desired to have the high concentration of 3-5 nm Pt nano particles adjacent to the membrane as well as in contact with the carbon so as to satisfy the
necessary criteria of three phase boundary. Here we use a novel sputtering method for reducing the
platinum loading in PEM fuel cells
EnglishPlatinum loading, Sputtering, PEM Fuel Cells.INTRODUCTION
Fuel cells are emerging as the power source of the future. PEM fuel cells [1] which are used as the conversion devices from chemical energy to electrical energy have large potential in meeting future energy needs. It uses Platinum as the catalyst, the cost and availability of Platinum is one of the major contributors to the commercialization of PEM fuel cell. Conventional technologies of Pt deposition [2] such as spraying, brushing, decal layer etc. require 0.3-0.5 mg/cm2 of catalyst on carbon support for effective catalyst utilization [3]. The attempt to reduce the Pt loading below 0.1 mg/cm2 results in drastic degradation of performance due to low catalyst utilization. It is desired to have the high concentration of 3-5 nm Pt nano particles adjacent to the membrane as well as in contact with the carbon so as to satisfy the necessary criteria of three phase boundary as shown in figure 1.
Sputtering is a process whereby atoms are ejected from a solid target material due to bombardment of the target by energetic particles. It is commonly used for thin-film deposition, etching and analytical techniques .Physical sputtering is driven by momentum exchange between the ions and atoms in the materials, due to collisions. To attain good performance, a sputter-deposited catalyst layer must satisfy the following requirements. First, it should maximize the available amount of three-phase zone, where the gas reactants, proton conducting phase, and the catalytically active electrically conductive phase are all present together. Second, it should be thin so as to minimize gas diffusion losses and aid in water removal. Third, the catalyst layer should adhere strongly to the membrane in order to reduce ohmic losses and to support the high mechanical stresses produced during operation. Since state-of-the-art powder supported catalyst layers contain platinum particles in the 10 nm range, sputtering techniques need to provide platinum domains of a comparable size or smaller in order to be competitive.
A unique advantage of the direct sputtering technique is that the catalyst deposit is highly localized directly at the membrane interface. This results in an extremely high platinum utilization, which somewhat compensates for the ultra-low loading levels. Several authors [4] have reported the sputtering of platinum directly on the membrane with ultralow loadings of 0.01 mg/cm2 in the form of thin films of 15- 100 nm in thickness. Studies have also reported the sputtering of Pt on GDL before hot pressing it on the membrane. Authors[5] have also reported the co-deposition of Pt and carbon simultaneously on the GDL. . Since the platinum particles are sputtered onto the Nafion, problem with this kind of sputtering process is that the MEA performance is degraded after 3-4 cycles of testing. The novelty of the technique using sputtered platinum for fabrication of MEA described here is that it retains the conventional protocol of three phase boundary, while maintaining the high concentration of Pt nano particles in contact with the membrane. Two kind of sputtering processes are carried out to find out the advantage of novel sputtering process over the conventional one. A decal layer of carbon bonded with Nafion is formed on the Teflon sheet, the surface layer of Nafion is removed by plasma ashing process so as to expose the surface of carbon particles onto which the Pt sputtering is performed by RF magnetron sputtering method. The contact angle measurements show the controlled removal of Nafion from the decal layer. SEM micrographs confirmed the Pt particles of 5- 10 nm in diameter directly on the carbon. The measured Pt loading was 0.03 mg/cm2 . The performance was studied for varying ashing times. The performance of the MEA is comparable to that reported in the literature but very little degradation is observed even after testing the cell for 10 cycles. Experimental The decal layer was prepared by coating the mixture of Nafion (10wt%) and Vulcan XC-72 carbon on the PTFE sheet. The DECAL process involves the steps as shown in figure 2 1. Coating the catalyst ink to a blank substrate (e.g. a PTFE film) (In chemistry, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene which finds numerous applications. PTFE is most well known by the DuPont brand name Teflon.) 2. Transferring the coat onto the membrane.
A conventional MEA fabrication process for Decal layer is as follows 1. Prepare a uniformly distributed hydrophilic ink (Carbon, Nafion solution and Water/ glycerol as a solvent.) The weight ratio of Carbon, Water, and Glycerol is about 1:5:20. 2. Paint the PTFE film with a layer of ink and then bake this uncatalyzed film in an oven until dry. 3. Sputter the platinum onto this layer. 4. Decal the coated layer onto a polymer electrolyte membrane by a hot pressing process (i.e. press at 70-90 atm. for 90 sec at 140 degree Celsius) 5. Cool it down and then release the blank substrate from the coating film, leaving the film adhered to the membrane surface. 6. Place Gas diffusion layers against the catalyzed film to from the MEA. In our proposed system, the above described process is modified after step 2 as follows The Nafion removal from the layer coated in step 2 is carried out in oxygen plasma in inhouse developed plasma asher system. The chamber is evacuated down to 10-5 mbar. The oxygen (99.999%) then passed through the system and maintained at the pressure of 0.2 mbar. Ashing is then carried out at 50 W input power for time varying from 8 to 60 seconds. The Pt films were deposited on the ashed substrates at room temperature by using a commercial NORDICO RF magnetron sputtering system. The distance between the target and the substrate was 5.0 cm. The sputtering deposition system used for the experiments consists of a stainless steel chamber, which was evacuated down to 8×10 -5 Pa with a cryogenic pump backed up by a rotary pump. Before sputtering deposition, the Pt target (4 inch diameter, purity 99.95%) was sputter cleaned in pure Ar. The Ar working pressure (2.8×10 -2 Pa), the power applied was 100 W. Deposition was carried out for varying sputtering time of 20, 40, 60 seconds.
The resulting Pt deposited decal is then transferred onto the Nafion 115 membrane by hot pressing the membrane between two decals at 130 degree and 1 ton pressure for 5 minutes. The MEA was then tested in Arbin Instruments fuel cell test station by passing fully humidified H2 and O2 gas at 0.2 slpm. The temperature of the cell was maintained at 60 degree.
RESULTS Figure 3 shows the SEM image of the Decal layer without ashing of Nafion in the absence of platinum. SEM image shown in figure 4 has platinum sputtered on to the Decal layer for 20 seconds by above method. Platinum thin film spread on the Nafion layer broken into small size of 5-10 nm can be clearly seen in figure 3.
Figure 5 shows the platinum sputtered on as prepared Decal layer for 40 seconds. A very thick platinum film with almost continuous morphology is observed which corresponds to high platinum loading of around 0.1 mg/cm2 . Hence it was decided to keep sputtering time of 20 seconds for various ashing time of Decal layer.
Images shown in figure 6 are of pt sputtered for 20 seconds on the Decal layer modified with plasma ashing for 10 seconds. It can be seen that plasma ashing in oxygen atmosphere has removed the Nafion layer from the surface of the catalyst layer.
Nafion is completely hydrophobic and carbon is hydrophilic in nature. Change in contact angle with ashing time indicates that Nafion if getting partially removed from the Decal layer. If ashed beyond one minute the nearly all the Nafion gets removed from the layer and sample becomes hydrophilic in nature. MEA performance Figure 7 shows the polarization curves obtained for varying Pt sputtering times of the plasma ashed Decal layer for 10 seconds. Slight increase in the current density is observed with decrease in the sputtering time. This may be attributed to the increase in the platinum film thickness which increases the platinum particle size which in turn reduces the porosity of the film. This causes increase in the mass transport resistance at higher current densities as can be seen from the polarization curve.
CONCLUSION
A power density of 200 mW/cm2 was obtained for a sputtering time of 20 seconds. Slight increase in the fuel cell current density was observed with decrease in the sputtering time. This may be attributed to the increase in the platinum film thickness which increases the platinum particle size which in turn reduces the porosity of the film. This causes increase in the mass transport resistance at higher current densities as can be seen from the polarization curve.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1825http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18251. B Viswanathan, M Aulice Scibioh. FUEL CELLS Principles and applications. Chennai: University Press , 2006.
2. T.S.Zhao, K.D Kreur .Trung Van Nguyen. Advances in Fuel cells. Great Britain: Elsevier, 2007.
3. M. Alvisi, G. Galtieri, L. Giorg, R. Giorgi , E. Serra, M.A. Signore. "Sputter deposition of Pt nanoclusters and thin films on PEM fuel cell electrodes." Surface & Coatings Technology (2005): 1325 – 1329.
4. M. Cavarroc, A. Ennadjaoui , M. Mougenot , P. Brault , R. Escalier , Y. Tessier , J. Durand,S. Roualdès , T. Sauvage , C. Coutanceau. "Performance of plasma sputtered fuel cell electrodes with ultra-low Pt loadings." Electrochemistry Communications (2009): 859- 861.
5. Ryan O Hayre, Sang Joon Lee,Suk Won Cha ,Fritz B Prnz. "A sharp peak in the performance of sputtered platinum fuel cells at ultra low platinum loading." Journal of power sources (n.d.).
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareNUTRITIONAL STATUS AND PREVALENCE OF ANEMIA AMONG ADOLESCENT GIRLS IN URBAN SLUM, BIJAPUR
English5862Rekha UdgiriEnglish Vijaya SorganviEnglish Veena AlgurEnglishBackground: Girls are more likely to be victim due to various reasons. In a family with limited
resources, the female child is more likely to be neglected. She is deprived of nutritious food, education and utilized as an extra working hand to carryout the house hold work. If their nutritional needs are not met they are likely to give birth to under nourished children, thus transmitting under nutrition to future generation. Prevalence of anemia was high in adolescent girls from low socio-economic families and joint families due to inadequate intake of diet by the adolescent girls. The present study is under taken to know the nutritional status and prevalence of anemia among adolescent girls. Objectives: 1. To assess the nutritional status of adolescent girls 2. To estimate the prevalence of anemia among Adolescent girls. Method: Community based cross-sectional study was done in urban field practice area of BLDEAS Shri
B.M.Patil Medical College, Bijapur. The study subject includes all adolescent girls who have attained menarche. Data was collected by questionnaire method and analyzed. Results: The overall prevalence of anemia was found to be 78.93%. It was observed that statistical significance was found between socioeconomic status with Body Mass Index as well as Anemia. Conculsion: This study concludes that under nutrition and anemia were widely prevalent in adolescent girls. There is a need to initiate intervention measures aimed at this group in order to reduce the prevalence of anemia and under nutrition.
EnglishAnemia, under nutrition, BMI, Socioeconomic, Education.INTRODUCTION
Adolescence, a period of growth spurt between the ages of 10-19 years 1 and is also a high risk group for nutritional deficiency disorders. It is a period of increased nutritional requirements because during this period 35% of weight and 11-18% of adult height is acquired. 2During the period of adolescence, blood volume and muscle mass increases and that in turn is found to increase the need for hemoglobin formation and lack of proper nutritious diet leads to anemia.3 In our country, the prevalence of anemia amongst adolescent girls varies between 50- 82%4; such a high prevalence of anemia among adolescent girls is a matter of great concern as these girls enters reproductive life. Girls are more vulnerable, particularly in developing countries including India due to adverse sociocultural and economic reasons. The WHO Expert committee has recommended that measures of Height and Weight provide useful source of data for assessment of growth status of adolescents 5 . The present study was conducted to assess the problem of under nutrition and prevalence of anemia among adolescent girls of urban field practice area.
Objectives
1. To assess the nutritional status of adolescent girls
2. To estimate the prevalence of anemia among adolescent girls.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Community based cross-sectional study was done in urban field practice area of BLDEA‘S Shri B.M.Patil Medical College, Bijapur for a period of one month. The Adolescent population is about 22.5% (2001 census)6. Both boys and girls are almost equal. The Population of Urban Health Centre is 6000. Adolescent population constitutes about 1350 and adolescent girls population is 675. Adolescent girls who have attended menarche is 400, among them 342 adolescent girls were available. remaining 48 girls could not cooperate for interview . House to house visit was done all the respondent parents were explained in detail about the purpose and methodology of the study. After taking consent, they were interviewed, examined and investigated. A pre-tested, pre-designed questionnaire was used to record information. Statistical methods like Percentage and Chi-square test was applied.
Tools for measurements
Nutritional status was assessed by anthropometric measurement(Height and Weight) using standardized methodology as recommended by WHO.5 Body mass index was computed using standard equation Body Mass Index (kg/ml )=Wt(kg)/Ht2 (tm).7Hemoglobin estimation was done by Shale‘s method. Depending on Hemoglobin level severity of anemia was graded as mild (10-12% gm/dl). Moderate (7-10gm/dl), severe (Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1826http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18261. World Health Organization, Programming for adolescent health and development. WHO Tech Rep Ser No. 886, 1996 Pg.-2.
2. Dilipkumar, RanadebBiswas. Nutritional status of Adolescent girls in rural area of north 24 parganasdist, west Bengal
3. Jondhale JP et al. Prevalence of anemia among school going adolescent girls of Parbhani.. Indian Journal of Dietet 1999;36; 264-272.
4. Naik MKC.Pejaver RK. Adolescent care 2000 And Beyond; Prism Books Private Limited; 2001:Pg 23.
5. WHO Physical Status: The use and interpretation of Anthropometry. Report of a WHO expert committee Geneva, World Health organization 1995:Pg 270-6.
6. Ganguli S.K. Adolescent health. Indian Journal of Public Health 2003. XXXXVII No-3;6-1
7. K.Park. Text book of preventive and social medicine. 20th edition, Jabalpur: Banaridas Bhanot Publication ,Feb 2009.
8. De Meyers EM. Preventing and controlling iron deficiency anemia through primary health care. WHO; Geneva 1989; Pg 26.
9. Kulkarni AP.BarideJP.Text book of community medicine first edition Mumbai. vora medical publication. 1998.
10. Naik V A et al Profile of adolescent females in an urban slum community. Journal of the Scientific society 1993;20 10-13.
11. Koshi EP: A study of health status of adolescent school girls in an urban area of Almadagh, Lucknow. Indian Journal of Medical Science. 1970;377-383.
12. Toteja GS. Singh p, Dhillom BS, BS, Saxena BN FU, Singh RP, et al. Prevalence of anemia among pregnant women and adolescent girls in 16 district of India. Food Nutrition Bullelitien 2006; 27:311-5.
13. .Rawat et al. Socio-demographic correlates of anemia among adolescent girls in rural area of Meerut district U.P. IJCM.2001; 26(4):173-175.
14. A.Saibaba et al. Nutritional status of adolescent girls of urban slum and the impact of IEC on their nutritional knowledge and practices. IJCM. Vol XXVII.No,4. Oct-Dec 2002 Pg.151-156.
15. Sanjeev M et al, A study of anemia among adolescent females in the urban area of Nagpur.IJCM Vol.33,Issue 4, Oct 2008, Pg 243-245.
16. S.Chowdary et al. Energy balance of adolescent girls in rural area of Varanasi. Indian journal of Public health 2003;Vol, XXXXVII, No.3: 21-28.
17. S.Kaur,P.R.Deshmukh,B.S.Garg. Epidemiological correlates of Nutritional anemia in Adolesent girls of Rural Wardha. IJCM ,Vol.31, No 4,2006.Page No. 255.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareORBITAL RHABDOMYOSARCOMA -A CASE REPORT
English6366Biradar Sunil GEnglish Dharmesh Akshatha MEnglishRhabdomyosarcoma is the most common soft tissue mesenchymal tumour in children. It accounts for 3.4% of all childhood malignancies. Orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma is one the few life threatening disease which, with prompt diagnosis and treatment can be life saving. It can involve the orbit, eye lid, conjunctiva and uveal tract. Following treatment the recurrence rate is reported to be 18 %, metastasis in 6% and death in 3%. A nine year old boy presented with painless progressive eccentric proptosis in Right eye of one month duration. On examination a non tender mass was noted in the inferotemporal region of right orbit, causing upward and inward displacement of the eye ball, suggestive of orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma. Inferior orbitotomy was done and mass was excised in total. Histopathological study confirmed the presence of Rhabdomyosarcoma. Most common site being supero-nasal quadrant, here we report this case due to its atypical site of presentation and under reporting in literature.
EnglishOrbital Rhabdomyosarcoma, Eccentric proptosis, Infero-temporal quadrantINTRODUCTION Rhabdomyosarcoma arises from pleuripotent mesenchymal precursors that normally differentiate into striated muscles 1 . Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma accounts for about 25-35 % of head and neck Rhabdomyosarcoma and about 10-20% of all Rhabdomyosarcoma 2 . Weber was credited with providing the first acceptable description of Rhabdomyosarcoma, which was noted in tongue of a 21 year old man 3 . In 1882, Bayer was first to publish the description of Rhabdomyosarcoma 4 . It is primarily a disease of young children with 90% occurring before 16 years and mean age of onset of 5-7 years 5 .Boys are more commonly affected than girls, at a ratio of 5:3 2 . In the orbit most common histological variant is the embryonal type, followed by the alveolar type 1 . The most frequent clinical findings in patients with ocular Rhabdomyosarcoma is proptosis, globe displacement, lid oedema, and conjunctival congestion. Thus, the differential diagnosis includes inflammatory lesions such as orbital cellulitis, idiopathic inflammatory orbital pseudo tumour, conjunctivitis, allergic oedema, other tumours such as orbital capillary haemangioma, lymphangioma, and Langerhan‘s cell histiocyosis 6, 7. The approach to treatment has undergone radical change over the last 20 years from primary exenteration to a more conservative multidisciplinary approach of excision of mass combined with systemic chemotherapy and local radiation therapy. The children who survive need to be followed up for many years for development of late effects of local treatment 8 . Several investigators have focused on late effects of therapy in children with orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma which include cataract, decreased visual acuity, orbital hypoplasia, dry eye, chronic keratoconjunctivitis, and retinopathy 9 .
Case report:
A 9 year old boy presented to of BLDEU‘s Department of Ophthalmology outpatient department with complaints of rapidly progressive, painless proptosis of right eye of one month and blurring of vision in right eye of 15 days duration. No complaints in left eye. No history of fever, sinusitis, epistaxis or trauma. On ocular examination right eye was displaced upwards and inwards, lids were swollen, conjunctiva chemosed, ocular movements were grossly restricted in all positions of gaze with fundus examination showing blurring of optic disc margins and venous dilatation. Visual acuity was 6/60 with pin hole improvement of 6/36. Colour vision was normal. On palpation a non tender mass of 2X3 cms, irregular surface, and firm in consistency was noted in the inferior quadrant of orbit. It was non pulsatile or non expansile. Left eye was normal. Pallor was noted in general examination and the systemic examination of all the organs were within normal limits. Blood, urine and stool examination was normal. Ultrasonography of orbit suggested 3.5x2.7x1.8 cms of heterogenous lesion, with solid and cystic areas with increased vascularity at the margin. Lesion appeared to be extra as well as intra orbital in location, seen infero lateral to right eye ball, insinuating between bony orbit and right eye ball. Fine needle aspiration cytology showed moderate cellular material with round ductal cells having round nuclei with pink cytoplasm. Background showed abundant mucoid material, RBC‘s with pink material with no atypia, suggestive of benign mucoid mass. Inferior orbitotomy was done and a 4x3 mass was found communicating with major vessels, which were ligated and mass, was separated from its posterior and inferior attachments and cut in toto. Mass was sent for histopathological examination which was reported as suggestive of embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma of orbit.
DISCUSSION
Rhabdomyosarcoma, the most common primary orbital malignancy of childhood. The tumour can arise primarily in the orbit or it can arise in the sinuses or nasal cavity and secondarily extend to involve the orbit. There was once a misconception that orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma arise from extraocular muscles, similar to pleomorphic Rhabdomyosarcoma of adulthood. In 1962, Porterfield and Zimmerman refuted the prevailing assumption that embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma originates from preformed muscle 10. Conceivably, Rhabdomyosarcoma could arise in any part of the body where such primitive pleuripotent cells exist, even if that area did not contain any skeletal muscle. Orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma has occurred as a second tumour in patients who had ocular irradiation therapy for retinoblastoma 11 and after irradiation for squamous cell carcinoma of the eyelid 12 .There appears to be no recognizable environmental, viral, or chemical influence in the pathogenesis of Rhabdomyosarcoma. The tumour has been seen in patients with certain familial syndromes like neurofibromatosis and Li-Fraumeni syndrome 13 . The latter has been associated with germ line mutation of the p53 tumour suppressor gene 14 . Embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma is by far the most common variant found in the head and neck region, including the orbit. The alveolar and botryoid types are less common, and the pleomorphic type is extremely rare in the orbit. Embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma is characterized histopathologically by spindle shaped to round cells that show features of skeletal muscle in various stages of embryogenesis. The alveolar type appears as loosely arranged, malignant cells with septae that reminiscent of the alveoli of the lung. The botryoid type may be a variant of the embryonal type that assumes a papillary configuration. Today, immunohistochemical studies have become the main approach to establishing the diagnosis. The most useful immunohistochemical marker includes antibodies against desmin, muscle-specific actin, and myoglobin, which typically show positive reaction in Rhabdomyosarcoma. Although vimentin shows a positive reaction in most cases, it is less specific and can be positive in a variety of other neoplasms. Current management of orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma depends on the location and extent of disease and generally consists of combination chemotherapy and radiotherapy delivered to the orbit and all involved sites of tumour. Recurrent tumours in the orbit usually are treated with orbital exenteration, sometimes supplemented with chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In each case of suspected Rhabdomyosarcoma, the surgeon should carefully review the axial and coronal CTs and MRIs to determine whether it is possible to attempt complete removal of the mass. If the tumour is very anterior in the orbit and presenting in the conjunctival fornix, a forniceal approach can be considered. However, most tumours are located more posteriorly or are palpable through the eyelid. In such instances, a cutaneous approach is preferred. Patients with alveolar cell type show 74 % 5-year survival whereas those with embryonal cell type demonstrated 94 % 5-year survival.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma being the most common orbital malignancy of childhood, ophthalmologists should keep in mind the probability of atypical site of presentation i.e. infero- temporal as in our case as against the usual supero-temporal quadrant and plan a suitable line of management after histological confirmation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in the reference of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals, and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1827http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18271. Myron Yanoff. Jay S. Duker, Ophthalmology. 2nd edition. Vol 1 ,pg 732-3
2. Lanzkowsky P: Rhabdomyosarcoma and other soft tissue sarcomas. Manual of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology .New York, Academic Press, 2000,ed 3, 527-53
3. Knowles DM, Jakobiec FA, Potter GD, Jones IS: Ophthalmic striated muscle neoplasms. Surv Ophthalmol 1976; 21: 219- 61
4. Bayer S: Rhabdomyoma orbitae. Nord Med Ark ,1882;14:1
5. Ashton N, Morgan G: Embryonal sarcoma and embryonal Rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbit. J Clin path ,1965;18:699-714
6. Shields JA, Bakewell B, Augsburger JJ, et al. Space occupying orbital masses in children. A review of 250 consecutive biopsies. Ophthalmology 1986;93:379-384
7. Shields CL, Shields JA. Orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma. In: Fraunfelder FT, Roy H, eds.Current ocular therapy. edn 5.Philadelphia : WB Saunders ;2000:256-8
8. Oberlin O, Rey A et al. Treatment of Orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma: Survival and late effects of treatment-Results of the International Workshop. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19:197-204.
9. Raney RB, Anderson JR, Kollath J, et al. Late effects of therapy in 94 patients with localized Rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbit : Report from the Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group (IRS)III 1984-1991.Med Pediatr Oncol 2000;34:413- 20
10. Porterfield JF, Zimmerman LE: Rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbit. Virchows arch path anat 1962;335:329-44
11. Wilson MC, Shields JA, Shields CL, Litzky L: Orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma fifty seven years after radiotherapy for retinoblastoma. Orbit 1996;15:97-100
12. Montessori GA, North DP: Radiation induced orbital sarcoma in an elderly patient. Can J Ophthalmol 1972;7:381-5
13. Li FP, Fraumeni JF Jr: Rhabdomyosarcoma in children. J Nat Cancer Inst43: 1365-73
14. Wexler LH, Helman LJ: Rhabdomyosarcoma and the undifferentiated sarcomas, in Pizzo PA, Poplack DG: Principle and practise of pediatric oncology.
15. Philadelphia, Lippincott Raven Publishers, 1997; 799-829
16. Kodet R, Newton WA Jr, Hamoudi AB, et al: Orbital Rhabdomyosarcoma and related tumours in childhood: relationship of morphology to prognosis-an Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma study. Med Pediatr Oncol 1997;29:51-60
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareA STUDY ON SUTURAL MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMICAL POSITION OF PTERION
English6775Varsha ShenoyEnglish P. SaraswathiEnglish T. SivaEnglish D. JagadeeshEnglishObjective: Pterion is an interesting bony landmark on the lateral aspect of the skull. It is ?H‘ shaped
sutural confluence formed by the articulation of four bones: frontal, parietal, greater wing of sphenoid and
squamous part of temporal bone. Pterional approach is most widely used in neurosurgery for a variety of
lesions in the anterior and middle cranial fossae. Since previous studies have reported the racial difference
in the pterional morphology, in the present study it was aimed to study the sutural morphology of pteria
and also to locate it with respect to the frontozygomatic suture. Methods: Seventy five (50 male and 25
female) skulls were studied on both the sides to evaluate the sutural pattern of pteria. The distance
between center of the pterion to frontozygomatic suture was measured on both the sides.
Results and Conclusion: According to the present study Sphenoparietal pterion was the commonest
(77.33%) finding and was followed in frequency by Epipteric type (21.33%) and Stellate type (1.33%).
Frontotemporal pterion was not observed. Average distance between the center of pterion and
frontozygomatic suture was found to be 2.95 cm.
EnglishPterion, Frontozygomatic suture, Burr-hole surgery, sutural bone, fontanelle, cranial fossae.INTRODUCTION Pterion is a neurosurgically significant bony landmark on the lateral aspect of the human skull. It is ?H‘ shaped sutural confluence formed by the articulation of four skull bones: frontal, parietal, greater wing of sphenoid and squamous part of temporal bone. 1 The pterion corresponds to the anterolateral fontanelle of the neonatal skull which usually closes at third month after birth. 1 In neurosurgery pterional approach is widely used for the treatment of variety of neuro-vascular disorders located in the anterior and middle cranial fossae. According to the previous studies there are four types of adult pteria: Sphenoparietal (SP), Frontotemporal (FT), Stellate (ST) and Epipteric (EP). In SP type of pterion the sphenoid and parietal bones are in direct contact. In FT type of pterion frontal and temporal bones are in direct contact. The ST type is characterized by articulation of all the four bones at a point. The EP pterion is characterized by the presence of a sutural bone in the region of pterion (Fig 1). 2 Aim of the present study was to classify the pteria based on their sutural morphology and to locate them with respect to a nearby palpable bony landmark namely frontozygomatic suture (FZS). MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted in the department of anatomy, Saveetha Medical College, Chennai. A total of 75 (50 male and 25 female) skulls were studied. The skulls in the present study comprised whole skulls and skulls with a cut at the upper part of the cranium but intact pterion and frontozygomatic suture (FZS). Criteria of exclusion were those in which the pterion pattern could not be clearly identified owing to breakage or advanced synostosis. 1. Each pterion was classified into one of four types - Sphenoparietal (SP), Frontotemporal (FT), Stellate (ST) or Epipteric (EP) according to the criterion previously described. 2. Distance between pterion and Frontozygomatic suture (P-FZS) was measured on both right side and left side. 3. Pterion was classified as backward pterion if P-FZS ≥ 3.5 cm .2 A circle with the smallest radius connecting the four bones involved in the formation of the pterion was drawn; the center of this circle was considered as the center of the pterion. P-FZS was measured as the distance between the center of the pterion to the posterolateral aspect of FZS. P-FZS measurements were taken twice then average of the two measurements was recorded so as to minimize bias errors. A sliding vernier caliper was used to measure P-FZS. All the parameters studied were tabulated and analysed. The sexing of the skulls was done on the morphological basis. RESULTS In the present study it was observed that SP pterion was the commonest, observed in 116 out of 150 sides (77.33%) of the skulls. The next common was EP found in 32 sides ( 21.33%), followed by ST which was observed in 2 out of 150 sides (1.33%) of the skulls studied. FT type was not found in the present study (Table 1 & Fig 2). Among the 50 male skulls studied SP pterion was the commonest (82%), followed by EP (17%). ST Pterion was found only on one side (1%) (Table 2). Among the 25 female skulls studied SP pterion was the commonest (68%), it was followed by EP (30%) and ST Pterion (2%). It was observed that incidence of EP was more common in female skulls (30%) than in male skulls (21.3%) (Table 2). Out of 116 SP pteria 49 SP pteria were present bilaterally (42.2%), 8 out of 32 EP pteria showed bilaterality (25%), whereas ST variety was purely (100%) unilateral. On the right side 80% of the pteria were SP, 18.66% were EP and 1.3 % were ST type. On the left side SP type was observed in 74.6%, EP was observed in 24%, ST type in 1.3 %. The distance between center of pterion to the FZS (P-FZS) was ranging from 1.42 cm – 3.74 cm on the right side and on the left side the range was 1.6 cm - 4.15 cm (Fig 3). The AVG of P-FZS on the right side was 2.9532 ± 0.37 cm and on the left side it was 2.9452 ± 0.438 cm. There was no significant difference in the values on right and left side (p= 0.452060383). Table 3 represents the P-FZS in male and female skulls. There was no significant difference on right and left sides in both male and female skulls. Out of 150 pteria studied 10 were belonging to ?Backward pterion‘ (6.67%). Among the backward pteria, 6 were on the left side and 4 were on the right side (Fig 3). 7 out of 10 backward pteria were found in male skulls and 3 were found in female skulls (Table 4).
DISCUSSION
The pterion is considered to be one of the interesting bony meeting points in the skull. Its complexity is based on the fact that it is the meeting point of the facial skeleton, skull base and calvarium. Knowledge of its peculiar morphology is mandatory during the pterional surgical approaches. 3 In a study on Nigerian skulls it was found that SP pterion was the commonest and was found in 82.1%, the next common was FT pterion found in 23.6%, EP pterion was found in 5.7% and ST was the least common found only in 1.9%. 4 Another study on 26 Turkish male skulls also reported SP type being the commonest, followed by FT type and then EP pterion. In the same study EP type of pteria were found only on the left side. 5 A study on 236 adult Thai skulls has reported that SP and EP are the common types of the pteria, found in 81.2% and 17.4% respectively. FT type was found in 1.1% and ST type in 0.4%. 2 One more study reported the incidence of SP as 78%, EP as 16% and FT as 5%.6 Saxena et al. conducted a study to compare the pteria of Nigerians and Indians. The study reported all the 4 types of pterion in both the races.
Among the 4 varieties of pteria, SP pteria were the highest in both races (Indians 95.3%, Nigerians 84.79%). EP was more frequent in Indians (Indians 11.79%, Nigerians 3.79%), whereas FT (Indians 3.46%, Nigerians 10.11%) and ST (Indians 1.38%, Nigerians 5.06%) pteria were more common in Nigerians. 7 In a study on 490 sides of the skulls, epipteric pteria were observed only in 9 %.8 A study on 90 Kenyan skulls reported that SP pterion as the commonest and was observed in 66.7%. FT pterion was observed in 15.5%, ST pterion in 11.1% and EP pterion in 6.7%. The study also observed that EP type occurred more in females (10.5%) than in males (4.8%).9 It is evident from the studies mentioned (2, 4-9) that there are racial differences in the sutural morphology of pterion. The present study revealed that out of 150 pterional articulations, SP type was the commonest (77.33%), next common was EP (21.33%) and ST was observed in 1.33%. In the present study FT type of pterion was not found. Compared to the previous studies the present study reports a higher incidence of EP type of pterion. Previous studies have reported that SP is dominant pterion type in Homo whereas in primates it is FT pterion. According to them during phylogenesis, anterosuperior segment of the squamous part of temporal bone of the lower primates detached and got incorporated in the posterosuperior angle of the greater wing of sphenoid of Homo. During the process if the detached bony segment does not fuse with either of the bones, then it gives rise to EP type of pterion.
2 Pterional craniotomy is the preferred approach for the lesions located in the anterior branch of middle meningeal artery , sylvian fissure, sellar and parasellar regions, superior orbital fissure, sphenoidal wing, cavernous sinus, orbit, optic nerve, temporal lobe, midbrain, and posteriorinferior frontal lobe.2,10 Successful microsurgical removal of sylvian fissure lipoma with pterion approach is also reported.2 Hence, detailed knowledge of sutural morphology of pterion and its location is crucial for neurosurgeons dealing in the region. Even though sutural bones are found more commonly in hydrocephalic skulls,11 the earlier studies on skulls have reported the presence of epipteric bones. It is also stated that skull bone fractures during infancy or early childhood can result in sutural bones. During burr hole surgeries at pterion, presence of EP type of pterion may lead to continuation of fracture lines. 11 Therefore the knowledge of presence and incidence of EP variety of pterion is essential information during any surgical intervention in the region. In Thai skulls P-FZS was found to be 31.12 mm . 2 In Turkish male skulls P-FZS on the right and left sides respectively were 3.30 cm and 3.44 cm. 5 According to a study on South Indian skulls right side pterion was 3.93±0.37 cm and left side pterion was 3.80 ±0.40 cm posterior to the FZS in male skulls.
The same study reported that in female skulls right side pterion was 3.53 ± 0.42 cm and left side pterion was 3.47 ± 0.37cm posterior to the FZS. 10 In the present study P-FZS was observed to be 2.95 ± 0.37 cm on the right side and on the left side it was 2.945 ± 0.44 cm. In case of male skulls on the right side P-FZS was 2.84 ± 0.68 cm and on the left side P-FZS was 2.88 ± 0.65 cm. In case of female skulls P-FZS on the right side and left side was 2.8 ± 0.44 cm and 2.86 ± 0.46 cm respectively (Table 3). A study has reported that the skulls with EP pterion, the most anterior junction of the bones found to be as close as 16 mm to the lateral orbital rim. In such conditions the pterion can be wrongly assessed to be at the most anterior articulation of bones and a burr hole over this place may cause inadvertent penetration into the orbit, thus complicating the surgery. 8 In the present study only 10 out of 150 pteria (6.67%) were ?backward pteria‘. In Thai skulls ?backward pteria‘ were found in 22.9%, 2 which is comparatively higher than the findings of the present study. The ?backward pteria‘ were more frequently observed in males (78.9%) than in females (21.1%) in Thai skulls, 2 similar to the findings of the present study. Another comparative study reported that in Indians ?backward pterion‘ was more common on the right side, whereas in Nigerians it was more common on the left side.7 But in the present study it was observed that ?backward pterion‘ were more common on the left side (Table 4).
CONCLUSION
Most of the neurosurgical approaches are based on minimally invasive procedures. Since pterional approach is one of the most common and versatile approaches in neurosurgery,2 detailed knowledge of pterion morphology and its location is crucial for neurosurgeons. Sutural bones at pterion may complicate surgical orientation and can be mistaken for fracture radiologically. 11Hence the knowledge of various types of pteria, especially that of EP variety becomes essential for radiologists as well as to neurosurgeons. In the present study SP pterion was the commonest (77.33%) finding and was followed in frequency by EP type (21.33%) and ST type (1.33%). FT type of pterion was not found in the present study. According to the present study pterion was located 2.95 cm posterior to the FZS.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1828http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18281. Standring S, Ellis H, Healy JC, Johnson D, Williams A, eds. Gray‘s Anatomy. 39th ed. London: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, 2005.
2. Apinhasmit W, Chompoopong S, Chaisuksunt V, Thiraphatthanavong P, Phasukdee N. Anatomical consideration of pterion and its related references in Thai dry skulls for pterional surgical approach. J Med Assoc Thai. 2011 Feb; 94(2):205-14.
3. Urzì F, Iannello A, Torrisi A, Foti P, Mortellaro NF, Cavallaro M. Morphological variability of pterion in the human skull. ItalJ Anat Embryol. 2003 Apr-Jun; 108(2):83- 117.
4. Asala SA, Mbajiorgu FE. Epigenetic variation in the Nigerian skull: sutural pattern at the pterion. East Afr Med J. 1996 Jul; 73(7):484-6.
5. Oguz O, Sanli SG, Bozkir MG, Soames RW. The pterion in Turkish male skulls. Surg Radiol Anat. 2004 Jun; 26(3):220-4.
6. Ma S, Baillie LJ, Stringer MD. Reappraising the surface anatomy of the pterion and its relationship to the middle meningeal artery. Clin. Anat. 2012; 25:330–9.
7. Saxena SK, Jain SP, Chowdhary DS. A comparative study of pterion formation and its variations in the skulls of Nigerians and Indians. Anthropol Anz. 1988 Mar; 46(1):75-82.
8. Ersoy M, Evliyaoglu C, Bozkurt MC, Konuskan B, Tekdemir I, Keskil IS. Epipteric bones in the pterion may be a surgical pitfall. Minim Invasive Neurosurg. 2003 Dec; 46(6):363-5.
9. Mwachaka PM, Hassanali J and Odula P. Sutural morphology of the pterion and asterion among adult Kenyans. Braz. J. Morphol. Sci., 2009; 26 (1): 4-7.
10. Chandana Bhargavi, Vasudha Saralaya, Kishan K. Pterion: A Site For Neurosurgical Approach. IJBR 2011; 2(12): 588?94.
11. Natekar PE, DeSouza FM, Natekar SP. Pterion: An anatomical variation and surgical landmark. Indian J Otol 2011; 17: 83-5.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareSTUDY OF THE PROTECTING AND TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE RADIOLOGISTS IN RADIOLOGY SECTORS IN SISTAN AND BALUCHESTAN PROVINCE, IRAN
English7682Mohammad JavadKeikhai FarzanehEnglish Mahdi Shirin ShandizEnglish Mojtaba VardianEnglish Baharan NamayeshiEnglish Mohammad ZareiEnglishBackground and Objective: Due to the significant role of radiography sectors in diagnosing many diseases, taking the appropriate technical criteria by radiologists to produce high quality images seems necessary and the staff performance of radiology sectors have a direct impact on image quality, and consequently the appropriate recognition of the radiology medicines. Materials and Methods: This study has been designed to determine the protecting and technical performance of the radiography sector‘s staff in Sistan and Balouchestan province and the staff of radiography sectors in nine hospitals have been studied in such a way that allthe staff in technical, protecting and specialized fields havebeen tested. Findings: The staff‘s appropriate answers mean in technical field in three morning, evening and night working shifts were achieved 64.7%, 56.7 %and 53.8%, respectively. In addition, the staff‘s appropriate
answers mean in protecting field of the aforementioned shifts were achieved 66.2%, 59.7% and 60.7% and in the specialized field were 47.1%, 41.9% and 35.7%. significant differences (PEnglishradiography, radiology, radiation protectionINTRODUCTION
Despite having much advantages of radiations to diagnose and treat patients, using these radiations in medicine should be applied with caution and by observing the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) rule and the radiography sector‘s staff have the most heaviest responsibilities to observe the standards in this regard so that the image diagnostic value can be maintained as well as the exposure can be minimized as much as possible through appropriate choosing of radiography factors in radiography sectors. On the other hand, due to the fact that image quality are affected by radiation factors, the radiation factors should be chosen with according with concerned image quality and through applying the least patient‘s dose, because the average amount of people‘s annual exposure has been twice the ionization‘s radiations in the last 70 years by increasing the radiography demands and appropriate measures should be taken to control the amount of people‘s exposure (1). As such, a program has been devised by the European Union to decrease patient‘s dose and increase image quality of radiography and advised various countries to follow the related instructions. On the other hand, studies conducted in various countries show that following the guidelines suggested by the European Union significantly reduces the patient‘s absorbeddose (2,3,4). On the other hand, according to the research conducted by Wogner, training the technical principles of radiography in radiography sectors to prevent from the damages caused by radiations are necessary (5-8). According to the performed studies, the performance of these staff can be improved through training the principles of radiography to the low-experienced residents (9-12). Krutz performed a study in 2000 and a fourweek-training course was hold concerning the radiation techniques and ray concentration and the staff‘s performance after the training period show that training has a significant impact on improving the imaging working quality (4). Therefore, due to the fact that ionizing radiations are significant factors in making the biological impacts such as genetic changes, cataract and types of cancers, it is necessary that the factors causes increasing people absorbed dose be prevented. Hence, the present study aims to determine the staff‘s performance and knowledge of radiography sectors concerning the principles of radiography and safety tips. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study is cross-sectional and descriptive aims to determine the staff‘s performance and specialized knowledge. The statistical community was the staff employed in radiography centers in Sistan and Baluchestan hospitals and the Scientific Questionnaire, Radiography Questionnaire and observational checklist are used to collect data. The content reliability indexes and attitudes of five specialists in radiology are used to determine the checklist reliability. Accordingly, the observational checklist was completed in seven states through the researcher and radiography specialist. The checklists containing Scientific Questionnaire to study the staff‘s knowledge are comprised of 30 technical questions, 10 safety questions and evaluating quantity and also 10 specialized questions. The radiographer‘s checklist consists of 15 questions related to radiographer‘s ideas as the section‘s technical committees concerning the amount of observing the safety, technical and protecting tips. The observational checklist filled up by the researcher includes 35 cases of objective studies regarding the amount of observing specialized, technical and protecting tips in morning, evening and night working shifts. Data collecting method was such that the researcher attended in the radiography sector without the staff being aware of and observed the performance of each staff in morning, evening and night working shifts and then recorded the obtained results in the checklist. The set of questions of radiographer were distributed among the staff and then was responded by the researcher supervision without making reference to books or making use of other‘s information and just for studying their personal knowledge in technical, protecting and specialized fields. In the next stage, the scores of questionnaire in three technical, protecting and specialized sectorshave separatelybeen calculated and were studied by statistical tests. The mean and standard deviation of obtained scores was also calculated by Radiographer‘s Questionnaire and then was analyzed in the observational checklist. To analyze data, the central indicators, distribution and t statistical test was used and (PEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1829http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18291. Almen A, Tingberg A, Mathson S. Influence of different technique factors on image quality of lumbar spine radiographs as evaluated by establisher CEC image criteria. Br J Radiol2000; 73(875): 1192-1199.
2. Muhogora WE, Nyanda AM, Kazema RR. Experiences with the European guidelines on quality criteria for radiographic images in Tanzania.J ApplClin Med Phys2001; 2(4): 219-226.
3. Archer BR, Wagner LK. Protecting patients by training physicians in flouroscopy radiation management.J ApplClin Med Phys2000; 1(1): 32-37.
4. Krutz C, Czapp W, Jrampe I, Leppek R, Klose KJ. X-Ray taken by radiologists influence on a continous quality improvment process.RojoFortschrGebRontgenstrNeuenB ildgebVerfahr2000; 172(4): 391-396.
5. Brucel. Reiner. SCAR Radiologic technologist survey. 2000. http: WWW.scarnet.org.
6. Kuon E, Schmitt M, Dahm JB. Significant reduction of radiation exposure to operator and staff during cardiac interventions by analysis of radiation leakage and improved lead shielding. Am J Cardiol.2000; 89(1): 44-49.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17TechnologyOPTIMIZATION OF ZEOLITE SYNTHESIS USING MICROWAVE ASSISTED ACID DIGESTION METHOD
English8394Chintan PathakEnglish V.K. SrivastavaEnglish D.N. SinghEnglishIntroduction: Application of microwave irradiation is a relatively new development in materials
processing. Recent development of microwave digestion for extremely acidic conditions like high
temperatures – pressures gives more rapid, efficient and precise digestion. Methodology: This study
optimizes the temperature and time, for dissolution of silica under acidic condition using microwave
irradiation. The etched silica can be utilized for the synthesis of new species of aluminosilicates
through various techniques like precipitation/evaporation. Result and Discussion: In our study, we
have synthesized fly ash zeolite by using the microwave acid digestion method. This calls for
utilization of industrial byproduct-fly ash in zeolite synthesis using silica reduction technology.
EnglishSynthesis, Zeolite, Silica Reduction Technology (SRT), EtchingINTRODUCTION In the last decade, the use of microwave digestion became increasingly popular. The use of closed vessel microwave assisted digestion system under high temperature and pressure has now become practical. Compared to traditional method1-3 , this procedure promotes the nucleation and crystal growth, allows shorter digestion time, gives homogeneous heating throughout the reaction vessel, activation time needed can be drastically reduced (from 24-48 h to 30 m) and good recoveries3 . Furthermore, it requires a small amount of acids, reduces risks of external contamination, improved detection limits and improved overall accuracy. Studies have shown that the use of a microwave is easy, rapid, efficient, robust, reliable and cheap method4-6 . Microwave can transfer energy directly to the reactive species, so-called ?molecular heating? and promote transformations that are currently not possible using conventional heat. Energy is applied directly to the reactants; however the bulk heating is reduced by use of simultaneous cooling. This allows for enhanced reactions of larger, more heat sensitive molecules, as the temperatures are low enough to eliminate thermal degradation7-8 . The key features of this device shall be mainly useful for the synthesis of zeolites: short digestion time, no loss of volatile elements, no acid fumes, no sample contamination, no cross contamination, operation is unattended, minimum quantity of acid (mainly hydrofluoric acid (HF)) is required, complete documentation including reaction kinetics, closed vessel technology9-11 . This instrument is used to digest small amounts of material for chemical analysis by placing the sample in a Teflon crucible adding acid and microwaving the sample for a certain amount of time.
Microwave digestion inherited some disadvantages12-14; most of these problems are associated with the usage of HF. It has been found15 that for digestion of silica, addition of HF proved to be necessary. In order to insure the maximum digestion of silica from fly ash, it has been opined by the previous researchers16-20 that the microwave can be employed for complete heating of fly ash samples as compared to the conventional hydrothermal method. Based on this, the main objectives (viz., less activation and digestion time, maximum silica digestion, more nucleation and better crystal growth of zeolites) of the present work have been planned. The aim of this study is to try to understand key parameters – temperature, effect of HF; based on that modify and further improve microwave digestion method for optimum silica reduction21-24 .
1. Experimental
MATERIAL
In the early alkali aluminosilicate synthesis25-26 of the low silica zeolites, it has been proposed that the hydrated alkali cation ?templates‘ stabilizes the formation of the zeolite structural sub-units. Alkali hydroxide, reactive forms of alumina and silica, and H2O are combined to form a gel. Crystallization of the gel to zeolite occurs at a temperature near 100°C. The reactive gel is heated to crystallize the molecular sieve product27 . Fly ash samples from the Bhusaval Thermal Power Station (BTPS), Bhusaval, Maharashtra, India; were collected for the present study. The ash sampling was done from hoppers and representative samples were prepared for three fields by mixing the collected samples. The hydrofluoric acid was procured from Merck Ltd. and is used for fly ash dissolution and subsequently for synthesis of zeolite.
METHOD
Microwave digestion:
The fly ash with 40 % of HF (AR) is exposed to microwave irradiation for the acid digestion of the fly ash, in closed vessels, maintaining the liquid to solid ratio 10. The activation temperature is maintained from 45 to 110 oC. The activation time given is 5 m. At the end of these activation periods, the deep brown colored mixture was obtained which was then filtered using watman filter paper no. 41 (5-A) and liquid was collected into propylene bottle. Filter paper was dried in hot air oven at 65 oC for around 6-8 h. The solid dried residue was scraped and collected in polythene bag. The experimental set up consisting microwave digester is shown in Fig.-1 (a) and 1 (b):
The digestion was performed in closed vessels (volume 100 ml). Reaction parameters are temperature, reaction time (5 m) and sample to reagent ratio (L/S = 10) kept constant (shown in Table-1 and 2). The heating cycle was based on the power settings from 400, 800 and 1600 Watt. Digestion pressure is atmospheric pressure. 1 g of fly ash was taken into the digestion vessels with 10 ml of HF. No stirring was provided. It is then allowed for around 15 m of natural digestion with HF. The initial temperature of digester was maintained at 37 oC. After the final temperature is achieved, microwave digester was kept at that temperature as per the set program and heating duration of 5 m. Finally, after the completion of microwave process, the digesting vessels were allowed to cool within the digester only. All the vessels were taken out of the digester. Safety precautions should be taken while opening the vessels. A relaxation time of 5-10 minutes was allowed for the mixture. The mixture was later transferred to a filtration unit for the separation of solid residue and the liquid supernatant. The resultant liquid was collected into the propylene bottles and kept for further analysis. In order to separate out the solid residue from the filter paper, the filter paper was kept in the hot air oven at around 65 oC for about 12 h for complete drying. All the solid particles left over on the surface of the filter paper, were scraped and stored in polythene bags for further analysis.
Characterization Determination of dissolved silica The solution obtained after separation of activated fly ash residue, was subjected to elemental analysis for the determination of silica content28. The results obtained are presented in Table-4 and 5. Complete elemental analysis of fly ash was carried out using inductively coupled plasma - atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES). Model: ARCOS from M/s. Spectro, Germany. The excited electrons emit energy at a given wavelength as they return to ground state after excitation by high temperature argon plasma29- 30. The fundamental characteristic of this process31 is that each element emits energy at specific wavelengths peculiar to its atomic character. The energy transfer of electrons when they fall back to ground state is unique to each element as it depends upon the electronic configuration of the orbital. The energy transfer is inversely proportional to the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation, E = hc/ λ ... (Where h is Planck‘s constant, c the velocity of light and λ is wavelength), and hence the wavelength of light emitted is also unique. Although each element emits energy at multiple wavelengths, in the ICP-AES technique it is most common to select a single wavelength (or a very few) for a given element. The intensity of the energy emitted at the chosen wavelength is proportional to the amount (concentration) of that element in the sample being analyzed32. Thus, by determining which wavelengths are emitted by a sample and by determining their intensities, the analyst can qualitatively and quantitatively find the elements from the given sample relative to a reference standard28 . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results of various tests conducted on the samples are being presented here. The results indicate that the temperature above 200 oC, does not have much effect on the silica dissolution. At lower temperature only, it can be possible to achieve the required amount of digestion of silica (shown in Table-3, Fig.-2). The effects of digestion with temperature change on samples are illustrated in Fig.-3 and Table-4. For most of the elements, observed temperature suggested by the original methods33-35, (60-65 ºC) was found to be optimal. The recoveries for Si, Al, Fe and other trace elements were best when the sample was irradiated at 60-65 ºC. Fig.-4 and - 5 and Table-5 shows the effect of digestion with respect to time change on elemental recovery. Recovery of the elements remained unaffected in most of the cases; which in this case, too, seem to be optimized by the digestion time. Compared to the conventional digestion methods, microwave method consumes less time and increases efficiency in fly ash sample digestion. The expenses and costs need to be explored for pilot plant experimentation, with the available technology. It can be concluded that the establishment of an efficient, cost effective, fast route (from hours to minutes) and environment friendly way of the synthesis of fly ash zeolite gives good recoveries using fluoride-containing medium with microwave irradiation.
CONCLUSION
It is necessary to study the desired properties of synthesized zeolite. Different synthesis methods should be used or the zeolite must be modified, to meet the specifications. Zeolite synthesis, - modification, -characterization and -application thus are strongly related. A simplified description of the structure types, interrelationship between structural subunits, the effect of several parameters on the synthesis of fly ash zeolite through microwave digestion process; needs to be investigated further. The increasing requirements for the environmental protection have resulted in the search for more effective, inexpensive and ecologically safe solutions and zeolites are one of the alternatives, which due to their peculiar structure are widely used for various environmental processes33-35 . The demand for an easily accessible and inexpensive source of zeolites has raised interest in synthesis of these minerals. The extraction of natural zeolites13 from the deposits has certain disadvantages, like comparatively more expensive, causes degradation of the environment despite their better efficiencies. On the other hand the disposal and storage of fly ash as waste from the Thermal Power Plant‘s is a large problem in the power generation industries. The dumped fly ash may be a significant resource for the production of the zeolite. Such secondary optimization of wastes supports activities aiming at lithosphere protection and is consistent with the guidelines for sustainable development. The nonbiodegradability of these materials is a major disadvantage since landfill disposal is environmentally undesirable and incineration is very expensive14. It is suggested that the use of zeolite may prove very economical, technically feasible and environmentally acceptable technology, particularly those prepared cheaply from fly ash, aluminum refining wastes and other solid waste materials containing silica and alumina may find application in many fields while simultaneously providing a solution to various environmental problems. The synthesizing capability of microwave from fly ash to zeolite has positive impacts on utilization of wastes coming from solid fuel combustion by converting the fly ash into valuable raw material and simultaneously accomplishing the lithosphere protection effect.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1830http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18301. ASTM C 618 94. (1994). Specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use as a mineral admixture in portland cement concrete. Annial Book of ASTM standards, 04.02. 296-8.
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9. Das, A.K., Chakraborty, R. and et al (2001). ICP-MS multielement determination in fly ash after microwaveassisted digestion of samples. Talanta, Elsevier. 54, 975–981.
10. Flanigen, E. M. (1980). Pure appl chem. 52: 2191-2211.
11. Fukui, K. et al. (2009). Utilization of NaCl for phillipsite synthesis from fly ash by hydrothermal treatment with microwave heating. Advanced Powder Technology. 20, 35–40.
12. Galarneau, A., Renzo, F.D., Fajula, F., Vedrine, J., eds. (2001). Zeolites and mesoporous materials at the dawn of the 21st centuary. Stud surf sci catal. 135.
13. Gottardi, G. and Galli, E. (1985) Natural zeolites. Berlin: Springer.
14. Guthrie, G.D. (1997). Environ health persp. 105:1003-1011.
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16. Kim, D.S., Chang, J.S. and et al (2004). Synthesis of zeolite beta in fluoride media under microwave irradiation. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, Elsevier. 68, 77–82.
17. Kokatailo, G.T., Fyfe, C.A., Feng, Y., Grondey, H., Gies, H. and Marler, B. (1995). Stud surf sci catal. 94:78-100.
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19. Mumpton, F.A. (1978). In: Sand LB, Mumpton FA, editors. Natural zeolites, occurrence, properties and use. London: Pergamon.
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21. Newsam, J.M. (1992). Solid state chemistry: compounds. New York: oxford university press, 234-280.
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24. Querol, X., Uman J.C., Plana, F., Alastuey, A., Soler, A.L., Medinaceli, A., Valero, A., Domingo M.J., Rojo, E.G. (1999) Synthesis of Zeolites from Fly Ash in a pilot Plant Scale. Examples of Potential Environmental Applications. International Ash Utilization Symposium, Center for Applied Energy Research.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17TechnologyA REVIEW OF FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF REFRIGERANT FLOWING THROUGH NON ADIABATIC CAPILLARY TUBE
English95105Deepak Raj TiwariEnglish R. C. GuptaEnglishThis paper gives summary of research on the characteristics of different refrigerant considering Non Adiabatic flow inside the capillary tube expansion device for various applications. This paper gives the summary of range of geometric and operating parameters like capillary tube length, diameter, suction line diameter, suction line length, heat exchanger length, surface roughness of capillary tube, suction line inlet temperature, coil pitch, inlet sub cooling, condenser pressure, and evaporator pressure etc. The outcome of different research is summarized in tabular form. This paper also gives type of approach, correlation proposed and some special information about investigation. It is found that the literature in Non Adiabatic capillary tube is scare so more investigation is required.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
A capillary tube is a constant restriction type expansion device used in small vapor compression refrigeration system (below 10KW) like domestic refrigerator, window air conditioning system. Since friction resistance inside capillary tube is directly proportional to length and inversely proportional to inside diameter so that length of capillary tube is kept large (2 to 5m) and diameter is kept small (0.00033m to 0.0015m). The pressure drop through the capillary tube is due to friction and acceleration. Capillary tube maintains flow rate of fluid (refrigerant) flowing through it at desired level so capillary tube works as an automatic flow rate controller for the refrigerant when load is varying. Capillary tube is most commonly used as expansion device because of this compressor can start at low torque. Also capillary tube is simple, less costly and there is no moving part in this. In most of the literature capillary tube is Adiabatic means no heat transfer from the capillary tube to the surrounding. A few researches are found in non Adiabatic capillary tube which works as counter flow heat exchanger in simple vapor compression refrigeration system. So this paper gives the information about refrigerant used, correlation proposed, and range of parameters, and other important information related to Non Adiabatic capillary tube. Mainly two types of capillary tube are used in simple vapor Compression refrigeration system:
Adiabatic capillary tube:
The Adiabatic capillary tube arrangement is shown in fig1. In vapor compression refrigeration system the sub cooled liquid refrigerant from condenser enters
in the capillary tube and flows without transferring heat to surrounding. When sub cooled liquid flows through Adiabatic capillary tube the pressure is reduces linearly and a point is reached where the liquid flashes into vapor this point is known as flash point at which first particle of vapor is formed. The temperature of refrigerant remains constant until flash point and reducing after flash point.
Non Adiabatic capillary tube :
In non Adiabatic type of arrangement the capillary tube is bonded with suction line by soldering or brazing as shown in fig2 So that arrangement is works as counter flow heat exchanger. By making this arrangement there are two advantages first there is delay in vaporization and second superheated vapor is going to compressor so compressor damage can be avoided.
In vapor compression refrigeration system Non Adiabatic capillary tube is used in two configuration first in lateral type and second in concentric type. In lateral type of configurations as shown in fig3(b) the capillary tube is directly brazed or soldered with the suction line going to the compressor so that forming a counter flow heat exchanger in which the heat is transferred from
capillary tube to suction line which is going to compressor. Some initial length of capillary tube is kept Adiabatic and some last length of capillary tube is also kept Adiabatic and remaining is bonded with suction line. In concentric type of configuration as shown in fig3 (a) capillary tube is kept inside the suction line and heat is transferred from tube to suction line. The hot refrigerant is flowing through the capillary tube and the cold refrigerant in the annulus between the capillary tube outer surface and suction line inner surface.
In both lateral and concentric type of arrangement capillary tube can be straight, spiral, or helical. The helically coiled Non Adiabatic capillary tube is most widely used in domestic refrigerator. if the capillary tube is used in straight manner it requires more space as compare to helical or spiral but if capillary tube is used in vertical position the space requirement is reduced because there is sufficient space in back side of the refrigerator.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Use of Non Adiabatic capillary tube is started in 1948 by Staeblar[1]. Staeblar determined the length of capillary tube by using the capacity balance method. 1.22 m length is bonded with suction line. Bolstad and Jordan [2] have find that evaporator pressure has a minor effect on mass flow rate of R-12. Temperature falls rapidly in heat exchanger region. Pate and Tree [3] considering counter flow heat exchanger in which air flows in suction line and refrigerant in capillary tube. They found that due to increase in sub cooling, delay in flash point and thus shorter two phase region. Again Pate and Tree [4] shows the effect of capillary tube length on pressure, quality and temperature. Escanes[5] developed a numerical simulation model by control volume formulation. Both critical and non critical flow has been considered. Bansal et al.[6] proposed a empirical model for refrigerant R-134a. Model is found to agree with earlier studies within ±8% for both the Adiabatic and Non Adiabatic capillary tubes. Bansal has proposed a correlation for length of capillary tube. Dekang chen et al.;[7] experimentally investigate the flow of R-134a and found that under pressure of vaporization decreases with an increase of the heat transfer between the capillary tube and suction line. O. GarcValladares[8] made a numerical simulation using R-134a and found Good degree of Correlation between numerical and experimental results for the case of a Concentric Non Adiabatic capillary. B. Xu, et al.[9] also proposed a numerical model for R-134a. The model predictions agreed with available experimental and analytical data to within ±20%. Jiraporn Sinpiboon et al[10] gives a mathematical model for R-12, R-134a and R152a and measured mass flow rate of R134a has discrepancy of 14.3% and 9.50% for different model. Claudio Melo et al. [11] make Experimental investigation for R-600a.He found that absolute mean deviation error for the refrigerant mass flow rate and suction line outlet temperature was 0.07 kg/h (5.1%) and 0.6°c , respectively. P.K. Bansal et al[12] gives numerical model for R-134a. It is found that the Non Adiabatic capillary tube flow characteristic is discontinuous in some situations. Yasar Islamoglu et al[13] uses artificial neural network (ANN) approach. The results showed that the ANN approach could be considered as an alternative and practical technique to evaluate the refrigerant suction line outlet temperature and mass flow rate. Y. Chen, et al. [14] gives numerical model for Co2. The increase of inner diameter, cooling pressure and outside heat transfer coefficient will lead to longer capillary length also increasing evaporating temperature and cooling capacity lead to a shorter length. C. Yang et al.[15] gives numerical model. It was found that R-134a performs better in terms of heat transfer rate and evaporator capacity than R-600a. O. Garc?´a-Valladares et al.[16] make Numerical simulation for R-12 R-134a, R22, R152a and R410A. A detailed numerical model of concentric and lateral capillary tube suction line heat exchangers have been developed. O. Garc?´a-Valladares et al[17] gives Numerical simulation for R410A R-134a R-600a and R152a. Of the 196 data points evaluated for mass flow rate 96.4% are within an error of ±15%, 81.1% are within ± 10% with a mean deviation of ±6.3%. Neeraj Agrawal et al [18] give Homogeneous flow model for CO2. The increased mass flow through larger tubes causes increase in heat transfer rate by about 68%, for a tube diameter increase of 50%. Again Neeraj Agrawal et al.[19] gives Homogeneous flow model for CO2 . As the capillary becomes larger, decrease in throttling effect increases the mass flow rate, hence heat transfer rate increases. Christian J.L. Hermes et al.[20] uses Computational model for HFC-134a HC- 600a. It was found that the model predicts 91.5% of the measured refrigerant mass flow rate for Adiabatic and 79.3% for Non Adiabatic flows within an error band of ±10%. A.L. Seixlack et al.[21] investigate R-134a. Mass flow rate can be predicted within error band of 3.6% and 5% for two fluid model and homogenous model respectively. Mohd. Kaleem Khana et al [22] experimentally investigate R-134a. It has been found the proposed correlation predicts the refrigerant mass flow rate in the error band of ±7% of the measured experimental mass flow rate. Christian J.L. Hermes et al.,[23] Analytically investigate flow of R-134a and HC 600a. Comparisons between the model predictions and the experimental data revealed that more than 90% and nearly 100% of all data can be predicted within ±10% and ±15% error bands, respectively.
CONCLUSION
This paper presents the summary of literature on Non Adiabatic capillary tube with various refrigerants, range of parameter selected, and type of approach. In most of the literature the effect of various geometric and operating parameters on mass flow rate has given. In spiral type of Non Adiabatic capillary rube the mass flow rate is less as compare to straight Non Adiabatic capillary tube. It is found in literature that the length for Non Adiabatic capillary tube is more as compare to adiabatic capillary tube. The literature available for Non Adiabatic capillary tube is scare so more investigation is required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are acknowledging the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. We are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals, and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1831http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18311. L.A. Staebler, theory and use of a capillary tube for liquid refrigerant control Refrigerating Engg. (1948) 55-59
2. M.M. Bolsted, R.C. Jordan theory and use of capillary tube expansion device: part2 – non Adiabatic, Refrigerating engg.57 (1949)519-523.
3. M.B. Pate, D.R. Tree, an analysis of pressure and temperature measurement along a capillary tube- suction line heat exchanger, ASHRAE Trans.90(1984)291- 301
4. M.B. Pate, D.R. Tree, a linear quality model for capillary tube suction line heat exchangers, ASHRAE Trans.90(1984) 3-17
5. F. Escanes, C.D. Perez, A olive, numerical simulation of capillary tube expansion device int. J. Refrigeration18(2)(1995)113- 122
6. P. K. Bansal and A.S. rupsinghe , An empirical model for sizing capillary tube International Journal of Refrigeration 19(1996)00044-8 .
7. Dekang chen, sui lin, et al., undepressure of vaporization of refrigerant R-134a through a Non Adiabatic capillary tube international journal of refrigeration 24(2001) 261-271
8. O. Garci_a-Valladares c.d. peraz-segarra, a. olivaet Numerical simulation of capillarytube expansion devices behavior with pure and mixed refrigerants considering metastable region. Part II: experimental validation and parametric studies Applied Thermal Engineering 22 (2002) 379–391.
9. B. Xu P.K. Bansal , Non Adiabatic capillary tube flow: a homogeneous model and process description Applied Thermal Engineering 22 (2002) 1801–1819
10. Jiraporn Sinpiboon Somchai Wongwises , Numerical investigation of refrigerant flow through non Adiabatic capillary tubes Applied Thermal Engineering 22 (2002) 2015–2032
11. claudio melo Luis Ant^onio Torquato Vieira , Roberto Horn Pereira non Adiabatic capillary tube flow with isobutene Applied Thermal Engineering 22 (2002) 1661–1672
12. P.K. Bansal B. Xu , A parametric study of refrigerant flow in non Adiabatic capillary tubes Applied Thermal Engineering 23 (2003) 397–408
13. Yasar Islamoglu Akif Kurt , Cem Parmaksizoglu Performance prediction for non Adiabatic capillary tube suction line heat exchanger: an artificial neural network approach Energy Conversion and Management 46 (2005) 223–232
14. Y. Chen J. Guet Non Adiabatic capillary tube flow of carbon dioxide in a novel refrigeration cycle Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 1670–1683
15. C. Yang P.K. Bansal ., numerical investigation of capillary tube suction line heat exchanger performance Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 2014–2028
16. O. Garc? a-Valladares Numerical simulation of non adiabatic capillary tubes considering metastable region. Part I: Mathematical formulation and numerical model International Journal of Refrigeration 30 (2007) 642-653
17. O. Garc? a-Valladares Numerical simulation of non adiabatic capillary tubes considering metastable region. Part II: Experimental validation International Journal of Refrigeration 30 (2007) 654-663
18. Neeraj Agrawal Souvik Bhattacharyya , Performance evaluation of a non Adiabatic capillary tube in a transcritical CO2 heat pump cycle International Journal of Thermal Sciences 47 (2008) 423–430
19. Neeraj Agrawal Souvik Bhattacharyya Parametric study of a capillary tube-suction line heat exchanger in a transcritical CO2 heat pump cycle Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 2979–298
20. Christian J.L. Hermes Cla´udio Meloa, Joaquim M. Gonc¸alves modeling of non adiabatic capillary tube flows: a simplified approach and comprehensive experimental validation, International Journal of Refrigeration 31 (2008) 1358–1367.
21. A.L Seixlack , M.R. Barbazelli )Numerical analysis of refrigerant flow along non Adiabatic capillary tube using two fluid model Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 523-531
22. Mohd. Kaleem Khan Ravi Kumar , Pradeep K. Sahoo , Flow characteristics of refrigerants flowing through capillary tubes– A review Applied Thermal Engg. 29(2009) 1426-1439.
23. Christian J.L. Hermes Cláudio Melo, Fernando T. Knabben , Algebraic solution of capillary tube flows part2: capillary tube suction line heat exchanger, Applied Thermal Engg. 30 (2010) 770-775.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17TechnologyEXERGY ANALYSIS OF VAPOUR COMPRESSOR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM USING ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANTS-A REVIEW
English106114Jyoti SoniEnglish R.C. GuptaEnglishThe objective of this paper is to presents review on the exergy analysis of vapour compression
refrigeration system with using new refrigerants to replace CFCs and HCFCs. It is found that exergy analysis shows better and accurately location of inefficiency as compared to energy analysis. Exergy depends on the evaporator temperature, condenser temperature, degree of sub cooling and compressor pressure. The coefficient of performance (COP) and second law efficiency of the cycle increases, and exergy losses decreases with decreasing the emperature difference between the evaporator and refrigerated space and between condenser and outside air. It is also found that refrigerant should have low ODP and GWP. HC mixtures and R152a are the better substitutes to R12 in domestic refrigeration sector.R290, R1270, R290/R152a, R744 and HC/HFC mixtures are the long term substitutes for R22 in heat pump and in air conditioning system. In chiller application R11, R12 and R22 can be replaced by the R123
EnglishCOP, exergy losses, second law efficiency, sub cooling, new refrigerantsINTRODUCTION
The first vapour compression refrigeration cycle was developed in 1834. There are the various applications where vapour compression refrigeration system is used such as in air conditioning units, domestic refrigerator and chiller unit etc. In this system working fluid used is known as refrigerant which is the medium of heat transfer.
The first refrigerant used in vapour compression refrigeration system is sulfur dioxide which is highly flammable and toxic. In 1930 Freon group refrigerant was start in use in order to reduce the flammability and toxicity. The properties of refrigerants their life time in the atmosphere, the time required to ascent into the stratosphere their distribution in that atmosphere and chances of bombardment by high energy photons which will further destroyed the ozone layer. Even percentage of CFC‘s in the stratosphere is too small but their capacity to destroy O3layer is too large compared with CO2.Thier lifetime is also considerable so their warming effect may take a few decades or even a century.
Therefore, it is necessary to replace present conventional CFC refrigerants by some other refrigerants which will have less green house effect [17]. The commonly used refrigerants CFCs and HCFCs in many industrial and domestic applications are responsible to increase the ozone layer depletion and global warming. These refrigerants can be replaced by the new refrigerants such as R-134a, R-404a, R-407c, R-410a, R-290, and R-152a etc. and HC refrigerants which have zero ODP and low GWP in order to protect the environment [16]. The performance of the vapour compression refrigeration system can be calculated by two methods i.e. energy and exergy analysis. Energy analysis is based on the first law of the thermodynamic while exergy analysis based on the both first and second law of thermodynamic. The first law of the thermodynamic deals with quantity of energy and assert that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it does not gives the information that how, where and how much the performance of the system degrade. Thus the second law of thermodynamic which deals with quality of energy is used to determine the performance degradation of the system. The second law of thermodynamic has proved to be a very powerful tool in the optimization of complex thermodynamic systems [8]. Basically in energy analysis calculate the work done by compressor (W), refrigerating effect ( ), power per ton refrigeration , volumetric refrigerating capacity (VCR) and coefficient of performance [2]. While exergy analysis discusses the exergy losses in each component of the system, exergy destruction ratio, efficiency defects, second law efficiency and also coefficient of performance . On the basis of the study it found is that exergy analysis shows better and accurately locations of inefficiency as compared to energy analysis. It is also found that exergy depend on the evaporator temperature, condenser temperature, degree of sub cooling and compressor pressure. The evaporating and condenser temperature have strong effects on the exergy losses of the evaporator and condenser, and on the second law efficiency and COP of the cycle but little effect on the exergy losses in the compressor and expansion valve. If the temperature difference between the evaporator and refrigerated space & between condenser and outside air is increased then the exergy losses is also increased and COP and second law efficiency decreased [3, 10]. This paper presents the review of the performance analysis of the vapour compression refrigeration system using various refrigerants which are the substitutes of CFCs and HCFCs. It is found that exergy analysis shows better and accurately locations of inefficiency as compared to energy analysis. Exergy depend on the evaporator temperature, condenser temperature, degree of sub cooling and compressor pressure. It is also shows that refrigerant should have low ODP and GWP. Thus the refrigerants R-134a, R-404a, R-407c, R-410a, R-290, and R-152a and HC blends are consider.
Description of Cycle
A simple vapour compression refrigeration system consists of four basic components illustrated via, evaporator, compressor, condenser and expansion valve. These components connected in a closed loop through piping that has heat transfer with the surrounding as shown in fig.1. At state 1, refrigerant leaves the evaporator at a low pressure, low temperature, saturated vapour and enter the compressor through the suction line in which both temperature and pressure increased. This process can be shown in fig.2. At state 2, it leaves the compressor as a high pressure, high temperature, superheated vapour and enter the condenser where it reject heat to surrounding medium at constant pressure after undergoing heat transfer in the discharge line. Refrigerant leaves the condenser at state 3, as high pressure, medium temperature, saturated liquid and enters the expansion valve. The expansion valve allows to flowing the high pressure liquid at constant enthalpy from high pressure to low pressure. At state 4, it leaves the expansion valve as a low temperature, low pressure, and liquid-vapour mixture and enters the evaporator where it absorbs the heat at constant pressure, changed into saturated vapour and cycle is completed.
Development of the System
As we know that COP and second law efficiency of the vapour compression refrigeration system can be increased by sub cooling. The sub cooling increases refrigerating capacity whereas there is no change in compressor work. As the COP of performance is the ratio of the refrigerating effect produced by evaporator to work done by compressor, hence COP increases. Vapour compression refrigeration cycle with liquid vapour heat exchanger including superheating and sub cooling as shown in fig.3.
From the analysis A.S. Dalkilic, S. Wongwises [2] shows that better performance obtained with sub cooling and superheating as compared to non sub cooling and non superheating condition. Akhilesh Arora, S.C. Kaushik [1] shows that exergy efficiency for 10 sub cooling is 14.9% for R404A and 14.8% for R507 at 40 condenser temperature and with decreasing the temperature differences between the evaporator and refrigerated space & between the condenser outside air COP and exergy efficiency increases, and exergy losses decreases.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Recep Yumrutas, Mehmet Kunduz, Mehmet Kanoglu [3] investigated the performance of the refrigeration system using NH3 as refrigerant based on the exergy analysis. It is found that the second law efficiency and COP increases & exergy losses decreases with decrease the temperature difference between evaporator and refrigerated space & between condenser and outside air. Arora and Kaushik [1] by using the computational model computing the coefficient of performance (COP), exergy destruction, Exergetic Efficiency and efficiency defects for R502, R404A and R507A. The evaporator and condenser temperature taken in the range of - 50 to 0 and 40 to 55 . The result indicates that R507A gives better performance as compared to R404A and R502A and it can be replace the R502 in future. A.S. Dalkilic, S. Wongwises [2] compare the performance of the vapour compression refrigeration system with consider the superheating and sub cooling conditions and using refrigerant mixture based on HFC134a, HFC152a, HFC32, HC290, HC1270, HC600 and HC600a in different ratios. Their result compared with the R12, R22 and R134a and finally it is concluded that all the alternative refrigerant have slightly lower coefficient as compared to R12, R22 and R134a but refrigerant blends of HC290/HC600a(40/60 by wt. %) can be replace R12 and HC290/HC1270(20/80 by wt. %) can be replace R22. B.O. Bolaji [12]proposed the of study of R152a and R32 to replace R134a in a domestic refrigerator by experiment and their result shows that R152a can be replace R134a in domestic refrigerator. Bilal Ahmed Qureshi, Syed M. Zubair [4] theoretically investigated the performance degradation of the refrigeration system due to fouling conditions in air side. There are two sets of refrigerants consider1st set include the refrigerant R134a, R410A and R407C and shows that 134a always performs better and 2nd set include the refrigerants R717, R404A and R290 and shows that R717 always performs better. It concluded that the performance degradation of the evaporator has larger effect on the power consumption of the compressor but the performance degradation of the condenser has an overall large effect on the COP. Miguel Padilla et.al. [5] Discuss the exergy analysis of R413A to replace R12 in domestic refrigerator by experimental. Total twelve tests performed (six tests for each refrigerant) and each test is depending on the fan velocity at condenser and evaporator. Better results obtained when fan velocity at evaporator is 0% and at condenser 100%.it gives the results that 413a gives better performance as compare to R12.
Effect of evaporator temperature
Evaporator temperature has a great effect on the performance of refrigeration system. The low quality refrigerant from expansion valve enters into evaporator where it absorbs the heat and changed into vapour. The temperature of the liquid refrigerant lower than the cooled space, therefore, refrigerant absorbs the heat. The heat transfer between the evaporator and cooled space increases with increase in evaporator temperature increases, consequently refrigerating effect increases and exergy losses decreases. V.P. Venkataramanamurthy et.al, [10] shows the comparison energy, exergy flow and second law efficiency analyses for R22, R436b in refrigeration cycles. Their result is shows that evaporating temperature has strong effects on the exergy flow losses.
Effect of condenser temperature
Condenser temperature also greatly affects the COP, second law efficiency and exergy losses. With increasing the condenser temperature, COP and second law efficiency decreases, and the exergy losses increases because the temperature differences between the condenser and outside air increases. By using the computational model Recep Yumrutas [3] shows that COP and second law efficiency increases and total exergy losses decreases with increasing the temperature of evaporator and decrease temperature of the condenser.
Refrigerant
The working fluid used in refrigeration system for heat transfer is known as refrigerant which also affect the performance of the system. There are various CFCs and HCFCs refrigerant used in many industrial and domestic applications are responsible to increase the ozone layer depletion and global warming. According to Montreal Protocol (1987) the uses of CFCs have been banned in developed countries since 1996 and in developing countries since 2010. The HCFC will be banned on European countries in 2015 and practical use limit the year 2010.Generally, R12 was used as a refrigerant in refrigerator and R22 was used in air conditioning system which has higher COP as compared to other refrigerants. But both R12 and R22 was required to replace according to the Montreal Protocol because of high ODP and GWP. M. Mohanraj [16] studies the large number of theoretical and experimental world report and give the conclusion that HC mixtures and R152a are the better substitutes to R12 in domestic refrigeration sector.R290, R1270, R290/R152a, R744 and HC/HFC mixtures are the long term substitutes for R22 in heat and in air conditioning system.
In chiller application R11, R12 and R22 can be replaced by the R123. There are the several theoretical and experimental investigation done for various alternative refrigerants can be seen in table 1
CONCLUSION
The exergy analysis shows better and accurate location of inefficiency as compared to energy analysis. Exergy losses depend on the evaporator temperature, condenser temperature, degree of sub cooling and compressor pressure. The coefficient of performance (COP) and second law efficiency increases, and exergy losses decreases with decreasing the temperature difference between the evaporator and refrigerated space and between condenser and outside air.
This means that increase in condenser temperature and decrease in evaporator temperature, result in increase the exergy losses. It is also shows that selected refrigerant should have low ODP and GWP. R134a, R-404a, R-407c, R-410a, R-290, and R152a etc. and HC refrigerants (even these are flammable) can be selected because of low ODP and GWP. From studies M. Mohanraj [16] reported that HC mixtures and R152a are the better substitutes to R12 in domestic refrigeration sector.R290, R1270, R290/R152a, R744 and HC/HFC mixtures are the long term substitutes for R22 in heat and in air conditioning system. In chiller application R11, R12 and R22 can be replaced by the R123.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1832http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18321. Akhilesh Arora, S.C. Kaushik, 2008. Theoretical analysis of a vapour compression refrigeration system with R502, R404A and R507A. International Journal of Refrigeration 31, 998-1005.
2. A.S. Dalkilic, S. Wongwises, 2010. A performance comparison of vapour compression refrigeration system using various alternative refrigerants. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 37, 1340-1349.
3. Recep Yumrutas, Mehmet Kunduz, Mehmet Kanoglu, 2002. Exergy analysis of vapour compression refrigerations systems. Exergy, an International Journal. 2, 266-272.
4. Bilal Ahmed Qureshi, Syed M. Zubair, 2011. Performance degradation of a vapour compression refrigeration system under fouled conditions. International Journal of Refrigeration 34, 1016-1027.
5. Miguel Padilla, Remi Revelline, Jocelyn Boonjour, 2010. Exergy analysis of R413A as replacement of R12 in a domestic refrigeration system. Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010), 2195-2201.
6. Yongmei Xuan, Guangming Chen, (2004).Experimental study on HFC-161 mixture as an alternative refrigerant to R502.
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11. R. Llopis , E. Torrella, R Cabello, D. Sanchez, 2010. Peformance evaluation of R404A and R507A refrigerant mixtures in an experimental double stage vapours compression refrigeration plant. Applied Energy 87, 1546-1553.
12. B.O. Bolaji, Experimental study of R152a and R32 to replace R134a in a domestic refrigerator. Energy 35 (2010), 3793-3798.
13. K. Mani, V. Selladurai,2008. Experimental analysis of new refrigerant mixture as dropin replacement for CFC12 and HFC134a. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 47, 1490-1495.
14. M.A. Hammad, M.A. Alsaad, 1999. The use of hydrocarbon mixtures as refrigerants in domestic refrigerators. Applied Thermal Engineering 19, 1181-1189.
15. Vincenzo La Rocca, Giuseppe Panno, 2011. Experimental performance evaluation of a vapour compression refrigerating plant when replacing R22 with alternative refrigerants. Applied energy 88, 2809-2815.
16. M. Mohanraj, S. Jayaraj, C. Muraleedharan, 2009. Environment friendly alternatives to halogenated refrigerants-A review. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas control 3, 108-119.
17. Domkundwar &Domkundwar, (2002). Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, First edition. Dhanpat Rai & Co. (P) Ltd, New Delhi.
18. Jun Lan yang, Yi Tai Ma, Min Xia Li, Hai Qing Guan, 2005. Exergy analysis of transcritical carbon dioxide refrigeration cycle with an expander, Energy 30, 1162- 1175.
19. V. Havelsky, 2000. Investigation of refrigeration system with R12 refrigerant replacements. Applied Thermal Engineering 20, 133-140.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17General SciencesGENETIC DIVERSITY AND PATHOGENICITY OF FUSARIUM SPECIES IN PLANTS- A REVIEW
English115128Nisha K.English R.K.DeshwalEnglishPlants suffer from many diseases which are caused by various microbes like bacteria, fungi virus etc. Fungi of the genus Fusarium, widely distributed saprophyte, are extremely pathogenic to plants causing damage to plants by various vascular wilts, collar rot of seedlings, rot of tubers, bulbs and corms etc. Most of the diversity studies have been done on pathogenic strains of Fusarium sps which are split into divisions called host specific formae speciales (abbreviated f.sp.) .Many Fusarium sps produce harmful secondary metabolites called mycotoxins like zearalenones, trichothecenes, fumonisins etc. They reproduce by forming spores viz. microconidia, macroconidia and chlamydospores. Genetic variation studies among these can be performed by various methods using different types of molecular markers.
These studies have characterised Fusarium sps. in different plants all over the world which can be exploited for developing biocontrol agents for resistance breeding. This would be an environment friendly and economical viable approach to control fungal plant diseases as compared to chemical fungicides.
EnglishFusarium, mycotoxins, formae speciales, biocontrol agentINTRODUCTION
Plants get damaged by various pathogens. Most of which are biotic agents like fungi, bacteria and viruses or abiotic like frost, hail etc. Biotic agents are responsible for parasitic diseases in which they obtain nutrition by growing on or in the plants. On the other hand non parasitic diseases are caused by abiotic factors like moisture and temperature due to unfavourable growing conditions which affect severity of plant diseases. These diseases are generally named on the basis of parts affected viz. Blight (in which leaves, flower or whole plant undergoes browning and dies suddenly)(Yu etal., 2008 ,Bai etal 2004); stem canker (in which any localised organ dies) (Esmailzadeh etal.,2008); wilt (when turgidity is lost) (Muhammad Sibtain etal., 2001); Gall (when cells overgrow) (Armstrong 1995); Stunting (in which plants do not develop fully); and leaf curl, mosaic, and chlorosis(due to lack of chlorophyll) (Athar Nadeem etal.,2001,Sukalpa etal.,2001,Ghosh and Basak 1951,Biswas etal.,1989)Damping Off(where a young seedling collapses and dies)(Erwin etal.,1996) . Among all pathogens, fungi of the genus Fusarium (member of Ascomycetes)are widely distributed and extremely pathogenic to plants by causing various vascular wilts, collar rot of seedlings, rot of tubers, bulbs and corms etc(Akinsanmi etal.,2004,H Sarami etal.,2007,Setti and Bouznad, 1998; Belabid et al., 2000). Many of the species produce a range of secondary metabolites (mycotoxins) that are harmful to human and animal consumers and also contaminate grains (Desjardin 2006, Vesonder 1989).
Diversity and Life Cycle of Fusarium sps
Fusarium oxysporum is the most common species worldwide among the plant pathogens.(Agrios 1988,Smith etal 1988). F. oxysporum isolates from different agroclimatic areas exhibit considerable diversity(P K Singh et al.,2011)with respect to cultural characteristics (Elwakil and Ghoneem, 1999).It does not reproduce sexually but undergoes asexual reproduction to spread its pathogenecity among plants.It produces three types of spores viz
i)Microconidia,
ii)Macroconidia and
iii) Chlamydospores.
(Agrios 1988)Among these most abundant are microconidia which are oval or bean shaped spores produced on aeriel mycelia .Macroconidia have pointed edges found on surface of diseased plants. The toughest spores are chlamydospores which are thick walled spores produced in chains or cluster and can surive in soil for much longer time. Many plants are drastically infected by Fusarium sps like
F. graminearum,
F. verticillioides,
F. oxysporum,
F. subglutinans,
F. proliferatum.
F.cuminatum,
F. avenaceum,
F. concolor,
F. crookwellense (F. cerealis), F. equiseti, F. semitectum, F.solani, F.sporotrichioides and F. venenatum which causes significant economic losses. Some of these are further divided into subgroups called races, on the basis of virulence.Fusarium oxysporum is split into divisions called formae speciales (singular forma specialis, abbreviated f.sp.) which cause various vascular wilt diseases .Most of diversity studies have been done on pathogenic strains of Fusarium.(Kistler.,1997, Baayen etal.,2000, Lattifah etal.,2009). In general, Fusarium wilt first appears as slight vein clearing on the outer portion of the younger leaves, followed by epinasty (downward drooping) of the older leaves. At the seedling stage, plants infected may die soon after appearance of symptoms. In older plants, vein clearing and leaf epinasty are often followed by stunting, yellowing of the lower leaves, formation of adventitious roots, wilting of leaves and young stems, defoliation, marginal necrosis of remaining leaves, and finally death of the entire plant (Agrios, 1988).Fusarium sps. spreads in short distances by water splash or planting equipments while long distances by infected seeds or transplants. It infects a healthy plant through mycelia or germinating spore penetrates in root tip, root wound or lateral roots. (Bhalla et al., 1992).The mycelium develops intracellularly and reaches xylem vessels where it produces microconidia. These microconidia enter cell sap and move by upward transportation. When the sap flow stops they start germinating and block the vascular vessels by triggering the self-defense mechanisms whereby secretion of gel occurs followed by formation of tylose in the vascular vessels. (Bishop and Cooper, 1984).Due to this plant is not able to absorb water and minerals and translocation of nutrients. The movement of water to the upper part of the host plant is blocked and the rate of transpiration becomes more than rate of transportation which causes yellowing, wilting and eventually death to the host plant. After this the fungus penetrates to all tissues and start infecting other neighbouring plants. The pathogen persists in the soil as chlamydospores that can remain viable for several seasons. (Erskine and Bayaa, 1996) As a result of the persistence of the pathogen in the soil, the disease is best controlled through host plant resistance.
Diseases caused by Fusarium species and symptoms
There are more than 100 Fusarium vascular wilt diseases world-wide.(Machardy 1981) .There are over 100 formae speciales divisions, each with one or two different races. Each forma specialis within the species are host-specific (i.e. specific to a certain plant) and produce different symptoms as pathogenic as well as non pathogenic forms.(Armstrong and Armstrong,1981)It is a cosmopolitan soil-borne fungus which colonizes the vascular system of the host plant. It infects tomato, tobacco, legumes, cucurbits, sweet potatoes and banana alongwith many other herbaceous plants. The symptoms are different in different hosts depending on type of Fusarium sps. Early symptoms of diseases caused by Fusarium sps causes leaf yellowing, slight wilting during the day and stunting. In hot conditions diseased plants such as tomato and peas can die within a few days. Diseased bananas usually die slowly, taking 1–2 months. Browning of the internal stem (vascular) tissue is a key symptom of pathogens which cause vascular wilt disease. It appears like clearing of vein on younger leaves and drooping of older leaves.Then stunting or yellowing of leaves, defoliation take place and finally plant dies.Various researchers have characterised Fusarium sp. in different plants all over the world which have diverse symptoms .Some of them are as follows: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. asparagi (Fusarium yellows on asparagus)(Elmer and Stephens 1989); f.sp. callistephi (wilt on staghorn sumac) (Oellete etal.,2006) ; f.sp. cubense (Panama disease/wilt on banana) (Leong etal.,2010,Pegg atal.,1995).; f.sp. dianthi (wilt on carnation)(Oellete 2002, Baaen etal.,1996);f.sp. koae (on koa)(Gardener 1980); f.sp. lycopersici (wilt on tomato) (Jones etal.,1982); f.sp. melonis (fusarium wilt on muskmelon) (Gordon etal.,1989,Namiki et al.,1998 ); f.sp. niveum (fusarium wilt on watermelon)(Martin and Bruton 1989); f.sp. pisi (on edible-podded pea)(Shirley 1963); f.sp. tracheiphilum (wilt on Glycine max) (Li and Hartman 2003); and f.sp. zingiberi (fusarium yellows on ginger) (Raabe et al., 1981).f.sp.cumini (Wilt of cumin) (Bardia and Rai 2008),f. sp. vasinfectum (Wilt of cotton ) (Assigbetse et al., 1994 ) , f. sp. Phaseoli (Wilt of bean) (Woo etal.,1996,Fernando etal.,1999) ,f. sp. Lentis (Wilt of lentil)(Tosi and Capelli 2001) , f.sp. ciceri( Wilt of chickpea) (Jiménez-Gasco et al., 2001,Bhim Pratap etal.,2006) f.sp.lagenariae(Wilt of bottle gourd)(Matio and Yamamoto1956), f.sp.momordicae(Wilt of bitter gourd) (Sun and Huang 1983), f.sp.batatas (wilt in sweet potato) (Shimizu etal.,2005), f.sp.curcumerinum(wilt of Cucumber)( Owen 1956)F.verticillioides(Ear rot of Maize)(Eller etal.,2009) F.graminearum(Head Blight of Wheat)(Bechtel 1985) F.fujikuroi (Bakanae disease of Rice)(Zhang etal.,1998).
Estimation of Genetic Variation
The genus Fusarium consists of variable number of populations (Jelena etal., 2012).Genetic variation studies among these can be performed by various methods using different types of molecular markers which vary in their principles andmethodologies. (Mohammadi and Mofrad, 2009, Hill etal.,2011)One can choose according to the requirement of study among these 11 different molecular marker methods: restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), intersimple sequence repeats (ISSRs), sequence characterized regions (SCARs), sequence tag 118 International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 04 issue 09 May 2012 sites (STSs), cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences (CAPS), microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs), expressed sequence tags (ESTs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and diversity arrays technology (DArT)( Avinash etal.,2011,Semagn etal.,2006, Assigbetse et al., 1994 Woo etal.,2006,Bogale etal.,2006). Among these widely used method of estimation of genetic variation is Vegetative compatibility grouping(VCG) which is based on the ability of the mycelium to anastomose to form heterokaryon(Chen etal.,2007,Lattifah etal 2008,Kistler etal.,1998,Puhalla 1985).This helps to determine genetic relatedness .This requires special culture media and methods, as well as standard incubation conditions.High variability in species, especially under different environmental conditions, has caused taxonomists to consider some special criteria to be important in the classification of species. For this reason, different methods and keys have been developed.The large variation in some of the characteristics of Fusarium isolates such as pathogenicity, colony morphology e.g. form and color, mode of development of the chlamydospores, existence or lack of sporodochia or type of microconidia, have resulted in classification of species into different intra-specific groups. Most of the intra specific classifications are based on pathogenic behavior and vegetative compatibility groups (VCG). Some researchers have placed some isolates of VCG into the same race using the pectic zymogram technique(Balali and Iranpoor 2006, Mukesh etal.,2005, Szekzi 1990 a,b)). Zymogram is an electrophoretic method for measuring protheolithic activity in which the enzymes are separated from one another in a polyacryl-amid gel .The study of the genetic variation among and within species and subspecies using a pectic zymogram marker helps in identifying the relation among genotypes and pathogenic phenotypes. It can also help in understanding evolution of different species through time. Apart from this, there is another method called RAPD analysis which is a fast, PCR-based method of genetic typing based on genomic polymorphisms. The technique is highly sensitive to nucleotide differences and can assay single nucleotide differences. RAPD produces DNA profiles of varying complexity, depending on the primer and template used. Random markers as products of the PCR-RAPD technique have been developed to differentiate numerous fungi in various plants.(Arif etal.,2011,Arici and Koc 2010) RAPD markers generated with single primers of arbitrary nucleotide sequence have been used in detecting intraspecific polymorphisms among fungi (Pegg etal., 1995). This technique can generate specific DNA fragments that can be used for the identification of isolates, and in molecular ecology (Hadrys et al., 1992). This technique has been applied widely in the detection and genetic characterization of phytopathogenic fungi including race differentiation in several formae speciales of F. oxysporum. (El Fadly etal. 2008).A similarity matrix on simple matching co-efficients is calculated from the data based on the RAPD of all isolates. The matrix is used to construct a dendrogram using Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean Analysis (UPGMA tool of NTSYS) for establishing relatedness.(Rohlf 2000) The dendrogram obtained shows the hierarchical clustering which separated the isolates into different groups according to their similarity coefficients. (Peter etal., 2009)Sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) is a novel molecular marker technique based on twoprimer amplification that preferentially amplifies open reading frames (ORFs). (Li etal. 2001)The forward primers amplify exonic regions, and the reverse primers preferentially amplify intronic regions and promoters. With this unique primer design, SRAP markers are more reproducible, more stable, and less complex than RAPD and AFLPs. Different studies have been done worldwide to understand the diversity of Fusarium species using different molecular markers as per requirement. In 2008 and 2009, samples of weeds and plant debris were collected from 12 locations in eastern Croatia, and 300 Fusarium isolates colonizing them were identified. (Jelena etal., 2012).Strains were grouped and identified based on morphology and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) patterns. Fourteen Fusarium species were identified with F. graminearum , F. verticillioides , F. oxysporum , F. subglutinans, F. proliferatum, F.cuminatum, F. avenaceum, F. concolor, F. crookwellense (F. cerealis), F. equiseti, F. semitectum, F. solani, F.sporotrichioides and F. venenatum.Their study indicated that economically important Fusarium sps. may be isolated from numerous alternative hosts during the off season and that weeds and plant debris can serve as a reservoir of genetically diverse inoculum. To identify Fusarium sps associated with diseases of root and basal plate of onion, surveys were conducted in seven provinces of Turkey in 2007(Harun etal. 2011). Samplings were performed in 223 fields, and 332 isolates belonging to 7 Fusarium spp. were obtained. The isolates were identified as F. oxysporum, F. solani, F. acuminatum,F. equiseti, F. proliferatum, F. redolens, and F. culmorum based on morphological and cultural characteristics. Also, species-specific primers were used to confirm the identity of Fusarium sps. In India many crops are affected by Fusarium sps but the research on genetic diversity is in intial stages. A study was conducted in 1995-2006 in which 48 isolates of F. oxysporum f.sp.ciceris (FOC) collected from the diverse agro-climatic chickpea growing regions of India was done using AFLP markers. Out of these 41 were found pathogenic showing characteristic wilt symptoms and seven isolates were nonpathogenic which did not show any symptoms at all. (Sharma etal, 2009). Not only these but much more research has been conducted to understand the pathogenecity of Fusarium sps in plants worldwide. It‘s not possible to quote all of them but the objective is same that variability in Fusarium sps in differents areas is found which affect their pathogenecity to different degrees.
Types of Toxins released from Fusarium species
Fusarium toxins are categorised in different groups based on international regulation. First group consists of those which are under international regulation like deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone and fumonisins . Other group comprises of new emerging varieties, such as beauvericin, enniatins and culmorins. Nivalenol (NIV), T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin produced by Fusarium species, are under evaluation by European regulation. The zearalenones are biosynthesized through a polyketide pathway by Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium equiseti, and Fusarium crookwellense. All these species are regular contaminants of cereal crops worldwide.(Hagler etal.,2001) Fumonisins are synthesized by condensation of the amino acid alanine into an acetate-derived precursor (Sweeney and Dobson 1999).They are produced by a number of Fusarium sps like Fusarium verticillioides , Fusarium proliferatum, and Fusarium nygamai, as well as Alternaria alternata f. sp. lycopersici (Rheeder etal.,2002,Marasas etal.,2001)).The trichothecenes are a family of more than sixty sesquiterpenoid metabolites produced by a number of fungal genera, including Fusarium, Myrothecium, Phomopsis, Stachybotrys, Trichoderma, Trichothecium etc. (Uneno 1983,Scott 1989). They can be classified into macrocylic or nonmacrocyclic, depending on the presence of a macrocylic ester or an ester-ether bridge between C-4 and C-15 (Chu 1998). Non macrocyclic trichothecenes are produced by Fusarium sps while macrocyclic by Myrothecium, Stachybotrys, and Trichothecium species (Marasas etal.,1984). The nonmacrocylic trichothecenes can be subclassified into two groups: type A, which have a hydrogen or ester type side chain at the C-8 position, and include T-2 toxin, neosolaniol, and diacetoxyscirpenol, while the type B group contain a ketone and include fusarenon-x, nivalenol, and deoxynivalenol. Diacetoxyscirpenol, deoxynivalenol(DON), and T-2 are the best studied of the trichothecenes produced by Fusarium species.(Desjardin and Proctor., 2007,Kristensen etal.,2007)
CONCLUSION
Fusarium sps is widespread in many crops so it poses a significant problem. Certain difficulties have been encountered for the management of various fungal diseases in plants because there is lack of proper knowledge of recommended fungicides in the market. Different chemicals are used in form of pesticides to protect plants from pathogens. These cause a lot of harm to the environment through pollution. In addition, these chemicals are costly and not fully efficacious in some cases. Not only this but many plants have become resistant against these chemical bactericides and fungicides. (Nene et al., 2000) and some new pathogenic strain have also been identified and documented (Mamatha et al., 2004). In such situation, wilt can be managed by resistance breeding using biocontrol agents which is an economically viable and ecologically desirable strategy. (Reid et al., 2002; Jegathambigai et al., 2009). Knowledge of diversity and relatedness among the pathogen populations is, however, a prerequisite for exploitation of resistance breeding. Several nonpathogenic strains of F. oxysporum have been selected as potential biological control agents they can protect plants against the pathogenic strains (Biles and Martin 1989,; Postma and Luttikholt 1996, Bao et al. 2000). These can be introduced in infected crops .They take nutrients from those pathogens and thus help in defending plant by creating tough competition for food and nutrition among pathogens Better screening and breeding procedures are required to access the host plant resistance in new cultivars.
Future prospects
Fusarium species have vast morphological and physiological variations. Most of the research focuses on this fungus due to its ability to cause diseases to economically important plants. But this is not enough as its presence in soils in different areas worldwide have reveal wider and diversified ecological activities.The study of relationships between pathogenic and nonpathogenic forms may shed new light on the evolution of pathogenic F. oxysporum strains (Corelle 1991, Gordon and Martin 1997). Most research has been focused on strains capable of causing disease and nonpathogenic strains have been neglected, except using as biocontrol agents. For better understanding of biological significance Fusarium species should be studied in their natural habitats. They can be used as a model for studying soil borne pathogens. Molecular-biotechnological tools can be promoted for disease characterisation and longterm local monitoring which can lead to regional capacity strengthening.
ACKNOWLEGMENT
We want to acknowledge Mr Govind K Vyas, Institute of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology (Chemind Biosolutions, Jaipur) for providing valuable suggestions. We are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals, and books from where the literature has been reviewed.
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101. Woo, S.L., Zoina A., Del Sorbo G., Lorito M. ,.Namii, Scala F., and Noviello C (1996) Characterization of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. phaseoli by pathogenic races, VCGs, RFLPs,and RAPD. Phytopathology 86:966-973.
102. Yli-Mattila, T. 2010. Ecology and evolution of toxigenic Fusarium species in cereals in northern Europe and Asia. – Journal of plant Pathology 92:7-18.
103. Yu, J. B., G. H. Bai, W. C. Zhou, Y. H. Dong, and F. L. Kolb, (2008) Quantitative trait loci for Fusarium head blight resistance in a recombinant inbred population of Wangshuibai/Wheaton. Phytopathology :98, 87—94
104. Zhang, C., Zheng, Z., and Wang, G. (1998). Genetic diversity in Gibberella fujikuroi (Fusarium section Liseola) from rice. J. Zhejiang Agric. Univ.24:583-586.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareA RANDOMIZED, DOUBLE BLIND STUDY OF THE SAFETY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF A POLYHERBAL DRUG IN THE TREATMENT OF ACTIVE RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
English129142Yasmeen ShamsiEnglish Harendra KumarEnglishIntroduction: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common disease characterized by chronic inflammation and erosion of the joints associated with functional impairment. The main therapy for symptomatic relief in RA is based on NSAIDs as the first group of drugs utilized all over the world; however they are frequently associated with a fair degree of side effects. Methods: We conducted a randomized double blind, placebo controlled trial to assess the efficacy and safety of a polyherbal drug Qurs-e-Mafasil in patients of active rheumatoid arthritis. Total 125 patients completed the study up to 12 weeks; they received either Qurs-e-Mafasil or Placebo in the dose of two tablets thrice daily. Efficacy and safety assessment was done at base line and then at every 4-week's treatment up to 12 weeks. Results: In Qurs-e-Mafasil treatment group marked improvement was achieved in tender joint count (p =0. 002), swollen joint count (P=0.001) and pain intensity score (P=0.0001). This improvement was significantly greater as compared to Placebo group. There was no significant difference between treatment groups regarding the number of patients that reached ACR20 improvement criteria in the assessments after 12 weeks of treatment, but improvement in quality of life is significantly greater in Qurs-e-Mafasil group than in placebo group. Conclusion: Qurs-e- Mafasil exerted significant effect in pain relief, reduction in tender and swollen Join count and functional improvement without producing adverse effects.
EnglishRheumatoid Arthritis, Unani Drug, Colchicum luteum, Curcuma longaINTRODUCTION
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that causes chronic inflammation and erosion of the joints (1). It is a progressive disease associated with severe morbidity, functional impairment, permanent disability and increased mortality 2, 3, 4, 5. About 1% of the world's population is distressed by rheumatoid arthritis, women three times more often than men. Onset is most frequent between the ages of 40 and 50, but people of any age can be affected6, 7, 8. The main therapy in RA is based on NSAIDs (Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs) as the first group of drugs utilized all over the world 9, 10. The NSAIDs are efficacious and very helpful in relieving pain, but they are frequently associated with a number of side effects, some of which are significant and potential life threatening including gastrointestinal symptoms, alteration of platelet function and impairment of renal function 9 . Herbal remedies have been popular since antiquity of being relatively less expensive and free of adverse effects. For the treatment of arthritis and joint pain a number of herbal drugs have been mentioned in classical Greco-Arabic medical literature. The study drug ?Qurs-eMafasil? is a polyherbal Unani formulation; in clinical practice this drug has been found effective and safe in the treatment of joint pain and inflammation. But, this drug has not been substantiated in well-controlled clinical trials. Hence, a randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study was planned to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Qurs-e-Mafasil in the treatment of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.
METHODS
We conducted this randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study at Hamdard National Foundation‘s Clinical Research Unit, Majeedia Hospital, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India, from September 2003 to March 2007.
Selection of Patients:
Inclusion Criteria: Patients of 20-70 years of age fulfilling the criteria of American College of Rheumatology (ACR) for the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis18,19 who had never received disease modifying anti rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) were included in the study. The other criteria for entry were the presence of active disease as defined by at least three of the following criteria: six or more swollen joints, six or more tender joints, 45 minutes or more of morning stiffness, and an erythrocyte sedimentation rate (Westergren) exceeding 28 mm an hour.
Exclusion Criteria:
Patients were excluded if they had one or more of the following criteria:
Presence of deformities
Advanced radiographic changes in any joint Concomitant renal/ hepatic insufficiency or sever gastrointestinal insufficiency
Pregnant and lactating women Prior treatment with DMARDs/corticosteroids
Study Drug:
The study drug ?Qurs-e-Mafasil? (in the form of tablet) is a polyherbal Unani formulation, each Qurs-e- Mafasil tablet (500 mg) contains fine powder of five herbs namely Colchicum luteum (100 mg), Commiphora mukul (100 mg), Curcuma longa (100 mg), Terminalia chebula (100 mg) and Delphinium denudatum (100 mg). In classical Greeko-Arabic medical literature these herbs have been described to be effective in the treatment of various kinds of arthritis 11- 17 . Both Qurs-e-Mafasil and Placebo were supplied by Hamdard (Wakf) Laboratories, New Delhi. Dosage and Administration:
Following 5-7 days washout period of antiinflammatory or analgesic drugs (e.g., NSAIDs, Corticosteroids) or any other medication used for the treatment of arthritis (e.g. Ayurvedic, Homeopathic or Unani drugs), patients were randomly assigned to receive either Qurs-eMafasil or placebo treatment. Randomization was achieved by the generation of a randomization list using permutable blocks. Both Qurs-e-Mafasil and placebo (Weight of each tablet= 500 mg) were given in the dose of two tablets thrice daily after meals. Duration of
Treatment: The study was continued up to six weeks as a double blind placebo controlled study. Later on the study was continued as an open label trial up to 12 weeks.
Concomitant Treatments:
No concomitant treatment was allowed during the study. The patients who were already taking any anti-inflammatory or analgesic drugs were advised to stop all these medications 5-7 days prior to the administration of study medication.
Ethical Consideration:
The study was approved by Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) of Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi for conducting clinical trials of herbal drugs on human beings, and registered in WHO- ICMR Clinical Trial Registry vide CTRI No. CTRI/2009/000746 (www.ctri.nic.in) All patients were included in the study after obtaining written informed consent.
Efficacy Measures and Follow-up: Primary Outcome: The primary outcome measures included reduction in the followings:
Swollen Joint count
Tender Joint Count
Intensity of pain- VAS (0-10)
Duration of Morning Stiffness (Minutes)
Patient‘s Global Assessment of disease activity (0-10)
Physician‘s Global Assessment of disease activity (0-10)
ESR (mm/1hour)
Secondary Outcome: The secondary outcome was the proportion of patients that reached clinical response of at least 20%, as defined by the ACR20 criteria.20 The secondary outcome also included improvement in quality of life as assessed by Health assessment Questionnaire (HAQ) disability index.21 Clinical Assessment: Clinical evaluation was done at base line (0 week) and then at every 4-week's treatment up to 12 weeks. The disease activity was measured by: i) Counting tender and swollen joints ii) Patient's evaluation of pain (Visual Analogue Scale- VAS (0-100). iii) Duration of early morning stiffness (in minutes) The functional disability was measured by Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ) of Stanford University School of Medicine (Division of Immunology and Rheumatology) 21 .
Data Analysis:
All data were recorded on case record forms; analysis was restricted to patients who completed the study up to 12 weeks. The changes between pre-treatment and posttreatment mean scores of disease activity measures obtained in drug group (Qurs-eMafasil) were compared with those obtained in Placebo group by using Mann Whitney ?U‘ test. Level of significance was set at 5% and twosided P-values are given. The baseline characteristics of the two groups were also compared by applying Mann Whitney ?U‘ test. Pair wise (within group) comparisons for each group independently were based on the Wilcoxon matched pairs signed-ranks test. A p value Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1834http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18341. Lina M Olsson, Anna-Karin Lindkvist, Henric Kallberg, Leonid Padyukov, Harald Burkhardt, Lars Alfredsson, Lars Kalareskog and Rikard Holmdhal, A Case Control Study of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Identifies an Associated Single Nucleotide Polymorphism in the NCF4 Gene, Supporting a Role for the NADPH-Oxidase Complex in Autoimmunity, Arthritis Research and Therapy, 2007; 1-17
2. Pincus T, Callahan LF, Sale WG, Brooks AL, Payne LE, VaughnWK Severe functional declines, work disability, and increased mortality in seventy-five rheumatoid arthritis patients studied over nine years. Arthritis Rheum, 1984; 27(8):864–872
3. Brosseau L, Welch V, Wells G, deBie R, Gam A, Harman K, Morin M, Shea B and Tugwell P, Low Level Laser Therapy (Classes I,II and III) in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Cochrae Database Syst. Review, 2000; (2): CD002049
4. Pincus T, Callahan LF, Sale WG, Brooks AL, Payne LE, Vaughn WK, Severe functional declines, work disability, and increased mortality in seventy-five rheumatoid arthritis patients studied over nine years. Arthritis Rheum, 1984; 27(8):864–872
5. Pincus T, Brooks RH, Callahan LF, Prediction of long-term mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis according to simple questionnaire and joint count measures. Ann Intern Med.1994; 120 (1):26–28
6. Brosseau L, Welch V, Wells G, deBie R, Gam A, Harman K, Morin M, Shea B and Tugwell P, Low Level Laser Therapy (Classes I,II and III) in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis, Cochrae Database Syst. Review, 2000; (2): CD002049.
7. Bardwell W A, Nieassio P M, Weisman, M H, Gevirtz R, and Bazzo D, Rheumatoid Arthritis Severity Scale: A Brief, PhysicianCompleted Scale Not Confounded by Patient Self Report of Psychoilogical Functioning, Rheumatology, 2002; 41:38-45.
8. Kari Puolakka, Hannu Kotiainen, Timo Mottonin, Pekka Hannonen, Markku Korpela, Heikki Julkunen, Reijo Luukkainen, Kaisa Vuori, Leena Paimela, Harri Blafield, Markku Hakata and Marjatta Leirisalo-Repo, Impact of Initial Aggressive Drug Treatment with a Combination Disease-Modifying Anti rheumatic Drugs on the Development of work Disability in Early Rheumatoid Arthritis, Arthritis and Rheumatism, 2004; 50 (1), 55-62
9. Majithia V, Geraci SA, "Rheumatoid arthritis: diagnosis and management". Am. J. Med., 2007; 120 (11): 936–9
10. Sean Z. Zaho, Justus I. Fiechtner, Elizabeth A. Tindall, Seema D. Dedhiya, William W. Zhao, Jane T. Osterhaus and Shawn S.Yu, Evaluation of Health Related Quality of Life of Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients Treated with Celecoxib, Arthritis Care and Research, 2000; 13(2), 112-121.
11. Nair V, Singh S, Gupta YK, Evaluation of the disease modifying activity of Colchicum luteum Baker in experimental arthritis, J Ethnopharmacol. 2011 Jan 27;133(2):303-7.
12. Unani Pharmacopoeia Committee. Zard Chob. In: The Unani Pharmacopoeia of India, Part I, Volume I. New Delhi, India: Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH). 2007;90-91. (Haldi)
13. Satyavati, G.V. Guggulipid: a promising hypolipidemic agent from guggul (Commiphora wightii). Economic and medicinal plant Research, Plants Traditional Med.1991;, 5: 47 136 International Journal of Current Research and Review www.ijcrr.com Vol. 04 issue 09 May 2012
14. Tripathi, R.M., Gupta, S.S. and Chandra, D.,. Antitrypsin and Anti-hyaluronidase activity of Curcuma longa (Haldi). Indian J. Pharmac, 1973; 5: 260-261
15. Narasimhan, S., Anitha, G., Illango, K. and Mohan Kumar, R.,. Bio-assay guided isolation of active principles from medicinally important plants. In: Herbal Drugs: A twenty First century Perspective. (Sharma, R.K. and Arora, R. Eds). JAYPEE Brothers, New Delhi , 2006;pp- 70-76.
16. Rastogi and Mehrotra, Compend. India Med. Plants,PID, New Delhi, 1990;1:406-408
17. Nizami, Qudsia and M.A. Jafri, Unani drug, jadwar (Delphinium denudatum Wall.) -- a review, Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 2006; 5 (4), 463—467
18. Felson DT, Anderson JJ, Boers M, Bombardier C, Furst D, Goldsmith C, et al. American College of Rheumatology: preliminary definition of improvement in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rhe Rheum 1995;38:727–35
19. Akil M, Amos RS. ABC of rheumatology. Rheumatoid arthritis-I: clinical features and diagnosis. BMJ 1995; 310:587-90.
20. Arnett FC, Edworthy SM, Bloch DA, McShane DJ, Fries JF, Cooper NS, et al. The American Rheumatism Association 1987 revised criteria for the classification of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1988; 31:315-24
21. Khan Mohammad Azam, Ikseer –e-Azam, Urdu Translation by Hkm. Mohammad Kabiruddin, Tibbi Company, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 1939, Vol.II, pp. 1430-48
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17TechnologyPHASE ANALYSIS OF NI-MN-SN FERROMAGNETIC SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
English143147Ajit BeheraEnglish Jyoti Prakash DhalEnglish Patitapabana ParidaEnglish S.C MishraEnglishFerromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMAs) are the novel materials exhibiting shape memory effect (SME) and magnetism simultaneously. They show magnetic field-induced strains at room temperature greater than any electrostrictive, magnetostrictive or piezoelectric material, and faster frequency responsethan temperature driven shape memory alloys. Among various FSMA materials, Ni-Mn-X (X =Ga, In, Sn, Sb) have gained considerable interest due to their multifunctional properties such as shape memory effect, magnetocaloric effect, magnetoresistance, etc., associated with first order martensite to austenite structural transition. FSMA spread its application in broad area from aerospace industry to medical application, but not vividly use; because of its high cost. Ni-Mn-Sn FSMAs shows low cost of manufacturing due to its low value of constituting elements. This paper investigates the behavior of Ni- Mn-Sn Heusler FSMA by varying the weight percentage of Sn. Three alloys i.e. Mn50Ni50-xSnx (x = 5, 7.5, and 10) were produced as bulk polycrystalline ingots by arc melting. In order to identify structural phases X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were conducted at room temperature using Cu Kα radiation. By Differential Scanning Calorimetric (DSC) study it is found that, the transformation temperatures gradually decreases as increasing the Sn content, which shows it can apply in higher working temperature range than that of Ga-FSMAs.
EnglishFerromagnetic Shape Memory Alloys (FSMAs); Ni-Mn-Sn; martensitic transformation.INTRODUCTION
Ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMAs) are the demanding material for magnetic actuator since one can obtain large reversible strains either through martensitic transformation or rearrangement of martensite variants induced by an external magnetic field. A Ni-Mn-Sn Heusler alloy has been found to undergo martensitic transformation at low temperature and the martensite phase has been found to have thermoelastic nature1 . Thermoelastic martensite phase of Ni-Mn-Sn Heusler alloy has been recently shown to be capable of magnetic shape memory effect2-3 . The magnetic field-induced strain observed in these magnetic shape memory alloys differs from conventional magnetostriction involving distortion of the crystal lattice. Magnetic shape memory effect in these materials involves the movement of twin boundaries which results in the growth of one of the twin variants at the expense of the other in response to an applied magnetic field below the martensitic transformation temperature. The crystal structure of Ni-Mn-Ga at high temperature phase (austenite) is L2 with a cubic lattice, as shown in Figure-1. This stoichiometric phase undergoes a martensitic transformation at around 276 K. This diffusionless transformation results in a martensite phase with a tetragonal structure and the transformation is reversible2 . A martensitic phase generally accommodates the strain associated with the transformation by slip or by a formation of twin variants that pack together in compatible orientations to minimize strain energy between the martensitic region and the surrounding untransformed, highly symmetric parent phase. In recent study Mn- based Heusler alloys have been focus as one of the typical magnetocaloric effect material. Among them, it is found that NiMn-Sn SMA is a less cost material due to lesser cost of Sn element. By considering cost, the goal of this investigation is to find a magnetic alloy exhibiting a martensitic phase transformation that would provide a large controllable displacement with the application of low magnetic field at reasonable operating temperature. In many experiment Ni-Mn-Ga alloys are widely examined for which it serves as a reference alloy. But the Husler alloys the choice of Ni-Mn-Sn alloy is due to: (a) Ni-MnSn not expensive as gallium, (b) It does not contain toxic as that of gallium4 , (c) Ni-Mn-Sn is less brittle than Ni-Mn-Ga5 , (d) Low transformation and curie temperature of stoichiometric Ni-Mn-Ga than Ni-Mn-Sn, (e) The austenite and martensite phase of Ni-Mn-Sn have the same crystal structure as the corresponding phases of Ni-Mn-Ga and have the same magnetically easy axis6 , (f) Ni-Mn-Sn alloys are known to have comparably high L21/ tetragonal transition temperature as that of NiMn-Ga, (g) Stoichiometric of Ni-Mn-Sn alloys reveals similar magnetostrictive behavior with respect to temperature as that of Ni-Mn-Ga alloys6 , (h) Ni-Mn-Ga alloys is insufficient for FSMA actuators7 .
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Three ternary intermetallic polycrystalline compound of composition Ni50Mn50-xSnx (x = 5, 7.5 and 10) FSMAs Heusler alloy was prepared by non-consumable arc-melting. The commercial purity of used Ni, Mn, Sn are 99.95%, 99.9% and 99.99% respectively. The melting was carried out under high purity
atmosphere (99.996%). For the preparation of alloy ingot, the melting chamber was evacuated to a pressure about 10-5 torr and then was purged with pure argon. The process of evacuation and purging was repeated up to three times. The melting was carried out in an argon atmosphere and at a chamber pressure of nearly 500Mtorr. For complete homogenization of the alloy, the entire melting process was repeated several times. Then the alloy was cast into a rod form shown in Figure 2. The ingot was sealed in a quartz ampoule filled with helium gas and solutionized at 10000C for 24 hour for homogenization. The Martensitic Transformation and phase in these alloys successfully characterized by using X-Ray Diffraction and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) DSC carried out in Mettler device working with a liquid nitrogen cooling system. I Cu-Ka radiation (k=1.5418A°) used and was carried out in the interval 30º≤2? ≤ 75º with a step increment of 0.05º.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Thermal analysis: The transformation temperatures the alloy series Ni50Mn50-xSnx (x = 5, 7.5 and 10) have been determined from DSC. In forward martensitic transformation, Martensitic start temperature (Ms) and Martensite finish temperature (Mf) are measured. Simultaneously in reverse martensitic transformation Austenite start temperature (As) and Austenite finish temperature (Af) are measured. Ms , Mf , As and Af temperature of prepared alloy are given in Table-1. The transition temperatures of these alloys are plotted in the diagrams of figure-3. It is observed that Ms, Mf, As and Af decreases almost linearly by increasing the weight percent of Sn in the prepared alloy.
XRD analysis:
To determine the thermal analysis conditions it is important the knowledge of crystal structure at room temperature. So, XRD patterns were collected at room temperature by taking Cu-Ka radiation (k=1.5418A). XRD pattern of Sn5, Sn7.5, Sn10 are given in Figure-4, 5 & 6. Miller indexes were assigned by using Philips-X‘pertHighscore and JCPDF Software. For Sn5 alloy, the crystalline structure is Orthorhombic having lattice parameter a=0.7888nm, b=0.5383nm and c=0.5143. For Sn7.5 alloy, the crystalline structure is Orthorhombic and having lattice parameter a=0.7862nm, b=0.5379nm & c=0.5117nm. For Sn10 alloy, the crystalline structure is L21, which shows austenitic phase and its lattice parameter, a=0.5997nm. In Sn5 & Sn7.5 alloys the phase is found orthorhombic, but their relative peaks intensity is different. It is known that Heusler alloys sometimes present texture effects8 . In Sn10 alloy, the peaks reflections indexed as 3 1 1 and 3 3 1 confirms the existence of the highly ordered L21 structure. From XRD diffraction patterns it is clear that DSC scans of alloys Sn5 and Sn7.5 should be performed by heating from room temperature in order to detect the martensite-austenite transition. Similarly, DSC scan of alloy Sn10 should be performed by cooling from room temperature.
CONCLUSIONS
For Ni50Mn50-xSnx (x = 5, 7.5 and 10) series Alloy, as the Sn content increases from 5 to 10, the transformation temperature from martensite to austenite decreases. From X-Ray analysis, the alloys with Sn5 and Sn7.5 has orthorhombic martensite phase whereas alloy with Sn10 has a Martensite cubic L21 phase.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors /editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1835http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18351. P. J.Webster, K. R. A. Ziebeck, S. L. Town, and M. S. Peak, ?Magnetic order and phase transformation in Ni2MnGa,? Philos. Mag., vol. 49B, pp. 295-310, 1984.
2. K. Ullakko, J. K. Huang, C. Kantner, R. C. O‘handley, and V. V. Kokorin, ?Large magnetic-field-induced strains in Ni MnGa single crystals,? J. Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 69, 1966-1968, 1996.
3. K. Ullakko, J. K. Huang, V. V. Kokorin, and R. C. O‘handley, ?Magnetically controlled shape memory effect in Ni MnGa intermetallics,? Scrip. Metall., vol. 36, 1133- 1138, 1997.
4. S. Chatterjee, S. Giri, S. K. De and S. Majumdar, ?Magnetic Investigations on NiMn-Sn Ferromagnetic Shape MemoryAlloy?, Advanced Materials Research Vol. 52, 215-220, 2008.
5. P. J. Brown, A P Gandy, K Ishida, R Kainuma, T Kanomata et. al., The magnetic and structural properties of the magnetic shape memory compound Ni2Mn1.44Sn0.56, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 18-2249, 2006, doi:10.1088/0953-8984/18/7/012.
6. Byung Sang Choi, ?Thermal, Magnetic and Magnetoelastic data on three different Heusler alloys based on Ni-Mn-X (X=Ga, In or Sn)?, IEEE Transaction on Magnetic, vol.42, no.7, 1770-1777, July 2006.
7. Y.Sutou, Y. Imano, N. Koeda, T. Omori, R. Kainuma et.al. ?Magnetic and martensitic transformations of NiMnX(X=In,Sn,Sb) ferromagnetic shape memory alloys?, volume 85, number 19, 4358-4360, 2004, doi: 10.1063/1.1808879.
8. Sanchez-Llamazares JL, Sanchez T, Santos JD, Perez MJ, Sanchez ML, Hernando B, et al. ?Martensitic phase transformation in rapidly solidified Mn50Ni40In10 alloy
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17General SciencesFISH SURVIVAL: MINED OUT ACIDIC LEACHATES
English148154Vijay YeulEnglish Bijan ShilEnglish Rajesh ChivaneEnglishThis research work brings to the attention of those more concern in fish issues caused by the chemical parameters on natural resource water. To carryout research on behavior / survival rate of Puti fish in Nallah water having less content of Dissolved Oxygen and low pH due to contamination of Acid mine drainage was considered. Various concentrations of synthetic acidic leachate have been used to perform the experiment. Synthetic water is prepared in laboratory for experiment. Ranvendli nallah water is collected for preparation of synthetic water and Puti fishes are collected from same nallah. pH aned Dissolved Oxygen are essential water parameters for survival of fishes in any natural resource. Experiment conducted to study fish behavior related to the concentration of the assessed parameters, pH aned Dissolved Oxygen in Six jars. The study leads to the conclusion that though acidic leachates drop the pH aned Dissolved Oxygen of natural water but fish can survive to the great extent in the same water.
EnglishFish, Contaminated Water, Survival, Acidic Leachate.INTRODUCTION
Once acid drainage is created, metals are released into the surrounding environment, and become readily available to biological organisms. In water, for example, when fish are exposed directly to metals and H+ ions through their gills, impaired respiration may result from chronic and acute toxicity. Fish are also exposed indirectly to metals through ingestion of contaminated sediments and food items. A common weathering product of sulfide oxidation is the formation of iron hydroxide (Fe(OH)3), a red/orange colored precipitate found in thousands of miles of streams affected by AMD. Iron hydroxides and oxy hydroxides may physically coat the surface of stream sediments and streambeds destroying habitat, diminishing availability of clean gravels used for spawning, and reducing fish food items such as benthic macro-invertebrates. Acid mine drainage, characterized by acidic metalliferrous conditions in water, is responsible for physical, chemical, and biological degradation of stream habitat. Water contaminated by AMD, often containing elevated concentrations of metals, can be toxic to aquatic organisms, leaving receiving streams devoid of most living creatures (Kimmel 1983). Receiving waters may have pH as low as 2.0 to 4.5, levels toxic to most forms of aquatic life (Hill 1974).
Data relating to specific effects of low pH on growth and reproduction (Fromm 1980) may be related to calcium metabolism and protein synthesis. Fromm (1980) suggested that a ?no effects? level of pH for successful reproduction is near 6.5, while most fish species are not affected when the pH is in a range from 5.5 to 10.5. Howells et al. (1983) reported interactions of pH, calcium, and aluminum may be important to understanding the overall effects on fish survival and productivity. Several reports indicate low pH conditions alter gill membranes or change gill mucus resulting in death due to hypoxia. Hatchery raised salmonids can tolerate pH 5.0, but below this level hemeostatic electrolyte and osmotic mechanisms become impaired (Fromm 1980). A study of the distribution of fish in Pennsylvania streams affected by acid mine drainage (Cooper and Wagner 1973) found fish severely impacted at pH 4.5 to 5.5. Ten species revealed some tolerance to the acid conditions of pH 5.5 and below; 38 species were found living in waters with pH values ranging from 5.6 to 6.4; while 68 species were found only at pH levels greater than 6.4. Further, these investigators reported complete loss of fish in 90% of streams with waters of pH 4.5 and total acidity of 15 mg/L. Healthy, unpolluted streams generally support several species and moderate abundance of 6 individuals; whereas impacted streams are dominated by fewer species and often low to moderate numbers of only a few organisms. Streams affected by acid mine drainage are poor in taxa richness and abundance. In older studies (Warner 1971), more species of insects and algae were found in unpolluted West Virginia streams (pH > 4.5) compared to those streams polluted by acid (pH 2.8 to 3.8). Reductions of benthic fauna in a West Virginia stream severely affected by acid mine water were reported by Menendez (1978). In more recent studies (Farag et al. 2003), some streams in the Boulder River watershed in Montana impacted by nearly 300 abandoned metal mines are devoid of all fish near mine sources. Populations of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and cutthroat trout (O. clarki) were found further downstream and away from sources of acid mine drainage. In a 2003 study evaluating the effect of localized habitat degradation from a gold mine near the Yukon River on population structure of salmon, it was suggested that coho salmon (O. kisutch) may be at risk of losing genetic diversity due to localized habitat degradation. The abandoned Britannia copper mine in British Columbia has been releasing acid mine drainage into local waters for many years. Investigators compared fish abundance, distribution and survival at contaminated and non-contaminated areas (Barry et al. 2000). Chum salmon (O. keta) fry abundance was significantly lower near the impacted waters (pH < 6 and dissolved copper > 1 mg/L) than the reference area. The investigators also reported that laboratory bioassays confirmed acid mine drainage from the Britannia Mine was toxic to juvenile chinook (O. tshawytscha) and chum salmon. Chinook salmon smolt transplanted to surface cages near Britannia Creek experienced 100% mortality within 2 days (Barry et al 2000). The scientific literature is replete with studies designed to quantify the adverse environmental effects of acid mine drainage on aquatic resources. Most recent investigations focus on multiple bioassessments of large watersheds.
These assessments include water and sediment chemistry, benthic macroinvertebrate sampling for taxa richness and abundance, laboratory acute water column evaluations, laboratory chronic sediment testing, caged fish within impacted streams, and development of models to explain and predict impacts of acid mine drainage on various aquatic species (Soucek et al. 2000, Woodward et al. 1997, Maret and MacCoy 2002, Hansen et al. 2002, Kaeser and Sharpe 2001, Baldigo and Lawrence 2000, Johnson et al. 1987, Griffith et al. 2004, Schmidt et al. 2002, Martin and Goldblatt 2007, Beltman et al. 1999, Hansen et al. 1999, Boudou et al. 2005). In line with the above, authors have performed an experiment on assessment of fish survival in natural nallah water, acid mined drainage contaminated nallah water and acid mined drainage effluents. In the present research work Puti fish was used for the experiment. Puti Fish ( Scientific name Swamp barb ) The swamp barb is a tropical freshwater fish belonging to the Cyprininae sub-family of the (Cyprinidae) family. It originates in inland waters in Asia, and is found in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Myanmar.It natively inhabits streams, rivers, canals, mangroves, marshes, swamps, ponds, and inundated fields, mainly in shallow water. They live in a tropical climate in water with a 6.0 - 6.5 pH, a water hardness of 8 - 15 dGH, and a temperature range of 68–77 °F (20– 25 °C). It feeds on worms, benthic crustaceans, insects, and plant matter.The fish will grow in length up to 6 inches (15 centimeters) and weigh up to 60 grams( http://en.wikipedia.org ) RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL
For the Puti Fish ( Scientific name Swamp barb ) species there has been made a correlation between chemical parameters viz. pH and Dissolved Oxygen of the nallah water in the jar and fish' survival rate. The experiment was done in six 2 liter jar with different chemical concentrations. One liter volume of water sample was taken in each jar. Natural Nallah Water was taken for the experiment purpose. Chemical analysis of Nallah water is given in Table No. 1. Six numbers of Puti fish recovered from same nallah from where the water sample was collected were used in experiment shown in Figure No.1 Synthetic water required for the experiment purpose was prepared by using nallah water and acidic leachate from mined out drainage of coal mines. Six Synthetic samples each of 1 liter volume were prepared from the range of pH 2 to 7 shown in Figure No.2. the concentration of water from all six jars is measured. pH was measured on calibrated table top pH meter and concentration of dissolved oxygen was measured by volumetric method.
RESULTS
The results shown in Table No. 2 and Figure No.3 clearly indicate that, though the puti fish live in a tropical climate in water with a pH of 6.0 - 6.5 but from experimental results it is evidenced that it can also survive to a great extent in low pH value upto 3.04 and Dissolved Oxygen value upto 0.78 mg/liter.
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION
Acid mine drainage and associated weathering products commonly result in physical, chemical and biological impairment of surface water. Evidence from literature and field observations suggests that permitting large scale surface mining in sulfide-hosted rock with the expectation that no degradation of surface water will result due to acid generation imparts a substantial and unquantifiable risk to water quality and fisheries. It can be predicted from the above research that responses for survival of Puti fish in low oxygen and pH levels is possible and survival time in large quantity of flowing natural stream will be more than experimental condition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1836http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=18361. Baldigo, B. P., and G. B. Lawrence (2000). "Composition of fish communities in relation to stream acidification and habitat in the Neversink River, New York." Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 129(1): 60-76.
2. Barry, K. L., J. A. Grout, C. D. Levings, B. H. Nidle, and G. E. Piercey (2000). "Impacts of acid mine drainage on juvenile salmonids in an estuary near Britannia Beach in Howe Sound British Columbia." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57(10): 2031-2043.
3. Beltman, D. J., W. H. Clements, J. Lipton, and D. Cacela (1999). "Benthic invertebrate metals exposure, accumulation, and community level effects downstream from a hard rock mine site." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18(2): 299-307.
4. Boudou, A., R. Maury-Brachet, M. Coquery, G. Durrieu, and D. Cossa (2005). "Synergic effect of gold mining and damming on mercury contamination in fish." Environmental Science and Technology 39(8): 2448-2454.
5. Cooper, E. L., and C. C. Wagner (1973). ?The effects of acid mine drainage on fish populations.? In: Fish and Food Organisms in Acid Waters of
6. Pennsylvania, US Environmental Protection. EPA-R#-73-032: 114. 21
7. Farag, A. M., D.Skaar, D.A. Nimick, E. MacConnell, and C. Hogstrand (2003). "Characterizing aquatic health using salmonids mortality, physiology, and biomass estimates in streams with elevated concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc in the Boulder River Watershed, Montana." Transaction of the American Fisheries Society 132(3): 450- 457.
8. Fromm, P. O. (1980). "A review of some physiological and toxicological responses of freshwater fish to acid stress." Environmental Biology of Fishes 5(1): 79- 93.
9. Griffith, M. B., J. M. Lazorchak, and A.T. Herlihy (2004). "Relationships among exceedances of metals criteria, the results of ambient bioassays, and community metrics in mining impacted streams." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23(7): 1786- 1795.
10. Hansen, J. A., D. F. Woodward, E. E. Little, A. J. DeLonay, and H. L. Bergman (1999). "Behavioral avoidance: possible mechanism for explaining abundance and distribution of trout in a metals-impacted river." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18(2): 313- 17.
11. Hansen, J. A., P. G. Welsh, J. Lipton, and D. Cacela (2002). "Effects of copper exposure on growth and survival of juvenile bull trout." Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 131(4): 690-697.
12. Hill, R. D. (1974). ?Mining impacts on trout habitat.? Proceedings of a Symposium on Trout Habitat, Research, and Management, Boone, NC, Appalachian Consortium Press. 22
13. Howells, G. D., D. J. A. Brown, K. Sadler (1983). "Effects of acidity, calcium, and aluminum on fish survival and productivity - a review." Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 34(6): 559-570.
14. Kimmel W. G. and Argent D. G. (1983). ?Stream Fish Community Responses to a Gradient of
15. Specific Conductance? Water Air Soil Pollut DOI 10.1007/s11270-009-0085-x,
16. Springer Science
17. Johnson, D. W., H. A. Simonin, J. R. Colquhoun, and F. M. Flack (1987). "In situ toxicity tests of fishes in acid waters." Biogeochemistry 3(1-3): 181-208.
18. Kaeser, A. J., and W. E. Sharpe (2001). "The influence of acidic runoff episodes on slimy sculpin reproduction in Stone Run." Transactions of the American Fisheries Society
19. Maret, T. R., and D. E. MacCoy (2002). "Fish assemblages and environmental variables associated with hard-rock mining in the Coeur d‘Alene River Basin, Idaho." Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 131(5): 865-884.
20. Martin, A. J., and R. Goldblatt (2007). "Speciation, behavior, and bioavailability of copper downstream of a mine-impacted lake." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26(12): 2594-2603.
21. Menendez, R. (1978). ?Effects of acid water on Shavers Fork – a case history.? Surface mining and fish/wildlife needs in the Eastern United States., U.S. DOI, Fish and Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS 78/81: 160-169.
22. Schmidt, T. S., D. J. Soucek, and D. S. Cherry (2002). "Modification of an ecotoxicological rating to bioassess small acid mine drainage-impacted watersheds exclusive of benthic macroinvertebrate analysis." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 21(5): 1091-1097.
23. Soucek, D. J., D. S. Cherry, R. J. Currie, H. A. Latimer, and G. C. Trent (2000). "Laboratory and field validation in an integrative assessment of an acid mine drainage-impacted watershed." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 19(4): 1036-1043.
24. Warner, R. W. (1971). "Distribution of biota in a stream polluted by acid mine drainage." Ohio Journal of Science 71(4): 202-215.
25. Woodward, D. F., J. K. Goldstein, A. M. Farag, and W. G. Brunbaugh (1997). "Cutthroat trout avoidance of metals and conditions characteristic of a mining waste site: Coeur d‘Alene River, Idaho." Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 126(4): 699-706.
26. http://en.wikipedia.org/swampbarb
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524149EnglishN2012May17HealthcareORO FACIAL PAIN -AN OVERVIEW
English155166Deepa PonnaiyanEnglish K. M BhatEnglish G. S BhatEnglish D.J VictorEnglishThe article is an overview of the current concepts regarding the properties and behavior of pain. Pain is now being recognized as a subjective feeling more than a mere physical sensation. It is no longer viewed as a single sensory event signaling tissue damage. Thus, simultaneously the role of psychological factors in the experience of pain has also been highlighted to apply this knowledge to oral pain conditions. Pain is a complex perception that differs enormously among individual patients. It is for this reason why the word ?pain‘ has not been defined in a manner agreeable to all, despite its long history. The understanding of pain, to its fullest, requires an adroit clinician, one who is cognizant in the integration of neuroanatomy, psychology and pharmacology. A broader goal is to further the dentist‘s understanding of physiology of pain to aid in the diagnosis of chronic orofacial pain and its successful management.
EnglishNociceptor; Orofacial pain; Odontalgia; Biopsychological.INTRODUCTION There are several difficulties in understanding the current concepts of pain. There are numerous research works being published with such a wide array of information available, sometimes conflicts in opinions do arise. In addition there are many theories which are vague and unfamiliar to clinicians regarding the mechanisms of pain.
As said by
Sir William Osler:- ?
What You Don?t Know – You Won?t Diagnose?
Thus, the purpose of this review is to summarize the understanding of physiology of pain and the role of psychological factors in pain perception to aid clinicians in the successful diagnosis. Pain is the cynosure of basic and clinical sciences. Every individual has experienced pain in some form or the other in their lifetime. It is that one symptom which brings even the most reluctant patient to a doctor. Pain even in its benign form warns an individual that something is wrong, and that he/she should take medications or see a doctor. So, it is spoken as also having a protective mechanism. As dentists, we assume a great responsibility in the management of pain in the orofacial region. Failure to do so will lead a patient to skepticism and fear to return. Therefore, a successful clinician would be one who can relieve pain by administering treatment with least amount of trauma.
Historical perspective:
The word pain is derived from the name of the Greek goddess of revenge ?Poine? (Poine in Greek means a fine or penalty). Aristotle was the first to distinguish the five physical senses, and he considered pain to be ?Passion of Soul? that results from intensification of other sensory experience.1 In the Middle Ages and Renaissance evidence began to accumulate on the sensory component of pain. Leonardo Da Vinci in the 15th century developed the idea that brain is the central organ responsible for sensation. He also developed the idea that spinal cord transmits pain sensations. In 1664 the French philosopher René Descartes described what to this day is called a ?Pain Pathway?. He illustrated how particles of fire, in contact with the foot, travel to the brain and he compared pain sensation to the ringing of a bell1 . However, in the 19th century, pain came to dwell under a new domain – science paving the way for advances in pain therapy. As the 21st century unfolds we have seen tremendous advances in pain research and a future that includes a better understanding of pain, along with greatly improved treatments to keep it in check.
Definitions of Pain:
No simple definition of the word ?pain‘ will be acceptable to all nor is any definition likely to be an endearing one. Rapid developments and discoveries in the field of pain research will mandate periodic updating and redefinition.
Dorland?s Dictionary
defines pain as ?A more or less localized sensation of discomfort, distress or agony resulting from the stimulation of specialized nerve endings. It serves as a protective mechanism as it induces the sufferer to remove or withdraw from the source?. This definition implies to say that pain is a protective mechanism against injury and being external to the body, the presumed noxious agent could be avoided by proper evasive action.
Evidence from the clinic and laboratory demonstrates that pain cannot be divided simply into either structural (organic) or psychological (non organic) components. Current models view pain as a complex experience that by its nature includes psychological components. Pain is now being defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP), as ?unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage?2,3 . It is clear from this definition that pain represents a subjective psychological state rather than an activity that is induced solely by noxious stimulation. It should be noted that, if the subject regards his / her experience as pain, it should be accepted as pain. This definition is currently accepted as it incorporates the physical and psychological aspect of pain.
Changing Concept of Pain:
Pain is now being recognized as being more of an experience than only a sensation. The sensory dimension, registers the nature of the initiating stimulus including its quality, intensity, location and duration.
The three sensory dimensions of pain are:
1) Cognitive
2) Emotional
3) Motivational
Pain perception is therefore the sum of the interactions between psychological and physical functions communicated by the ?Biopsychological Model of Pain? 4 (WHO) (Fig 1).
Neuroanatomy of a Pain Pathway:
Structural unit of a pain pathway is a nerve cell. Afferent and efferent conducting impulses from this neuron travel towards central nervous system, relaying the pain sensation. Sensory receptors are the distal terminals of afferent nerves, specialized receptors that respond to physical and chemical stimuli are located. Once these receptors have been adequately stimulated, an impulse is generated in the primary afferent neuron that is carried centrally into the CNS. Sensory receptors are specific for certain types of stimuli. They can be classified into three main groups as follows5 .
1. Exteroceptors
These are sensory receptors that are stimulated by the immediate external environment and are appropriately fashioned and located so as to be exposed to the organism‘s environment. These receptors provide information from the skin and mucosa (the envelope) Some examples of this type of receptor are:-
a. Merkel‘s corpuscles: Tactile receptors in the sub mucosa of tongue and oral mucosa.
b. Meissner‘s corpuscles: Tactile receptors in skin.
c. Ruffini‘s corpuscles: Pressure and warmth receptors.
d. Krause‘s corpuscles or end-bulbs: Cold receptors.
e. Free nerve endings: Perceive superficial pain and touch.
2. Proprioceptors
These are the sensory receptors that provide information from the musculoskeletal structures concerning the pressure, position and movement of the body. Most part sensations conducted by there are below conscious levels. Examples of these are muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, pacinian corpuscles, periodontal mecahnoceptors and free nerve endings.
3. Interoceptors:
These are receptors that are located in, and transmit impulses from the viscera (supply system) of the body. Sensation from these receptors, for the most part are involved in voluntary functioning of body and is below conscious level. Examples are pacinian corpuscles for pressure sensation and free nerve endings.
Peripheral and Central Mechanisms of Nociception
Nociception, in other words pain perception involves peripheral and central pathways and relayed by receptors that respond to harmful (noxious) stimuli .They are called as nociceptors6 . The most conspicuous part of the body with no receptors is brain. Morphologically they are free nerve endings. They differ with respect to their axons are (A-fibres) myelinated or unmyelinated and their responsiveness to particularly forms of noxious stimuli. These nociceptors are present within a receptor field which is an area of the skin or its equivalent part from where information is gathered by single receptor. Two types of nociceptors are seen mainly: The peripheral mechanism of pain is a complex interplay of nociceptors and inflammatory mediators causing pain. Damaged tissue release a cocktail of chemicals, the inflammatory agents that have vascular and neural effects. The vascular effects produced are vasodilation (causing color and rubor) and increased vascular permeability (causing tumor). Neural effects, involve either activation or sensitization of nociceptors, thus relate to pain (Dolor). These agents include Potassium ions, hydrogen ions, serotonin, prostaglandins, neuropeptides, adenosine, nor adrenalin and various other cytokines.
Nociceptor Types7 :
1. A- Fiber nociceptors:
All myelinated nociceptor may be categorized as A-delta fibres, i.e. the thinnest myelinated nerves. Depending on the kind of stimuli they respond to the A – delta nociceptors are divided into 3 types: A - mechano - nociceptors – respond only to noxious mechanical stimuli.A - polymodal – nociceptors – respond to all types of noxious stimuli i.e mechanical, thermal and chemical. Other A nociceptors – respond only to cold, or to hot and chemical but not mechanical noxious stimuli has also been reported.
2. C-Fiber nociceptors:
Most of the unmyelinated nociceptors are also polymodal, responding to strong mechanical stimuli, intense heat or cold and various painproducing chemicals. C-fiber polymodal nociceptors are the most numerous and arguably the most important nociceptors in the human body
Diameter 0.5 – 1 m Velocity 0.5 – 2 m/s Pain ? A and C-Fibres Rapid, pricking pain Slow,burning pain (2nd (1st PAIN) 8 PAIN) 8
Receptors can be specialized organs or structures or can be just bare nerve terminals. Pain receptors are ?free nerve endings? (bare nerve). They are described as naked, as the have no capsule surrounding them. They form a network that is especially dense in cutaneous layers of mucous membranes and periodontium. Since pain receptors respond to wide variety of stimuli, they are called as ?polymodal‘. Fast pain receptors are those that are sensitive to mechanical and thermal stimuli of noxious strength. Whereas slow pain receptors are sensitive not only to noxious thermal or mechanical stimuli but also associated with a wide variety of chemicals associated with inflammation like serotonin, bradykinin etc. Neural Pathways of Pain Fields (1987)9 described that the subjective experience of pain arises by four distinct processes: transduction, transmission, modulation and perception
1. Transduction
It is the process by which noxious stimuli lead to the electrical activity in the appropriate sensory nerve endings. These noxious stimuli can be in the form of thermal and mechanical stimuli, noxious chemicals, noxious cold, endogenous algesic chemical substances (inflammatory mediators). They are released in the body in response to tissue injury. The body has several types of sensory organs (receptors) that initiate process of nociception.
2. Transmission
This refers to the neural events that carry the nociceptive input into the CNS for proper processing. There are three basis components for transmission.
i) Peripheral afferent nerve or first order neuron (Dubner and Bennett 1983)10
These are cells in the posterior nerve root ganglia. These neurons receive impulses of pain sensation (nociceptive input) from pain receptors (sensory organ) through dendrites and their axons reach the spinal cord. These first order neurons include the A fibers- A , A , A , A and C fibers. Each sensory receptor is attached to a first order or primary afferent neuron that will carry the impulse to central nervous system. Three classes of nociceptive afferent neurons provide the input whereby the brain perceives pain.
1. A – Delta mechano thermal afferents: They are primarily A – delta fibers that conduct at a velocity of 12 to 30 m/s and respond to intense thermal and mechanical stimuli. Provide high degree of discriminative information. Peculiar to primates.
2. C-Polymodal nociceptive Conduct much slowly at velocity of 0.5 m/s and respond to mechanical, thermal and chemical stimuli in all mammals. At this rate it takes an impulse 2 seconds to go from big toe to spinal cord.
3. High threshold mechanoceptive afferents (A - ) Chiefly A – delta fibres respond to intense mechanical stimuli in all mammals. These can also be sensitized by alogenic substances or repeated noxious stimulation to respond to noxious heat also. Only the first two classes of nociceptive afferents normally respond to noxious heat. 4. Silent Nociceptor or sleeping afferents These are insensitive afferents normally unresponsive to transient excessive stimulation, but become sensitive to mechanical stimuli in presence of inflammation.
ii) Second order neurons (Okeson)11
The primary afferent neuron carrying impulse into the CNS synapses with the second-order neurons. This is also referred to as interneuron or transmission neuron since it transfers the impulse on to the higher centers. Synapse of primary afferent and second-order neuron occurs in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. There are three specific types of second-order neurons that transfer impulses to higher centers. They are named according to the type of impulses they carry. Low threshold mechanosensitive neurons (LTM) transfer information of light touch, pressure and proprioception. Nociceptive specific neurons (NS) exclusively carry impulse related to noxious stimulation. Wide dynamic range neuron (WDR) respond to wide range of stimulus intensities ranging from non-noxious to noxious. Nociception is primarily carried by the nociceptive specific and wide dynamic range neurons. Under normal conditions, it is not thought that the low threshold mechanosensitive neurons are involved in the transfer of nociception.
iii) Third order neurons11:
There are the neurons of thalamic multi reticular formation, rectum and gray matter around the aqueduct of sylvius. Axons from these neurons reach the sensory area of cerebral cortex. Some fibers from reticular formation reach hypothalamus (limbic system). The third order neurons mostly constitute the ascending pathways like: a. Neo-spinothalamic tract (fast pain) b. Paleo spinothalamic tract (slow and chronic pain) c. Trigeminal pathway (oro facial pain).
3. Modulation:
It refers to the ability of the CNS to control pain transmitting neurons. This involves the descending Inhibitory systems in the brain. When the pain modulating system is active, noxious stimuli produce less activity in the pain transmission pathway. Several areas of the cortex and brain stem have been identified that can either enhance or reduce nociceptive input arriving by the way of transmitting neurons.
4. Perception:
This is the final step in subjective experience of pain. At this step the brain perceives the pain. When the nociceptive input reaches the cortex, perception occurs, which immediately initiates a complex interaction of neurons between higher centers of the brain. At this point suffering and pain behavior begins. This is least understood and is also variable aspect between individuals12 . In a study done by Koyama T et al (2005)13 it was observed that expectations of decreased pain profoundly reduce both the subjective experience of pain and pain-related brain activation. Adequate stimulation of the primary receptors generates impulse in the primary afferent neuron that is carried centrally into the central nervous system.
Central Pain Mechanisms
Constitute nerve tracts ascending to brain; pain signals to brain take two different paths.
1. Neospinothalamic Tract – For fast pain, includes A-delta fibers that transmit acute pain. Nerve fibres terminate in lamina I (Lamina Marginalis) of dorsal horn of spinal cord. 2. Paleospinothalamic Tract – For slow pain, this is primitive tract, involves C-fibers. Relay chronic slow pain. Nerve fibers terminate in lamina II and III (Substantia Gelatinosa) of dorsal horn of spinal cord. Fibers terminate widely in brain stem –intra laminar nuclei. Only 1/10 th to 1/4 th of fibers pass all the way to thalamus, instead most of the fibers end in one of the three areas of the brain stem. -Reticular Nuclei – of medulla, pons, and mesencepahalon. -Tectal Area – of mesencephalon. -Periaqueductal Gray Region – surrounding aqueduct of sylvius.
Trigeminal Pain Pathway:
Somatic impulses from face and oral structures do not enter spinal cord by way of spinal nerves. Instead they are carried by way of trigeminal nerve.
Clinical Significance of Trigeminal System14:
An appreciation of the arrangement of the trigeminal nociceptive system provides insight into the interesting pain and referral pattern that are encountered in the head and neck region. The nucleus caudalis corresponds to the substantia gelatinosa of the rest of the spinal dorsal horn and is the most caudal portion of trigeminal spinal tract nucleus. The arrangement of trigeminal nerve fibers within this nucleus is significant and the fact that the nucleus descends as low as the third and fourth cervical vertebra (C 3-4) in the spinal cord. Fibers from all three trigeminal branches are found at all levels of the nucleus, arranged with the mandibular division highest and ophthalmic division lowest. In addition, they are arranged in such a manner that fibers closest to the midline of the face synapse in the most rostral portion of the tract. The more lateral the origin of the fibers in the face, the more caudal the synapse in the nucleus. This ?Laminated? arrangement helps to explain why maxillary molar toothaches may be perceived as pain in mandibular molar on the same side (referred pain) but not in an incisor4 . Role of experience in referred pain: Obviously, knowledge of referred pain and the common sites of pain referral from each of the viscera are of great importance to physician. Best known example, is referral of cardiac pain to the inner aspect of the left arm. Other examples in dentistry include, referred pulpal pain e.g. pain from maxillary premolars may refer pain to mandibular premolars. Experience also plays an important role in referred pain. Pain originating in the maxillary sinus is usually referred to nearby teeth, but in patients with a site of previous surgical operation, trauma, or localized pathological process, such pain is regularly referred to these previously traumatized teeth. This is true even when the teeth are a considerable distance away from the sinus. This phenomenon was discussed by Ruch and Fulton as Habit reference 14 .
Pain Theories:
There were various theories put forth since the classical description by Rene Descartes in 1664. Specificity theory (Von Frey), Summation theory by Goldsheider 1894 and Sensory interaction theory by Noordenbos.15 But the most widely accepted theory is Modified Gate Control Theory by Melzack and Wall 1965.16,17 According to this two factors regulate transmission of pain: 1. A gating control mechanism situated in a specific area of grey matter in spinal cord, called substantia gelatinosa. Pain impulses are regulated by opening and closing of the gate. Large diameter fiber when relaying an impulse closes the gate to pain.
Small diameter fibers relaying impulses open the gate to pain. 2. Descending control from the brain‘s intrinsic mechanism.
Clinical significance of gate control system (Weine) 18 1.
Relief of pain through rubbing massage techniques and application of ice packs. 2. Counter irritation. 3. Acupuncture, Transcutaneous electronic nerve stimulation (TENS) Intentional stimulation of large diameter fibres (A-α) closes the gate to pain. 4. Higher Centre Modulaton Gate control mechanism can be further modulated by intrinsic brain mechanisms and through emotional, psychic, visual as well as past learned experiences.
ORO FACIAL PAIN
Dentists should be skilled in treatment of acute orofacial pain because it often accompanies even meticulous clinical care. On the basis of differential diagnosis, the orofacial pain has been classified broadly into four groups 19: Typical Facial pain: Pain of extracranial origin, e.g dental, ocular, ear-nose-throat, salivary gland, temporomandibular joint, anginal pain, etc. I. Primary Neuralgias: Trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, geniculate and post herpetic neuralgias II. Secondary Neuralgias: Mental nerve neuralgia, causalgia, auriculotemporal nerve syndrome etc. III. Atypical Neuralgias: Pain of vascular origin.
Mechanisms of Orofacial Pain20:
Peripheral Pain Mechanism
- Cutaneous Pain - Dentinal Pain
- Inflammatory
Pain Central Pain Mechanisms:
Trigeminal pain pathway Clinical significance of inflammatory pain: The inflammatory response to tissue damage results in the production of pain, edema and local increased temperature, redness and loss of function. Unlike dentinal pain, pain associated with inflammation has a prolonged time course. In the periphery Substance-P, CGRP (calcitonin gene- related peptide) neuropeptides are transported from the CNS to the periphery. The relationship of these short lived inflammatory mediators with the release of substance P and the process of plasma extravasations form a positive feed back loop continually refueling the inflammatory process. This explains the prolonged time course of the inflammation which far exceeds the initial stimulation of the dental procedure21 .
Pharmacological management of pain in the periphery22:
Pain perception: Physio anatomical process, where impulse is generated following stimulus which is transmitted to central nervous system. This varies very little.
Pain reaction:
Psychophysiological process represents person‘s manifestation of process that just occurred. This varies among individuals. Determines how patient will react to unpleasant experience. Pain reaction threshold is inversely proportional to perception. To control pain, both aspects must be controlled23. The control of pain is brought about by nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs (NSAID‘s) .These exert their action at the nerve ending by blocking prostaglandin synthesis.
Clinical application:
Usage of drugs like ibuprofen or other NSAID‘S before a surgical procedure. This is also called as preemptive therapy.
Rationale for this therapy:
Blockade of enzymes before initiation of tissue damage. Pre treating patients with ibuprofen delays the onset and reduces the magnitude of postoperative pain.
This prescription strategy emphasizes how clinicians can improve patient care by knowledge of pain physiology. ?Ceiling Effect? – when an analgesic produces a maximum effect and beyond this no additional increment of drug will produce any significant analgesia. This ?ceiling effect‘ probably reflects the contribution of other inflammatory mediators which are unaffected by the aspirin-like-drugs 20 . The metabolism of arachidonic acid via lipoxygenase pathway produces leukotreins and hydroperoxyeicosatetranoic acid (5HPETE‘s). Aspirin like drugs are ineffective in blocking this pathway. In chronic temporomandibular joint pain, the lipoxygenase products are formed. This explains why in chronic temporomandibular pain NSAID‘S are not effective24, 25 .
DIAGNOSIS OF OROFACIAL PAIN26, 27, 28
To understand the diagnosis and treatment of orofacial pain, one must know the peripheral and central mechanisms that are involved in production and management of pain. The diagnosis of orofacial pain can often prove quite difficult for the dentist. A successful diagnosis of orofacial pain depends upon
1. Accurate and detailed history
2. Detailed clinical examination
3. Through knowledge of conditions
The history is the most important means of diagnosing orofacial pain, to differentiate the different causes, importance to certain key points have to be noted29 . Location - pain is either diffuse or localized. Patient usually points with one finger when describing pain of dental origin or trigeminal neuralgia, atypical facial pain is more diffuse which may radiate across the midline. Character – sharp or dull. Aching or throbbing/shooting. If patient has difficulty in describing the pain, they can rate pain severity on a scale of zero (no pain) to 10 (most severe pain that patient has experienced), or ask them to mark on a line divided into ten sections (visual analogue scale). These ?tools‘ help to assess the severity of pain and in the monitoring of treatment. Patient can also be asked regarding the disturbance in normal sleep pattern regarding severity of pain.
Duration – average duration of each episode of pain. For example, pain from exposed dentin will last only for sometime compared to pulpitis pain that lasts longer. Atypical facial pain is persistent on the other hand.
Frequency and periodicity – pain occurs at what specific times/ related to specific events. This can be noted by asking the patient to maintain a ?pain diary‘.
Precipitating, aggravating and relieving factors – ask leading questions if temperature, biting, posture, analgesics affect the pain. Associated features – other associated features such as swelling, e.g. dental abscess, nausea, vomiting, migraine or nasal stiffness must be noted. The cause of most orofacial pain is established mainly from the history, and examination findings are also helpful in aiding in the diagnostic process to exclude any local pathology. Psychological causes of pain must be kept in mind while diagnosing pain with no organic causes30 .
PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPONENT OF PAIN:
The various psychological factors involved in perception of pain and behavior may be visualized through an elaboration of the basic model by Melzack 1986 31(Fig 3). It is clear from the above model that pain is no longer a unitary concept. The sensory processes do not take place in a linear one-to-one fashion. There is a complex interaction between the various components of pain. This explains the inconsistent relationships between tissue damage and pain perception
CONCLUSION
Pain is a multidimensional experience involving not only sensation evoked by noxious stimuli but also reaction to it. A coherent and clinically useful picture of pain needs to be projected that is clinically useful. It should be based on current knowledge in pain research. This article attempts to provide such a picture to the dentist who is involved in managing patients with complex orofacial pain. Today pain has become the universal disorder, a serious and costly public health issue and a challenge for family and health care providers who must give support to the individual suffering from the physical as well the emotional consequence of pain. Furthermore, successful diagnosis of pain requires a sound knowledge its physio anatomical and psychological aspects.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
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