Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18TechnologyDESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MULTI FPGA NETWORK WITHOUT USING BUFFER English0612R.VigneshEnglish C.SubashiniEnglishAs we know mobile and wireless technologies are contributing in development of states, countries and world in many ways .This paper proposes the implementation of mobile in health services in the remote areas of HP. This paper presents the penetration of mobile in the developing countries and their use in the health sector. This paper gives a model of health using mobile cellular communications in the health services. This paper proposes that how the portable biomedical equipment‘s and telecommunication systems can be combined to provide health services in remote areas with improved patient safety, reduced cost and challenges in doing this. EnglishINTRODUCTION ROUTING The system is based on a novel routing concept. The main advantage of this concept is that any possible signal connectivity can be routed on the proposed structure. None of the previously mentioned unused or additional pin penalty can occur. Figure no 1.1 shows the switching network of two FPGAs and one pin each. One FPGA pin of each FPGA is picked and the resulting group is connected via switches to build a switching network. The switching network generates two intermediate nets on each of the adjacent FPGA layers. On one single switch board multiple of this switching networks can be realized. One pins are occupied in a routing network of one FPGA pin, the pair wise connectivity of intermediate nets allows the connection of this pin to the neighboring network. If this is not possible, the previously routed graph could be modified to use horizontal connections and the connectivity is done on the same network. RECONFIGURABLE ARCHITECTURE Reconfigurable computing is a computer architecture combining some of the flexibility of software with the high performance of hardware by processing with very flexible high speed computing fabrics like field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). The principal difference when compared to using ordinary microprocessors is the ability to make substantial changes to the data path itself in addition to the control flow. On the other hand, the main difference with custom hardware, i.e. application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) is the possibility to adapt the hardware during runtime by "loading" a new circuit on the reconfigurable fabric. The reconfigurable computers can be categorized in two classes of architectures: hybrid computer and fully FPGA based computers. Both architectures are designed to transport the benefits of reconfigurable logic to large scale computing. They can be used in traditional CPU cluster computers and network infra structures. Delay Variation In alternative concepts between FPGAs can vary by a great range. This is mainly due to the resulting different length of paths, when a planar orientated FPGA placement is done. Routing 1200 signals with equal length between four FPGAs seems to be impossible. If switching technology is used, the routing effort becomes even more critical due to fast rising number of routing/switching devices on the board. Especially if pass transistor based switching technology is used, different wire length and their different capacities change the slope.  The clock edge arrives at the same time as the data signals at the FPGA pins. The constant insertion delay (signal traveling from the I/O-pin of the clock tree to the individual clock input of the registers) of the FPGA clock trees and constant setup and hold times of registers (placed at the I/O-blocks) guarantee that the results can be reproduced. The receiving data block is split In to rising edge and falling edge receiving registers so that both edges of the parallel routed clock can be used .A self-timed wave-pipelined structure simplifies the efforts to guarantee a working solution. The clock signal is only routed to the sending blocks and replaces the low-skew global clocks. A clock is generated by the sending FPGA and is sent out in parallel to the data signals. Fig no 3 Delay Structure In almost all cases, FPGAs have sending and receiving modules at the same time. This is why system level clocks are lo skew signals. An additional critical signal is the reset signal, which resets the counter modules of both sending and receiving blocks of source and target FPGAs. If this reset signal does not become inactive at the same clock cycle on both sides, the counting is not in sync and a system malfunction is guaranteed. To avoid false mapping of sending and receiving data due to incorrect pointer counting the corresponding select information of the data is also transferred. IV Path Identifier Create n*n modules that is among no of nodes routing take place among them dynamically nodes are selected, Switching technology is implemented to reduce the inter connections and to reduce delay between nodes. Then Routing path metric is calculated Routing is done in four ways One to One Routing, One to Many Routing, All to one routing and All to all routing solve compute intensive problems and also in the verification and prototyping of large circuits. This paper addresses the problem of routing multi-terminal nets in a multi-FPGA system that uses partial crossbars as interconnect structures. The multi-terminal routing problem is first modeled as a partitioned bin packing problem and formulated as an integer linear programming problem where the number of variables is exponential, Compute an upper bound on the routing solution. The FPGA is an array or island-style FPGA. It consists of an array of logic blocks and routing channels. Two I/O pads fit into the height of one row or the width of one column, as shown below. All the routing channels have the same width (number of wires). Data is given as input to LUT which is cascaded to SR FLIPFLOP CTRL bits are given to set and clear flip flop data Carry generator is provided to take carry in and out Multiplexer is provided to select the inputs. Each circuit must be mapped into the smallest square FPGA that can accommodate it. The FPGA logic block consists of a 4-input look-up table (LUT), and a flip flop, as shown below. There is only one output, which can be either the registered or the unregistered LUT output. The logic block has four inputs for the LUT and a clock input. Since the clock is normally routed via a special-purpose dedicated routing network in commercial FPGAs, do NOT route it or include it in your track count results. That is, you can completely ignore the clock net, since it is assumed to be routed on a special global network. COMPARISON RESULTS The proposed multi-FPGA structure (MS) is compared to a group of alternative concepts. They can be classified by their routing resources, switch routing delays and wave-based pin multiplexing capabilities. The MS has no routing limitations as well as the MP4 a common maximum number of traces between FPGAs in standard switch based concepts [13] is 700.Athird group of routing resources is tri state based, This determined by the pin multiplexing delay and if wave pipelining is possible—the wave-based pin multiplexing delay. ATOMI ALGORITHM The interconnection among FPGAs consists of wires for ?emulation clock,? ?_clk,? and TOMi, respectively. _clk, which is of higher frequency than emulation clock, controls micro-operations for the signal transfer between consecutive edges of emulation clock. TOMi is composed of wires that transfer logic signals from one FPGA to another according to _clk. Each bit line of TOMi shared by all FPGAs transfers a logic signal driven by one of FPGA sin one clk cycle. It is a bidirectional signal where the signal is driven by a single source and transferred to multiple destination FPGAs. Therefore, multi terminal inter-FPGA nets can be easily routed. In this waveform for corresponding input output is obtained the clock signal is unchangeable but the testing inputs varies for each routing by this routing path is calculated using all to all routing for each input delay is provided in range of nano seconds. At first input pin is forced values are changed, clock is set to delay seconds.   FIGURE 8 NETWORK The above waveform indicates for corresponding input output is obtained the clock signal is unchangeable but the testing inputs varies for each routing by this routing path is calculated using Many to one routing for each input delay is provided in range of nano seconds. CONCLUSION The proposed multi-FPGA structure (MS) is compared to a group of alternative concepts. They can be classified by their routing resources, switch routing delays and wave-based pin multiplexing capabilities. The MS has no routing limitations as well as the MP4. A common maximum number of traces between FPGAs in standard switch based concepts .A third group of routing resources is tri state based The is determined by the pin multiplexing delay and if wave pipelining is possible the wavebased pin multiplexing delay. The proposed structure allows self-timed wave-based pin multiplexing. Wave based pin multiplexing is not possible at the MP4 and at the ATOMi, but to a certain extent in the standard routing concept. FUTURE SCOPE In the first phase partition coding is created modules are generated and executed using modelsim also corresponding waveform is obtained. In the second phase, other modules will be simulated and integrated. Apart from this efficient routing path is determined. This is done by calculating memory size, power consumption. Finally all the modules will be implemented in Cyclone-IV FPGA Development kit. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I must thankful to Mrs.UMARANI SRIKANTH.M.E., (Ph.D) Head of the Department, PG studies and project coordinator Mrs C.Subashini.M.E Assistant Professor, Department of PG studies, without whose guidance and patience, this dissertation would not be possible. And engineering, project panel members, Professors of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for their consistent encouragement and ideas Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1778http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17781. Y. Kwon and C. Kyung, ATOMi: An algorithm for circuit partitioning into multiple FPGAs using time-multiplexed, off-chip, multicasting interconnection architecture,? IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr.(VLSI) Syst., vol. 13, no. 7, pp. 861– 864, Jul. 2005. 2. V. Pavlidis and E. Friedman, ?3-D topologies for networks-on-chip,?IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst., vol. 15, no. 10, pp.1081–1090, Oct. 2007. 3. M.Lin,A.Gamal,Y.Lu, and S.Wong, ?Performance benefits of monolithically stacked 3-D FPGA,? IEEE Trans. Comput.- Aided Design Integr.Circuits Syst., vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 216–226, Feb. 2007. 4. Texas Instruments Incorporated, Dallas, TX, ?Octal buffer/Driver,?SN74LV244AT, 2005 5. M. Khalid and J. Rose, ?A novel and efficient routing architecture for multiFPGA systems,? IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 30–39, Feb. 2000. 6. Xilinx, Inc., San Jose, CA, ?FPGA and CPLD solutions,? 1985. [Online].Available: www.xilinx.com 7. Opencores, Stockholm, Sweden, ?Project Aquarius,?2007.[Online].Available:www.op encores/aquarius.html 8. A.EjniouiandN.Ranganathan,?Multiterminal net routing for partialcrossbar-based multiFPGA systems,? IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale. 9. A. Joshi and J. Davis, ?Wave-pipelined multiplexed (WPM) routing for gigascale integration (GSI),? IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr.(VLSI) Syst., vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 899–910, Aug. 2005. 10. H. Krupnova, ?Mapping multi-million gate SoCs on FPGAs: Industrial methodology and experience,? in Proc. Design. Autom. Test Eur. Conf.Exhib., 2004, pp. 1236– 1242. 11. CHIPit, Synopsys, Inc., MountainView, CA, ?Predictable Success,?2009. [Online]. Available: www.synopsys.com

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareANALYSING RATES AND TRENDS OF ANTIBIOTICSPRESCRIPTION IN RURAL PARTS OF BHANDARA DISTRICT OF INDIA English1316U.P. ChamatEnglish S.W. LoheEnglish R. H. FulzeleEnglishStudy was carried out to find out the trends and rates of antibiotics prescribing by the physicians. Some patients and pharmacists were interviewed with prepared questionnaires. A study was conducted on the patients who are visiting to civil hospital, rural and primary health centers in Bhandara district. A total of 350 prescriptions were evaluated. For evolution of Prescriptions we follow the National list of essential medicine 2009 and Local guidelines for Prescription pattern. Among those 62.28 % of prescriptions were contain antibiotics and 37.72 % were not contain antibiotics. It indicates that the prescribing rate of antibiotics is higher. While evaluating prescriptions we observed that there were some common errors in prescribing antibiotic like, use of an antibiotics agents with inappropriate spectrum, unnecessary prescription of antibiotics, incorrect dosage and antibiotics were prescribed for viral infections that does not affect the viruses. This may leads to the development of antibiotic resistant bacterial population. Because of this some efforts should be made like, promotion of good Prescription practices, physicians should follow the local guidelines, design education programme for pharmacist, nurses & other professionals working in these settings. EnglishSpectrum, bacterial resistance, WHO (World Health Organization)INTRODUCTION Prescription is a written order from a registered medical practitioner or other property licensed practitioner to a pharmacist to compound and dispense a specific medication for the patient. While considering present scenario about the use of antibiotics many questions are arising in mind like, whether health care providers follow appropriate diagnostic procedure, also about the correct selection of products and dosage regimen to fit underlying heath problems? Whether they communicate with patient regarding proper label instructions, contraindications or dosage? . Common error in antibiotic prescription and misuse of antibiotics like, physicians not take into account the patients weight and history of prior antibiotics used. Since, both can strongly affect the efficacy of antibiotics. Prescribing inappropriate antibiotics like, use of antibiotic to the viral infections such as common cold that have no therapeutic effect. Dispensing of antibiotics over the counter because physicians prescribing same brands of an antibiotics. However this may leads to the development of antibiotic resistant bacterial population. Reapted and longer use of same brand of antibiotic leads to the emergence of resistant bacterial population which cannot be killed by that antibiotic this is known as antibiotic resistance. The existence of antibiotic resistance bacteria creates the danger of life threatening infections that do not respond to antibiotics. METHOD Present study was conducted by randomly collecting 350 prescriptions from patients visiting to different health care centers including civil hospitals, primary health care centers in rural and urban areas of Bhandara district. Patients and pharmacists get interviewed with prepared questionnaires, cross-sectional survey of prescription was done. National list of essential medicine 2009 and local guiding for prescription pattern was used as a reference for the evaluations of collected data. RESULT A total of 350 prescriptions were evaluated, where 63 Male, 111 Female, 113 Male Child & 63 Female Child. Evolution data suggests that 62.28 % of prescriptions were containing antibiotics among those 50.10% were in children and 37.72 % were not containing antibiotics indicating that prescribing rate of an antibiotics is higher. Physicians are commonly prescribing SEPTRAN, AMOX and DOXY in children and SEPTRAN, CIPRO, CIPROX, CIBRAN, CIFRAN, DOXY and AMOX in adults. While physicians in rural hospital and primary health centers are following the same trends. None of the drugs were prescribed in generic name. We observed that some antibiotics were prescribed for cold and Fever. Some patients and pharmacists were interviewed with prepared questionnaires from this we found that, prescriptions contain antibiotics with repeated brand name this may leads to the patients are purchasing antibiotics over the counter. Pharmacist are not guiding the patients regarding dosage and schedule of antibiotics administration. It may creates several problems like patients not completing their antibiotics course, skips the doses when they feel better and take same antibiotics next time without consulting to their physicians. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS While evaluating prescriptions we observed that Physicians are mostly prescribing SEPTRAN in children for COUGH, COLD, FEVER, RHINITIS, OTITIS, UTRI and SCABIES. SEPTRAN is followed by AMOX and DOXY. While SEPTRAN, CIPRO, CIPROX, CIBRAN, CIFRAN, AMOX, DOXY for COUGH, COLD, FEVER, RHINITIS, OTITIS, UTRI, SCABIES and ITCHING in adults. Physicians in rural hospital & primary health centers are following the same trend in adults and children. It is observed that none of the drugs were prescribed in generic name. After evaluating the prescriptions, we interviewed some patients and pharmacists. We found that patients are not following complete antibiotic therapy. They stop the antibiotics at midcourse, not follow proper schedule of the dose. It may leads to bacterial resistance and reinfection. There is repetition of antibiotics with same brand in the prescription. This may leads to patients are taking antibiotics without consulting to their physicians. Some patients are demanding and purchasing antibiotics over the counter. Hence some useful tips need to be given by physicians/pharmacist to their patients:- Take an antibiotic exactly as the physician/pharmacist tells you. Do not skip the doses of antibiotics. Do not take antibiotics for a viral infection like a cold or flu. Complete the prescribed course of treatment even if you feel better. Do not take antibiotics prescribed for someone else. The antibiotic may not be appropriate for your illness. Taking the wrong medicine may delay the effect of correct treatment and leads to bacterial resistance. Do not purchase an antibiotic over the counter. Do not ask your pharmacist for antibiotics without prescription. Talk to your healthcare professionals about antibiotics resistance. There are some errors made by physician while prescribing antibiotics like use of antibiotics for viral infections such as common cold and fever which does not affect the virus. Antibiotic being prescribed with improper dosage administration with meal or without meal which affect the absorption of the drug and in turn decrease the bioavailability of drug. One of the foremost concerns in modern medicine is antibiotic resistance. If antibiotics are stopped in midcourse, the bacteria may be partially treated and not completely killed, causing the bacteria to be resistant to the antibiotic. Those resistant bacteria grow enough to cause the re-infection. Because of this alarming prevalence of bacterial resistance some efforts should be made like. Document the infection microbiologically before starting an antimicrobial therapy. Consider the weight and prior history of antibiotics used. Avoid use of certain antibiotics already known to be associated with emergence of bacterial resistance. Promotion of good prescribing practices. Streaming broad spectrum therapy. Adhere to the local guidelines. Prescribe the antibiotics with their generic name. Counseling with the patients To improve the quantity of antibiotic use in hospitals, a multidisciplinary antimicrobial committee should be formed, which would be composed of physicians, microbiologist and the pharmacists etc. Teaching and training about antimicrobial therapy for doctors, nurses, pharmacists and undergraduate medical and pharmacy students. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Thanks to the community pharmacist who helped us to carry out this survey, thanks to patients and Anurag College of pharmacy Warthi for providing necessary literatures. Authors are grateful to Mr. Ajay Pise and Sandeep Rahangdale for his guidance. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose article has cited and included in reference of this manuscripts. Thanks to the editor, reviewers of IJCRR Journal Management team. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1779http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17791. Dr. K.R. Mahada Dr. B.S. Kuchekar. Concise organic pharmaceutical chemistry page no 4.1 –4.20 . 2. L. Pachuau, L. Chhani, T. Jamir. Indian journal of hospital pharmacy, 48(2011) page no. 38- 39. 3. Ansari K.U. Signh, S. Pandey. Evaluation of prescription pattern of doctor for rational drug therapy Indian Journal of Pharmacol, 1998: 30 ,page no.43- 46. 4. S. Ponnusankar, M. Chintan, S. Karthikayen, B. Suresh. Indian journal of hospital pharmacy Sept- Oct.2007 pg no. 181 – 183. 5. S. Ponnusankar B. Suresh. Indian journal of hospital pharmacy, July- Aug2007 page no. 145-152. 6. A. Kaur & Dr. B, G. Nagavi. Indian journal of hospital pharmacy Marchapril -2007, page no. 72- 74. 7. National list of essential drugs 2009 page no 1-43. 8. Local guidelines for prescription pattern.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18General SciencesAN EMPRICAL ANALYSIS OF MARKETING OF OILSEEDS IN HAVERI DISTRICT OF KARNATAKA STATE OF INDIA English1730Suresh BanakaraEnglish Anilkumar B KoteEnglishEdible oilseeds mainly comprise groundnut, mustard, sesame, safflower, soyabean, and sunflower. Oilseeds contribution to GDP stands only next to cereals and milk. Edible oil accounts for about 5.5 per cent of the family budget occupying the third place, next to cereals and milk. Among the edible oil seeds, groundnut is the most important one accounting for about 46 per cent of the total area under oil seed, about 67 per cent of the total oil seeds production and about 59 per cent of the total edible oil production i n India. In oil seeds ma r k e t i n g v a r i o u s intermediaries are involved and they transfer the oilseeds from producers to ultimate consumers. So the farmer should identify right time and right place to market their produce. Processing and marketing of oil seeds are some of the major factors responsible for the stagnation in the oil seed economy. The oil seeds industry in general and groundnut in particular is faced with many problems and challenges. The inadequacy of cropped area, low productivity lack of adequate supply of quality seeds absence of integrated nutrient supply management, inefficient crop management practices, absence of suitable soil and moisture conservation etc are the major problems in the area of production management. The problem areas of market of oil seeds and groundnut relate to absence of scientific assembling and storage, lack of adequate transport and grading facilities insufficient market information. The role of market intermediaries and the APMC have been found unsatisfactory. High marketing costs and inadequate finance resulting in distress sales in the village local sales at low prices are the other set of marketing problems of groundnut farmers and sellers. EnglishProduction, Groundnut, Marketing, inadequate finance, crop management.Introduction and Background of Haveri District: The oil seeds scenario in India has undergone a transformation during the last 15 years. The major contributory factors of this transformation have been, Availability of improved oil seeds production technology and its adoption, expansion in cultivated area, price support policy and institutional support particularly establishment of technology mission on oil seeds(TMO)in 1986. There has been large regional variation in area, production and productivity changes of oil seeds. Sattes like Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajstan and West Bengal increased their oil seed production both through area expansion and productivity improvement. But states like Maharatsra, Tamilnadu and Himachal Pradesh increased theire oil seeds production mainly through productivity improvement. In some sytes like Orissa, area production and productivity dseclined sharply.The Indian edible oil industry is expected to grow at a rate of 6 percent annually over the next five years with consumption set to reach 20 mn tonnes by 2015 , said Rabo India in its latest research report. India relies heavily on imports to meet over 50 percent of domestic edible oil requirements. Through the years, India's domestic production of oilseeds has not grown in line with edible oil demand. Lower levels of oilseed production have resulted in low capacity utilization. With oilseed crushing being considerably lower than expected in the last six months, The Solvent Extractors' Association of India has requested government to consider revival package for the industry and suggested revision of import duty on edible oils to support farmers and the industry. The oilseed crushing industry is facing tough times. The industry is faced with negative crush margins due to reserve selling by stockiest and farmers as well as excessive speculation in the markets. "The factors have made the prices of oilseed too high for the crushers. Also, duty free import of crude vegetable oils contributed to the negative crush margins," Sethia stated. India‘s overall edible oil demand is expected to see a surge to 20.8 million tonnes by 2015 from the 15.6 million tonnes now. Of which, 10 million tonnes (6.5 million tonnes now) will be supplied from domestic sources while the remaining will be imported. The import share in India‘s edible oil demand will rise marginally from 51 per cent now to 53 per cent by 2015, said Mehta. The study present study attempts a holistic approach for optimizing economic and social returns to all resources employed in the production and processing of oilseeds. Oilseeds farmers, processors and traders constitute the majority of stakeholders on the supply side. Likewise, consumers of edible oil and other products of oilseeds seek satisfactory value for their money, through reasonable prices and acceptable quality for edible oil and other products. The interests of all these stakeholders will receive consideration in the study area. Table 2 shows sector wise composition of the District Domestic Product (DDP). The service sector generates about half of the district income and the remaining shared almost equally by agriculture and industry sectors. Agriculture is a dominant sector and along with animal husbandry it contributes about 25% to total income. Registered manufacturing and other services occupy the second place accounting for 11% of district income. All activities of service sector and construction activities too are contributing significantly. Cropping Pattern and Agricultural Productivity of Haveri District Cropping depends on soil, rainfall and climate conditions. Since a major part of the district is dependent on rainfall, the important crops grwon are jowar, maize, wheat, millets, tur, grams, sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, sunflower, etc. Paddy is a major crop in canal irrigated areas. Cropping pattern of the district is shown in chart.1 Major crop groups of the district are cereals (55% of sown area), pulses (7% of sown area), spices and vegetables (4% of sown area). Food grains occupy almost two-thirds of total sown area. Major non-food crops are cotton (13.5% of sown area) and oil seeds (11.7% of sown area). Individually maize cotton, jowar and paddy are preferred by the farmers of the district. The other important crops of the district are wheat, millets and paddy. Percentage area under pulses is less in the district compared to the state. Oilseeds are grown in 18% of area and cotton in 14% of area. Vegetables are grown in remaining 2% of area which reveals that horticultural crops do not occupy a major portion in the cropped area of the district. But the agricultural progress or backwardness is better discussed using the yield data. Hence, yields of major corps in the district are presented in Table 2 in comparison with that of the state, nation and its own potentiality. The data reveals that the district‘ agricultural yields are quite lower compared to the state as well as the nation and far low when compared to the potential. Except in respect of Jowar, Greengram, Sunflower and Cotton, the yield levels of all major crops are lower than that of the state or the nation. However, yield of maize, which is a predominant crop, is higher than that of the country and paddy yield is comparable to the nation‘s. This comparison of the productivity of different crops reveals that agricultural progress in the district is not so encouraging. The district lags behind compared to the state in productivity of all crops which is an indication of wide opportunities available in the district. Hence efforts should be made to raise it at least to the state level. This is perhaps due to lack of adequate irrigation facilities and consumption of less amount of fertilizers. Chart 6 clearly depicts the yield scenario of Haveri district. Average food grains production of the district works out to be 133.6 kg which is higher than the state average of 124 kg. Whereas Per capita cultivated land for the district is 0.22 hectares for the state it is 0.23 hectares, percentage irrigated area of the district is lower than that of the state. Since per capita fertilizer consumption in the district (61 kg) is far lower than that of the state (80 kg) increasing fertilizer usage may bring about increase in yields. However, opportunities for organic agriculture must also be explored. II.STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: The oil seeds industry in general and groundnut in particular is faced with many problems and challenges. The inadequacy of cropped area, low productivity lack of adequate supply of quality seeds absence of integrated nutrient supply management, inefficient crop management practices, absence of suitable soil and moisture conservation etc are the major problems in the area of production management. The problem areas of market of oil seeds and groundnut relate to absence of scientific assembling and storage, lack of adequate transport and grading facilities insufficient market information. The role of market intermediaries and the APMC have been found unsatisfactory. High marketing costs and inadequate finance resulting in distress sales in the village local sales at low prices are the other set of marketing problems of groundnut farmers and sellers. In view of the above areas of production and marketing inadequacies the researcher felt that there is need for an micro level study of the production and marketing of oil seed in general and groundnut in particular in the study area which is a major producer of groundnut in this part of Karnataka state. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: The major objectives of the proposed study shall be an production and marketing of oil seeds-a case study of Dharwad district in Karnataka state. The study shall have the following specific objectives are outlined for the present study. 1.To study about the production dimensions of the oil seeds in general and groundnut in particular in the Dharwad district. 2.To examine the production problems and production costs of oil seeds and groundnut of the framers in the district 3.To study the marketing process of groundnut and the market problems of the groundnut farmers. 4.to analyze any other aspect of production and marketing of groundnut germane to the study. 5. Production and marketing of oil seeds-a case study of Dharwad district in Karnataka state., for the purpose of the present study, two Villages from Kalgatagi block are selected on the basis of simple random sampling method. For the purpose of the Production and marketing of oil seeds, 60 households were selected from different categories on the basis of simple random sampling method. ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF GROUDNUT IN INDIA: Groundnut which is known as Archishypogaes Linnaeus is one of the words important oilseed crops.groundnut seeds are a rich source of edible oil with 43.55% and protein with 25-28%. The approximate weight of the groundnut kernels is 70% in shells and kernels have oil recovery of 40-42%. The annual global production of groundnut seed and oil vary between 21-24 and 5-5.5millon tons. World Production of Groundnut: The world production of groundnut rose from 23531 millon tones in 1991 to 35096 million tones in 2001. This amounts to about fifty percent increase in the production of groundnut in a period of ten years. A trend of continous growth of production during the decade was observed except in 1997 and 1999 when there was a decline in the production compared to the production in the previous years respectively.maximum production of groundnut was 35096 mt in 2001 while the minimum was 23531 mt in 1991.   GROWTH INDEX OF GROUNDNUT: The growth index of area under groundnut production and yield per hectare has indicated a trend of fluctuations between 1990-91 and 2000- 01 with the base at 100 in 1981-82 the area of production growth index rate rose from 116.6 in 1990-91 to 121.7 in 91-92 but declined to 114.6 in 92-93. A trend of fluctuation is further observed in the subsequent period. The index rose form 116.8 in 1993-94 but declined to 110.02 in 94-95 105.6 in 95-96 with a small rise to 106.6 in 96-97 but fell to 99.9 in 97-98 and rose to 103.8 in 98.99. the index fell to 96.3 in 99-200. Production index between 1990-91 and 2000-01 varied between a minimum of 88.5 in 99-2000 and a maximum of 149.7 in 1998-99. The index of growth of production of groundnut has indicated a trend of fluctuations during the period starting with in 1990-91 and reaching a high of 149.7 in 1998-99 and reaching a low of 106.9 in 2000-01. The index of yield of groundnut has also indicated a similar trend of fluctuation during the above period. The yield per hectare was 107.4 in 1990-91 and reached a high of 144.3 in 1998-99 and slided to alow of 91.9 in 1999- 2000. The details are given in the following table.   RESULTSANDDISCUSSIONS Sources of information about oilseed market: The farmers, who are cultivating oilseeds having good knowledge in production, but they are very much lack in the knowledge of marketing these oilseeds. An attempt was made to identify the sources of knowledge acquired was studied by selecting four major classifications namely through ?newspapers?, ?commission mundis?.?through broker? and ?neighbours? Henry Garrett ranking method was employed to arrive the results accurately and the details are shown in the following table   ranked first with a Garrettscore of 2753 points. It is followed by the ?news paper source? with a Garrett score of 2736 points. The other sources such as ?neighbour? and ?commission mundis? are placed in the third and fourth ranking with the Garrett s c o r e of 2323 and 2188 points respectively. From the analysis, it is concluded that ?brokers? and ?newspapers? are the major sources providing information a b o u t o i l s e e d market Methods ofselling oilseeds: The farmers cultivating oilseeds are find difficulty to sell their agriculture produced. In this study an attempt was made to identify the methods of selling the oilseeds. The common methods are pre-harvest contract, using regulated market, selling through commission agents and direct sales to oil mills. The details are analyzed with the help of percentage analysis and furnished in the followingtable.   It is examined from the above table that32.6% of the respondents using ?regulated market? to sell their oilseeds. 28% of therespondents are using ?commission agents? tosell their agricultural produce. 27.2% of the respondents directly selling the oilseeds to oil mills. On the other hand, 12.1% of the respondents underwent ?pre- harvest contract? with the private brokers    Methods of pricing the oilseeds: Normally pricing methods are studied as penetrating pricing strategy, skimming pricing strategy market based pricing and auctions. In this study, the style of pricing practiced by the oilseed growers was studied with the help of percentage analysis and the details are shown in the following table. It could be observed from the above table that38.6% of the respondent using auction price made in the regulated marked 58.0% of the respondents selling their oilseeds according to the market prices, 2.1% of the respondents using penetrating pricing strategies, 1.3% of the respondents using skimming pricing strategies. From the analysis, it is inferred that most of the respondents selling the oilseeds according to the prevailing price in themarket. Respondents Opinion on grading on oilseeds: In the era of competitive business, customers preferred a good standard of products in general, and in particular, to oilseeds. The respondent's opinion on grading the oilseeds in the market were gathered and analysed with the help of percentage method. The detailed opinions are furnished in the following table.   It is witnessed from the above table that52.1% of the respondents measuring oil content level in each seed with a help of specially designedequipment.26.7%of them assessed based on weight. On the other hand 21.2% of the respondents opined that they were assessed based on the size. From the analysis, it is found that 52.1% of them measuring the seeds graded thembased on the oil contentlevel. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS AND SUGEGESTIONS The present study is a micro level analysis of the production and marketing of oilseeds with special reference to groundnut in two talukas of Haveri District in North Karnataka region. The analysis has covered 80 ground nut growing farmers in the study area. The respondent 40 farmers from each talukas were interviewed with a well structured interview schedule covering different aspects of production and marketing dimensions The study is aimed at measuring the benefits enjoyed by the farmers and the problems faced by them during production and marketing of oilseeds in the study area.Field survey technique was employed to collect the first hand information from the sample respondents. Interview schedule was the main tool employed to collect the pertinent data. The data thus collected were arranged in simple tabular forms and appropriate statistical tools were used for data analysis. Based on this analysis, Interpretations were made systematically. An attempt was made to recapitulate the key findings and conclusion. Based on these findings, a few suggestions have also been made. On the marketing dimensions of groundnut different aspects likes assembling , packaging, storage, grading transport channel of distribution marketing cost finance, pricing and price trends during the 2009-2010 have been analysed in detail and the major marketing problems of the groundnut growing farmers have been analysed on the basis of perceptions of the respondent farmers. The major findings and conclusions along with the necessary suggestions have been provided here. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 1. It was observed that the yield levels of groundnut in the state as a whole were declining over time and that of sunflower too was not encouraging. Hence, there is an immediate need to take appropriate yield raising measures for sustained production of oilseeds in the study area. 2. The study has provided enough evidence that the area allocation decisions in respect of oilseed crops have been governed by their relative profitability, indicating that price factors are more important than non-price factors. Hence, the ongoing price policy should be directed towards assuring appropriate remunerative prices to oilseed producers in the study area. 3. It was revealed that groundnut and sunflower prices in the domestic and international market are integrated. This implies that domestic market is responsive to changes in the international market prices and producers would benefit from the increases in the international market prices. However, this benefit has not been fully exploited by the farmers because we are not self sufficient in edible oils. Self sufficiency can be achieved by evolving high yielding varieties and providing improved technologies to the producers. So, government should come out with appropriate policy to overcome this problem. 4. The production, consumption and exports of major oilseeds have witnessed a significant transformation in the last 14 years. During this 14 years period, in absolute terms, world oilseed production increased by 79% consumption by72% andworld trade byan impressive 131.4%. 5. The consumption of vegetable oils worldwide has gone up by 3.6% in the last seven years (2000-07). It has shown an upward trend with variable rates - from a minimum of 3% in2001-02 to as high as 7.5% in 2004-05. In the last two years (2005-06 and 2006-07), the growth percentage has declined (year on year), and has stood at 6.7%and 5%respectively. 6. Sources of information about oilseed market was studied and found that brokers and news papers are the main sources providing about information about oilseed market. 7. Problems with regulated market was studied and it was learned that the officials in the regulated market taking more time unnecessarily at the time of marketing the oilseeds. It is followed by the tactics played the buyers in fixing the price throughmutual understanding 8. Methods of selling oilseeds was studied and found that regulated market and commission agents are the main modes of selling oilseeds. During volatility the farmers using aggressive selling s t r a t e g i e s w h e n the market i s p e a k positions. Some farmers store the oilseeds in the godowns during the inflation  9. while analyzing the pricing methods practiced in the oilseeds market, it is noted that majority (58%) of the respondents selling oilseeds according to the market price and 38.6% of the respondents using auction price made in the regulatedmarket. SUGEGESTIONS FOR THE POLICY MAKERS Among the selected oilseeds, castor seed crops showing high yield in the tribal area and forest areas. The tribal people are producing good yield of castor seeds but finds difficult to sell out in the market. From the study it is divulged that the farmers producing oilseeds have collected latest information only from the fellow farmers. Hence, it is suggested that more number of seed The regulated market staff should be trained psychologically to take the farmers issue amicably. Necessary training is very much essential to make them to work efficiently without making unnecessary time delay. The following suggestions are recommended for strengthening themarketing of oilseeds: 1. Better enforcement of regulated markets, so that more farmers feel attracted to use them (at present less than half), getting the benefit of higher prices and for correct quality and quantity 2. Strengthening cooperative marketing institutions and introduction of forwardmarketing and contract farming, which will also help the farmer to get a better price for his produce. 3. Promoting market integration, which will also get a better price forthe farmers. 4. Price incentives for edible oil storage in the lean season. 5. Reducing the cost of storage by introducing bulk storage facilities 6. Alleviating the over-regulation of markets and introduction of f uture ma r ke ts and hedging p r a c t i c e s . Rewarding better q u a l i t y produce with better price. 7. Streamlining the six statutory regulations regarding quality. CONCLUSIONS Oils and oilseeds played an important role in the Indian economy for a long time India produces a large variety of oilseeds including groundnut, gingelly, sunflower and castor seeds that earn the country a huge share of foreign exchange while analyzing the world level oilseed productivity, India occupies the second place for groundnut productivity and in sunflower seeds though Russian federations are in top, India tries to fulfill the domestic demand. The production, consumption and exports of these selected oilseeds have witnessed a significant transformation in the last 14 years. Further it is advised that the farmers are suffering more due to lack of adequate working capital. A separate Co-operative marketing society exclusively for oilseed growers may be established and it should help the farmers who are in that need of adequate working capital. The oil seeds industry in general and groundnut in particular is faced with many problems and challenges. The inadequacy of cropped area, low productivity lack of adequate supply of quality seeds absence of integrated nutrient supply management, inefficient crop management practices, absence of suitable soil and moisture conservation etc are the major problems in the area of production management. The problem areas of market of oil seeds and groundnut relate to absence of scientific assembling and storage, lack of adequate transport and grading facilities insufficient market information. The role of market intermediaries and the APMC have been found unsatisfactory. High marketing costs and inadequate finance resulting in distress sales in the village local sales at low prices are the other set of marketing problems of groundnut farmers and sellers. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1780http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17801. Amarchand, D. and Varadharajan, B., ?Marketing?, Konark Pvt,Ltd, 1989 2. Barkeley Hill, An Introduction to Economics for students of Agriculture, Oxford : Perguman Press,1980 3. Charley Watkins, ?Marketing Sales & Customer Services? 2002CIB,A.I.T.B.S. 4. Christopher Lovelock, Jochen Wirtz, ?Services Marketing?,Fifth2004, Pearson Education, Delhi. 5. David. J. Luck, Ronald. S.Rubin, Marketing Research?, Seventh, Asoke. K.Ghosh PHI. 6. PaulE. Green,Donald S. Tull and Gerald Albaum, ?Research for Marketing Decisions?, 5Th edition, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, Delhi. 7. Rachman J. David, Modern Marketing, Illinois: The Drydon Publishers., 1982. 8. Rao. M.V, ?Oil Seeds Technology Mission Setting Pace for Self Reliance, The Survey of Indian Agriculture, 1988,pp.49. 9. Richard G.Lipsey, An Introduction of Positive Economics, Great Britain : English Language, Book Society, 1971. 10. Soumya Behera, ?Policy Changes and Indian Edible Oil Industry: Introspection?, Commodity India, March 2002. 11. Subramani, M.R., Groundnut oil may rise on Consumer Switch- Over, Business Line, January 9,2002. 12. Tomek, W.G. and Robinson, K.L., AgriculturalProduct Prices, Itheca : Cornell University Press,1972. 13. Vijayendra Rao, A.R.The Edible oil Industry- Fight for Survival, Indian Food Industry, 20: 2001 pp.26. 14. William J.Stanton, Fundamentals of Marketing, New Delhi :Mc Graw Hill BookCompany, 1984. 15. Xavier, M.J., Marketing in the Millennium, Vikas House Pvt, Ltd,1999

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareEFFECT OF ATORVASTATIN, SIMVASTATIN AND LOVASTATIN ON ANIMAL MODELS OF EPILEPSY: A COMPARATIVE STUDY English3134Veena NayakEnglish Shalini AdigaEnglish Poornima BMEnglish Ravi SharmaEnglish Arpita GargEnglishIntroduction: Statins are the widely prescribed drugs for hyperlipidemia. Now it is well accepted that statins not only have hypolipidemic actions but also have a number of pleotropic effects. Objective: To study the effect of atorvastatin, simvastatin and lovastatin on Maximal Electroshock (MES) and Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced seizures in Wistar rats. Material and methods: Atorvastatin, simvastatin and lovastatin in their therapeutically equivalent doses were administered to Wistar rats prior to induction of seizures by MES and PTZ. The abolition of hind limb extension (HLE) and duration of seizures in MES model and latency for onset of seizures as well as duration of seizures were observed in PTZ model. Statistical analysis: Data was analyzed using one way ANOVA followed by Dunnett‘s post hoc test. p?0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: None of the statins were able to abolish the HLE .Only simvastatin decreased the duration of seizures significantly in comparison to control group in MES model. In PTZ model simvastatin and lovastatin decreased the duration of seizures and also increased the latency for the onset of seizures in comparison to the control group. Atorvastatin increased the latency but had no effect on duration of seizures in PTZ model. EnglishStatins, seizures, atorvastatin, simvastatin, lovastatinINTRODUCTION Statins are one of the most commonly prescribed drugs for cardiovascular diseases1 . They are most effective and well tolerated drugs to treat dyslipidemia. They competitively inhibit HMG-CoA reductase enzyme which catalyzes the rate limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis 2 . The benefits of statins appear to be greater than just lowering the lipid levels. These cholesterol-independent or pleiotropic effects of statins include improving endothelial function, enhancing stability of plaques, decreasing oxidative stress and inflammation and inhibiting thrombogenic response 3 .Statins have also been shown to have neuroprotective effects in multiple sclerosis and spinal cord injury4, 5. A previous study has also reported that simvastatin reduced the number of inflammatory lesions in patients with multiple sclerosis 6 . In kainic acid model, a model for temporal lobe epilepsy, atorvastatin has shown to reduce kainic acid induced seizure activities, hippocampal neuron death and monocyte inflammation7 . It has also been hypothesized that statins reduce the risk of developing epilepsy in the elderly. A cohort study also showed that statins reduced the hospitalization due to seizures. It was found that for every one gram increase in the dose of atorvastatin, the risk of hospitalization for seizures decreased by 5%.8 However, the effects of statins on maximal electroshock (MES) model and pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced seizure model is lacking. Hence we planned to study the effect of various statins on MES and PTZ induced seizures. Aim of the study - To study the effect of atorvastatin, simvastatin and lovastatin on Maximal Electroshock (MES) and Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced seizures in Wistar rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Drugs and chemicals: Atorvastatin (Zydus Cadila Healthcare Ltd ) , simvastatin (Micro Labs Ltd ), lovastatin (Dr. Reddy‘s Laboratories Ltd) ,carbamazepine (Novartis India Ltd, Mumbai), sodium valproate (Sun Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd, Mumbai) and pentylenetetrazole (Sigma – Aldrich, Mumbai) were used for the study. The doses selected were the therapeutically equivalent doses which were converted to rat dose according the table of Paget and Barnes9 . Animals: Albino rats weighing 150-200g were used for the study. They were maintained under standard conditions in Central animal house, Manipal University, Manipal approved by the CPCSEA. The rats were kept in polypropylene cages (U.N. Shah Manufacturers, Mumbai) and maintained on standard pellet diet (Amrut Lab Animal Feed, Pranav Agro industries Ltd, Sangli, Maharashtra) and water ad libitum. The rats were maintained at a room temperature 26 ± 20C, relative humidity 45?55% and light/ dark cycle of 12 h. Study design: The study was undertaken after obtaining permission from the Institutional Animal Ethics committee, Manipal. A total of 60 animals were used for the study. They were divided into two groups, the maximal electroshock group and the pentylenetetrazole group. I Maximal electroshock model Rats were divided into 5 groups (n=6). The groups I to V received gum acacia (1ml), carbamazepine(108mg/kg), atorvastatin(3.60mg/kg), simvastatin(1.80mg/kg) and lovastatin(3.60mg/kg) respectively 45 min before the electroshock. Maximal electroshock seizures were induced as described by Toman et al10 with a current of 150 mA delivered through the ear clip electrode for 0.2 sec with the help of convulsiometer. Absence of hind limb extension (HLE) was taken as protection against seizures. Only those animals which showed hind limb extension during the screening procedure on the previous day were included in the study. II PTZ induced seizures Rats were divided into 5 groups (n=10). The groups I to V received gum acacia (1ml,), sodium valproate (180mg/kg), atorvastatin (3.60mg/kg), simvastatin(1.80mg/kg) and lovastatin(3.60mg/kg ) orally respectively 1hour before pentylenetetrazole (60mg/kg i.p.) 11. Each animal was placed in an individual cage and observed for 30min. The onset of seizure with loss of righting reflex, number of seizures and duration of the seizures in each group was recorded. Statistical analysis All values are expressed as mean ± SEM. Data was analysed using one way ANOVA followed by Dunnett‘s post hoc test . p≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were carried out using SPSS software version 17. RESULTS Maximal electroshock induced seizures: In this model all animals treated with carbamazepine showed 100% protection against hind limb extension (HLE). None of the statins protected against HLE, however the duration of seizures was reduced significantly (pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1781http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17811. Etminan M, Samli A, Brophy JM. Statin use and risk of epilepsy . neurology 2010;75:1496-1500 2. Bersot TP. Drug therapy for hypercholesterolemia and dyslipidemia. In: Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC, editors. Goodman and Gilman‘s The pharmacological basis of therapeutics .12th ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill ; 2006.p. 877- 908. 3. Zhou Q, Liao JK . Pleiotropic effects of statins. Circulation journal 2010;74:818-826. 4. Smaldone C, Brugaletta S, Pazzano V et a. Immunomodulator activity of 3-hydroxy-3- methilglutaryl-CoA inhibitors. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med CHem 2009;7:279-294. 5. Park E, Velumin AA, Fehlings AG. The role of excitotoxicity in secondary mechanisms of spinal cord injury: a review with an emphasis on the implications for white matter degeneration . J Neurotrauma 2004; 21:754- 774. 6. Vollmer T, Key L, Durkalski V, Tyor W, Corboy J, Markovic-Plese S,et al. Simvastatin treatment in relapsing –remitting multiple sclerosis. Lancet: 2004:1607-1608. 7. Lee JK Won JS, Singh AK, Singh I. Statin inhibits kainic acid-induced seizure and associated inflammation and hippocampal cell death. Neurosci Lett 2008; 440(3):260-4. 8. Das RR, Herman ST. Statins in epilepsy. Neurology 2010; 75: 1490-1491. 9. Ghosh MN. Fundamentals of experimental pharmacology. 3rd ed. Kolkata: Hilton and company; 2007. 10. Toman JEP, Swinyard EA, Goodman LS. Properties of maximal seizures and their alteration by anticonvulsant drugs and other agents. J Neurophysiol 1946; 9: 231-39. 11. Visweswari G, Prasad KS, Chetan PS, Lokanatha V, Rajendra W. Evaluation of the anticonvulsant effect of Centella asiatica (gotu kola) in pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures with respect to cholinergic neurotransmission. Epilepsy and Behavior 2010; 17(3):332-335.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareCOMPARATIVE STUDY OF CHANGES IN MAXIMUM EXPIRATORY PRESSURE (MEP) IN SAW MILL WORKERS FROM BIJAPUR CITY OF KARNATAKA STATE OF INDIA English3538Kulkarni Chandrahas MEnglish Gannur D GEnglish Aithala ManjunathaEnglish Patil S MEnglishBackground: Workers exposed to a variety of wood dusts have been shown to exhibit occupational asthma, lung function deficits, and elevated levels of respiratory symptoms. Despite the popularity of pine and spruce, the health effects of exposures to these woods have not been extensively investigated. A study was undertaken to investigate the respiratory health of a group of sawmill workers processing pine and spruce (n = 94)1. A comparative study of changes in Maximum Expiratory Pressure MEP (mm.Hg) was carried out in saw mill workers of Bijapur city. This study consisted of 100 subjects of which 50 saw mill workers and 50 controls of similar age and socio economic status. MEP(mm.Hg) values in saw mill workers was significantly reduced in our study as compared to controls. MEP is used as a simple tool to measure respiratory muscle strength. Probably the saw mill workers after prolonged exposure to the wood dust develop respiratory muscle weakness and reduced cough reflex. The strength of respiratory muscles is assessed best by using simple equipment i.e. modified Black‘s apparatus. Many studies showed that Maximal Expiratory Pressure alone can be used as a measuring tool for respiratory muscle strength. MEP is useful in determining the ability of a person to cough effectively. EnglishMEP, Saw Mill Workers , Modified Black‘s apparatus.INTRODUCTION In recent years many studies in concern with respiratory effects of wood dust toxicity in the exposed workers have been conducted. The dusts of various woods including organic dusts have been studied. Research efforts are also extended with respect to their effects on health. Cotton dust and grain dust are examples of organic dusts on which substantial health research efforts have been extended. Wood dust is another variety of organic dust, exposure to which is known to cause substantial health impacts. Early recognition of altered lung functions will be of great clinical, social and preventive significance in the Industrial workers, who are constantly exposed to various air born pollutants. Reduction in lung function is reported in cotton mill workers, coal miners, grain and flour mill workers, workers exposed to tobacco dust, barley dust and talc dust.2-6. Maximum Expiratory Pressure (MEP) Various respiratory symptoms are associated with respiratory muscle dysfunction. There are reports of progressive weakness of respiratory muscles in patients with multicore myopathy, multiple sclerosis, motor neuron disorder, malnutrition and congestive heart failure. Measurement of respiratory muscle strength is useful in order to detect respiratory muscle weakness and to quantify its severity. In patients with severe respiratory muscle weakness, Vital Capacity is reduced, but is a non specific and relatively insensitive measurement. Conventionally, strength of respiratory muscles is evaluated by determining both Maximal Inspiratory Pressure (MIP) and Maximal Expiratory Pressure (MEP), during maximal static maneuver against a closed shutter7-13 . This study was undertaken to assess the respiratory muscle strength in saw mill workers using simple parameters and equipments. METHODS The study was conducted on the Saw mill workers of Bijapur city in North Karnataka. The subjects of control group are selected from among the workers of BLDE‘S Sri. B.M.Patil Medical Collage (Same socio economic group). Sample size:- About 50 subjects were included in the study from each group. The age and sex of the subjects of control group are selected so as to match the study group. All the individuals both in the study and control groups were subjected to history taking and clinical examination prior to tests. Inclusion Criteria: Only healthy male subjects were included in the study. The health status of the subjects is determined through thorough clinical examination and history taking. Exclusion Criteria: The subjects with the following disorders are excluded from the study: 1.Subjects with any known cardiopulmonary disorders. 2.Subjects with any known endocrine disorders. 3.Subjects with any known congenital defects. 4.Smokers. The following parameters are recorded in the subjects: I. Physical Anthropometry a} Height in cms. (nearest to 0.5 cm) b} Weight in kgs (nearest to 0.5 kg) c} Chest circumference in cms. (nearest to 0.1 cm) II. Physiological parameters14-17 a} Respiratory Rate -It is recorded by inspection and palpation of chest and abdomen and expressed as cycles per minute. b} Pulse rate –It is expressed as beats per minute. Right radial pulse is examined by compressing radial artery in the semi pronated forearm and slightly flexed wrist of the subject. c} Blood pressure [SBP and DBP mm.Hg].It is recorded by using mercurial sphygmo manometer, (Diamond make) by palpatary and auscultatory methods. MEP(Maximum Expiratory Pressure) MEP (Maximum Expiratory Pressure) is recorded by using Modified Black‘s Apparatus. Subject is asked to deep inspiration and blow forcefully into the rubber tube connected to aneroid pressure gauge through three way connector and hold for one second and looked for pressure  reading. Like this, three readings are taken at the interval of one minute. Highest reading is taken for calculation18 . Statistical analysis19,20 All the data are presented as Mean + SD {SEM}. The significance of difference in parameters between groups are ascertained by Student‘s ?t‘ test, ?Z‘ test and chi-square test. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The present study was undertaken on the sample containing 50 saw mill workers applying necessary inclusion and exclusion criteria as mentioned earlier. The subjects of study group (saw mill workers) were screened with proper taking of history with special reference to history of occupation (questionnaire) 21. They were subjected to clinical examination in detail. The experimental group was compared with 50 subjects in control group from non-teaching staff of Shri. B.M.Patil Medical College (Age and socio economic status were matched). The anthropometric parameters like age (yrs), weight (in kgs), height (in cms) and chest expansion (in cms) were recorded in both the groups. Physiological parameters like pulse rate (bpm) and blood pressure (SBPand DBP in mm.Hg) were recorded in both the groups. Physiological parameter i.e. MEP (mm.Hg) was recorded in both the groups. In our study significant difference was seen between subjects of control group and experimental group exposed to saw dust. The subjects exposed to saw dust showed decrease in MEP (mm Hg) (Table-1) Conflict of interest The authors wish to state that they have no conflict of interest that might improperly influence this work. This study was unfunded. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank the principal Dr R C Bidari , Shri B M Patil Medical College Bijapur ,karnataka,India for his constant inspiration and support and other experts who have helped in this case study.Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1782http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17821. Zeiher BG, Gross TJ, Kern JA, Lanza LA, Peterson MW. Predicting postoperative pulmonary function in patients undergoing lung resection.Chest. 1995 Sep;108(3):642-6. 2. Kauffman F et.al, ? Occupational exposure and 12yr Spirometric changes in Persian workers‘. Br.J Ind Med. 1982 ;39:221-32. 3. Shamssain M.H ?Pulmonary function and symptoms in workers exposed to wood dust‘. Thorax 1992 ; 47:84-87. 4. Carl-Lenz "Occupational medicine". second edition. 1988; ?Ι(14) :201-18 5. Crofton and Douglas‘s Resp diseases. Fifth edition 2000; I (2): 26-47 and II (54): 1404. 6. Bhat M R , Ramaswamy C ?comparative study of lung functions in rice mill and saw mill workers‘. Ind.J Phy Pharmacol 1991; 35(1) :27- 30. 7. Choudhari D, Manjunatha Aithal, Vasant A Kulkarni. ?Maximal Expiratory Pressure in Residential and Non-Residential school children‘. Ind.J Pediatrics 2002;69:229-32. 8. Agarwal M J, R.Deshpande,D.Jaju,S.Raje,M B Dixit,S Mandke. ?A Preliminary investigation into MEP in some village children‘.Ind.J Physiol Pharmocol 2006;50(1):73-78. 9. Rimmer K P,Whitelar W A.The respiratory muscles in multicore myopathy. Am Rev Respir 1993;148:227-31. 10. Tanturi C,Massuci M,Piperno R et.al, ?Control of breathing and respiratory muscle strength in patient with multiple sclerosis. Chest 1994;105:1163-1170. 11. Sridhar M K,Anderson K,Weir A,Moran F,Banhan S W. ?Diaphragmatic Paralysis in motor neuron disease: use of non-invasive, investigative and therapeutic technic‘. Br.J Clin Prac 1994;48:156-157. 12. Arora N S, Rochester D F. ?Effect of body weight and muscularity on human diaphragm muscle mass,thickness and area‘.Appl Physiol 1982; 52: 64-70. 13. Evans S A,Watson L,Hawkins M,Cowly A J,Johnston IDA,Kinnenar WJM. ?Respiratory muscle strength in chronic heart failure‘. Thorax 1995;50:625-628. 14. Jain A K Manual of Practical Physiology,Arya Publications. 1st Ed 2003 ;p:151-55. 15. Pal G K Text book of Practical Physiology Orient Longmann Publications. 1st Ed 2002;p:178,210 and 221. 16. Choudhari A R Text book of Practical Physiology Paras Publishers. 1st Ed 2000;p:200-07. 17. Wanger J. pulmonary function testing A practical approach.Williams and Wilkins Baltimore. 1st Ed 1992. 18. Boum GLet.al,"Text Book Of Pumonary Dieases" lippincott philidelphia 6th Ed 1998:393 and724. 19. Mahajan B K,Methods in Biostatistics. Jaypee Publishers 5th Ed 1991;p:114. 20. Steele RGD and Torrie JH, ?Principles and procedure of statistics with special reference to the biological sciences‘. Mc Graw Hill Book Co.Inc. 4th edition 1980;p:183-93. 21. Fletcher C M,Clifton.M,Fairbaim A S "Standardized Questionaries on Respiratory Symptoms"Br Med J. 1960 December 3; 2(5213): 1665.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareWORK RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS AMONG DENTISTS IN CHENNAI- A QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY English3942Haritha Pottipalli SathyanarayanaEnglish Sudhakar SubramanianEnglish Abhay PandeyEnglishBackground: Musculoskeletal Complaints are very common among Dentists due to their bad posture confined to restricted area of their clinical practice while treating the patients. The aim of this study is to find out the most prevalent musculoskeletal complaint and the most commonly affected region among dentists in Chennai. Methods: A self reported questionnaire survey was carried out among 270 dentists in Chennai (response 90%). Questions include data to know about their background, regional pain, and routine practice posture, frequency of work about their clinical practice and the occurrence of musculoskeletal complaints in the past 3 years and chronic complaints in the past 3 months. Results: 262 respondents completed the questionnaire and the result of the survey showed 76% of the respondents had pain and 24% reported no pain. Among the respondents with pain, dentists had significantly more neck pain than other regions. Conclusion: Based on the results of this study, the rate of musculoskeletal disorders among dental professionals in Chennai has been found to be high due to their increased work load and poor posture during work. EnglishINTRODUCTION The common risk factors which contributes to the development of health disorders can be grouped as those related to the personal background factors (anthropometric characteristics, age, hereditary factors) and those related to occupation (repetitive motion, static posture, force, awkward position, vibration, temperature, biological factors, chemical irritating or toxic factors, radiation). 1-2 Dentists at work are susceptible to the occupational health hazards and the development of cumulative trauma disorders.3 Dentists often work in static positions that are uncomfortable and asymmetric. Several dental procedures requires the dentist to assume and maintain positions that might cause harmful effects on the musculoskeletal system.4 The dentists are prone more for neck and back problems due to the limited work area and impaired vision when procedures are done on some regions in the oral cavity. These working postures force a clinician to assume stressful body positions to achieve good accessibility and visibility in the oral cavity. Usually the dental procedures are usually carried out for a long period of time and demands more concentration during work. Dentist treat patients with their arms abducted and unsupported and the cervical spine flexed forward and rotated which makes them more susceptible for pain in the neck, back and shoulder regions.5 Moreover the monotony of work, work in noise and artificial light are disadvantageous for dentists. Increased risks of Musculoskeltal Disorders (MSD) among dentists are associated with psychological stress, treating patients with high concentration and precision. It is a well known fact that stress can elicit muscular contraction and pain, especially in the trapezius muscle. Headaches and backaches are other symptoms experienced due to overstressed muscles and joints. The dental professionals are at a significantly high risk of developing work related MSDs. Comparing the prevalence of upper body symptoms of pathological conditions in dentists and personnel‘s working in a different types of environment, such as farmers, pharmacists and office employees , the symptoms occurred more often among dentists. The aim of this study was to survey the health status among dentists in Chennai regarding the prevalence of musculoskeletal pain. MATERIALS AND METHODS After the suggestions from the experts in the field, the questionnaire was checked, corrected and validated. Informed consent was obtained from all the dentists who participated in the study. A total of 270 dentists (122 females- 45 % and 148 males-55%) practicing in Chennai completed a validated questionnaire focussed on MSDs. At least 1 year of work experience in the current position was the only criterion for eligibility to participate in the study. The questionnaire was divided in to 3 sections. The first section comprised of questions related to demographic information like age, gender, duration of work and acquired specialisation. The second section included questions related to work conditions like working posture, number of breaks in between the appointments and number of hours of practice per day and total number of hours in a week. The third section dealt with the MSDs and also physical activities. Some of the questions allowed for multiple responses. The data was analysed using SPSS 15.0. RESULTS Two hundred and sixty two questionnaires (97 %) were returned. Missing data were excluded from the analysis. The study group comprised of general dentists and dentists with various specialisations in different fields of dentistry: 11% of respondents were general practitioners, while 22 % of dentists were specialised in orthodontics, 14 % in prosthodontics, 24 % in conservative dentistry, 12 % in maxillofacial surgery, 6 % in pedodontics, and 11 % in periodontics. The mean number of years employed in the dental profession among the study group was six years. Most dentists (87.2 per cent) reported of having at least one MSD symptom in the past 12 months. The most prevalent musculoskeletal complaints among dentists during the previous 12 months were reported at the neck (42.5 per cent), upper back (8.9 percent), lower back (28.7 per cent), shoulder (12.3 per cent) and hand and wrist (7.6 percent) From the episode of backache experienced by the dentists in the last one year, 38 (55.9%) had mild pain, 13 (19.4%) had moderate pain and only 2 (3%) had severe pain. Forty (58.8%) dentists had at least one episode of neck pain during the last one year. Twenty-nine (42.6%) had mild pain, 8 (11.8%) had moderate and 4 (5.9%) had severe pain. DISCUSSION In this survey, we found a higher prevalence of lower back pain, neck pain and shoulder pain. Musculoskeletal co morbidity was high and significant number of dentists reported chronic complaints and were seeking treatment for the same. In this survey, self reported questionnaires were used to collect the information regarding age, gender, work experience, physical activity and existence of musculoskeletal pain. There are large numbers of studies relating to musculoskeletal complaints among dental surgeons in the Western literature but none has been conducted in Chennai, Tamilnadu. This study has been conducted to assess the workrelated complaints among dentists in our region with the specific objectives to find out the prevalence of neck, shoulder and back pain among the dental surgeons and to identify the risk factors associated with these symptoms. Occupational back pain among dentists has been reported between 37 percent to greater than 55 percentages in the literature.6 As in most of the studies, there was a significant relation between self reported physical factors and occurrence of MSDs. The occurrence of MSDs is significantly associated with physical work load. Dentists can reduce the risk of developing MSDs by using proper body posture and positioning during clinical procedures, incorporating regular rest breaks, maintaining good general health and performing exercises regularly. The presented results are based on the self reported experiences of the dental professionals. Conducting interviews and performing physical examination would provide more detailed information. The study allowed for a general assessment of the occupational health hazards among the dentists and further research will follow. Most dentists today work in the sitting position treating the patient in the supine position. Because their work area (the mouth of the patient) is narrow, performance of dental treatment results in a very inflexible work posture.7 Studies have shown that dentists have a high frequency of musculoskeletal disorders, 8-10 and the reason is that dentistry is a profession which demands concentration and precision. Studies have shown that dentists report more frequent and worse health problems than other high risk medical professionals.11 Dentists characterize their profession as requiring more patience and physical self-sacrifice than they are able to give. Dental professionals regardless of the specialty should receive education about all aspects of dental ergonomics, including rest breaks. Physical exercise and regular rest breaks are recommended to prevent the accumulation of harmful agents. Short rest breaks during dental procedures at regular intervals can reduce the discomfort. Fatigue and back pain are the most prevalent physical complaints of Lithuanian dentists. A study in Greece showed that 62% of dentists reported at least one musculoskeletal complaint12; while 87.2% of Australian dentists reported having experienced at least one musculoskeletal symptom in the past 12 months13. In India, neck and back disorders have previously been reported at a higher frequency that hand and wrist complaints14. In the USA, 29% of dentists reported symptoms of peripheral neuropathy in the upper limbs or neck.15 Regarding chronic conditions, back pain and fatigue were the most prevalent of all physical disorders, suggesting that the back region of dentists may be most affected by constant strain. CONCLUSION It was recognised that limited ergonomics in the work environment of the dental professionals results in MSDs, and the prevalence is high. The symptoms of MSD increase with the number of years of practice. The dentists should be aware of the work related risk factors and educate themselves in dental ergonomics. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1783http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17831. Leggat PA, Kedjarune U, Smith DR.Occupational health problems in modern dentistry: a review. Industrial Health 2007, 45, 611-21. 2. Occupational hazards in orthodontics: a review of risks and associated pathology American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics 2007 sep 132 (3), 280-92. 3. Valachi B, Valachi K. Mechanism leading to musculoskeletal disorders in dentistry The Journal of the American Dental Association 2003 oct 134(10):1344-50. 4. Kierklo A, Kobus A, Jaworska M, Botuli?ski B. Occupational stress in dentistry: the postural component. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2011 Jun; 18(1): 79- 84. 5. Murtomaa H.Work related complaints of dentists and dental assistants. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 1982, (3): 231-6. 6. Musculoskeletal back pain among dentists. General dentistry 1984 32:481-85. 7. Finsen L, Christensen H, Bakke M. Musculoskeletal disorders among dentists and variation in dental work. Appl Ergon 1998; 29(2):119-25. 8. Shugars D, Miller D, Williams D, Fishburne C, Srickland D. Musculoskeletal pain among general dentists. General Dentistry 1987;4:272-6. 9. Murtomaa H. Work related complaints of dentists and dental assistants. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1982;50: 231-6. 10. Kajland A, Lindvall T, Nilsson T. Occupational medical aspects of the dental profession. Work Environ Health 1974; 11:100-7. 11. Szymanska J (2002) Disorders of the musculoskeletal system among dentists from the aspect of ergonomics and prophylaxis. Ann Agric Environ Med 9, 169–73. 12. Alexopoulos EC, Stathi IC, Charizani F (2004) Prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders in dentists. BMC Musculoscelet Disord 9, 5–16. 13. Leggat PA, Smith DR (2006) Musculoskeletal disorders self-reported by dentists in Queensland, Australia. Aust Dent J 51, 324–7. 14. Mamatha Y, Gopikrishna V, Kandaswamy D (2005) Carpal tunnel syndrome: survey of an occupational hazard. Indian J Dent Res 16, 109–13. 15. Droeze EH, Jonson H (2005) Evaluation of ergonomic interventions to reduce musculoskeletal disorders of dentists in the Netherlands. Work 25, 211–20.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareDETECTION OF VIRUS STRAIN THAT CAUSED FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE OF BASRAH MARSHES CATTLE BY USING PCR TECHNIQUE English4351Khitam Jassim SalihEnglish Majeed Hussein MajeedEnglishAlthough, the disease has been controlled successfully in many parts of the world by regular vaccination of susceptible animals and slaughtering of infected animals, no country has been considered safe, because of the highly contagious nature and rapid spread of the infection for the effective control of the disease, outbreaks should be detected at an early stage and persistent infections should also be recognized to prevent further transmittance. The purpose of this study was to determine the virus strain that caused FMD in cattle of Basrah marshes by amplified VP3gene in seven strains of FMDV deposited in the Gen Bank database. The results revealed that the O strain type was appear in a total of cases (100%) of the virus strain that caused foot and mouth disease in cattle of Basrah marshes by amplified VP3gene from seven serotype of FMDV. From the total cases 8% were ASIA1 serotype , 4% SAT1, 2% SAT2, while the other strains A, C and EUR were 0% . The results showed interaction among the strains in appearance of FMD, the interaction between O and ASIA1strain was 7%; O and SAT1 was 4%; O and SAT2 was 2%; O, ASIA1 and SAT1 were 4%; O, ASIA1 and SAT2 were 2%; O, ASIA1, SAT1 and SAT2 were 2%. The interaction between ASIA1 and SAT1 was 4%; ASIA1 and SAT2 was 2%; ASIA1 , SAT1 and SAT2 were 2%. EnglishFMD, Bsrah marshes, PCR, Viruse strains of Foot and Mouth DiseaseINTRODUCTION Foot-and-mouth disease or hoof-and-mouth disease (Aphtae epizooticae) is an infectious and sometimes fatal viral disease that affects clovenhoofed animals, including domestic and wild bovids. The virus causes a high fever for two or three days, followed by blisters inside the mouth and on the feet that may rupture and cause lameness. Foot-and-mouth disease is a severe plague for animal farming, since it is highly infectious and can be spread by infected animals through aerosols, through contact with contaminated farming equipment, vehicles, clothing or feed, and by domestic and wild predators (CFIA, 20011). The FMD virus is a member of the genus Aphthovirus in the family Picornaviridae. There are seven immunological distinct serotypes O, A, C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3 and Asia 1and over 60 strains within these serotypes(Knowles et.al., 2003). The virus responsible for the disease is a picorna virus, the prototypic member of the genus Aphthovirus. Infection occurs when the virus particle is taken into a cell of the host. The cell is then forced to manufacture thousands of copies of the virus, and eventually bursts, releasing the new particles in the blood. The virus is highly variable(Martinez-Salas et.al.,2008). FMD occurs throughout much of the world, and whilst some countries have been free of FMD for some time, its wide host range and rapid spread represent cause for international concern. After World War II, the disease was widely distributed throughout the world. In 1996, endemic areas included Asia, Africa, and parts of South America(FMD, 2007). FMD generally involves mortality rates below 5%, but even so it is considered the most important disease of farm animals since it causes huge losses in terms of livestock productivity and trade. Although FMDV rarely causes death in adult animals, the virus can cause severe lesion in the myocardium of young animals, leading to high mortality rates (Sharma and Das, 1984; Domingo et.al., 1990 and Woodbury, 1995) Aim of study: The purpose of this study was to determine the virus strain that caused FMD in cattle of Basrah marshes by amplified VP3gene in seven strains type of FMDV deposited in the GenBank database. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sampling fluid from vesicles and saliva: One hundred cases of cattle(cows and buffalo) infected with FMD were used to collect the fluid from vesicle and saliva using a sterile tubes, needles and syringes. The fluid kept in transport medium (normal saline at pH 7-8.in 4-10 °C) and transport to laboratory within 24 hours . RNA Extraction: RNA samples were extracted using the total RNA Mini kit (tissue) following the manufacturer's instructions. Briefly, 400 μl of the RB buffer that is included in the kit added to the tubes that containing the FMD fluid ,then 4 μl of ß-mercaptoethanol followed by 400 μl of 70% ethanol, then transferred to a Mini RNase column previously inserted into a 2ml collecting tube. RNA was immobilized in the column by centrifugation, sequentially washed, and diluted in 50 μl of RNase free water. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction: The following primers were used F5'- ACTGGGTTTTACAAACCTGTGA-3' and R5'- GCGAGTC CTGCCACGGA-3' along with the probe 5'-TCCTTTGCACGCCGTGGGAC-3'in the one-step RT-PCR amplification started with reverse transcription for 1 hr at 60°C, followed by PCR with the following parameters: 55 cycles of 2 sec at 95 °C and 30 sec at 60°C. (Knowles et al ,2005). The amplified PCR products (672 bp) of the expected length were subjected to electrophoresis in a 1% agarose gel and visualized by staining with ethidium bromide under UV light. The other RT-PCR protocol for VP3 gene amplification by used a kit of green master mix, the reaction mix include green master mix 12.5μl, forward primer and reverse primer(modified from)(Gelagay et.al.,2009). (table:1) each 1μl, DNA 5μl, D.W. 5.5μl, then PCR amplification according to the following thermal profile: initial denaturation at 95°C for 5 min; 94°C for 30 sec, annealing at 50°C for 30 sec and extension at 72°C for 2.5 min, for 30 cycles. The final extension step of 72°C for 10 min. The products were 320bp analyzed by 1% agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized under UV light after staining with ethidium bromide  RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The primary diagnosis according to the case history and the cardinal signs and symptoms of FMD which are wobble between increase the body temperature ,salivation, anorexia, laminas and appear of vesicles in mouth and foot(between digits space of hooves); the FMD was determine (figure.1-8). The laboratory diagnosis depended on PCR technique by amplified of the 3AB gene of FMDV which is a member of the genus Aphthovirus in the family Picornaviridae. The whole volume of gene were 672 bp (Fig 9,10) which fixed that the infections were FMD not another diseases. The results revealed that the O strain type was appear in a total of cases (100%) of the virus strain that caused foot and mouth disease in cattle of Basrah marshes by amplified VP3gene from seven strain type of FMDV(figure 11.table 2).From the total cases 8% were Asia1 strain type(figure 12. table 2) 4% SAT1, 2% SAT2, (figure 13,14.table 2)while the other strains A, C and EUR were 0% (figure.15- 17.table 2). The results showed interaction among the strains in appearance of FMD, the interaction between O and ASIA1strain was 7%; O and SAT1 was 4%; O and SAT2 was 2%; O, ASIA1 and SAT1 were 4%; O, ASIA1 and SAT2 were 2%; O, ASIA1, SAT1 and SAT2 were 2%. The interaction between ASIA1 and SAT1 was 4%; ASIA1 and SAT2 was 2%; ASIA1 , SAT1 and SAT2 were 2% (table. 2). Infection with foot and mouth disease tends to occur locally, the virus is passed on to susceptible animals through direct contact with infected animals or with contaminated pens or vehicles used to transport livestock. The clothes and skin of animal handlers such as farmers, standing water, and uncooked food scraps and feed supplements containing infected animal products can harbor the virus as well. The absent of control measures such as quarantine and destruction of infected livestock, and export bans for meat and other animal products to countries not infected with the disease. Almost the viral disease laboratory diagnosed by use the ELISA assay, but this way of laboratory lack of the high sensitivity, so the PCR is the standard laboratory assays which applied to detect FMDV by detect DNA/RNA. Although the program of the vaccination against FMD is in continue in Iraq but this disease become endemic specially in marshes cattle. The failed in immunization may be due to lack the athletic with the virus strain that endemic in regions or due to activate the strain which is occurred by the vaccine not originally present in the region; Also one of the difficulties in vaccinating against FMD is the huge variation between and even within serotypes. The lose of crossprotection between strain types which meaning that a vaccine for one serotype won't protect against any others and in addition, two strains within a given serotype may have nucleotide sequences that differ by as much as 30% for a given gene; so the FMD vaccines must be highly specific to the strain involved. As we know the vaccination only provides temporary immunity that lasts from months to years and this idea agree with Tamilselvan et.al., (2009) the main constraints in controlling this disease and why it is considered as the most dreaded viral disease are its high contagiousness, wide geographical distribution, broad host range, ability to establish carrier status, antigenic diversity leading to poor cross-immunity, and relatively short duration of immunity. Poor surveillance and diagnostic facilities as well as inadequate control programs are major problems in control of this disease in the country. Although, the disease has been controlled successfully in many parts of the world by regular vaccination of susceptible animals and slaughtering of infected animals, no country has been considered safe, because of the highly contagious nature and rapid spread of the infection for the effective control of the disease, outbreaks should be detected at an early stage and persistent infections should also be recognized to prevent further transmittance. These can be achieved when vaccination is regular and effective and when diagnostic tools available are specific and sensitive and at the same time rapid(Bruner and Gillespie, 1973). Analysis of the viral genome is importance to monitor the field isolates in areas where the disease is endemic The virus particle which sediments at 146S consists of a single stranded positive sense RNA molecule of about 8.5 kb with a molecular weight of 2.6 ´ 106 daltons enclosed in a capsid which is composed of 60 copies each of four structural proteins named VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4. VP1 is exposed on the surface of the virion and has immunogenic property. (Suryanarayana et.al., 1999). The results of the current study secure the O strain is the main strain that causes FMD in Iraq marshes cattle depend on genetic diagnosis of VP3 gene. Also the results showed that the other strain such as ASIA1 ,SAT1 and SAT2 respectively are combined with strain O in FMD accident. While the genetic diagnosis that used in the current study discovered the strains A,C and EUR not have any role in FMD occurrence. According to Global Animal Health–International Disease Monitoring Preliminary Outbreak Assessment(2009) the middle east specially Iran was endemic in FMD strain type O and Iraq not endemic with this disease, so we think the main causes that make Basrah marshes cattle become endemic in FMD from 2009-2011 is as a result of animal contraband between Iran and Iraq , random greasing with neighbouring countries, contaminated of marshes water that are link and sharing between Iran and Iraq and used the vaccine that prepare in Iran which contain different strain. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1784http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17841. Bruner DW and Gillespie JH (1973). The family Picornaviridae. in Hagan’s Infectious Disease of Domestic Animals, pp. 1207– 1028, 6th edition,. 2. Domingo E, Mateu MG, Martínez MA, Dopazo J, Moya A and . Sobrino F (1990). Genetic variability and antigenic diversity of foot-and-mouth disease virus, in Applied Virology Research, vol. 2, pp. 233–266. 3. Gelagay A, Mana M , Esayas G, Berhe GE, Tesfaye R, Mesfin S, Nigel PF, Jemma W, Geoffrey HH, and Nick J (2009). Genetic Characterization of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Viruses, Ethiopia, 1981–2007. Emerging Infectious Disease Journal. Volume 15:1-5 4. Veterinary Science Team(2009). Global Animal Health–International Disease Monitoring Preliminary Outbreak Assessment Reference (http://archive.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm /farmanimal /diseases/monitoring/documents/fmd-meupdate-: VITT/1200 FMD in Middle East Date 5. Foot and Mouth Disease. Washington State Department of Health. March 2002. Archived from the original on (2007)(ttp://www. doh.wa .gov/ehp/ts/zoo/foot-and- mouth-disease) 6. Canadian Food Inspection Agency (2011).(http://www.inspection. gc.ca/english/anima /heasan/disemala/fmdfie/questionse.shtm. 7. Knowles NJ, Samuel AR(2003). Molecular epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Virus Res ;91:65–80). 8. Martinez-Salas E, Saiz M, Sobrino F (2008). "Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. pp. 1–38 9. Sharma PK. and Das SK (1984). Occurrence of foot-and-mouth disease and distribution of virus type in the hill states of North Eastern region of India, Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, vol. 4, pp. 117–118. 10. Suryanarayana VV., Pradeep B , Reddy GR and Misra LD (1999). Serotyping of footand-mouth disease virus from aerosols in the infected area Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Hebbal, Bangalore 560 024, India. pp1-4 online 11. Tamilselvan RP, Sanyal A De, and Pattnaik B. (2009). Genetic transitions of Indian serotype O Foot and Mouth Disease Virus isolates responsible for field outbreaks during 2001–2009: a brief note: OIE/FAO Reference laboratories network meeting: New Delhi, India, pp. 11-13 12. Woodbury EL (1995). A review of the possible mechanisms for the persistence of foot-and-mouth disease virus,? Epidemiology and Infection, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 1–

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareCOMPARISON OF MEAN ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE IN FOUR DIFFERENT BODY POSITIONS BETWEEN HYPERTENSIVE AND NORMOTENSIVE INDIVIDUALS English5258Prakash J. PatelEnglish Dhaval PatelEnglishObjectives: It is known that changes in the body positions leads to the various changes in the cardio vascular system. It is also known that many factors influence on individuals BP measurement, however BP is constantly changes from one position to another. Change in positions well known to cause change in intravascular and intra cardiac volumes and pressures, and in neurohumoral activity. Surprisingly there is little information available on the BP changes in various positions between hypertensive and normotensive individuals. Purpose of the study to compare mean arterial blood pressure response between supine, sitting, standing and supine with crossed leg positions. Methods: 100 volunteers,50 hypertensive and 50 normotensive, male – 49, Female – 51, age range 18 – 35 years, with mean age of normotensive individuals 22.74± 2.90 and mean age of hypertensive individuals were 27.70 ± 3.19 . Four different positions were used in this study: Sitting, Standing, Supine and supine with cross leg. Blood pressure measured by standardized mercury sphygmomanometer and MABP value was calculated as per formula. Results: Comparison of changes in MABP scores in different positions between hypertensive and normotensive individuals shows p – value < 0.01 which were statistically significant. Conclusion: The study shows that there is significant difference of positions on MABP response between hypertensive and normotensive individuals. The study concluded that in standing position MABP is lower than other positions and supine position has higher MABP values. EnglishHypertensive, Normotensive, Positions, MABP (mean arterial blood pressure)INTRODUCTION Blood pressure is the lateral pressure exerted on the wall of the vessels by the column of blood present in it. The maximum pressure, which occurs during systole, is called systolic pressure and the minimal pressure produced during diastole is called diastolic pressure. The difference between two pressures is called pulse pressure. The average of pressure produced during a cardiac cycle is known as mean pressure. It is calculated by taking the diastolic pressure and adding one third of pulse pressure. Systolic pressure ranges from 100 to 140 mm of Hg. With the average pressure of 120 mm of Hg. In adults, diastolic pressure ranges from 70 to 90 mm of Hg and the average is 80 mm of Hg. Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic pressures and is 40 mm of Hg. The mean arterial blood pressure is 100 mm of Hg.1 The concept of stages of hypertension has been applied to define levels of blood pressure. Many clinicians have continued to use more descriptive terms such as ?mild,? ?moderate,? or ?severe? hypertension. Therefore, to avoid confusion between physicians and patients regarding the risk associated with hypertension, it is best to describe the degree of blood pressure elevation using a staging system. When systolic and diastolic blood pressure fall into different categories, the higher stage should be used to classify the patient&#39;s blood pressure because both are independent risk factors for subsequent cardiovascular events.2 Hypertension is the most common diseasespecific reason for which Americans visit a physician. It is currently among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the world and is expected to have an even greater impact on the health of the public as more of the world becomes developed.3 In addition to the morbidity and mortality directly attributable to hypertension, high blood pressure is a powerful risk factor that in this case increases the likelihood that an individual or population will develop a wide variety of cardiovascular diseases 4,5,6,7,8 Movement from a supine or sitting position to standing causes a rapid loss of blood from the thoracic and abdominal cavities and pulling in extremities, reducing venous return and cardiac stroke volume. Under normal conditions, this stimulates baroreceptors to active the sympathetic nervous system, leading to vasoconstriction and increased heart rate to maintain a stable blood pressure as parasympathetic nerve signals to the heart are withdrawn, thus causing short term blood pressure changes, although up regulation of sympathetic activity is necessary for regulation of blood pressure, hyper reactivity is associated with harmful effects, including the development of hypertension.9 A change in the body position from upright to the supine increases left ventricular blood filling with simultaneous stroke volume and cardiac output increases but decreases heart rate and arterial blood pressure.10 Orthostatic stresses are common daily events in humans. In the upright position, a gravitational displacement of blood from the thorax to the venous vascular beds of the legs, buttock and abdomen occurs. During orthostasis, approx. 600–700 ml of blood is transferred to the regions below the diaphragm 11, 12. Which is known as ?venous pooling‘ This results in a reduced venous return to the heart and a fall in central venous pressure with a consequent decrease in cardiac filling, stroke volume and cardiac output 13 . Gravity imposes numerous cardiovascular and neurohumoral adjustments on the human body in the standing position. Physiological adaptations mainly due to the effect of gravity occur during changes of position and can influence the symptoms of various diseases involving not only the circulatory system but also other systems (respiratory, digestive, osteoarticular etc).14 Posture affects blood pressure, with a general tendency for it to increase from the lying to the sitting or standing position. However, in most people posture is unlikely to lead to significant error in blood pressure measurement provided the arm is supported at heart level. None the less, it is advisable to standardize posture for individual patients and in practice blood pressure is usually measured in the sitting position. 15 The indirect blood pressure measurement is perhaps the most frequently performed clinical procedure and important therapeutic decisions rely on its accuracy. However, its accuracy strongly depends both on the number of measurement and the circumstances during the procedure. Unfortunately, it is perhaps one of the most inaccurately performed procedures done by healthcare providers. 16 The position of the patient during the measurement is often neglected. The reference point for the measurement of the blood pressure is the right atrium, the so called ?heart level?.17 A change in posture is well known to cause changes in intravascular and intracardiac volumes and pressures, and in neurohumoral activity.18, 19, 20, 21 Thus, the impact of body positioning needs to be verified as significant heamodynamic variations may lead to different interpretation of the study.22, 23 Some of the identified sources of error included inappropriate cuff size, wrong arm position, failure to allow a rest period before taking blood pressure, deflating the cuff too rapidly, not measuring the BP in both arms, and failure to palpate for maximal- systolic pressure before auscultation. 24 It is known that failure to support the arm, even when the arm is in slightly flexed at the elbow and at heart level position‘ 25 can raise the blood pressure by as much as 10% this effect is even greater in hypertensive‘s and the patients taking b- blocker .26 By understanding how MABP varies in different body positions between the hypertensive and normotensive individual, physiotherapist can better advice on positional changes that may help in improve the stability of cardiovascular response in hypertensive patient. Keeping in view the above this study intended to examine the comparison of Mean arterial blood pressure in four different body positions between hypertensive and normotensive individuals and to find out the changes in MABP scores in various positions between hypertensive and normotensive individuals. METHODOLOGY In Observational study, A total of 100 individuals, 50 hypertensive and 50 normotensive. With age of 18 to 35 years were obtained. Before they enter into the study protocol, they were explained about the procedure. A written consent form obtained from those subjects who were willing to participate in the study after screening for the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Purposive sampling technique used to collect 100 subjects of both sexes in the age group of 18 – 35 years. Inclusion Criteria: (1) 50 hypertensives and 50 normotensive subjects in age group of 18 to 35 years (both male and female) (2) Person scoring 100 in 36 – SF questionnaire.28 (3) Hypertensive individual with mild grade (140/90 mm of Hg). (4) BMI 18.5 – 29 kg/m2 Exclusion Criteria: (1) Individual with any cardiovascular problems or under medication, (2) Hypertensive individual with SBP≥140 mm of hg, and DBP ≥ 90 mm of hg. 3) Acute systemic illness (4) Recent history of postural hypotension. (5)Renal hepatic disease, severe anemia, hypothyroidism and cerebro vascular accident (6) After any abdominal surgery, hernia, (7) Pregnant women, (8) Smokers. Procedure: Subjects were instructed to wear loosen and comfortable clothing and not to eat food or do any exercise 1 hour before they start their procedure. Prior instructions about the procedure were given to each enrolled subject as explained below. Positioning: BP was taken in each of four different postures: supine, sitting, standing and supine with crossed leg. Sitting: Subjects sat on chair with arm and back support. The height of the seat was adjusted so that the angle of hip and knee joint was 90 Standing: Subjects were instructed to stand free with feet slightly apart, aiming for an equal weight distribution between left and right feet. Supine: The subjects resting comfortably on their backs in horizontal position on a couch. A pillow was placed under the head. Supine with crossed leg: The subjects resting comfortably on their backs in horizontal position on a couch. A pillow was placed under the head. The subjects were instructed to cross the right leg in front of left leg at thigh level and relaxed. Technique:- Patient‘s profile was recorded and arm circumference was measured midway between the shoulder acromian and elbow. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure were recorded by using standardize sphygmomanometer and stethoscope from brachial artery at elbow as the appearance of the korotkoff sounds (phase 1 and 5). Firstly, sitting BP was taken from the left arm, which was flexed at the elbow and supported at the heart level on the chair. After 1 minute of standing BP was measured in standing with arm supported on desk or table. After 1 minute of rest in supine BP was measured. Finally, after 1 minute BP was again taken in the supine with crossed leg position. In all the position BP was measured 3 times and mean of 3 readings taken for calculate MABP. All the measurements were recorded separately in an evaluation chart for each subject. The Mean arterial Blood Pressure was obtaining by using this formula: MABP = DBP + (1/3 SBP – DBP) RESULTS Among the 100 subjects, 50 hypertensive and 50 normotensive individuals and their data were taken up for statistical Analysis. Analysis result shows that, among the normotensive individuals mean and standard deviation of MABP in sitting position is 88.14 ± 7.25, in standing position 86.00 ± 7.28, in supine position 90.76 ± 7.15, in supine with cross leg position 89.96 ± 7.12, by ANOVA and multiple comparison shows that, there is significant difference among the positions. Further value is less in standing position compare to sitting position compare to supine with cross leg position and compare to supine position. So supine position has higher value then other positions. Result shows that, among the hypertensive individuals mean and standard deviation of MABP in sitting position is 102.32 ± 3.95, in standing position 100.60 ± 4.07, in supine position 104.74 ± 3.84, in supine with cross leg position 103.96 ± 3.71, by ANOVA and multiple comparison shows that, there is significant difference among the positions. Further value is less in standing position compare to sitting position compare to supine with cross leg position and compare to supine position. So supine position has higher value then other positions. Result shows that, in sitting position hypertensive individual have significantly higher value with mean difference 14.48 compare to normotensive as p < 0.01, in standing position hypertensive individual has significantly higher value with mean difference 14.60 compare to normotensive as p < 0.01, in supine position hypertensive individual has significantly higher value with mean difference 13.98 compare to normotensive as p < 0.01, in supine with cross leg position hypertensive individual has significantly higher value with mean difference 14.00 compare to normotensive as p < 0.01. DISCUSSION Result of this study shows that in the supine position, a significantly higher MABP was observed compared to other positions in both hypertensive and normotensive individuals. Similarly lower MABP was observed in the standing position compared to other positions in hypertensive and normotensive individuals. The position of the body is known to affect the BP readings with BP increases successively from the supine to sitting and standing and standing position. One study shows that SBP and DBP were significantly higher in the supine position than in the sitting position.29 Results of this study supports the result of the present study. There is a theoretical basis and studies that suggest crossing leg may increase the blood pressure30, 31 The slowed pulse rate in the horizontal posture as compared with sitting, and quicker rate in standing as compared with sitting, squatting, depend on wholly different mechanisms and may vary independently. Variation in the cardiovascular parameter in sitting, standing and supine posture is associated with hydrostatic influence acting on the altered position of the thighs, horizontal or vertical in these postures. 32 A significant fall in BP can be prevented by a complex regulatory system comprising a series of neurohumoral mechanisms and cardiovascular reflexes that regulate peripheral vascular resistance and capacitance, stroke volume and HR, with BP as the controlled variable. This baroreceptor reflex plays a key role in this. 33 In present study blood pressure fluctuations more seen in the normotensive individuals then in the hypertensive individuals. Also hand placement for measuring blood pressure has major factor for error or fluctuations in various positions. As per world health organization and international society of hypertension guidelines on BP measurement recommend that BP should be measured routinely with patient‘s arm supported at heart level.34 so in this study also, hand position was kept at the heart level to avoid errors. CONCLUSION: The study shows that there is significant effect of positions on MABP between hypertensive and normotensive individuals. ? From the results obtained it concluded that standing posture having low MABP value than other positions and also supine has higher value in both normotensive and hypertensive individuals. Also sitting is the optimal position to measure the blood pressure in clinical practice. ? Thus, the study concluded that there are higher fluctuations in blood pressure in normotensive then in the hypertensive individuals. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. I am also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journal and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. A study in all its sense certainly can be accomplished by the guidance and assistance of many people. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all those who have helped me for completing this study successfully. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1785http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17851. Text book of physiology by r.chandramouli. 2. Critical pathways in cardiology, by Christopher p. cannon, petrick t. o‘gara.chap 21-hypertension 3. Murray CJ, Lope AD. Evidence-based health policy—lessons from the Global Burden of Disease Study. Science 1996; 274(5288):740–743. 4. Kannel WB. Blood pressure as a cardiovascular risk factor: Prevention and treatment. JAMA 1996; 275:1571–1576. 5. MacMahon S, Rodgers A. The epidemiological association between blood pressure and stroke: Implications for primary and secondary prevention. Hypertens Res 1994; 17(suppl I):S23–S32. 6. Klag MJ, Whelton PK, Randall BL, et al. Blood pressure and end-stage renal disease in men. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:13–18. 7. Criqui MH, Langer RD, Fronek A, et al. Large vessel and isolated small vessel peripheral arterial disease. In: Fowkes FCR, ed. Epidemiology of Peripheral Vascular Disease. Ireland: Springer-Verlag; 1991:85.  8. Neiman, D.C. The exercise health connection (1998)- human kinetics 9. Elissa wilker, Murry A. Mittleman, Augusto A, Litonjua et al. postural changes on blood pressure associated with interactions between candidate genes for chronic respiratory diseases and exposure to particular matter. Environmental health prospective; volume 117, number 6, June 2009: 935-940. 10. Wieslaw pilis, Leon Rak, et al. Influence of body position on cardio vascular changes during isometric excercises.gymnica vol 28, 1998:43-46. 11. Rowell, L. B. (1993) Reflex control during orthostasis. In Human Cardiovascular Control (Rowell, L. B., ed.), pp. 37–80, Oxford University Press, New York. 12. Smith, J. J. and Ebert, T. J. (1990) General responses to orthostatic stress. In Circulatory Responses to the Upright Posture (Smith, J. J., ed.), pp. 1–46, CRC Press, Boca, Raton, FL. 13. Smit, A. A. J., Halliwill, J. R., Low, P. A. and Wieling, W.(1999) Pathophysiological basis of orthostatic hypotension. In autonomic failure. J. Physiol. 519, 1–10 14. Remy C. Martin-Du Pana, Raymond Benoitb, Lucia Girardier. The role of body position and gravity in the symptoms and treatment of various medical diseases. SWISS MED WKLY 2004 ;134:543–551 15. Gareth beevers, kregory Y H Lip, Eoin O‘Brien. ABC of hypertension- BP measurement part 1- sphygmomanometry: factors common to all techniques. 16. Armstrong RS (2002) Nurses‘ knowledge of error in blood pressure measurement technique. International journal of clinical nursing practice 8,118-126. 17. Guyton A. Textbook of medical physiology.WB Saunders: Philadelphia.1986. 18. Blomquist, C.G. and Stone, H.L. (1984) cardiovascular adjustments to gravitational stress. Handb. Physiol. Sect. 2 Cardiovascular. Syst. 3, 1025 – 1063. 19. Davies, R., Slater, J.D.H., Forsling, M.L. and Payne, N. (1976) the response of arginine vasopressin and plasma rennin to postural change in normal man, with observation on syncope. Clin. Sci. 51, 267 – 274. 20. Gauer, O. H. and Thron, H.L. (1965) Postural changes in the circulation, Handb. Physiol. Circulation, 2409 – 2437. 21. Rowell, L. B. (1986) Human Circulation Regulation during Physical Stress, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1st Citations. 22. Bornscheuer A, Mahr KH, Botel C, Goldman R, Gnielinski M and Kirchner E ( 1996). Cardiopulmonary effects of lying position in anesthesized and mechanically ventilated dogs. J Exp Anim Sci 38, 20 – 27. 23. Nakao S, Come PC, Miller MJ, Momorua S, Sahagian P, Ransil BJ and Grossman W (1986). Effects of supine and lateral positions on cardiac output and intracardiac pressures: an experimental study. Circulation 73, 579 – 585. 24. Fonseca-Reyes S, Alba- Garcia JC, Parracarillo JZ, Paczka-Zapata AJ. Effect of standard cuff on blood pressure readings in patients with obese arms. Blood pressure monit 2003; 8: 101-106. 25. Beevers G, Lip GY, O‘Brien E. Blood pressure measurement. Part 1. Sphygmomanometry: factors common to all techniques. BMJ 2001; 322: 981-985. 26. O‘Brien G, Beevers G, Lip GY. Blood pressure measurement. Part 2, automated sphygmomanometry: ambulatory blood pressure measurement .BMJ 2001; 322:1110-1114. 27. Neufield PD, Johnson DL. Observer error in blood pressure measurement .Can med Assoc J1986; 135: 633-637. 28. Shuichi Takishita Takashi Touma Nobuyuki Kawazoe et al. Usefulness of Leg-Crossing for Maintaining Blood Pressure in a Sitting Position in Patients with Orthostatic Hypotension—Case Reports. Third Department of Internal Medicine, University of the Ryukyus School of Medicine, Okinawa, Japan ,Angiology, Vol. 42, No. 5, 421-425 (1991) 29. Neeta RT, Smits p, et al. both body and arm position significantly influence blood pressure measurement. Journal of human hypertension; 2003: volume 17:459-462. 30. Ljungvall P. Thorvinger B, Thulin T. The influence of heart level pillow on the result of blood pressure measurement. J Hum Hypertens 1989; 3:471-474. 31. Foster- Fitzpatrick L, Ortiz A, Sibilano H, et al. The effects of crossed leg on blood pressure measurement. Nursing research 48, 105-108. 32. Avvampto CS. Effect of one leg crossed over the other at the knee on blood pressure in hypertensive patients. Nephrology nursing general; 28:325-328 33. Zema MJ, Restivo B, Sos T, Sniderman KW, Kline S. Left ventricular dysfunction – bedside Valsalva manoeuvre. Br Heart J 1980; 44: 560 – 569. 34. Dampney, R. A. (1994) Functional organization of central pathways regulating the cardiovascular system. Physiol. Rev. 74, 323–364.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareMYLOHYOID GROOVE BRIDGING IN NORTH COASTAL ANDHRA POPULATION English5963Indira Devi.BEnglish Raju. SugavasiEnglish Sujatha.MEnglish Sirisha.BEnglish Sridevi.PEnglishThe Bony plates stretch over the mylohyoid groove of the mandible either completely or partially is called as mylohyoid bridging. Presence of such mylohyoid bridging may compress the mylohyoid neurovascular bundle which produces the neurological or vascular disorders.  This study is clinically important for Dental surgeons, anesthetists, anthropologists. Objectives: To study the site, extension and location of the bony bridging of mylohyoid grooves on right and left sides of mandibles in north coastal Andhra population of south India and compare the present study results with those of previous studies. Methods: The present study is conducted on 60 macerated mandibles, which are available in the osteology section of department of anatomy. In each mandible we have examined both medial sides of the mylohyoid grooves and their bony bridging. Results and Conclusion: In the present study mylohyoid groove bony bridges were found as incomplete or partial type on total 4 sides (2 proximal and 2 distal types) out of 120 sides of 60 mandibles (incidence as 3.33%). All bony bridges were seen unilaterally, No cases were found as complete bony bridges. EnglishMandible, Mylohyoid bridging, Mylohyoid nerve.INTRODUCTION Mylohyoid groove located on the medial side of ramus of the mandible, it extends downwards and forwards from below the posterior part of the mylohyoid line and it transmits the mylohyoid neurovascular bundle [1]. Sometimes the bony plates stretch over the mylohyoid groove as completely or a small part is called as mylohyoid bridging, Depending on the extension of bony bridge over the mylohyoid groove this is classified as complete type and incomplete or partial type [2]. Some authors classified bony bridging into distal (type 1), proximal (type 2) and common, uncommon types [3, 4] . MATERIALS AND METHODS A Total number of 60 macerated mandibles were available in the Department of anatomy, Maharajah‘s Institute of medical sciences, Nellimarla, Vijayanagaram, North costal Andhra Pradesh, South India were used for this study. All mandibles belong to adult at different unknown ages. In each mandible both medial sides were examined for mylohyoid grooves and their bony bridges. The site and extent and location of the bony bridging of mylohyoid grooves on right and left sides of mandible were recorded. Each side of bony bridging taken as a separate case for the purpose to compare the present study results with those of previous studies. RESULTS A total 120 sides of mylohyoid grooves were studied from 60 macerated mandibles. In the present study mylohyoid groove bony bridging were found total 4 sides. All bony bridges were seen unilaterally, (2 proximal and 2 distal types). Proximal type of bony bridge seen one at right and one at left side (FIG. 01 and 02), same as distal type seen one at right and one at left side (FIG.03 and 04). In the present study the Incidence of mylohyoid bony bridge in north costal group of Andhra population of south India is 3.33 %( 4/120 : 33.3). DISCUSSION Mylohyoid groove bridging can be useful as a genetic marker in population studies and other non metric cranial traits. The mylohyoid groove bridging received attention of many anthropologists. According to Arensburg (1979) [5] during development of the mandible the membrane covering the mylohyoid groove ossifies at different locations either proximally, distally, or at middle ,occasionally ossifies at multiple levels leads to Bony bridging. Incidence of mylohyoid bridges have been reported from different populations and different parts of India, According to Gopinath (1995) [6] incidence is 8.63, Manjunath (2003) [7] 6.39, Narayana (2007) [8] 7.20, Shantharam V (2011) [9] 3.91 and in the world the incidences as American whites [10] 11.50, Europeans [11] 0.47, East Asians [12] 2.60, Modern Japanese [13]. In the present study the incidence is 3.33. The Clinical significance of mylohyoid bony bridging is important for Dental surgeons, anesthetists as the mylohyoid nerve passes through a bony tunnel may get compressed against the bone which creates neurological disturbances and also mylohyoid nerve varies in its course and distribution [14] . CONCLUSION All mylohyoid groove bridges found in the present study were incomplete, unilateral, and proximal, distal types. No cases were found as complete bony bridges. Out of 120 sides, a total 4 sides (2 proximal and 2 distal types) were observed bony bridges. The incidence of present study in North costal group of Andhra population in south India is 3.33%. AKNOWLEDGEMENTS I express my Thanks to Dr. B. Narasinga Rao, professor and HOD of Anatomy, Maharajah‘s Institute of medical sciences, Nellimarla, Vijayanagaram for his guidance and support throughout this study, and colleagues for their proper suggestions and encouragements to accomplish my work. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors, editors, and publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1786http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17861. Standring S. Gray‘s Anatomy. The Anatomical basis of clinical practice. 40th ed. Edinburg. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone. 2008; (31): 530. 2. Gopinathan K, Chhabra S, Dhall U Mylohyoid bridging in north Indian population. J Anat Soc India.1995; 44: 119 – 125. 3. Hanihara T, Ishida H requency variations of discrete cranial traits in major human populations. 111. Hyperostotic variations. J Anat. 2001; 199: 251 – 272. 4. Turan-Ozdemir S, Sendemir E incidence of mylohyoid bridging in 13th century Byzantine mandibles. Anat Sci Int. 2006; 81: 126 – 129. 5. Arensburg B, Nathan H Anatomical observations on the mylohyoid groove, and the course of mylohyoid nerve and vessels. J Oral Surg. 1979; 37: 93 – 96. 6. Gopinathan K, Chhabra S, Dhall U Mylohyoid bridging in north Indian population. J Anat Soc India.1995; 44: 119 – 125. 7. Manjunath KY. Mylohyoid bridging in south Indian mandibles. Indian J Dental Res. 2003; 14: 206 – 209. 8. Narayana K, Narayan P, Ashwin K, Prabhu LV. Incidence, Types and Clinical implications of a non metrical variant mylohyoid bridging in human mandibles. Folia Morphol. 2007; 66 (1) : 20 – 24. 9. Shantharam V, Manjunath KY, Deepthi Shastri. Bony Bridging of the Mylohyoid groove. Anatomica Karnataka. 2011; 5 (3): 45 - 49. 10. CorruciniRS, An examination of the meaning of cranial discrete traits for human skeletal biological studies.1974, Am J Phys Anthropol, 40: 425 – 445. 11. Ossenburg NS, The Mylohyoid Bridge: an anomalous derivative of Meckel‘s cartilage. J Dent Res, 1974, 53: 72 – 82. 12. Sawyer DR, Kiely ML, Jugular foramen and mylohyoid bridging in an Asian Indian population, 1987, Am J Phys Anthropol; 72: 473 – 477. 13. Jidoi K, Nara T, Dodo Y, Bony bridging of the mylohyoid groove of the human mandible,, Anthropol Sci , 2000; 108: 345 – 370. 14. Narayana K, Vasudha S. Intraosseous course of the inferior alveolar (dental) nerve and its relative position in the mandible.2004; 15: 99 - 102.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEVELS OF THYROID HORMONES AND THYROID ANTIBODIES IN BREAST CANCER English6469G.S.R.KedariEnglish G.S.R.HareeshEnglishObjective: Breast cancer is a common malignancy in women in both western countries and in India and is still one of the leading causes of death in women. The relationship between breast cancer and thyroid diseases is controversial. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the incidence of auto immune and non auto immune thyroid diseases in breast cancer patientsMethods: The role of thyroid hormones status in breast cancer patients was estimated by measuring serum free Triiodothyronine, serum free Tetraiodothyronine, serum Thyroid Stimulating hormone levels and the role of antibodies by measuring anti thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) antibodies , anti thyroglobulin antibodies(anti-Tg) in blood. For this, 100 cases of breast cancer patients were included. The findings were compared with 75 age matched healthy females. Results: A significant increase in the levels of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone and anti-Thyroid peroxidase antibodies were observed in the cases as compared to controls. There were no significant differences in the levels of free Triiodothyronine(FT3), free Tetraiodothyronine(FT4), and anti thyroglobulin antibodies(anti-Tg). Conclusion: Our results indicate increased incidence of auto immune and non auto immune thyroid diseases in breast cancer patients when compared to controls. EnglishAutoimmune Thyroid diseases, Non auto immune thyroid diseases, anti TPO antibodies, anti Tg antibodies.INTRODUCTION Breast cancer is a hormone dependent neoplasm. It is the most common malignancy in women in western countries and accounts for 18.4% of all cancers in female patients.(1).Qualitative changes in the lifestyle of women in developed countries that can influence risk factors for breast cancer, such as age at menarche, menopause, or first pregnancy, may partially explain this phenomenon.(2).The fact that both breast cancer and thyroid disease predominantly affect females and that both have a postmenopausal peak incidence has inevitably resulted in a search for an association between the two diseases.(3,4). Conflicting results regarding the clinical correlation between breast cancer and thyroid diseases have been reported in the literature. Many studies showed that thyroid diseases are common among women with breast cancer(5),whereas other reports did not confirm such an association of breast cancer with thyroid diseases(6,7).Almost every form of thyroid disease, including nodular hyperplasia(8),hyperthyroidism(3) and thyroid cancer(9,10), has been identified in association with breast cancer. These findings have led to the investigation of the relationship between breast cancer and autoimmune thyroid diseases.(AITDS).The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of thyroid diseases in patients with breast cancer as compared with that in the general female population and further investigate the possible relationship between thyroid disorders and breast cancer risk to create awareness in female population. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study was conducted in the department of surgery and department of biochemistry , S.V. Medical college, Tirupati. The study included 100 patients with breast cancer and 75 age matched controls. All the subjects belonged to age group of 35-75 years and had no history of previous thyroid diseases. Out of cases, a total of 80 patients had invasive ductal carcinoma,10 had invasive lobular carcinoma and 10 had mixed(invasive ductal and lobular) carcinoma. Four weeks after surgical procedure , clinical, ultrasonographic evaluation were done for all the patients and biochemical parameters were studied in all the subjects before starting chemotherapy, hormone therapy or radiotherapy. Informed consent was obtained from all the cases and controls regarding the study and the parameters which were estimated. Fasting blood samples were collected by venipuncture technique and for separation of serum, the blood is centrifuged at 3000rpm for 5 min. The separated serum is used to estimate serum TSH,FT3,FT4,TPO antibodies and anti TG abs. Serum TSH,FT3 & FT4 were estimated by ELISA method(11,12). Estimation of thyroid auto antibodies by using RIA for thyroid peroxidase antibodies(TPO-Abs) ) and quantitative indirect enzyme immunoassay based on the sandwich method(antithyroglobulin immunoradiometric assay kit) for thyroglobulin antibodies(TGAbs) which are also called as microsomal antibodies were done. All the results were expressed as mean ± SD and statistical comparison was done. Evaluation of thyroid function was based on serum thyroid hormones. The mean values for serum thyroid hormones were 3.78±0.53(pmol/l) for FT3, 9.34±0.26 for FT4 and 4.31±0.52 for TSH in breast cancer patients. The mean values in the control group were 3.72±0.57 (pmol/l) for FT3, 9.27±0.28 (pmol/l) for FT4 and 3.58±0.49 for TSH. The differences between breast cancer patients and the control group in mean serum free T3, free T4 were not statistically significant whereas TSH is statistically significant. The mean values for serum thyroid auto antibodies were 106.21±21.33 for anti TPO antibodies and 28.92±7.52 for anti Thyroglobulin antibodies in breast cancer patients, and 22.47±5.14 and 28.75±7.50,respectively in the control group. Thus, the mean value for serum anti-TPO antibodies was higher in breast cancer patients than in the control group, whereas the difference between the groups in mean values for serum antithyroglobulin antibodies was not statistically significant. DISCUSSION The present study found a high prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis, confirmed mainly by antibody positivity, in breast cancer patients. The coincidence of thyroid disease and breast cancer has long been a subject of debate. Although associations with hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, thyroiditis and nontoxic goiter have been reported in the literature, no convincing evidence exists of a casual role for overt thyroid disease in breast cancer. Geographical variations in the incidence of breast cancer have been attributed to differences in dietary iodine intake, and an effect of iodine on the breast has been postulated.(13). The possible interactions between thyroid gland and breast tissue are based on the common property of the mammary and thyroid epithelial cell to concentrate iodine by a membrane active transport mechanism(14) as well as on the presence of TSH receptors in fatty tissue, which is abundant in mammary gland.(15) Increased incidence of breast cancer has been reported in areas of endemic goiter but no change in incidence occurred when the goiter rate decreased after iodine prophylaxis. Nonetheless, an association of breast cancer with nontoxic goiter continues to be reported in areas of low iodine intake.(16). Reports on the association of breast cancer with decreased dietary iodine intake have suggested that such deficiencies may result in subclinical hypothyroidism predisposing to breast disease. The presence of an iodine pump in both thyroid and breast (17) have led to studies on a possible direct effect of iodine on the breast.(18).Studies in humans(19) have shown that treatment with elemental iodine results in the resolution of fibrocystic breast disease and breast pain. . In the thyroid, I- is required for thyroid hormonogenesis whereas in the breast I- is needed in breast milk as a source of neonatal nutrition. Both organs require a method of oxidizing I- to I2(organification) in order to produce iodoproteins(20,21). This involves the presence of H202 as an oxidizing agent catalyzed by TPO in the thyroid and by lactoperoxidases in the breast. Apart from the requirement for iodide as a nutrient in breast milk, there is no known role for iodine in the normal or diseased breast. However, a breast requirement for I2 rather than I- has been suggested.(22). It has been postulated that formation of iodolipids such as iodolactones or iodoaldehydes represents a form of thyroidal auto regulation(23), which may be the mode of action of iodide inhibition of thyroid function in the Wolff-Chaikoff effect.(24-26). Additionally ,some endocrine stimuli identified in thyroid products that exert a simultaneous action on the breast and the various thyroid antibodies, which could also interact with various receptors on breast tumors, have been postulated to be responsible for the coincidence of mammary and thyroid gland disorders.(10,27). The presence of circulating TPO antibodies in asymptomatic individuals has been implicated as conferring an increased risk for future hypothyroidism(28), there is no agreement on the significance of its association with breast cancer.(29). A fivefold excess in breast cancer has been reported in Japanese patients with AITD(30). However, no significant association between breast cancer and Hashimoto‘s thyroiditis was reported in a study from the Mayo Clinic in the USA(31). Thus, like other reported associations, the relationship between AITD, iodine intake and breast cancer is far from clear. Equally, there is little agreement on the significance of any published association between a range of thyroid disorders and breast cancer.(3,4). It has been proposed that the presence of thyroid abnormalities may influence breast cancer progression.(32). A recent report suggested a better prognosis for breast cancer among patients with increased levels of TPO(32). It has been proposed that the immune response might be directed both by tumor and by thyroid tissue(33), or that the tumor and thyroid share common properties, as they both express TPO and the sodium iodide symporter gene.(34,35), Although high TPO level has been shown to be very important factor in antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity in the thyroid, and there may be a possible association between autoimmune thyroiditis and the immune system, there is no agreement on the significance of its association with breast cancer. Despite the many different studies and approaches to the problem outlined above, there is still no definitive answer as to the significance of the association between thyroid status and breast cancer. Although available evidence strongly indicates that thyroid hypo function contributes to breast cancer progression, the possibility that thyroid autoimmunity might be associated with improved prognosis deserves further investigation. The possibility of genetic predisposition to both conditions also needs to be explored. CONCLUSION In this paper, we have studied thyroid autoantibody levels and thyroid function tests in breast cancer patients and controls. There was a significant difference between the groups in terms of TPO Abs levels and TSH levels. However no difference was demonstrated for other variables, such as Tg Abs FT3 and FT4.These results indicate a significant association between breast cancer and autoimmune and non autoimmune thyroid disorders. However, more research on this subject is required to confirm this association. ACKNOWLEDMENTS We acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. We are also grateful to authors, editors and publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1787http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17871. Sidransky D., Von Eschenbach A.,Tsaiy C.,Jones P.,Summerhayes I.,Marshall F.,Paul M.,Green P.,Hamilton S. R.,Frost P.,Vogelstein B. Identification of p53 gene mutations in bladder cancers and urine samples. Science ; Washington dc 1991;252:706-709. 2. Sidransky D., Tokino T., Hamilton S.R., Kinzler K. W.,Levin B.,Frost P.,Vogelstein B. Identification of ras oncogene mutations in the stool of patients with curable colorectal tumors. Science. Washington dc 1992;256:102-105. 3. Goldman ME. Thyroid diseases and breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1990;12:16-30. 4. Smyth PPA. The thyroid and breast cancer. A significant association?(Editorial). Ann Med 1997;29:189-191. 5. Shering SG, Zbar AP, Moriatry M. Thyroid disorders and breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 1996;5:504-506. 6. Lemmarie M, Baugnet -mahieul. Thyroid function in women with breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 1986;22:301- 307. 7. Anker GB, Lonning PE, Aakyaag. Thyroid function in post-menopausal breast cancer patients treated with tamoxifen. Scand J Clin lab invest 1998;58:103-107. 8. Smyth PPA, Smith DF, Mc Dermott P, Murray J, Geraghty JG, O‘Higgins NJ. A direct relationship between thyroid enlargement and breast cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol.1996; 81:937-941. 9. Mc Thernan A,Weiss NS, Daling JR. Incidence of thyroid cancer in women in relation to known or suspected risk factors for breast cancer. Cancer Res 1987;47:292-294. 10. Ron E, Curtis R, Hooffman DA, Flannery JT. Multiple primary breast and thyroid cancer. Br J Cancer 1984;49:87-90. 11. Frazer CG and Browing MCK. Measuring serum thyroglobulin. Lancet 1985;816-819. 12. Holl RW, Bohm B, Loos U et al. Thyroid autoimmunity in children and adolescents with type-1 DM. Effects of age, gender and HLA type. Horm Res,1999;52(3).113-118. 13. Mittra I, Perrin j, Kumaoka S. Thyroid and other auto antibodies in British and Japanese women: an epidemiological study of breast cancer. BMJ 1976;1: 257-259. 14. Giani C, Fierabracci P, Bonacci R, Gigliotti A, Campani D, De Negri F, Cecchetti D, Martino E, Pinchera A. Relationship between breast cancer and thyroid disease : relevance of autoimmune thyroid disorders in breast malignancy. J Endocr Metab 1986;81:99 0-994. 15. Davies TF. The thyrotropin receptors spread themselves around. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1994;79:1232-1238. 16. Adamopouos DA, Vassilarus S, Kapolla N, Papadlamantis J, Georgiakodis F, Michalkis A. Thyroid disease in patients with benign and malignant mastopathy. Cancer 1986;57:125-8. 17. Brown Grant K. The iodide concentrating mechanism of the mammary gland. J Physiol 1957; 135:644- 54. 18. Eskin BA .Iodine metabolism and breast cancer. Trans NY Acad Sci 1970;11:911- 47. 19. Ghent WR, Eskin BA, Low DA, Hill LR. Iodine replacement in fibrocystic breast disease. Can J Surg 1993;36:459. 20. Taurog A. Hormone synthesis: thyroid iodine metabolism. In Werner and Ingbar‘s The thyroid. Edited by Braverman L,Utiger RD. Philadelphia:Lippincott Co;1996:47-81. 21. Shah NM, Eskin BA, Krouse TB, Sparks CE. Iodoprotein formation by rat mammary glands during pregnancy and early postpartum period. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1986;181:443-449. 22. Eskin BA, Grotkowski CE, Connolly CP, Ghent WR. Different tissue responses for iodine and iodide in rat thyroid and mammary glands. Biol Trace Elem Res 1995;49:9-19. 23. Dugrillon A. Iodolactones and iodoaldehydes -mediators of iodine in thyroid autoregulation. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1996; Suppl 4:41-45. 24. Denef JF, Many MC, Van den Hove MF. Iodine-induced thyroid inhibition and cell necrosis: two consequences of the same free-radical mediated mechanism? Mol Cell Endocrinol 1996;121:101-103. 25. Wolff J, Chaikoff IL. Plasma inorganic iodide as a homeostatic regulator of thyroid function. J Biol Chem 1948;174:555-560. 26. Vitale M, Di Matola T, D‘Ascoli F, Salzano S, Bogazzi F, Fenzi G, Martino E, Rossi G. Iodide excess induces apoptosis in thyroid cells through a p53- independent mechanism involving oxidative stress. Endocrinology 2000;141:598-605. 27. Dumont JE, Maenhaut C.Growth factors controlling the thyroid gland. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1991; 5:727-753. 28. Vanderpump MPJ, Tunbridge WMG. The epidemiology of autoimmune thyroid disease. In Contemporary Endocrinology: Autoimmune Endocrinopathies. Edited by Volpe R, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press;1999:141-162. 29. Sarlis NJ, Gourgiotis L, Pucino F, Tolis GJ. Lack of association between Hashimoto thyroiditis and breast cancer: a quantitive research synthesis. Hormones 2002;1:35-41. 30. Itoh K, Maruchi N: Breast cancer in patients with Hashimoto‘s thyroiditis. Lancet 1975,ii:1119-1121. 31. Maruchi N, Annegers JF, Kurland LT. Hashimoto‘s thyroiditis and breast cancer. Mayo Clin Proc 1976; 51:263-265. 32. Smyth PPA, Kilbane MT, Murray MJ, Mc Dermott EWM, Smith DF, O‘Higgins NJ. Serum thyroid peroxidase auto antibodies, thyroid volume and outcome in breast cancer. Clin Endocr Metab 1988;83:2711- 2716. 33. Smyth PPA. Autoimmune thyroid disease and breast cancer: a chance association. J Endocrinol Invest 2000;23:42-43. 34. Spitzweg C, Joba W, Eisenmenger W, Heufelder A. Analysis of human sodium iodide symporter gene expression in extra thyroidal tissues and cloning of its complementary deoxyribonucleic acids from salivary gland, mammary gland and gastric mucosa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:1746-1751. 35. Kilbane MTTA, Shering SG, Smyth DF, Mc Dermott EWM, O‘Higgins NJ, Smyth PPA:Thyroid peroxidase(TPO):an auto antigen common to the thyroid and breast. J Endocrinol 1998;156:323.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18TechnologyEFFECTIVE UTILIZATION OF SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE FOR BIO- ETHANOL PRODUCTION English7077Unsia HabibEnglish Muddasar HabibEnglishEnergy crises are widespread particularly in developing countries like Pakistan. Available fuel resources are decreasing day by day causing a remarkable increase in the cost of fuel. Each year Pakistan spends a huge amount of money to import fuel to meet its energy requirements. The need to develop alternate fuel resources is the demand of the day. Studies show that Ethanol can be used as an alternative energy source. Pure Ethanol and mixture of ethanol with other fuels is used in vehicle asfuel in many countries of the world. The paper describes a process to produce ethanol using sugarmolasses and yeast as the raw material. Sugar molasses is the waste of the sugar industry after sugar production. Ethanol is produced from sugar molasses through fermentation. Lab scale Unit is designed and fabricated to perform the experiments and find the effect of various parameters like temperature, dissolved oxygen, mixing effect, PH. Keeping PH between 4.8 to 5, temperature between 30 °C–37°C, stirrer speed 150 RPM were found to show the maximum productivity. EnglishEthanol, Fermentation, Molasses, Saacharomyces cerevisiea.sugar industry wasteINTRODUCTION Energy crises are widespread particularly in developing countries like Pakistan while the modern world fuel demand is increasing day by day. Fuel Resources present in Pakistan are limited and is on the verge of depletion. The energy requirements of Pakistan are mostly fulfilled by importing the fuel which is causing a huge strain on the economy of the country. All these factors along with others are boosting the cost of fuel with the passage of time. Hence the need to search for the alternative fuel resources is inevitable. The production of environmentally friendly bio-ethanol is possibly one of the solutions to the problem. Pure Ethanol and ethanol –gasoline (10:90 or 10:20 ratio) blend can be used a transportation fuel Error! Reference source not found.. No change in car engine is required for 10:90 ethanol gasoline blend .Ethanol is an environmentally friendly fuel as it produces less harmful gases on burning Error! Reference source not found.. Ethanol mixed with gasoline increases the octane number of the gasoline so it can replace the lead additives in fuel as lead is highly hazardous and causes air pollution Error! Reference source not found.. Ethanol is produced from sugar, starches and cellulose through fermentation by yeast .The most effective and inexpensive strain of yeast used for fermentation is Saacharomyces Cerevisiea also known as Baker‘s yeast Error! Reference source not found. . Several attempts have been made previously to improve the production of ethanol. Using finger millet flour in ethanol fermentation from sugar increases the yield of ethanol and reduces fermentation time . Paper sludge can be used as an effective raw material for ethanol production after mechanical crushing and tenderness by chemicals Error! Reference source not found. . Kitchen garbage is converted to ethanol by using acid tolerant bacteria Error! Reference source not found. . Sugar molasses is the most important raw material that can be used for ethanol production Error! Reference source not found.. Molasses is a cheap source of raw material as it is the waste of sugar industry also it contains nutrients that accelerate the fermentation process Error! Reference source not found. . In this work laboratory scale unit has been designed for the production of ethanol from sugar molasses and various parameters like PH, Dissolved oxygen, Temperature, Mixing effect have been investigated. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP Laboratory scale experimental unit is designed to produce ethanol from sugar molasses. The purpose of the experimental unit is to study the effect of various parameters on ethanol yield and provide a basis for larger scale set up for ethanol production. The complete view of the unit designed for ethanol production is shown in Error! Reference source not found. Figure 1 here The unit consists of the following components Reactor Stirrer Water Tanks Pump (centrifugal pump) Heater Copper tubes PH meter Oxygen meter Wood stand Reactor This is the main part where fermentation occurs. Acrylic glass cylinder is used as a batch reactor with a height of 16 inches, outer diameter of 8 inches and an inner diameter of 7.75 inches. The capacity of the reactor is 7 liters. Acrylic glass cylinder was selected because it is transparent and can withstand high temperature. The head of the cylinder has ports for a thermometer, air inlet, electric motor for stirrer, PH meter, oxygen meter, hot water inlet and outlet Figure 2 here Stirrer Stirrer is used for proper mixing of the reactants to maximize the conversion. Stirrer consists of stir bar with an impeller diameter of 3/4 inches .Stir bar spins by an electric motor. A 12 volt DC motor is used for this purpose. An adapter is used for converting AC current to DC for the motor. Figure 3 here Water Tanks Temperature is maintained in the reactor through hot water circulation Two Water tanks are used for circulating hot water in the reactor one for the inflow and other for the outflow. The tanks are connected to one another through pipes and ball valve. Figure 4 here Pump A centrifugal pump is used for pumping hot water from water tanks to the reactor. Figure 5 here Heater The electric rod heater is used in the water tank which supplies hot water to the reactor Copper tubes Hot water flows in copper tubes in the reactor for heat transfer between hot water and the reactants. Figure 6 here PH Meter PH meter is used to measure the PH of the Process. Figure 7 here Oxygen Meter The dissolved Oxygen is measured in the process through an Oxygen meter. Figure 8 Wood Stand Wooden stand is used to assemble all the parts of the unit. Figure 9 here Process Description The raw materials used in experimental unit were sugar molasses and yeast. Molasses is the byproduct obtained from the processing of sugar cane into sugar. The strain of yeast selected was Saacharomyces Cerevisiea and the sugar molasses was collected from Muree Breweries industry Pakistan. Molasses selected was found to contain 40% sugar. The raw materials were inserted in the batch reactor and they were allowed to react for 72 hours for the complete conversion of molasses to ethanol. The sugar molasses react by the process of fermentation in the presence of yeast to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide by the following reaction. C6H12O6 yeast enzyme 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 The temperature, PH, stirrer speed and dissolved oxygen were measured during the reaction. The concentration of the ethanol obtained from the reaction was measured by refractometer which measures the concentration with the help of the refractive index of the solution. A simplified flow sheet of the process is shown in Figure 10. To study the effect of various parameters on ethanol production temperature, PH and stirrer speed were varied one by one and the optimum conditions for maximum yield were identified. The temperature of process was maintained through the heat transfer between hot water flowing in the copper tubes and the raw material. The water was transported from the water tank to the copper tube through centrifugal pump. Hot water entered the reactor from the first water tank, circulated inside the copper tube and leaves from the other end of the second water tank as shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12. The two tanks were connected through the pipe and ball valve so that the water can be reused. A bypass valve from the exit of the first tank to its entrance allows the reheat of the water if needed. PH of the process was maintained by adding acid or base to the reactants. Mixing, PH and temperature effects on the process were studied by varying these parameters. A complete unit design and process flow sheet is shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12. Figure 10, Figure 11 and Figure 12 here RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The three parameters selected i.e. Temperature, pH and mixing effect were changed one by one and their effects were studied. Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 15 shows the effect of these parameters on the ethanol production. The ethanol concentration increases with increase in temperature till 30 °C and then increases steadily till 37°C, after 37°C the concentration of ethanol starts decreasing rapidly. This is because the yeast enzyme ceases their activity at higher temperatures. Similarly it can also be seen from Figure 14 that maximum ethanol is produced in the PH range of 4.8 to 5 further increasing the PH reduces the ethanol production. Hence the microbes use maximum sugar in slightly acidic medium. Mixing slightly increases the productivity at 150 -155 RPM. Figure 13 and Figure 14 here CONCLUSIONS A lab scale unit was designed for the ethanol production from sugar molasses. The design was found to be relatively simple and provides a basis for larger scale set up of ethanol production. The raw material used was the byproduct of the sugar industry, hence an effective method for utilization of the waste was carried out on lab scale for producing ethanol. The experiments showed that the maximum ethanol concentration was achieved at PH 4.8-5, temperature 30°C–37°C, stirrer speed of 150 RPM. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1788http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17881. Mustafa Balat, Havva Balat. Recent trends in global production and utilization of bio-ethanol fuel. Applied energy 2009 Mar 12 ; 86 (11): 2273–82. 2. Kanji Harijan, Mujeebuddin Memon, Mohammad A. Uqaili, Umar K. Mirza. Potential contribution of ethanol fuel to the transport sector of Pakistan . Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2009 Jan; 13 (1) : 291-5. 3. Li-Wei Jia, Mei-Qing Shen ,Jun Wang ,Man-Qun Lin. Influence of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel on the emission characteristics from a four-stroke motorcycle engine. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2005 Aug 31; 123 (1-3) : 29-34. 4. Valerie Thomas, Andrew Kwong . Ethanol as a lead replacement: phasing out leaded gasoline in Africa. Energy Policy 2001 ; 29: 1133-43. 5. A A Brooks .Ethanol Production Potential of local yeast strains isolated from ripe banana peels. African Journal of Biotechnology 2008 Oct 20 ; 7 (20) : 3749-52. 6. L.V.A. Reddy, O.V.S. Reddy . Rapid and enhanced production of ethanol in very high gravity (VHG) sugar fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Role of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) flour. Process biochemistry 2006 Mar ; 41 (3) : 727-9. 7. Hongzhi Ma, Qunhui Wang , Dayi Qian, Lijuan Gong, Wenyu Zhang . The utilization of acidtolerant bacteria in ethanol production from kitchen garbage, Renewable Energy 2009 Jun ; 34 (6) : 1466–70. 8. Maiorella B.L. Blanch HW and Wilke C.R. Feed component inhibition in ethanolic fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Bio technology and Bioengineering 1984 Oct ; 26 (10) : 1155-66. 9. Yuya Yamashita, Chizuru Sasaki, Yoshitoshi Nakamura .Development of efficient systems for ethanol production from paper sludge pretreated by ball milling and phosphoric acid. Carbohydrate Polymer 2010 Jan 20; 79 (2) : .250-4

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18General SciencesRAIN FADE SLOPE ESTIMATION USING SIGNAL PROCESSING TECHNIQUES English7889Chandrika PanigrahiEnglish S.Vijaya Bhaskara RaoEnglish G. Rama Chandra ReddyEnglishFade slope estimations extensively depends on the rain type (convective/stratiform), drop size distribution and the melting layer (bright band) height. Tropics show unusual changes in these parameters due to occasional severe thunderstorms, cyclones and seasonal monsoon (SW and NE) currents. An ITU-R prediction based on temperate climatic conditions often fails to estimate accurately rain attenuation and rain fade slopes. Hence, precise experiments and data processing techniques in tropics are quite required to compare the ITU-R results. In this paper we have taken up fade slope estimations over an operational Ku band link in southern India using different signal processing techniques viz., time domain, frequency domain and wavelet domain. For the first time biorthogonal spline wavelets are used to differentiate rain fades to estimate the rain fade slopes. The results are significantly different from ITU-R predictions. EnglishRain Attenuation, Fade Mitigation Techniques, Fade slope, Wavelets, Spline wavelets.INTRODUCTION Attenuation on Sat Com links is mainly due to precipitation, Gaseous absorption, cloud attenuation and scintillations caused by refractive index fluctuations. Rainfall induced attenuation is considered to be the major propagation impairment on earth-space links, operating above 10GHz. Fade Slope, defined as rate of change of rain attenuation is an important input for the control loop of propagation impairment mitigation techniques. In tropical climates, convective rainfall, characterized by heavy, yet short lasting, events contribute largely to the statistical behavior of attenuation. The rainfall in India exhibits large regional and seasonal variations. A pronounced spatial and seasonal variation in DSD [1] is observed during the southwest and north east monsoon climates. Fade slope, termed as the rate of change of the physical variable attenuation is the steep rise or fall fronts of a substantial duration due to a sudden impact or leaving of a rain cell from the radio path. The rain cell edges are characterized by multiple peaks of rain DSD. Thus the rain fade slope characteristically depends on rain drop size distribution. Hence it is imperative to study fade dynamics in different drop size distribution environment. With this motivation the present study is intended to explore the fade dynamics during the NE monsoon period at MCF, Hassan, where an operational Ku band link is monitored for this purpose Fade slope studies have received tremendous importance owing to their significant role in determining the tracking speed of the control loop of the fade mitigation techniques. Fade slope is a stochastic parameter varying with time. A deterministic relation between attenuation and rain fade slope is barred [2]. The statistical dependence of fade slope on attenuation is investigated by [3-6] and modeled in [6] which form the basis for the ITU-R model [7]. Fade slope is elucidated to depend on climatic parameters like rain type, horizontal wind speed [6] and is also established to be influenced by the dynamic parameters like the filter bandwidth of the receiving system [6,8]. Fade slope also depends on frequency [9] and its dependence on elevation angle is also reported in [10]. The studies reported and those formed basis for the ITU-R model are from temperate regions of the world. The inapplicability of the ITU-R models to the tropical regions is investigated by [11-13] and they developed model fits for their regions viz., for Japan [12] and Brazil [13]. Considering the wide variability of climatic conditions in the tropics, it is imperative to develop models that fit for the specific regions. Current objective of the work is to provide the fade slope characteristics of a tropical location in India for NE monsoon season using time domain, frequency domain techniques already ascertained by [14-15]. In the case of wavelet domain, method proposed for estimating fade slopes using Daubechies wavelets is presented in [16]. We are the first to apply the biorthogonal spline wavelet differentiation to differentiate rain fades to estimate the rain fade slope profiles. The cumulative and dynamic statistical analyses of the fade slopes are considered. Database for fade slope statisitics: Data collected from the satellite receiving antenna available at Hassan, at MCF (Master Control Facility) which is approximately 900m above the sea level on the point of latitude 13.07ºN and 76.8ºE, and directed toward INSAT 3B on the geostationary orbit of longitude 83.5ºE is used for the studies. Rain attenuation is obtained by subtracting a reference level from the measured signal level. The reference level is obtained by averaging the entire received signal level data during no rain term. It is seen that the normal signal level during no rain term is -80dBm. Rain Attenuation thus obtained is superimposed by a high frequency component, due to scintillations, which is the rapid fluctuation in signal strength due to variations in refractive index in the troposphere. Secondary statistics such as fade slope are not derivable from primary rain fade statistics; it must be extracted from the time series data. Rain fade slope is measured from the attenuation time series data obtained after low pass filtering. Estimation of rain fade slope using signal processing techniques: Fade slope is estimated using different signal processing techniques viz., time domain method, Frequency domain method, Wavelet domain method described for the case of biorthogonal wavelets [18] to compare and to estimate the bias in each case. Description of each method is given below: Time domain method: Scintillations are filtered out by employing a simple 10-point moving average window to the attenuation data. The initial transients are removed from filtered output and then delay correction is made to obtain the attenuation time series. It is observed that with increase in window length high frequency scintillations are smoothed out effectively, but the higher attenuation values are also smoothed out and their value is reduced significantly. Fade slope is the time derivative of rain attenuation. In the time domain method fade slope is estimated from the filtered attenuation time series data using, dBSec t Ai tAt i 2 ( )() () ----------- (1) where ?A’ is the attenuation, ?i’ is the instant of time at which fade slope is estimated, and ?t is the time duration over which the fade slope is calculated. Frequency domain method: The attenuation data are smoothed out to filter out the tropospheric scintillations by employing a low pass filter. The bandwidth of the low pass filter is determined by evaluating the attenuation power spectrum. The frequency at which the attenuation power spectrum begins to have a slope of -20dB is considered as cutoff frequency. Empirically cutoff frequency is considered as 0.02Hz. Fade slope is estimated in frequency domain by performing the differentiation of the signal in Fourier domain and then converting back to the time domain by employing inverse Fourier transform. Fade slope is estimated in frequency domain using the following algorithmic steps, I. If x(n), n=0, 1, 2….L-1 is the attenuation time series data. II. Obtain X(k) the N-point FFT of x(n) where N is next power of 2 to the length of x(n) III. Regarding the conjugate anti-symmetry property of FFT, Multiply X(k) with –j2πf where f k N to obtain P(k) IV. The inverse FFT of the product P(k) is taken and the redundant points for k>L are removed to obtain the rain fade slope. Wavelet domain method: A Wavelet is a waveform of limited duration that has an average value of zero. Wavelets are functions defined over a finite interval and having an average value of zero. The wavelet transform is a tool for carving up functions, operators, or data into components of different frequencies, allowing one to study each component separately. Wavelets are especially useful in analyzing transients or time-varying signals. Discrete wavelet transform: The Discrete Wavelet transform is a transform with a discrete-time mother wavelet, (non-zero) integer dilation parameter and a discrete translation parameter. In CWT, the signals are analyzed using a set of basis functions which relate to each other by simple scaling and translation. In the case of DWT, a time-scale representation of the digital signal is obtained using digital filtering techniques. The signal to be analyzed is passed through filters with different cutoff frequencies at different scales. The Discrete wavelet transform is defined for discrete scale parameter a of the form 2 -s and translation parameter b of the form k2-s , where k,s ? Z . The CWT for these discrete parameters is expressed as Wfk ft tkdt s s 2 s ,2 s2 2 ()2 (2) If the function f(t) is a discrete function with a sampling rate of 1, the above equation transforms to wfk fn snk n s 2 s ,2 s2 2 2 (3) The above equation represents the Discrete wavelet transform. The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), which is based on sub-band coding is found to yield a fast computation of Wavelet Transform. It is easy to implement and reduces the computation time and resources required. Spline wavelet fade slope estimation is easier to implement in signal processing domain than the Daubechies wavelet fade slope estimation which is a numerical differentiation technique. Biorthognal wavelets: Biorthogonal spline wavelets basis were introduced by Cohen-Daubechies-Feauveau [17] in order to obtain wavelet pairs that are symmetric, regular and compactly supported. Biorthogonal wavelets build with splines are especially attractive because of their short support and regularity. The symmetry and short support properties are very valuable for reducing truncation artifacts in the reconstructed signals. In the most general case, the construction of biorthogonal wavelet bases involves two multiresolution analyses of L2: one for the analysis, and one for the synthesis. These are usually denoted by Vi i Z ~ and Vi i Z where x ~ and x are the analysis and synthesis scaling functions, respectively. The corresponding analysis and synthesis wavelets x ~ and x are then constructed by taking linear combinations of these scaling functions ~ x2 2 kg ~k~ xk (4) x2 2 kgkxk (5) They form a biorthogonal set in the sense that , ~ , i,k j,l i j,kl (6) where xk i i i,k 2 2 2 This allows us to obtain the wavelet expansion of any L2 function as ik iZkZ fL2 ,f f,~ i,k , The Attenuation data are decomposed using biorthogonal spline wavelets. Scintillations are removed by employing wavelet shrinkage technique with ?sqtwolog‘ threshold using ?bior6.8‘ wavelet. The Analysis wavelet x ~ behaves like a th order differentiator where is the order of approximation of the corresponding scaling function [18]. The discrete wavelet transform is a fast algorithm for discrete signal decomposition, but is non-redundant. The draw-back of nonredundant transform is their non-invariance in time. The stationary wavelet transform is a redundant transform which makes the wavelet decomposition time-invariant. Hence the fade slopes are estimated using the stationary wavelet transform to achieve time invariance. Fade slope is estimated in wavelet domain by following the algorithmic steps, 1. If x(n), n=0, 1, 2….L-1 is the attenuation time series data. 2. The data is extended symmetrically in one dimension for reducing the boundary effects in the calculation of SWT. 3. The detail coefficients at level one are multiplied by -1 to obtain the rain fade slope. All the above algorithms are implemented with Matlab to obtain the rain fade slope profiles. RESULTS The dependence of fade slope on fade depth is illustrated by the fade slope conditional distribution. Joint statistics of fade slope, ζ and attenuation, A were generated by storing fade slope values in bins of sizes 0.001dB/s and 1dB for ζ and A, respectively. A(t) values were rounded within ±0.5dB intervals. Lastly the bin counts at each attenuation interval were divided by the product of the total number of samples and the bin size to obtain the probability density function. The conditional probability density of fade slope obtained, using time domain method, frequency domain method and in wavelet domain for different attenuation levels are shown in Figures 1, 2, 3 respectively. The statistical parameters calculated for the corresponding fade slope conditional densities are given in Tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The fade slope distribution is observed to have time symmetry from the median value calculated from the distributions. Decreasing value of kurtosis with increasing attenuation indicates the fade slope distribution becomes flatter with increasing attenuation. Skewness is decreasing with increasing attenuation indicates that distribution becomes symmetrical at higher attenuation values. It is observed that the descriptive statistics of fade slope conditional probability distributions obtained with frequency domain and wavelet domain estimated fade slopes are in good comparison from attenuation levels above 3dB. The fade slope distributions are observed to be leptokurtic and the skewness which is the measure of symmetry of a distribution also shown a good performance when obtained using frequency domain estimation. Higher Kurtosis observed in the time domain method and in wavelet estimated fade slope conditional distribution at 1dB, 2dB and 3 dB points out higher variance of the distribution. If we plot rain attenuation against rain fade slope, this type of plot is referred to as a phasespace representation of the data, provides a better visualization of the dynamics of the rain fading than a simple time series of rain fade slope. In this type of diagram, motion with time occurs as a series of clockwise loops. If the rain fade slope at a time is positive, then rain attenuation is increasing, and in a phase space diagram, A(t+1) must lie to the right of A(t). Similarly, if the rain fade slope at a time t is negative, the attenuation is decreasing and in a phase space diagram A(t+1) must lie to the left of A(t). In a phase space diagram any closed loop must lie across the line 0 , as it is possible to return to the same value of rain attenuation by having a series of positive rainfade slopes followed by a series of negative rain fade-slopes (or vice versa). The typical plots of time series of rain attenuation, fade slope and its corresponding phase-space representations obtained using wavelet, frequency and time domain methods are shown in figure 4(a), 4(b) & 4(c) respectively. From time series fade slope profiles plotted, a less noisy profile is obtained through wavelet method, a noisier profile is obtained through frequency domain method and a much noisier profile through time domain method. The Fade slopes estimated in wavelet domain method present less noise traces. The phase-space plots of data obtained are closed contours across the line 0 . The phase-space plots obtained from the frequency domain method presents too smooth plot due to the filtering out of high frequency dynamics of rain attenuation. Lower fade slope estimates of time domain method even at higher attenuation is better depicted from the phase-space plot of data. From the phase-space representation of fade slope, it can be observed that high frequency dynamics of rain attenuation are better depicted in the wavelet domain method in comparison to the frequency domain and time domain methods at higher attenuation levels. Cumulative distributions of fade slopes estimated using three methods are shown in Fig.5 and a plot generated using RAPIDS, Fig. 6 (Radio Propagation Integrated Database System) [19] simulated data for ITU R-model is considered for comparison. It can be observed that the 0.001% time exceedance of fade slope is higher for the fade slopes estimated using wavelet domain method. It can be visualized that wavelet domain estimate of 0.001% time exceedance of fade slope is higher than frequency domain method though both give instantaneous measure of the fade slope. It can be attributed to the fact that wavelet estimates are able to measure high frequency rain attenuation and corresponding fade slope. The time domain and ITU-R estimates are in comparison due to the fact that both involve 10 sec time lag in the fade slope estimation.   CONCLUSIONS Rain fade slope, an essential input for the fade mitigation technique control loop is estimated using three methods. Rain attenuation is estimated by filtering in time, frequency and wavelet domains. Considering the scintillation removal, wavelet method offers better performance over the frequency domain, which is better in comparison with the time domain method. Rain Fade slopes estimated using wavelet domain method are able to depict well the high frequency variations of the rain attenuation as wavelet method of differentiation offers good performance while frequency domain differentiation induces high frequency spurious signals inducing noise into the fade slope estimations. Wavelet domain method of fade slope estimation offers advantages over frequency domain method, as differentiation is stable in wavelet domain rather than in frequency domain. But from the phase-space plot at lower attenuation levels the wavelet domain method is depicting a bit noisier estimates, which may be one of the reasons for higher standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis observed from the conditional probability density for the wavelet domain method. Thus it can be considered the thresholding technique employed for filtering may need some modification for better performance at all attenuation levels. Time domain estimates of fade slope involve time lag in the estimation. Thus we observe lower values of fade slopes in time domain method when compared to other methods. The biorthogonal spline wavelet differentiation is easy to implement in signal processing domain compared to db wavelet filtering. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One of the author is grateful to Advanced Centre for Atmospheric Sciences, Sponsored by ISRO under RESPOND for providing Junior Research Fellowship. We are thankful to S.V.University authorities for providing facilities in the Department of Physics, S.V.University, Tirupati to carry out this work. We are thankful to Master Control Facility (MCF), Hassan for providing the data. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1789http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17891. Radhakrishna B, Narayana Rao T, Narayana Rao D, Prabhakara Rao N, Nakamura K and Ashok Kumar Sharma. Spatial and seasonal variability of rain drop size distributions in southeast India. J. Geophys. Res., 2009; 114. 2. Sweeney G Dennis and Charles W Bostian. The Dynamics of Rain-Induced Fades. IEEE Trans Ant Prop 1992; 40 (3): 275-8. 3. Matricciani E. Rate of change of signal attenuation from SIRIO at 11.6GHz. IEE Electron Lett 1981; 17(3): 139-41. 4. Stutzman WL, B Nelson. Fade slope on 10- 30GHz Earth-Space Communication linksmeasurements and modeling. IEE Proc Microw Ant Prop 1996; 143: 353-7. 5. Timothy IK, JT Ong and EBL Choo. Descriptive Fade Slope Statistics on INTELSAT Ku-band Communication link. Electron Lett 2000; 36(16): 1422-4. 6. Van de Kamp MMJL. Statistical Analysis of Rain Fade Slope. IEEE Trans Ant Prop 2003; 51(8):1750-9. 7. ITU-R P.1623-1. Prediction method of fade dynamics on Earth-space paths. 2003-05; 1- 7. 9. Rucker F. Frequency and Attenuation dependent Fade Slope Statistics. Electron Lett 1993; 29: 744-6. 10. Erkki T Salonen, Pasi AO Heikkinen, Fade slope analysis for low elevation angle satellite links, International Workshop of COST Actions 272 and 280, Satellite Communications- From Fade Mitigation to Service Provision, ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, (2003). 11. Franklin FF, Fujisaki K, Tateiba M. Fade dynamics on Earth-space paths at Ku-Band in Fukuoka, Japan Fade- Slope Evaluation, Comparison and Model. IEEE Ant Wireless Prop Lett 2006; 5: 80-3. 12. Dao H, Md Rafiqul Islam, Al-Khateeb ASK. Fade Dynamics Review of Microwave Signals on Earth-Space Paths at Ku-Band. Proceedings International Conference on Computer and Communication Engineering (2008): 1243-7. 13. Couto de Miranda E, Maria Christina Quesnel, and LAR da silva Mello. Empirical Model for the Statistical Characterization of Rain Fade Slope in Tropical Climates. J Microwave, Optoelectronic and Electromagnetic Applications. 2009; 8(1): 143S-153S. 14. Van de Kamp,M.M.J.L., Climatic Radiowave Propagation Models for the design of Satellite Communications Systems, Ph.D. Thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, 1999. 15. Baxter PD, Upton GJG, and Eden D. Revised method for calculation of fade slope. IEE Electron Lett May 2001; 37(10): 658-60. 16. Baxter PD, Upton GJG, and Eden D. Measurement of Rain-fade-slope: Fourier and Wavelet methods. Open Symposium on Propagation and Remote Sensing, URSI Commision F, Feb 2002; 1-13. 17. A. Cohen, I. Daubechies and J. Feauveau. Biorthogonal basis of compactly supported wavelets. Comm Pure Appl Math 1992; 45: 485–560. 18. Unser M, Blu T. Wavelet Theory Demystified. IEEE Trans Sig Proc Feb 2003; 51(2):470-483. 19. Alain Rogister, D. Mertens, D. Vanhoenacker-Janvier, Antonio Martellucci, and Bertram Arbesser-Rastburg. RAPIDS: RAdio Propagation Integrated Database System, COST 280.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareA STUDY OF GAMMA-GLUTAMYLTRANSFERASE (GGT) IN TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS AND ITS RISK FACTORS English9096Shrawan Kumar MeenaEnglish Alka MeenaEnglish Jitendra AhujaEnglish Vishnu Dutt BohraEnglishObjective — To study the Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), other liver derived enzymes and lipid profile in patients of type 2 Diabetes mellitus (DM) and find out the any correlation of liver derived enzymes with diabetic related risk factor and association between enzyme level and blood sugar level in diabetic and non diabetic subjects. Research Design and Methods— This is a cross-sectional prospective study in 60 cases of type 2 DM randomly selected from medical wards of a tertiary care hospital and 30 age, sex matched controls. Blood sugar, Serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), otherliver enzymes like SGOT, SGPT, ALP, Lipid profile, BMI, waist circumference and prevalence of obesity and hypertension were assessed. To define the type 2 Diabetes mellitus (DM) we used revised criteria of ADA, 1997. Results— GGT, Fasting Blood glucose and BMI increased statistically significant (pEnglishINTRODUCTION Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) is located on the external surface of most cells and mediates the uptake of glutathione. It has been found as a useful indicator of an early liver cell damage or Cholestatic disease, due to alcohol consumption. (1) In addition to its diagnostic uses serum gammaglutamyltransferase (GGT) has substantial epidemiological significance(2).Prospective studies have shown a significant relationship between serum GGT and the development of specific conditions including coronary heart disease(CHD) and stroke(3,4). In addition to alcohol, obesity has been found (5) to have a major effect on serum GGT and there is increasing evidence (5-8) that linking raised serum GGT levels with other metabolic disturbance such as glycemic disorders, hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia and low HDL cholesterol.Non alcoholic fatty liver disease obesity, insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia (9) are also closely associate with elevated serum GGT. These interrelations between Serum GGT with obesity and other metabolic disturbance raise the possibility – which elevated Serum GGT levels can help in predicting the development of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Furthermore serum GGT showed a strong and graded relation with diabetes which suggested a role of GGT in the pathogenesis of diseases (2,9,11).Now ,it is clear from several studies conducted in past decades the raised Serum GGT serves has an independent predictor for type 2 diabetes mellitus.(2,6,8,10,11). Keeping this in mind the present study was planned to evaluate the role of GGT in Diabetes. In Indian population such study was not conducted so far. Indians has specific diabetic phenotype which predisposes them to diabetes even earlier than other populations. MATERIAL AND METHOD This study were carried out on randomly selected 60 type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects in age from 35 to 65 years visiting out patients department of endocrinology and general medicine of a tertiary level hospital. A comparison was done with 30 age, sex; socioeconomic status matched healthy subjects serving as control. The questionnaire included age, gender, family history of DM, hypertension and stroke, food habit and physical, activity, social status, history of medication and history of alcohol intake. Anthropometric measurements like BMI, waist circumference were recorded as they are two important predisposing factors for development of insulin resistance. Sample collection: Blood sample drawn from anticubital vein in plan via from all subjects after overnight fast of 12-14 hours.Sample was analyzed for sugar, bilirubin, enzymes and lipids. 1. Subject (Case) selection:- (a) Inclusion criteria: Subjects having fasting blood sugar level >126 mg/dl or subjects on medication for DM. (b) Exclusion criteria: alcohol abuse, obstructive liver disease, hepatitis and presence of any malignancy. 2. Control selection:- (a) Inclusion criteria: (a) Subjects having fasting blood sugar level 0.05 was taken as insignificant < 0.05 as significant and Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1790http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17901. Lee — DHO, Ho Mir, Kim JH Christiana DC, Jacob DR Jr. — Gamma- GT and diabetes — A 4 year follow — up study. Dialectologies 2003 March 46 (3): 359 — 64 2. Whitfield JB: Gamma — glutarnyl transferase. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 38 : 263 — 355. 2001 [Medline] 3. Wannamethee G. Ebrahirn S. Shaper AG: Gamma — glutamyltransferase : determinants and association with mortality from ischemic heart disease and all causes. Am J Epidemiol 142: 699—708. 1995 4. Bots ML. Salonen JT. Elwood PC. Nikitin Y. Freire de Concalves A. Inzitari D. Sivenius J. Trichopoulou A. Tuomilehto J. Koudstall PJ. Grobbee DE: Gamma — glutamyltransferase and risk of stroke:the EUROSTROKE project. J Epidemiol Community Health 56 (Suppl. 1): 125— 129. 2002 5. Nilssen 0. Forde OH. Brenn. T: The Tromso Study : distributin and population determinants of gamma — GT. Am J Epidemiol 132: 18—326.1990 6. Perry IJ. Wannarnethee SG. Shaper. AG: Prospective study of serum GT and risk of NIDDM. Diabetes Care 21: 737. 1998 7. Rantala AO. Lilja M. Kauma H. Savolainen MJ. Reunanen A.Kesaniemi YA: Gamma — GT and the metabolic syndrome. J Intern Med248:230—238.2000 8. Nakanjshj N. Nishina K. Li W. Sato M. Suzuki K. Tatara K Serum gamma — GT and development of impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes in middle — aged Japanese men . J Intern Med 254:287— 295.2003 9. Lee DH. Jacobs DR Jr. Gross M. Kiefe CI. Roseman J. Lewis CE. Steffes M : Gamma — GT is a predictor of incident diabetes and hypertension : the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. Clin Chem 49: 1358 — 1366. 2003. 10. Nakanishi N, Suzuki K. Tatara K. Serum Gamma- GT and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes in middle —aged Japanese men. Diabetes Care 2004 : 27: 1427-32 11. Lee DH. Ha MH. Kim JH et al. Gamma-GT and diabetes — a 4 year follow —up study. Diabetologia 2001 46: 3 59-64. 12. Bombelli M, Facchetti R, Seqa R,Caruqo S,Fodri D,Brambilla G,Giannattasio,Grassi G,Manicia G, Impact of body mass index and waist circumference on the long-term risk of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiac organ damage. Hypertension. 2011 Dec;58(6):1029-35. Epub 2011 Oct 24. 13. Duk-Hee Lee et al. GGT is a predictor of incidence diabetes and hypertension : The coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. Clinical Chemistry 49 : 8: 1358-1366 : 2003. 14. Marhesini G, Brizi M, Bianchi G, Tomassetti S Bugianesi E,Lenzi M, McCullough Aj Natatle S, Forlani G, Meichionda N:Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease : a feature of the metabolic syndrome, Diabetes 50: 1844— 1850, 2001 5. Penn R, Worthington DJ. Is serum GammaGT a misleading test? (Review) .BMJ 286: 531 — 535, 1983 16. Sattar N, Scherbakova 0, Ford 1,0‘ Reilly DS, Stanley A, Forrest E, Macfarlane PW, Packard CJ, Cobbe SM, Shepherd J, the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study, Elevated alanine saminotranslerase predics new-onset type 2 diabetes independently of classical risk factors, metabolic syndrome. Diabetes 53:2855- 2860, 2004. 17. Lee Dli, Silventoinen K, Jacobs DR. Jousilathi P. Tuomleto J. Garrnma glutamyltransferase, obesity, and the risk of type 2 diabetes observational cohort study among 20, 1 58 middle-aged men and women. J. Clin Endocrinol Metab 89.5410- 54 14, 2004. 18. Wannamethee Lucy Lennon et a!. Hepatic enzymes, the metabolic syndrome and the risk of type 2 diabetes in older men. Diabetic Care Vol. 28, 12 : 2005. 19. Meisinger H. Lowe!, et al. Serum GOT and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in-men and women from the general population. J. of Internal Med. 2005 ; 258 ; 527-53 5. 20. Lee DH, Jacobs DR. Serum gammaglutamyltransferase was differently associated with micriabuminuria by status of hypertension or diabetes : the coronary artery risk development in young adults (Cardia) study. Clin Chem. 2005 July 51(7): 1185-91.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18General SciencesPREVALENCE OF OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY AMONG WOMEN IN MADURAI CITY English97107C.ThilakamEnglish K.RethiDeviEnglishExcess body weight poses one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century globally. Comparison of NFHS-2 (1998-1999) and NFHS-3 (2005-2006) data indicated that prevalence of obesity among Indian women has elevated from 10.6 to 12.6 per cent with an increment of 24.5 per cent betwee the years 1998-1999 and 2005-2006 and accordingly, TamilNadu ranks 4th in the order of prevalence of obesity. Since obesity is more common among women than in men, a study on prevalence of obesity among women in Madurai city was taken up. A total of 3012 women in age group 25-65years were selected by simple random sampling method and the study indicated that the prevalence of obesity among women in Madurai city is nearly, 11.4 per cent. Similarly, in the present study, aspects pertaining to the socio economic profile of the respondents revealed that a high prevalence of overweight and obesity was seen among Hindu respondents, married and those who were above 30 years, women with 1 or 2 children, women who had college education were likely to be obese. Besides, housewives and other dependent ladies in the family with sedentary nature of work, middle and high income, nuclear families and urban residing women were more obese than their counterparts. Therefore the selected socioeconomic parameter can be regarded as significant predictors of obesity. EnglishNFHS National Family Health Survey, Std- standardINTRODUCTION Unhealthy lifestyle, food habits and other substance abuse underlie much of the noncommunicable disease epidemics. Excess body weight poses one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century. During the past few decades, prevalence of obesity has grown to epidemic proportions and is regarded as the major contributor to the global burden of diseases (Koon, 2002). A growing number of adults, children and adolescents around the world, are facing the danger of becoming obese. Obesity is more common in women, but men are more likely to be overweight. Comparison of NFHS-2 (1998-1999) and NFHS-3 (2005-2006) data indicated that prevalence of obesity among Indian women has elevated from 10.6 to 12.6 per cent with an increment of 24.5 per cent between the years 1998-1999 and 2005-2006 and accordingly, TamilNadu ranks 4th in the order of prevalence of obesity. Since obesity is more common among women than in men, a study on ?Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity among women in Madurai city? was taken up. Objectives 1. To assess the prevalence of overweight and obesity among women in Madurai city 2. To compile the socio-demographic profile of BMI grade in the selected respondents MATERIALS AND METHODS By simple random sampling method, 3102 women respondents in age group 25-65 years were selected from hospitals, banks, offices, Government and private schools and colleges, business enterprises, NGOs and households in and around Madurai city. Their anthropometry measurements like height and weight were recorded. All the samples were screened for obesity by calculating their Body Mass Index (BMI) using the universally accepted BMI formula The total number of respondents (N=3102) were categorized as underweight, normal, overweight and obese based on WHO (1997) BMI classification. Using proportionate stratified random sampling method, 300 women in each of the four BMI categories, i.e., 1200 women were selected randomly. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Several factors have been linked to obesity that significantly influence the prevalence of overweight and obesity across different socioeconomic groups. 1. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among women Table 1 and Figure 2 portray the distribution of respondents based on BMI Out of 3102 women respondents (age group of 25-65 yr) screened, significant portion (1644 respondents; 53%) were in the normal BMI. The number of underweight respondents was 311, corresponding to 10 per cent of the total sample. As much as 792 respondents were in the overweight category corresponding to 26 per cent of the total sample. Likewise, 342 (11%) were obese and 13 (0.42%) were morbid obesity, indicating that the prevalence of obesity among women in Madurai city is nearly, 11.4 per cent. 2. General profile of the respondents The general profile of the respondents in the present study includes aspects such as religion, age, marital status, number of children, educational status, occupation, nature of the job, total income of the family, type of family and place of residence. The variables that significantly contribute for overweight and obesity were included in the general profile. 2.1 Religion and body mass index Classification of the respondents (N=1200) into different categories of body mass index (BMI) grade based on religion was shown in Table 2 A significant proportion of women respondents were Hindu (87.2%) followed by Muslim (7.3%) and Christian (5.5%) respectively. From the data it could be observed that prevalence of obesity among women significantly differed by religion. Data of the present study fall in line with the study conducted by Agrawal (2002) where Hindu women were reported to be more overweight and obese than Christian. 2.2 Age and body weight Mishra (2004) stated that overweight and obese increase rapidly with age. Women in the age group of 40-49 year are more than 12 times as likely to be overweight or obese as women in the age group of 15-19 year. Whitney and Rolfes (2002) indicated that adult in the age group of 25 -55 years gain an average of ½ pound per year. As age is one of the major determining factors of obesity, it was decided to establish relationship between age and body weight among the respondents. Table 3 shows the distribution of respondents based on age in relation to BMI. Based on the raw data, quartiles were calculated. Using quartile values three categories of age group were computed. In the overweight category more women were in the age group of 28 to 48 years followed by those who were above 49 years. The reason behind this fact is that growing number of urban Indian women aged 35+ are the victim of sedentary lifestyles, rich food, lack of exercise and a gradual slowing down of metabolic rate. Similarly, obesity is more common among women (59.0%) in the age group of 28-48 years followed by those above 49 years (34.3%). Average statistics show that people who are between forty to forty-five are twenty to thirty pounds heavier than they were when they were twenty years of age. The present data shows that over weight and obesity is high among women in the 30 plus than among women in the early fifties. While overweight and obesity is least among women in the age below 27 years. 2.3 Marital status and body weight In women, onset of obesity is more common during pregnancy and menopause. Table 4 portrays the distribution of respondents based on marital status and body weight. In the present study, majority of the respondents 75.6 per cent were married, 14.7 per cent were unmarried and only 9.8 per cent were widows and separated women. However, in the overweight category as much as 91.0 per cent of the respondents were married followed by 4.0 per cent unmarried and 5.0 per cent widow and separated women. Results of the present study clearly indicate that women according to Indian culture usually put on weight after marriage. Data indicates that obesity rate is high among married women (84.0%) than unmarried women (9.0%). Based on the results of the present study and the literature it is concluded that married women are more likely to be overweight and obese than unmarried women. 2.4 Number of children and body weight Table 5 shows the distribution of respondents based on the number of children and body weight. It is interesting to note that out of 300 respondents in the underweight grade about 66.7 per cent of women have one or two children, 5.0 per cent have three or four children, only 3.7 per cent had no issues. As much as 24.7 per cent in the underweight grade were unmarried. However, in the case of overweight and obese grade slight variation was observed, among the respondents, major share overweight (81.3%) and obese (62.7%) were represented by respondents with 1 or 2 children. Data indicates that there is no relationship between the number of children and the BMI grade. Similar data was obtained by Krishnaswamy (2003) that in women, obesity develops just around pregnancy and after menopause. 2.5 Education level and body weight Agrawal (2002) reported that educated women are more obese and overweight when compared to others.Several studies show association between education and bodyweight, therefore, it was decided to establish the same in the present study. Table 6 portrays distribution of respondents based on their educational level and body weight. Table 6 shows a high level of 54.7 per cent of overweight women had college education and it is surprising to see almost a similar 53.7 per cent of obese women had college level education. Overall data reveals that 46.3 per cent obese women had only school education. Likewise 45.3 per cent of overweight women had only school education which reveals social factors such as low educational level also contribute to a predisposition to obesity. 2.6 Occupation and body weight It has been well established that occupation significantly influences weight gain. Lifestyle and status of an individual is determined by the occupation. Table 7 indicates the distribution of respondents based on occupation and body weight. Working status of women shows that more than half (51.3%) of the respondents do not engage in remunerative jobs. Among those working women 17.2 per cent were by profession teachers, professors and clerks, 22.3 per cent were executives. Managers and entrepreneurs and the remaining 9.3 per cent as workers in institutions, sales workers in business centres, household paid helpers and labours. From Table 7, it is clear that among those who were overweight and obese a higher percentage of them (58.3% and 46.3% respectively) were housewives. Next to housewife, women whose occupation is related to teaching profession and clerical were mostly (14.3%) overweight and (18.3%) obese due to its sedentary nature. 2.7 Nature of work and body weight Globalization is also playing an important role for modernization and sedentary life. In this study respondent‘s occupation were classified as sedentary, moderate and heavy. Teaching, clerical and work of house wives were categorised as sedentary work, the work of the administrators and entrepreneurs as moderate work and the last category viz., paid helpers, scavengers and cleaners‘ work as heavy. Table 8 reveals the distribution of respondents based on their nature of work and body weight. It is clear from Table 8 that among the total respondents majority (59.8%) are engaged in sedentary work, 35.0 per cent perceived their work as moderate and among the low paid workers only 5.3 per cent expressed that their work as heavy when compared to other counter parts. Among the overweight respondents (74.0%) and obese (64.3%) a higher percentage of women with sedentary type of work followed by those who do moderate work. It is obvious that under weight and overweight women did not engage in heavy work as they are not fit for it. Only 5.7 per cent of obese were in heavy work because of their low educational status, they were forced to work as labourers in spite of their body weight. It is understood that from the study that high percentage of overweight and obese respondents were doing sedentary work and thus it is concluded that sedentary work is prone to overweight and obesity. 2.8 Monthly income and body weight Obesity is more prevalent among people in the lower socio-economic strata in the developed countries where as in developing countries obesity is a problem more common in the higher socio-economic strata (Shah et al., 2004). Likewise, Minna et al (2009) pointed out that household income is the strong indicator and predictor of obesity among women. Hence, it was decided to relate income to obesity in the present study. Table 9 portrays the distribution of respondents based on their family‘s monthly total income and body weight. When the influence of total monthly income on body weight was analysed, a positive correlation between income and obesity was obtained. Further, it was observed that as the income increases level of obese also increases, however, this relationship doesn‘t hold good for other BMI grade. Further, distribution of the respondents in this group pertaining to overweight and obesity were 51.3 and 40.0 per cent respectively. Results infers that women from high socio-economic group whose total monthly family income was more than Rs.20, 000 were found to be overweight (23.7%) and obese (41.3%). Data indicates that substantial proportions of women belonging to high standard of living were overweight or obese. 2.9 Type of family and body weight In the present era the concept of traditional family is disappearing, globalization has changed the lifestyle of women on the whole. Preliminary data suggested that emergence of nuclear family could be the influential factor in the body weight. Hence, this aspect was taken into consideration. Table 10 indicates the distribution of respondents based on their type of family and BMI. From Table 10 it could be inferred that nearly 84.4 per cent respondents were nuclear family and the remaining 15.6 per cent were from joint family. Analyses of the data revealed that majority of the respondents were working women. Madurai being a city the concept of nuclear family is on par with the global trend. Since, majority of the respondents were from nuclear family system, among the obese respondents more than three fourth women are from nuclear family. 2.10 Domicile and body weight Agrawal (2002), observed that percentage of obese and overweight women are comparatively high in urban than in sub-urban area. Table 11 shows the distribution of respondents based on their domicile into various grades of BMI. Majority of respondents in the underweight grade (97%) and overweight women (96.7%) were from urban area of Madurai. Overall distribution of the respondents in the overweight and obese grade into sub-urban and urban domicile indicated that the distribution was 3.3 and 96.7 (over weight) and 11.3 and 88.7 (obese) respectively. Data of the present study also proved that the prevalence of obesity among women in urban residents of Madurai is high. The association of obesity with urban-dwelling is consistent with previous reports and was found to be the most important determinant of obesity. CONCLUSION In the present study, aspects pertaining to the socio economic profile of the respondents revealed that a high prevalence of overweight and obesity was seen among Hindu respondents, married and those who were above 30yrs, women with 1 or 2 children, women had college education were likely to be obese. Besides, housewives and other dependent ladies in the family with sedentary nature of work, middle and high income, nuclear families and urban residing women were more obese than their counterparts. Therefore the selected socioeconomic parameter can be regarded as significant predictors of obesity. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1791http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17911. Agrawal PK. Emerging obesity in Northern Indian States: A serious threat for health, Paper presented at the IUSSP Regional Conference, Bangkok, 2002, 10-13 2. Minna K, Salonen, Eero Kajantie, Clive Osmond, et al., ?Role of Socioeconomic Indicators on Development of Obesity from a Life Course Perspective,? Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2009, 7: 2009. 3. Mishra V, Effect of obesity on asthma among adult Indian women. Intern J Obesi 2004, 28:1048-1058 4. National Family Health Survey, Mumbai: International Institute for Population Sciences, 2006; Data is shown in the order of percentage prevalence of obesity among females in different states of India. 5. Koon PB. Prevalence of overweight and obesity using various BMI for age sanders among younger adolescents in kulalampur. Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr 2002, 20: 574-579 6. Krishnaswamy K. Dietary guidelines for Indians a manual, National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research, Hyderabad, India 2003 7. Shah SM, Nanan D, Rahbar MH, Rahim M, Nowshad G. Assessing obesity and overweight in a high mountain Pakistani population. Trop Med Int Health 2004, 9: 526-532. 8. Whitney EN, Rolfes SR. Understanding nutrition. 9th Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 2002 9. World Health Organization (1997), Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic: report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity, Geneva.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18TechnologyBASE PRESSURE STUDIES FROM OVER EXPANDED NOZZLE FOR AREA RATIO 2.56 English108114Maughal Ahmed Ali BaigEnglish Sher Afghan KhanEnglish E. RathakrishnanEnglishThe present paper aims at study of variations in base pressure at different levels of over expansion of jet in a suddenly expanded axi-symmetric duct. The results of an experimental investigation carried out at two different fixed levels of Over Expansion namely 0.277 and 0.56 are compared. The area ratio of the present study is 2.56. The jet Mach numbers at the entry to the suddenly expanded duct, studied are 2.2 and 2.58. The length-to-diameter ratio of the suddenly expanded duct is varied from 10 to 1. Active control in the form of four micro jets of 1mm orifice diameter located at 900 intervals along a pitch circle diameter of 1.3 times the nozzle exit diameter in the base region are employed. In addition to base pressure, wall pressure field along the duct is also studied. From the present studies it is found that at a high level of over expansion micro jets are marginally effective. It is also found from wall pressure studies that the micro jets do not disturb the flow field in the enlarged duct. EnglishAxi Symmetric duct, Micro jets, Base Pressure, Mach number, L/D RatioINTRODUCTION Flow separation at the base of aerodynamic vehicles such as missiles, rockets, and projectiles leads to the formation of a lowpressure recirculation region near the base. The pressure in this region is generally significantly lower than the free stream atmospheric pressure. Base drag, caused by this difference in pressures, can be up to two-thirds of the total drag on a body of revolution at Transonic Mach numbers. However, the base drag will decrease at Supersonic speeds and is around one-third of the total drag. Whereas, the base drag is 10 per cent of the skin-friction drag in the sub-sonic flow as the wave drag will not be there. Techniques such as base burning and base bleed have been used traditionally to reduce base drag. However, very few studies have been carried with active control. Here an attempt has been made to study the problem with an internal flow. The experimental study of an internal flow apparatus has a number of distinct advantages over usual ballistics test procedures. Huge volume of air supply is required for tunnels with test-section large enough so that wall interference will not disturb flow over the model. `Stings&#39; and other support mechanism required for external flow tests are also eliminated in the internal flows. The most important advantage of an internal flow apparatus is that complete static pressure and surface temperature measurements can be made not only along the entrance section to the expansion(analogous to a body of the projectile) but also in the wake region. LITERATURE REVIEW Anderson and Williams [1] worked on base pressure and noise produced by the abrupt expansion of air in a cylindrical duct. With an attached flow the base pressure was having minimum value which depends mainly on the duct to nozzle area ratio and on the geometry of the nozzle. The plot of overall noise showed a minimum at a jet pressure approximately equal to that required to produce minimum base pressure. Srikanth and Rathakrishnan [2] developed an empirical relation for base pressure as a function of nozzle pressure ratio, area ratio and length-to-diameter ratio of the enlarged duct. Rathakrishnan et. al [3] studied the influence of cavities on suddenly expanded subsonic flow field. They concluded that the smoothening effect by the cavities on the main flow field in the enlarged duct was well pronounced for large ducts and the cavity aspect ratio had significant effect on the flow field as well as on the base pressure. They studied air flow through a convergent axi-symmetric nozzle expanding suddenly into an annular parallel shroud with annular cavities experimentally. From their results it is seen that increase in aspect ratio from 2 to 3 results in decrease in base pressure but for increase in aspect ratio from 3 to 4, the base pressure goes up. Rathakrishnan [4] investigated the effect of Ribs on suddenly expanded axi-symmetric flows laying emphasis on the base pressure reduction and enlarged duct pressure field. Annular ribs with aspect ratio 3:1 was found to be the optimum and they do not introduce any oscillations to the wall pressure field of the enlarged duct, at the same time the increase in pressure loss compared to plain was also less than six per cent. Even for the case with passive control the duct L/D in the range 3 to 5 experiences the minimum base pressure, as in the case of plain ducts. Khan and Rathakrishnan [5] studied the control of suddenly expanded flow from over expanded nozzles with micro jets for high supersonic Mach number. The aim of their study was to access the effectiveness of the micro jets under the influence of adverse pressure gradient. Khan and Rathakrishnan [6] conducted the experiments for under expanded case for Mach numbers 1.25, 1.3, 1.48, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0. All the experiments were conducted for a fixed value of level of under expansion (Pe /Pa = 1.5). They found from their studies that the micro jets are very effective whenever nozzles are under expanded. Khan and Rathakrishnan [7] studied the control of suddenly expanded flows for correctly expanded case. They found from their studies that the micro jets are not very effective for correctly expanded case for Mach numbers 1.25, 1.3, 1.48, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0. There is a marginal change in the values of the base pressure. Another important phenomenon observed was that even for the correctly expanded flow case the flow is dominated by the waves. Earlier it was believed that the correctly expanded flow is free from waves. The effect of level of expansion in a suddenly expanded flow and the control effectiveness has been reported by Khan and Rathakrishnan [8]. In their study they considered correct, under, and over expanded nozzles for four area ratio for the Mach numbers 1.25, 1.3, 1.48, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0. They conducted the tests for the NPRs in the range 3 to 11. From their results it was found that for a given Mach number, length-to-diameter ratio, and the nozzle pressure ratio the value of base pressure increases with the area ratio. This increase in base pressure is attributed to the relief available to the flow due to increase in the area ratio. Pandey and Kumar [10] studied the flow through nozzle in sudden expansion for area ratio 2.89 at Mach 2.4 using fuzzy set theory. From their analysis it was observed that L/D = 4 is sufficient for smooth development of flow keeping in view all the three parameters like base pressure, wall static pressure and total pressure loss. The above review reveals that even though there is a large quantum of literature available on the problem of sudden expansion, vast majority of them are studies without control. Even among the available literature on investigation of base flows with control, most of them, use only passive control by means of grooves, cavities and ribs. Only very few studies report base flow investigation with active control. Therefore, a closer look at the effectiveness of active control of base flows with micro-jets, especially in the supersonic flow regime will be of high value, since such flow field finds application in many problems of applied gas dynamics, such as the base drag reduction for missiles and launch vehicles, base heating control for launch vehicles, etc. With this aim the present work investigates the base pressure control with active control in the form of micro jets. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experiments were carried out using the experimental facility at the High Speed Aerodynamics Laboratory (HSAL), IIT, Kanpur. Fig. 2 shows the experimental setup used for the present study. At the exit periphery of the nozzle there are eight holes as shown in the figure, four of which (marked c) were used for blowing and the remaining four (marked m) were used for base pressure (Pb) measurement. Control of the base pressure was done, by blowing through the control holes (c), using the pressure from the blowing chamber by employing a tube connecting the chamber and the control holes (c). Pressure taps are provided on the enlarged duct wall to measure wall pressure distribution in the duct. First nine holes are made at an interval of 4 mm each and remaining is made at an interval of 8 mm each. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The measured data consists of the base pressure (Pb), wall static pressure (Pw) distribution along the length of enlarged duct and nozzle pressure ratio (NPR) defined as the ratio of stagnation pressure (P0) to back pressure (Patm). All measured pressures were non-dimensionalized with the ambient atmospheric pressure (i.e. back pressure). In addition to the above pressures, other parameters of the present study are the jet Mach number (M), area ratio and L/D ratio of the enlarged duct and fixed level of over expansions. Area ratio discussed in this paper is 2.56 and the control pressure ratio is same as the main settling chamber pressure ratio. This investigation focuses attention mainly on the effect of level of over expansion of 0.277 and 0.56 (i.e. Pe /Pa=0.277 and 0.56) and the effectiveness of active control in the form of micro-jets, located at the base region of suddenly expanded axi-symmetric ducts, to modify the base pressure for Mach 2.2 and 2.58. Figure 3 presents result for Mach No. 2.2. It is seen that the base pressure is insensitive to L/D and also assumes high values (i.e. low suction). As the level of over expansion decreases the base suction decreases and base pressure continues to decrease with L/D and attains a minimum at L/D = 6 for Pe /Pa =0.277 and it is L/D= 3 for Pe /Pa =0.56. The base pressure minimum at L/D = 6 is in agreement with the results of Rathakrishnan and Sreekanth [2], for subsonic and transonic flow. The control is only of marginal influence on the base pressure for all values of L/D for highest level of over expansion. Further, it is seen that when the level of over expansion decreases the trend is different, control results in decrease of base pressure. It becomes independent of L/D for L/D > 3. It is seen that, when the micro jets are activated the base pressure assumes considerably lower values compared to the corresponding cases without micro jets. It is evident from these results that, for Pe /Pa = 0.277 the control effectiveness is strongly influenced by the jet Mach number. The effectiveness increases with increase of Mach number. Also, the effectiveness is significant for L/D ranging from 3 to 6 compared to L/D range 6 to 10. Figure 4 presents results for Mach number = 2.58. It is seen from the figure that there is slightly different behaviour compared to the behaviour at M = 2.2. Even for the lowest level of expansion the base pressure comes down with increase of L/D, showing a minimum at L/D = 6 for Pe /Pa =0.277 and it is L/D= 4 for Pe /Pa =0.56. The tendency of base pressure coming down with L/D becomes significant as the level of over expansion decreases. Here again the control is of marginal effect on base pressure. Further, like M = 2.2, for M = 2.58 also L/D more than 6 does not influence the base pressure significantly. However, at Mach 2.58 the control is more effective compare to at Mach 2.2. It is seen that for same level of overexpansion, for a given area ratio, the reattachment length for higher Mach number will be higher. This will dictate base vortex strength. If the reattachment length is such that the vortex can be strong, this will result in large suction. From the above results it is found that these conditions are satisfied for Mach 2.2 and 2.58 for all level of expansion. Further, it is evident that, Pb/Pa is the lowest for Mach number 2.58 at the expansion level of 0.277. It decreases with decrease of level of expansion. When the micro jets are on, they entrain the mass from their vicinity. It should be noted that, the level of pressure at the base region depends on the shock strength at the nozzle exit for the present case of over expanded jets. However, it is the combined effect of jet Mach number, the shock strength and the location of the micro-jets, which will fix the base pressure level. In the present study the location of the micro-jets are fixed. Therefore, for low values of area ratio the micro jets are close to the base corner and away from the base corner for higher area ratios. Hence, for lower area ratio the micro jets will counter the shock effect which tends to increase the base pressure more effectively than for higher area ratio. Hence, the vortex at the base will be in a position to create more suction at the base for lower area ratio compared to higher area ratio. This appears to be the cause for the control to become more effective at Mach 2.58 than Mach 2.2. Measurement of wall static pressure along the enlarged duct can be one of the best possible ways to understand one of the major problems associated with base flows i.e. Oscillatory nature of pressure field in the enlarged duct just downstream of the base region. To study this wall pressure distribution, tests are conducted with and without controls. Fig 5 and Fig 7 indicate the behaviour of wall pressure at over expansion level of 0.56 for Mach 2.58 and Mach 2.2 respectively and Fig 6 and Fig 8 indicate the behaviour of wall pressure at high level of over expansion i.e. 0.277. It can be observed that the control is more effective at lower level of expansion, i.e. at Pe /Pa =0.56 than at Pe /Pa=0.277. CONCLUSION It is evident that, Mach 2.58 influences the base pressure more than the lower Mach numbers. Also, at Mach 2.58, the micro jets have a powerful influence on base pressure, taking its value to low levels compared to without control case. It is also found that Microjets which are used as active method of controlling; do not augment the wall pressure field in expanded duct. Further it is seen that for higher level of over expansion the base pressure is on higher side as compared to that of over expansion level of 0.56 for same L/D. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1792http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17921. J. S. Anderson and T. J. Williams, Base pressure and noise produced by the abrupt expansion of air in a cylindrical duct, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 262-268, 1968. 2. R. Srikanth and E. Rathakrishnan, Flow through pipes with sudden enlargement, Mechanics Research Communications, Vol. 18(4), pp. 199-206, 1991. 3. E. Rathakrishnan, O. V. Ramanaraju, and K. Padmanabhan, Influence of cavities on suddenly expanded flow field, Mechanics Research Communications, Vol. 16(3), pp. 139-146, 1989. 4. E. Rathakrishnan, Effect of ribs on suddenly expanded flows, AIAA Journal, Vol. 39, No. 7, pp. 1402- 1404, July, 2001. 5. S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Active control of suddenly expanded flows from over expanded nozzles, Int. Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines, Vol. 19, Issue No. 1-2, pp. 119-126, 2002. 6. S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Active Control of Suddenly Expanded Flow from Under Expanded Nozzles, Int. Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines, (IJT), Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 233-253, 2004. 7. S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Control of Suddenly Expanded Flow from Correctly Expanded Nozzles, International Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT), Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 255-278, 2004. 8. S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, Nozzle Expansion Level Effect on a Suddenly Expanded Flow, International Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT), Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 233-258, 2006. 9. R. Jagannath, N. G. Naresh and K. M. Pandey, Studies on Pressure loss in sudden expansion in flow through nozzles: A Fuzzy Logic Approach, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 50-61, April, 2007. 10. K. M. Pandey and Shushil Kumar, Flow through Nozzle in Sudden Expansion in Cylindrical Ducts with Area Ratio 2.89 at Mach 2.4: A Fuzzy Logic Approach, International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 3, August, 2010.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18General SciencesCONTENT VALIDITY OF A QUESTIONNAIRE TO ASSESS THE ERGONOMIC KNOWLEDGE OF COMPUTER PROFESSIONALS English115122Mohamed Sherif SirajudeenEnglish Umama Nisar ShahEnglish Nagarajan MohanEnglish Padmakumar Somasekharan PillaiEnglishBackground: Ergonomics is the scientific study of human work. The objective of ergonomics is to obtain an effective match between the user and work station to improve working efficiency, health, safety, comfort and easiness to use. Neglect of ergonomic principles brings inefficiency and pain in the workplace. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to establish the content validity of an instrument (Questionnaire) to assess Ergonomic Knowledge of Computer professionals using a rigorous Judgmentquantification process. Methods and Measures: The Draft Questionnaire composed of 35 items related to Knowledge about Musculoskeletal disorders and its risk factors, Working Postures, Seating, Keyboard/Mouse, Monitor, Table and Accessories and finally Rest breaks and Exercises. A panel of 9 experts validated the Draft Ergonomic Knowledge Questionnaire. After all correspondence was received regarding Content validity for each item, The Content Validity Index (CVI) is calculated by tallying the results of the experts based on the degree to which the experts agree on the relevance and clarity of the items. Finally, a Focus group was held to evaluate the instrument for overall comprehensiveness. Results: Results from the panel of experts yielded a 0.98 overall Content validity index. Few experts suggested minor revisions regarding the clarity or wording of the items, and those revisions were incorporated into the instrument. Conclusion: The process used to determine Content validity proved to offer consistency and structure to the instrument development. High CVI scores were generated for the items judged relevant to the content domain as well as for the overall instrument. The results support the Content validity of this Questionnaire as a tool to assess the Ergonomic Knowledge of Computer Professionals. EnglishContent Validity, Ergonomic Knowledge Questionnaire, Musculoskeletal Disorders, Computer Professionals.INTRODUCTION This article describes the process undertaken to develop and validate a Questionnaire to assess the Ergonomic knowledge of computer professionals. Why is it important? Ergonomics is the scientific study of human work1 . The objective of Ergonomics is to obtain an effective match between the user and work station to improve working efficiency, health, safety, comfort and easiness to use. Neglect of Ergonomic principles brings inefficiency and pain in the workplace. An ergonomically deficient workplace may not cause immediate pain, because the human body has a great capacity for adapting to a poorly designed workplace or structured job. However, in time, the compounding effect of job and/or workplace deficiencies will surpass the body‘s coping mechanisms, causing the inevitable physical symptoms, emotional stress, low productivity, and poor quality of work 2,3 . These problems if ignored can prove debilitating and can cause crippling injuries forcing one to change one‘s profession. The purpose of this study is to establish the Content validity of an instrument (Questionnaire) to assess ergonomic knowledge of Computer professionals using a rigorous Judgment-quantification process. The Knowledge Questionnaire developed and validated herein will be used for future studies comparing Computer professional‘s Ergonomic Knowledge with their actual Ergonomic Practice. MATERIALS AND METHODS Overview Content validity is a cardinal step in the development of new experimental measuring devices because it represents an initiating mechanism for linking abstract concepts with observable and measurable indicators4 . According to Lynn Content validation is a twostep process beginning with the Development stage and ending with the Judgmentquantification process5 . The Development stage requires an extensive review of the literature to identify content for the instrument and constitute relevant domains. In this study, the literature review identified approximately 40 to 50 articles on the subject of Computer Ergonomics and Work-related Musculoskeletal disorders. After the literature was reviewed the items were constructed. The entire instrument was developed along with instructions and scoring guidelines. The Judgment-quantification stage requires a Panel of experts, working independently, to evaluate the instrument and rate items of relevance according to the Content domain5 . In addition, item content and clarity, as well as overall instrument comprehensiveness, are evaluated in this stage. Berk recommends that expert panel members should evaluate how representative the items are of the Content domain 6 . As part of this process, expert panel members should be requested to suggest modifications for items that are not consistent with conceptual definitions5 . When estimating Content validity, it is essential to utilize a quantitative measure, the content validity index (CVI)4,7,8. The CVI is calculated by tallying the results of the experts based on the degree to which the experts agree on the relevance and clarity of the items. Questionnaire This research required drafting of an Ergonomic Knowledge Questionnaire for use with Computer Professionals. Approval was taken from Yenepoya University Ethical Committee prior to the commencement of the study. Questionnaires and information from various sources were reviewed9-11, and Draft Questionnaire items were created. The Draft Questionnaire composed of 35 items related to Knowledge about Musculoskeletal disorders and its risk factors, Working Postures, Seating, Keyboard/Mouse, Monitor, Table and Accessories and finally Rest breaks and Exercises. The section related to Knowledge about Musculoskeletal disorders and its risk factors composed of 3 Multiple choice questions(MCQ) and 2 True or False (T or F) questions related to Definition of Ergonomics , Cumulative Trauma Disorders, Goal of Ergonomics, Signs and symptoms of Musculoskeletal disorders and its risk factors. The Working Postures section composed of 1 MCQ and 4 Tor F questions related to Head, Neck and Trunk, Upper arm and Elbow, Wrist and Hand, Thigh and finally Feet. The Seating (Chair) section composed of 3 MCQs an 2 Tor F questions related to Adjustable back rest, Low back support, Seat height, Seat pan and finally Base of the Chair. The Key board/ Mouse section composed of 3 MCQs and 2 T or F questions related to Key board level, Mouse Size, Mouse grip, Mouse placement and finally Ideal Mouse pad. The Monitor section composed of 3 MCQs and 2 T or F questions related to Monitor‘s Position, Level (Height), Tilt, Distance (From the User) and finally presence of Glare. The Table and Accessories section composed of 3 MCQs and 2 T or F questions related to Placement of Telephone and Documents, Document holder, Telephone Usage, Edge of Table‘s Top and finally Leg room under the Table. The Rest breaks and Exercises section composed of 3 MCQs and 2 Tor F questions related to Periodically alternating Computer tasks, Micro breaks, Mini breaks, Stretching and finally Eye exercises. Sample A panel of experts was used to validate the Draft Ergonomic Knowledge Questionnaire. The Content validation process described by Lynn was used5 . The panel comprised of 9 experts including Orthopedic Surgeons, Physiotherapists, Research methodology expert, Psychiatrist, Community health Physician and Information technology expert. The panel of experts was selected based on their knowledge and experience in the area of Musculoskeletal disorders and Computer Ergonomics. Data Collection A cover letter explaining the purpose of the instrument along with Background, Aims and Objectives of the study and instructions on how to complete the criteria checklist were provided to the panel of experts. The researcher verbally explained the process to the panel of experts to ensure understanding of the process. Informed consent was obtained from the experts. The panel was asked to review the items in the tool and give their suggestions regarding accuracy, relevance, and appropriateness of the content. After all correspondence was received regarding content validity for each item, a Focus group was held to evaluate the instrument for overall comprehensiveness. The objective of the Focus group was to reach consensus on the overall comprehensiveness of the instrument, that is, to determine whether the experts felt the instrument measured what it was intended to measure. RESULTS The calculation or proportion that is sufficient for determining content validity agreement was searched in the literature. A CVI of 0.70 represents average agreement; 0.80, adequate agreement; 0.90, good agreement and CVI of 1.00 indicates 100 percent agreement between raters 4,5. According to Lynn, when there are six or more judges, the CVI should be no lower than 0.78 for an item to be judged acceptable. CVI was calculated for each item under 7 sections (see Table 1-7) and for the overall instrument. Results from the panel of experts yielded a 0.98 overall Content validity index. Few experts suggested minor revisions regarding the clarity or wording of the items, and those revisions were incorporated into the instrument. Once all items had been evaluated and all changes were made, the revised instrument was sent to Focus group to evaluate the overall instrument. The focus group discussed the instrument for overall comprehensiveness. None of the experts suggested additional content or changes at this time. Based on the CVI for each item as well as that for the overall instrument, it is believed that the instrument contains questions relevant to Ergonomic Knowledge of Computer Professionals. CONCLUSION Content validity is a cardinal step in the selection and administration of an instrument. The two-step method used in this study, consisted of a Developmental stage and a Judgment-quantification stage, required a comprehensive literature review, item creation, and agreement from a specific number of experts about the item‘s and the entire instrument‘s validity. The panel of Experts was asked to review the items in the tool and give their suggestions regarding accuracy, relevance, and appropriateness of the content. Finally a focus group discussed the instrument for overall comprehensiveness. The process used to determine Content validity proved to offer consistency and structure to the instrument development. High CVI scores were generated for the items judged relevant to the content domain as well as for the overall instrument. The results support the Content validity of this Questionnaire as a tool to assess the Ergonomic Knowledge of Computer Professionals. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors are grateful to the Panel of experts who validated the Questionnaire. This project was supported by Seed Grant for Research for Faculty of Yenepoya University (YU/Seed Grant/2011-012). Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.   Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1793http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17931. Stubbs D.A. Ergonomics and occupational medicine: future challenges. Occup Med. 2000; 50(4): 277- 282. 2. Murphy DC. Ergonomics and dentistry. N Y state J. 1997; 63 (7): 30-34. 3. Palm N .Ergonomics – OSHA‘S next regulatory frontier? J Mich Dent Assoc.1994; 76(5): 28-30. 4. Wynd CA, Schmidt B, Schaefer MA. Two Quantitative Approaches for Estimating Content Validity. Western Journal of Nursing Research. 2003;25(5): 508-518. 5. Lynn M. Determination and Quantification of Content Validity. Nursing Research.1986;35: 382–85. 6. Berk R. Importance of Expert Judgment in Content-Related Validity Evidence. Western Journal of Nursing Research.1990; 12: 659–71. 7. Anders RL, Tomai JS, Clute RM, Olson T. Development of a Scientifically Valid Coordinated Care Path. Journal of Nursing Administration.1997; 27:45-52. 8. Summers S. Establishing the Reliability and Validity of a New Instrument: Pilot Testing. Journal of Post Anesthesia Nursing.1993; 8:124-27. 9. Ocuupational safety and health administration OSHA VDT Work station check list. United states Department of labour (www.osha.gov). 10. Robertson MM, O‘Neill MJ. Reducing Musculoskeletal Discomfort: Effect of an Office Ergonomics Workplace and Training Intervention. International of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics.2003;9(4):491-502. 11. Rizzo TH, Pelletier KR, Serxner S, Chikamoto Y. Reducing Risk Factors for Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs): The Impact of Preventive Ergonomic Training on Knowledge, Intentions and Practices related to Computer Use. Am J Health Promot. 1997;11(4):250-253.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18General SciencesIN-VITRO STUDIES OF VITEX NEGUNDO L. AN IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANT English145150Firdous DarEnglish Kirti JainEnglish Madhuri ModakEnglishA rapid and efficient protocol was developed for shoot induction and multiple shoot formation from apical and nodal explants of Vitex negundo L. an important endangered medicinal plant species. The explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoogs (MS) medium supplemented with various concentrations of auxins, cytokinins and sucrose. Highest percentage (97%) of shoot induction were observed from axillary meristem, developed 10-20 shoots when cultured in the medium containing the combination of 6 -Benzyl amino purine (BAP) (0.5 mg/l) and Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) (0.2mg/l) supplemented with 3% Sucrose within 25 days. EnglishIn-vitro studies, Benzyl amino purine, Naphthalene acetic acid, Vitex negundo L.INTRODUCTION Verbenaceae is a large family of herbs, shrubs and trees comprising of about 75 genera and nearly 2500 species (Nasir and Ali 1974., Sastri 1950). V. negundo L. is distributed in East Asia, South West China, throughout the greater part of India at warmer zones and ascending to an altitude of about 1500m in outer, western Himalayas. It is also cultivated in Pakistan. (Usman Ghani Khan, 2007., Khare, 2007., Cook, 1903). V. negundo L. is a large woody aromatic and multipurpose medicinal shrub belonging to the family verbinaceae (Wealth of India 1976). It is one of the common plants used in Indian system of medicine. Various parts of the plant are used in the treatment of Arthritis, joint pains and sciatica. It is also used in the treatment of chronic bronchitis, asthma and gastric troubles. In dispersing swellings of the joints from acute rheumatism and also of the testes from suppressed gonorrhea. The methanolic root extracts of V.negundo significantly antagonized the Vipera russellii and Naja kauthea venom induced lethal activity both in-vitro and in-vivo studies (Alam and Gomes, 2003). The stem decoction is used in the treatment of burns and scalds. The fresh berries are pounded to a pulp and are used in the form of a tincture for the relief of paralysis, pains in the limbs, weakness etc. The leaves of the plant are astringent, febrifuge, sedative tonic and vermifuge (Horowitz, 1996). The plant also shows antibacterial, antifungal, larvicidal, antihelmentic, antioxidant, and insectsidal/pestcidal activities. The plant also shows anticancerous activity against Daltons Asiatic lymphoma. It also shows gastro protective and hepato-protective activities. Despite its economic importance the production of V.negundo is threatened by population growth, desertification, industrial development and attack by numerous parasites. The biotechnological approach such as plant tissue culture initiated from medicinal plants is a variable method for the large scale production of economically and medicinally important plants. The present study was undertaken to standardize a protocol for high frequency induction of multiple shoots from different explants and to regenerate plants of V.negundo to meet its demand in medicine and agriculture. MATERIALS AND METHODS Actively growing and healthy shoot material of V.negundo with dominant auxiliary buds were collected from an adult plant growing in the medicinal plant garden of Govt. Motilal Vigyan Mahavidyalaya Bhopal, M.P. After removing leaves, the shoots were cut into small pieces 0.5- 1.0 cm each containing a single node auxiliary bud. The explants were then washed under running tap water for 30 minutes, followed by a wash with a solution of detergent for 10 min. followed by washing with surface sterilizing agent mercuric chloride (0.1%HgCl2) solution for 3-6 min. In sterilized autoclaved beakers and finally washed three times with autoclaved water. Since the use of sodium hypo chloride and bromine water did not prevent contamination. Mercuric chloride was used as sterilizing agent throughout the experiment. The explants were then inoculated in basal medium consisting of Murashige and Skoogs salts, vitamins 30g/L. Sucrose 30g/L. Agar (qualigens India) supplemented with various growth hormones. After adjusting the PH (5.4-5.9) the medium was autoclaved at 121oC for 15-20 minutes at the pressure of 1.06 kgcm-2 . The cultures were then incubated at 25+3 oC under 14/10 hours (light/dark) period with light supplied by white fluorescent tubes at 3500 lux. After 20 days of inoculation, the explants were transferred to a fresh medium. And after 40 days of inoculation data were recorded on shoot induction and number of shoot formation per explant. For multiplication of cultures in-vitro raised shoots were taken in a sterilized Petri dish and were cut into small pieces containing a single node along with dormant auxiliary buds. Then the explants were transferred to culture tubes containing MS medium supplemented with BAP (2mg/L.) and NAA (0.5mg/L.). For the induction of multiple shoots, subsequently subcultures were raised after 20 days interval to study the effect of culture passages on the explants response for shoot induction and multiple shoot formation. All the treatments were repeated at least three times with 10 replicates and data were subjected to statistical analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the present study both apical and explants were used. But the nodal explants were found to be more effective for shoot induction and multiple shoot formation when culture on MS medium supplemented with various phytohormones as compared to other explants. The nodal explants of V.negundo L. were cultured on MS medium supplemented with various concentrations of BAP or KN individually or in combination with NAA or IAA resulted in induction of healthy shoots. When the explants were cultured on MS medium supplemented with cytokinins alone lesser number of shoots were induced in comparison to the MS medium supplemented with combination treatment of auxin and cytokinin. The explants were cultured on MS medium supplemented with sucrose (30gm/L.) along with optimal concentrations of BAP (0.5mg/L.) and NAA (2mg/L.) which was found to be the most effective in the induction of shoots compared to other concentrations. In-vitro raised shoots (20-30days old) were sub cultured on MS medium supplemented with BAP (0.5mg/L.) and NAA (2mg/L.). The highest response of nodal explants (90%) with a maximum average number of shoots (3.40±0.11) per explant was observed. There have been several reports of micro propagation with nodal segment and shoot tips of tropical medicinal plants in the juvenile phase of development (Kukreja et al., 1988). Here the protocol is described for rapid and large scale propagation of the woody aromatic and medicinal shrub V.negundo by in-vitro culture of nodal segments from mature healthy plants. Here different concentrations of cytokinins were used as supplements to the MS medium. Among the cytokinins tested BAP was found to be most effective than other cytokinins for the induction of shoots. The bud breaking and shoot induction in cultures of nodal explants indicate the function of cytokinins (Sahoo and Chand 1998). In the present investigation bud breaking and multiple shoot induction was increased in treatments of BAP up to 0.5mg/L. However there was decline in shoot induction beyond this dosage. In each explant 4-6 axillary buds were formed within 15-20 days after inoculation. The number of shoot formation per explants was increased when the cultures were transferred to a fresh medium. The enhancing effect of MS medium supplemented with auxins and cytokinins in shoot multiplication was also studied on Gomphrena officinalis (Mereker et al., 1992) and on Rauvolfia serpentina. Similar observations were made by Sahoo and Chand (1998) in the shoot multiplication of V.negundo when sub cultured on MS medium supplemented with BA (4.40um/L.) and GA3 (1.15um/L) up to two subcultures and then there was a gradual decline. Similar results were found on shoot induction and multiple shoot formation from nodal explants of V.negundo in the combination treatment of BA (16.80um/L.) and IBA (2.25um/L.) supplemented with 100mg/L. silver nitrate. Noman et al., (2010) observed the high frequency bud initiation and shoot proliferation from callus by using BAP (0.3mg/L) and IAA (0.3mg/L). In the present study MS medium along with NAA and BAP has been used which has also been reported the best shoot proliferating combination in Heracleum candicans (Wakhlu and Sharma, 1999) Centella asiatica (Shashikala et al., 2005) and Cardiospermum halicacabum (Jawahar et al.,2008). In contrast Fraternale et al., (2002) reported that high concentration of auxin with cytokinin was stable for shoot multiplication in Bupleurum fruiticosum. CONCLUSION A simple and efficient method has been developed for shoot induction and multiple shoot formation and thus increasing the production of V. negundo. This is suitable for conservation of germplasm of this multipurpose medicinal plant species. Despite its economic importance the production of V. negundo is threatened by population growth, desertification, industrial development and attack by numerous parasites. The classical conservation techniques such as crossing over, Sexual and somatic hybridization and breeding give a genetically blind mixture. Propagation through vegetative cuttings is very slow and a large number of cuttings do not survive during transportation. It can also be propagated through seeds or root suckers. Poor viability of the seeds and the production of root sucker is strictly age dependent. The biotechnological approach such as plant tissue culture initiated from medicinal plants is a variable method for the large scale production of economically and medicinally important plants. The present study was undertaken to standardize a protocol for high frequency induction of multiple shoots from different explants and to regenerate plants of V.negundo to meet its demand in medicine and agriculture. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1794http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17941. Abu Shadat Mohammod Noman, Mohammod Sayeedul Islam, Nurul Alam Siddique and Khaled Hossain, 2008. High frequency induction of multiple shoots from nodal explants of Vitex negundo using Silver nitrate.Int.J.Agri.Biol. 10: 633-7. 2. Achari, B., Chowdhury, U.S., Dutta, P. K and Pakrashi, S. C, 1984. Two isomeric flavonones from Vitex negundo Linn. Phytochemistry, 23: 703. 3. Adnaik, R.S., Pai, P.T., Mule, S.N., Naikwade, S.N. and Magdum, C.S. 2008. Laxative Activity of leaves of Vitex negundo. Asian J. Exp. Sci.22: 159-160. 4. Alam, M.I and A.Gomes, 2003.Snake venom neutralization by Indian medicinal plants (Vitex negundo and Emblica officinalis) root extracts.j. Ethnopharmacol. 86; 75-80. 5. Anonymous. Directory of Indian medicinal plants (1992). Lucknow, CIMAP .49. 6. Asaka, Y. and Rana, A.C., 1973. Arch. Pharm. Res.14 (1):96-98. 7. Avadhoot, Y. and Rana, A.C. Abu (1991) worked on hepatoprotective effect of Vitex negundo against carbon tetra chloride induced liver damage. 8. Azahar-ul-Haq. Malik. A., Anis, I., Khan, S.B., et al. 2004. Enzyme inhibiting lignans from Vitex negundo. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 52: 1269-1272. 9. Babu, T.D., Kuttan, G., Paddikkala, J. 1995. Cytotoxic and antitumour activity of certain taxa of umbeliferae with special refrence to Centella asiatica (L.) Urban journal of ethno pharmacology. 48: 53-57. 10. Baral, S.R. and Kurmi, P.P.2006. A compendium of Medicinal plants in Nepal. 11. FraternaleD, GiamperiL, RicciD, and RocchiMBL (2002).Micropropagation of B. fruticosum: The effect of triacontanol, plant cell tiss. Org. Cult.69: 135-140. 12. Kukreja AK., AK, Mathur. PS, Ahuja and RS, Thakur, (1988). Tissue culture and Biotechnology of Medicinal and Aromatic plants, pp: 7-11. CIMAP ,Lucknow,India 13. Shashikala CM, Shashidhara S and Rajeshkharan PE (2005). In-vitro regeneration of Centella asiatica L. Plant cell Biotech and Mol. Biol.6:53-56. 14. Wakhlu AK and Sharma RK (1999). Micropropagation of Heracleum candicans wall. A rare medicinal herb. Soc. In vitro Biol. 98: 1071-1074.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareSTUDY OF DEFAULTERS OF REVISED NATIONAL TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL PROGRAMME IN THE THREE PRIMARY HEALTH CENTRES OF BELGAUM DISTRICT English151159Shivappa HatnoorEnglish Hemagiri KEnglish Sangolli H NEnglish Mallapur M.DEnglish VinodKumar C.SEnglishThe Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme introduced in 1993 lays more emphasis on good quality diagnosis by direct sputum smear microscopy and quality drugs, through standardized short course chemotherapy regimens administered under direct observation along with systematic monitoring and evaluation. The goal of the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme is to cure at least 85% of new sputum smear positive patients detected and to detect at least 70% of all such patients after the goal for cure rate has been met. No studies have been done on evaluation of Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme and reasons for default in these areas. Objective of this study to know the reasons for default of the patients put under Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme. Materials and method: This study carried over for one year one month (November 1st 2004 to 31st December 2005). The data collected by using pre-designed and pretested proforma. The first visit was done when the patient was registered in the Primary Health Centre and started on the treatment. Second visit i.e. First follow-up visit was done at the end of Intensive Phase and the data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of 1st follow-up sputum examination and about defaulters if any. Second follow-up visit was done in the middle of continuation phase and the data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of 2nd follow-up sputum examination and defaulters if any. Fourth visit i.e. third follow-up visit was done at the end of Continuation Phase and the data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of sputum examination at the end of the treatment, about defaulters if any and outcome of the treatment. Results: Out of 69 defaulter cases majority 63% of them were males, the main reason for treatment failure were illiteracy (42%), marital status (79%), Class V family (58%), complaining of acidity and vomiting (63%). habit of smoking (31%) and smokeless tobacco(15%). These are the significant reasons for treatment failure. EnglishKeywords: RNTCP, tuberculosis, defaultersINTRODUCTION Tuberculosis continues to be one of the most important public health problems worldwide. It infects one third of the world‘s population at any point of time. There are approximately 9 million new cases of all form of tuberculosis occurring annually and 3 million people die from it each year. Out of these 95% tuberculosis cases and 98% tuberculosis deaths are contributed by developing countries1 . India accounts for nearly one third of the global burden of tuberculosis. Around 2.0 million people are diagnosed to be suffering from tuberculosis every year.1 Tuberculosis kills more adults in India than any other infectious diseases. More than 1000 people a day i.e one every minutes die of tuberculosis2 . Despite the National Tuberculosis Programme since 1992, the desired control of tuberculosis could not be achieved. Moreover, there has been an increase in the absolute number of tuberculosis patients because of the increase in population. The impending threat of Tuberculosis- HIV co- infection and the emergence of Multi Drug Resistance Tuberculosis have made the situation worse3 . In 1992, an expert committee reviewed the National Tuberculosis Programme and found that less than 30% treatment completion rate, undue emphasis on radiological diagnosis, poor quality of sputum microscopy, multiplicity of treatment regimens, emphasis on case detection rather than on treatment completion, inadequate budgets and shortages of drugs3 . The Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme introduced in 1993 lays more emphasis on good quality diagnosis by direct sputum smear microscopy and quality drugs, through standardized short course chemotherapy regimens administered under direct observation along with systematic monitoring and evaluation3 . The goal of the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme is to cure at least 85% of new sputum smear positive patients detected and to detect at least 70% of all such patients after the goal for cure rate has been met2 . Belgaum district started implementing Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme from 15th July 2003. K.L.E. Society‘s J.N. Medical College adopted three Primary Health Centres namely Kinaye, Vantmuri and Handignur on 7th April 2004 as such no studies have been done on evaluation of Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme in these areas. So, this study was taken to evaluate the implementation of Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme in these areas and also to know the reasons for default of the patients put under Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme. MATERIALS AND METHODS Ethical clearance: Ethical clearance was obtained from JN Medical College, Belgaum, Karnataka Design: This was a longitudinal study undertaken to evaluate the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme in three Primary Health Centres, attached to JN Medical College, Belgaum, Karnataka Source of Data: Total population of three Primary Health Centres were; Kinaye 47,159, Vantamuri 30,756 and Handiganoor 23,452 population. Inclusion Criteria: All cases diagnosed for tuberculosis by the Medical Officers of three Primary Health Centers from November 1st 2004 to April 30th 2005. Study Period: From November 1st 2004 to 31st December 2005 (One year One month) Methods of Data Collection: Using pre-designed and pre-tested proforma the data is collected. The first visit was done when the patient was registered in the Primary Health Centre and started on the treatment. The following data was collected in the first visit Name, Age, Sex, Religion, Occupation, Address, Educational Status, Marital Status, Type of Family, Socio-economic status, DOT provider, Category of Treatment, Disease Classification, Type of patient, result of 1st sputum (at the start of the treatment) examination and if there are any reasons for initial default. Second visit i.e. First follow-up visit was done at the end of Intensive Phase and the following data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of 1st follow-up sputum examination and about defaulters if any. Third visit i.e. second follow-up visit was done in the middle of Continuation Phase and the following data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of 2nd follow-up sputum examination and defaulters if any. Fourth visit i.e. third follow-up visit was done at the end of Continuation Phase and the data was collected regarding the scheduled intake of drugs, result of sputum examination at the end of the treatment, about defaulters if any and outcome of the treatment. The present study was a longitudinal study undertaken to evaluate the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme in three Primary Health Centers of Belgaum which are adopted by K.L.E. Society‘s J.N. Medical College under Public Private Partnership. The total study population covered was Kinaye47,159, Vantmuri-30,756 and Handignur23,452 out of this 69 patients were put on antitubercular treatment under Revised National Tuberculosis Programme, by Medical Officers of respective Primary Health Centers from November 1st 2004 to April 30th 2005 were included in the study. All the three Primary Health Centers are located within the radius of 25 kilometers from J.N. Medical College. Our study showed that among defaulters 63% of patients had acidity and vomiting, 16% patients were alcoholics, 10.5% left the place, 5.3% had taken treatment previously and 5.3% not willing to disclose the identity. A study done in Bangalore city showed that alcoholics were more among the defaulted i.e. in category I 56.7% and in category II 68.7%.4 In another study done at Tiruvallur, District in Tamil Nadu showed that 17.1% of defaulters were alcoholics5 . In a similar study conducted in West Bengal, Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh showed that intolerance to drugs among defaulters ranged from 5.6 % to 20%.6 In our study maximum defaulted cased were in Primary Health Center Handignur i.e. 36.4%, followed by 32% in Primary Health Center Vantamuri and 21% in Primary Health Center Kinaye. Overall in all Primary Health Centers defaulted cases were 27.5%. In a similar study conducted in West Bengal, Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh showed that defaulted patients ranged from 10.78% to 38.13% in four centers where the study was conducted.6 In our study majority of defaulted patients were males i.e. 63% and 37% were females. In a study done in Bangalore city among category I 89.6% of defaulter were males and 90.9% males in category II.4 In our study maximum number of defaulters were seen among housewives i.e. 31.6%, followed by 26.3% each among farmers and labours, 5.3% each among business persons, drivers and children under seven years of age. In our study maximum number of defaulted patients were illiterates i.e 42%, followed by 37% Primary level education, 16% Secondary level education and 5.3% children under seven years of age. In a study conducted in Tiruvallur District in Tamil Nadu revealed that among all defaults 12.7% were illiterates6 . In a similar study conducted in the states of West Bengal, Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh showed that 48% to 64.9% of defaulters were illiterates, Primary school level raged from 19.1% to 40%, High school level ranged from 15.9% to 40% and college level ranged from 5.6 % to 20%.7 In our study maximum numbers of defaulted patients were married i.e 79% and 21% were unmarried. In a similar study conducted in Bangalore city revealed that 73% in category I and 69.7% in category II were married.5 In our study majority of defaulted patients were from Joint family i.e 47.3%, followed by 37% three generation family, 10.5% nuclear family and 5.3% problem family. In our study maximum percentage of defaulted cases were in class V i.e 58%, 26.3% were in class IV, 10.5% were in class III and 5.3% were in class II. In a similar study conducted in states of West Bengal, Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh revealed that in class V and IV the defaulted patient ranged from 24.5% to 63%, in class III and II it ranged from 24.5% to 45.5% and in class I it ranged from 12.5% to 30%.7 In our study maximum number of defaulted cases were having the habit of smoking and alcohol i.e. 31.6%, 15.9% were having the habit of using smokeless tobacco, 15.9% were having the habit of smoking, alcohol and use of smokeless tobacco, 5.3% were having the habit of smoking and 5.3% were having the habit of smoking and use of smokeless tobacco. 26.3% of the defaulted cases were not having any habits. In another study conducted at Tiruvallur district in Tamil Nadu showed that in overall defaulted cases 14.6% were smokers and 17.1% were alcoholics.6 In our study majority of the defaulted cases were in category I i.e. 55%, 35% were in category II and 10% were in category III. In a study conducted in Bangalore city showed that the defaulted cases in category I were 25.4% and in category II were 45.2%. 4 In our study maximum percentage of defaulted cases i.e. 68% had Anganwadi workers as DOTS providers and 32% had Health workers as DOTS providers. In our study the defaulters among males were 36% and non defaulters were 64%. Among Females 19% were defaulters and 81% were non defaulters. Which did not show any statistical significance where P = 0.116. In the study the defaulters among illiterates were 40% and non defaulters were 60%. Among literates 21% were defaulters and 79% were non defaulters. We found that their is no statistical significance between illiterate and literate defaulters. Where P=0.114. In a similar study conducted in the states of West Bengal, Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh showed that 48% to 64.9% of defaulters were illiterates. 7 In our study defaulters among class II and III were 23% and non-defaulters were 77%. Defaulters among class IV were 20% and nondefaulters were 80%. Defaulters among class V were 35% and non-defaulters were 65%. It did not show any statistical significance where P=0.402. In a study done in West Bengal, Jharkand and Arunachal Pradesh the defaulted patients among class II and III ranged from 24.5% to 45.5% and in class IV and V it ranged from 24.5% to 63%. 7 In our study among category I 37% were defaulters and 63% were non-defaulters, among category II 21% were defaulters and 79% were non-defaulters and in category III 27% were defaulters and 73% were non-defaulters. It showed a statistical significance where P= 0.013. In a study done at Bangalore revealed that defaulters among category I were 25.4% and in category II were 45.2%. 4 In our study among Anganwadi workers 31% were defaulters and 69% were non-defaulters. Among Health workers and others 22.2% were defaulters and 77.8% were non- defaulters. It showed no statistical significance where P= 0.428. Reasons for default during the course of treatment being 12(63% ) due to toxicity of drugs (Acidity and Vomiting), 31(16%) due to addiction to Alcohol and 2(10.5%) left the place. Numbers of defaulters in category I were 11(37%), Category II were 6(46%) and category III were 2(8%). Which was statistically significant. RECOMMENDATION Training newly recruited staff of Primary Health Centers. Regular re-orientation of all the staff and also DOTs providers. Sputum examination should be made mandatory for all the patients (Pulmonary as well as extra pulmonary). IEC activities for the public regarding Tuberculosis and its treatment and also to increase the cure rate, decrease the default and failure rate amongst the patients. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1795http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17951. A. Jaiswal, V. Singh, J. A. Ogden, J. D. H. Porter, P. P. Sharma, R. Sarin, V. K. Arora, R. C. Jain. Adherence to tuberculosis treatment: lessons from the urban setting of Delhi, India. Tropical Medicine and International Health. 2003;8:625-633 2. Sengupta S, Pungrassami P, Balthip Q, Strauss R, Kasetjaroen Y. Social impact of tuberculosis in southern Thailand: views from patients, care providers and the community .Int. J. Tuberc. Lung. Dis. 2006; 10(9):1008-12. 3. Srivastava S.K., Ratan R.K. Srivastava P, and Prasad R: report on Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme: urban pilot project in Lucknow, Ind J. Tub, 2000;47:159-162. 4. Sophia Vijay, Balasangameshwara .V.H, Jagannatha. P.S, Saroja V.N and Kumar P; Defaults among tuberculosis patients treated under DOTs in Bangalore city: A search for solution: Ind. J.Tub, 2003,50,185-195 5. Chandrasekaran V, Gopi P.G, Subramani R, Thomas A, Jaggarajamma K, and Narayanan. P.R; Default during the Intensive phase of Treatment under DOTs Programme. Ind. J. Tub, 2005, 52,197-202. 6. Chatterjee P, Brutoti Banerjee, Debashis Dutt,Rama Ranjan Pati and Ashok kumar Mullick. A comparative evaluation of factors and Reasons for defaulting in tuberculosis treatment in Ind. J. Tub, 2003, 50,17-22. 7. Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme at Glance, central Tuberculosis division Directorate General of Health Services Ministry of Health and Family welfare Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi.

Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18HealthcareOCCURRENCE OF GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIA AMONG SAUDI CHILDREN WITH ATOPIC DERMATITIS English123130Mohammad Issa AhmadEnglish Jalal Ali. BilalEnglish Ahmad Al RobaeeEnglish Abdullateef A. AlzolibaniEnglish Hani A. Al ShobailiEnglish Muhammad Shahzad English Ibrahim Hassan. BabikerEnglishObjectives: to determine the occurrences of bacterial colonization of atopic dermatitis in children of Qassim region in Saudi Arabian Methods. In a hospital-based study we collected 2 swabs, one from lesional skin and the other from a healthy skin area as healthy control from 80 children with atopic dermatitis. Isolation and identification were done by colony morphology, Gram stain and the automated Vitek System. The majority of children were below 5 years of age. Results: The mean age was 1.4 with a SD of 0.74. Bacterial colonies were grown from all patients in lesion and non-lesional skin with more species in lesional skin. Gram positive cocci, bacilli and mixed colonies were grown. S. aureus, S. hemolyticus, S. auricularis, S. warnerii, S. simulans, S. scurii, S. capitis, S. xylosus, S. cohnii and S. hominis were more in the lesion whereas S. epidermidis was found to be more in nonlesional skin. Enterococci, commonly Ent. Faecalis, Ent. Faecium and Ent. gallinarium were isolated mostly from lesions. Other less common isolates were Corynebactericae as C. xerosis and C. minutissimum. Conclusions: Bacterial colonization is more frequent in atopic dermatitis than in normal skin. Staphylococcal species predominate. Streptococci, Corynebactericae and Enterococci are significant inhabitant of atopic dermatitis. EnglishSkin lesion, Colonization, Atopic DermatitisINTRODUCTION Atopic dermatitis is a chronic inflammatory pruritic skin disease affecting children and adults. The onset occurs in 45% of children during the first 6 months of life, 60% during the first year and before 5 years in about 85% of affected individuals. The estimated prevalence worldwide is ranging from 1% to 20% (1). Treatment of atopic dermatitis accounts for a significant amount of health service financial resources, clinical time and place a burden on the child, family and society (2). Atopic dermatitis was found to be predominant in children in Qassim region, Saudi Arabia (3). The diagnostic criteria for atopic dermatitis had been set by Hanifin and Rajka in 1980 (4). Bacterial and viral infections often nonspecifically aggravate atopic dermatitis (5). "Immunomodulatory pathways in atopic dermatitis may have important implications from a therapeutic point of view because patients with atopic dermatitis may benefit from more than just anti-inflammatory treatment in the future" (6). Staphylococcus aureus infection was found to be the leading cause of infection of atopic dermatitis and that antibacterial treatment is beneficial when children are clinically impetiginized (7). Most studies focused on the direct relationship between S. aureus and severity of atopic dermatitis (7, 8, 9 and 10) besides, the majority of the studies were conducted in adult populations but literature on whether other types of bacteria were involved is not sufficient. Moreover, worldwide studies in bacterial colonization especially gram positive, apart from S. aureus, are scanty and particularly no studies to determine colonizing bacteria in AD young patients were done in Saudi Arabia. The aim of this study is to determine the bacterial colonization of atopic dermatitis lesions in a group of children in compared with control to healthy areas of the skin in the same subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS Patients and organisms This cross-sectional descriptive controlled study was conducted in different out-patient dermatology clinics in Qassim University affiliated hospitals during the period from March 2009 to February 2010. A total of 80 subjects, all were children aged 6 months to 18 years with AD were included after written informed consent was obtained. The diagnosis of atopic dermatitis which was made by consultant dermatologists was based on the criteria of Hanifin and Rajka (4). Children who had concomitant immune system disease, severe systemic infection, systemic heart and kidney or liver diseases were excluded from the study. Moreover, children on treatment by topical steroids in the last two weeks or systemic antibiotics in the last four weeks were also excluded. Two skin swabs were taken from each subject; one from the target skin lesion and the other from the non-lesional skin which was defined as healthy skin symmetrical to the target skin lesion or at least 10 cm away from it as a healthy control. Swabs were saturated by brain heart infusion broth (Oxoid) and transported immediately to the laboratory (11). These swabs were then cultured on blood agar base (Oxoid), Mc Conky agar, Nutrient agar, Mannitol salt agar and incubated at 37° C for 24-48 hours. The growth colonies were identified by Gram stain, colonial morphology and biochemically by Vitek system (BioMerieux 12) automated machine with different incubation periods from 2 hours up to 24 hours according to the manufacturers‘ procedures (12). Records of measurements were registered each hour starting at hour zero to a maximum of 15 hours. Data were entered and analyzed into SPSS statistical software, version 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, U.S.A.). A P value of < 0.05 was defined as statistically significant. RESULTS The age ranged between 6 months and 14 years. The majority of children were below 5 years of age constituting 59 (73.75%) of the whole sample. The mean age was 1.4 with a SD of 0.74. Males outnumber females comprising 61 (76.3%) (N=80) however, gender distribution within different age groups was insignificant (p=0.98). Bacterial colonies were grown from all patients of atopic dermatitis in both lesion and nonlesional skin. A total of 240 of different bacterial colonies were grown from 80 subjects with AD in contrast to 193 colonies from nonlesional or healthy areas of skin of the same subjects. The lesion/non-lesion ratio of grown bacterial colonies was 3/2.4. Bacterial species were found to be more in the lesions than in the non-lesional skin where 31 species were recovered from lesions whereas non-lesional areas yielded a count of 25 species. Out of 80 patients, gram positive cocci were found in 78 (97.5%) of the lesions and 77 (96.25%) of the non-lesional healthy skin (p=0.001). Gram positive bacilli and mixed colonies were also isolated more from lesion than non-lesional areas. Gram positive cocci were isolated from both lesion and non-lesion in 77 (96.25%) patients and in one patient (1.25%) in the lesion alone, whereas 2(2.5%) patients did not grow them in either lesion or non-lesional areas of skin. Staphylococci spp. was found in the lesions more than in the controls. Those were S. aureus (p=0.007), S. hemolyticus (p=0.004), S. auricularis (p=0.003), S. warnerii (p=0.000) and S. hominis (p=0.009). The following strains were also grown more in the lesion than healthy nonlesional skin: S. simulans, S. scurii, S. capitis, S. xylosus and S. cohnii but this finding is not statistically significant (table). The exception was for S. epidermidis which was found to be more in the nonlesional skin, however this was also not significant (p=0.07). Streptococci colonized 10% of both lesional and non lesional skin. Isolated Streptococci were: S. bovis in 3(3.8%) lesions and in 1(1.2%) nonlesion (p=0.03); S. agalactiae was more in nonlesional 3(3.8%) than in lesion 2(2.5%) lesions (p=0.001) likewise S. viridians 2(2.5%) in lesion and 1(1.2%) in nonlesion (p=0.02) whereas, S. acidominimus and S. salivarius were isolated only from nonlesions in 1(1.2%) and 2 (2.5%) respectively. Equal isolation for S. pnemoniae was found in both lesion and nonlesion areas but the finding is statistically insignificant (p=1.0). ( Table1and figure1). Enterococcus gallinarium were isolated only in the lesion. Whereas Ent. Faecalis and Ent. Faecium were isolated from both (table). Other gram positive bacilli isolates were Corynebacterium xerosis and Corynbacterium minutissimum which were recovered from 10 (12.5%) and 3 (3.8%) lesions and 7(8.8%) and 1(1.2%) nonlesional skin respectively (p=0.002). ( Fig.1 and tab.1). Discussion Bacterial colonies in this study were grown from all lesion and healthy skins of children with atopic dermatitis. This was reported, in lesser values, in a similar study which was done by Alsaimaru et al 2006 the were found that 94.4% and 86.36% grown of the positive culture in lesion and healthy skin area from AD respectively (9). However their study was conducted in different age groups whereas ours was primarily in children population. Moreover Gong et al (8) was reported similar information compared to our results by finding colonization of bacteria from all lesions of patient with AD but their results was not controlled by healthy areas of skin as well as their patients was aged group of 2 to 65 years. A lower positive culture rate was shown by Farajzadeh et al (13) where they detected a positive culture in 74% of the lesion in children with AD. The reason for the high colonization rate in all patients in this study could be attributed to the chronic lesion of atopic dermatitis despite sampling was taken from exposed skin to the environment i.e. upper limbs and face, which has a rate of occurrence of the normal inhabitant of the skin (14). Moreover no patient was receiving any antibiotic before and during sampling. Staphylococcal colonization of AD was reported as common in many studies. Hill SE et al isolated S. aureus from 68 patients out of hundred who are all children (15). Gong J. Q et al (8) reported more or less similar results in adult population. Moreover earlier studies by Leyden JJ et al and Ring J 1 yielded that S. aureus is the most common skin infecting agent in AD which was found in more than 90% of the patients compared to 5% normal individual in both lesional and non lesional AD skin (16). Guzik TJ et al found, more or less, similar results to ours concerning S. aureus but they also studied colonization during exacerbation with the finding of significant correlation between the density of colonization and the severity of dermatitis (17). S. aureus was isolated in 30(37.5%) lesional areas in contrast to 12(15%) non-lesional in this study however, S. aureus is not considered as normal skin resident (18). This finding is in line with the above mentioned reports but colonization of healthy skin is even higher in our study. Variation of the occurrence of S. aureus in uninvolved skin has been reported in several studies (19). High colonization of the healthy skin could be due to contamination from lesional skin. The most frequently isolated Staphylococci species other than S. aureus in lesional AD skin in our study were S. epidermidis 42.5%, S. hemolyticus 37.5%, S. auricularis 23.8%, S. warneri 21.2%, S. hominis 18.8%, S. scuri 11.2%, S. capitis 7.5%, S. saprophyticus 6.2%, S. xylosus 6.2% and others. The isolation of these species was lower in non-lesional skin, with exception for certain species which were S. epidermidis 58.8%; S. auricularis 23.8%, S. hominis 18.8%, S. capitis 7.5%, S. aprophyticus and S. xylosus; the later 2 species were isolated each in the rate of 6.2% of the lesions. About 12 species of coagulase negative staphylocci are commonly found on human skin and the most abundant were S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus and S. hominis (20). We isolated 13 species in this study. In contrast to Hoeger P. H. et al (21) colonization was not equal in lesional and nonlesional areas but denser on the lesional skin of our patients in most of the isolated species. These species are known as part of the normal flora which usually inhabits the perineum (22); their isolation in the exposed areas of the body may be due to matters of hygiene but whether they are related to atopic dermatitis or not may need further elucidation. Gong JQ et al results (8) compared to ours was different in that S. epidermidis was more in the lesional skin. Hoeger H.P. et al (21) results, however, were similar to ours regarding S. epidermidis which they reported to be higher in the non-lesional skin. Streptococci are rarely seen on normal skin especially β-hemolytic streptococci (20). This is attributed in part to the lethal effect of lipid on them (14). The finding of almost 10% colonization in both healthy and AD skin could be attributed to atopic dermatitis. While we did not specifically address the cause/effect factor, our results do not support the rare existence of streptococci in healthy or non-complicated AD skin, nor did a previous report. However David T.J. and Cambridge G.C. (23) reported recovery of beta hemolytic streptococci in combination with S. aureus in 62% of episodes of infection in children with AD but not as colonizing agents. Gram positive bacilli occurrence was not significantly different between lesional and nonlesional areas of skin in this study. The commonly isolated gram positive bacilli in this study were C. xerosis and C. minutissimum among others (tab.1). These strains are normally colonizing areas of skin rich in lipids or sebum such as the axilla (24) and in our study the isolates were from exposed areas which are poor in sebum. Some Corynbacterium species can cause serious infection and may even cause endocarditis (25). In humans, Enterococci can be isolated from almost 100% of faecal samples, with Ent. faecalis being reported more commonly and in higher numbers than Ent. faecium in most studies (26). Enterococci species were isolated from both lesional and non-lesional skin in this study. However, no previous report of them being as part of the normal microflora of the human skin, they can be recovered from the vagina and oral cavity and the carriage rate may be increased in hospitalized patients (27). Enterococci, especially Ent. Faecium can cause epidemic of vancomycin resistant in clinical settings (28) and multiple sites infection resistant to multiple antibiotics (29). The presence of enterococci species in atopic dermatitis needs further verification. CONCLUSION Bacterial colonization rate is higher in diseased as well as healthy skin of children with atopic dermatitis but the colony count and colonization with pathologic strains are more in atopic dermatitis skin. Staphylococci, especially S. aureus and S. epidremidis, predominate. There is also high colonization rate with streptococci in atopic dermatitis and equal colonization density of gram positive bacilli. Enterococci and Corynbacterium species were also isolated in considerable proportion. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank the Deanship of Scientific Research, Qassim University, KSA, for approving and funding this study. Also Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1796http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17961. Akdis CA, Akdis M, Bieber T, BindslevJensen C, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of atopic dermatitis in children and adults: European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology/American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology/PRACTALL Consensus Report. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006; 118(1):152-69. 2. Lewis-Jones, S. Quality of life and childhood atopic dermatitis: the misery of living with childhood eczema. Intern J Clinic Pract. 2006; 60: 984–992. 3. Al Shobaili H. The pattern of skin diseases in the Qassim region of Saudi Arabia: What the primary care physician should know. Ann Saudi Med. 2010; 30(6): 448–453. 4. Hanifin J A., Rajkin G.: diagnostic feature of atopic dermatitis. Acta Dermato Venerologica, 92 (supply), 1980; 44-47. 5. Biederman T. Dissecting the Role of Infections in Atopic Dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol. 2006; 86: 99–109. 6. Roll A, Cazzio A, Fscher B, Grenedelmeier P. Microbial colonization and atopic dermatitis. Allergy clin immunol. 2004; 4(5):373-378. 7. Lomholt H, Andersen K E, kilians M. Staphylococcus aureus clonal dynamics and virulence factors in children with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol. 2005; 125: 977- 982. 8. Gong J Q., Lin L, Lin T, et al. Skin colonization by staphylococcus aureus in patients with eczema and atopic dermatitis and relevant combined topical therapy: a double blind multicentre randomized controlled trial Br J Dermatol. 2006; 155:680-687. 9. Al-Saimary I E, Bakr S and Al-Hamdi K E: Bacterial skin colonization in patients with atopic dermatitis / eczema syndrome. IJD. 2005; 3(2). Available at: Sugar Land, Tex.: Internet Scientific Publications, LLC. http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?xml FilePath=journals/ijd/vol4n2/skin.xml. 10. Ricci G, Patrizi A, Neri I, Bendandi B and Masi M. frequency and clinical role of Staphylococcus aureus over-infection in atopic dermatitis in children. Pediatr Dermatol. 2003; 20: 389–392. 11. Frbes B A, Sahm D F, and Weissfeld, A S. Baily and Scott. Diagnostic microbiology. 12th ed. Mosby 2007. 12. Vitek® microbiology reference manual, Loiaison, appendix F: method for determining duplicate isolates for Data Trac Reports. BioMerieux 2004; 12. 13. 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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241411EnglishN2012June18General SciencesA COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COSMETIC REGULATIONS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD WITH FOCUS ON INDIA English131144Abdullah B JEnglish Nasreen REnglish Ravichandran NEnglishCosmetics market is changing around the world dramatically. To do successful marketing one should take care of different consideration such as the current market trends & demands, regulatory framework & compliance requirements, efficacy, etc. Regulations of cosmetics and cosmeceutical industry now a day‘s more stringent. There are different regulatory bodies worldwide having their own regulations to ensure safety of the cosmetic products. The major cosmetic market constitutes of European Union (EU), United States of America (USA (RPA 2004)).The regulations in these territories are used as a model for the developing world. India is quickly catching up the cosmetic market globally and is following its own regulations. The body that governs the cosmetic market in India is CDSCO (Central Drug Standard Control Organization) through the ?Drug and Cosmetic Act, 1940 and Rules 1945?. The cosmetic definition, labeling, safety and stability studies and the legal authority have their own impact on manufacture and sale of cosmetic products. In this research paper we will discuss about the different rules and regulation that govern the cosmetic industry in different countries throughout the world. A comparison has also been made on the basis of legal authority, labeling, testing, safety and stability studies. EnglishCosmetic Regulations, Drug and Cosmetic Act, Current Amendments., Legal Authorities, Labeling, Stability and safety.http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1797http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1797