Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28TechnologyEFFECT ON BASE PRESSURE IN SUDDENLY EXPANDED FLOWS WITH VARIABLE LOCATION OF MICROJETS
English0108Maughal Ahmed Ali BaigEnglish Sher Afghan KhanEnglish E. RathakrishnanEnglishThis paper presents results of an experimental investigation to study the effectiveness of micro jets to control the base pressure in suddenly expanded axi-symmetric ducts when the micro jets are placed at different location (i.e. at the base, at the duct, and at base as well as at the duct). The purpose of this study is to study the individual as well as the combined effectiveness of the micro jet as the active controller of the base pressure. The area ratio of the present study is 3.24. The nozzle generating the above jet Mach numbers were operated with nozzle pressure ratio (NPR) in the range 3 to 11. In addition to base pressure, wall pressure field along the duct was also studied. As high as 70 percent increase in base pressure was achieved for Mach number 2.58 at NPR 11 when the micro jets are placed at the base as well as the duct.
EnglishArea Ratio, Nozzle Pressure Ratio, Wall pressure, Sudden ExpansionINTRODUCTION
Vortex shedding in the wake of bluff bodies is an important flow phenomenon. At subsonic and transonic speeds, it has long been recognized that the wake behind an isolated twodimensional section with a blunt trailing edge may break into a vortex street. The direct result of this is an increase in drag, mainly as a result of reduced pressure. Further, the subject of base flows at high Reynolds numbers has been and continues to be an important area of research in view of its relevance in external aerodynamics. Base drag arising from flow separation at the blunt base of a body, can be sizeable fraction of total drag in the context of projectiles, missiles and after bodies of fighter aircraft; for example, the base drag component can be as high as 50 percent of the total drag for a missile with power off (i.e. with no jet flow at the base). Large-scale flow unsteadiness, often associated with a turbulent separated flow, can cause additional problems like base buffeting which are undesirable.
LITERATURE REVIEW Wick
[l] studied the effect of boundary layer on sonic flow through an abrupt cross-sectional area. He observed experimentally that the pressure in the corner of expansion was related to the boundary layer type and thickness upstream of the expansion. He considered boundary layer as a source of fluid for the corner flow. The base corner was thought of as a sump with two supplies of mass. The first was the boundary layer flow around the corner and the second source was the back flow in the boundary layer along the wall of the expanded section. This back flow occurred because of the pressure difference across the shock wave originating where the jet strikes the wall. He concluded that the mechanism of internal and external flow was principally the same and base pressure phenomenon in external flow could be studied relatively easily by experiments with internal flow. Korst [2] investigated the problem of base pressure in transonic and supersonic flow for cases in which the flow approaching the base is sonic or supersonic after the wake. He devised a physical flow model based on the concepts of interaction between the dissipative shear flow and the adjacent free stream and the conservation of mass in the wake. Anderson and Williams [3] worked on base pressure and noise produced by the abrupt expansion of air in a cylindrical duct. With an attached flow the base pressure was having minimum value, which depends mainly on the duct to nozzle area ratio and on the geometry of the nozzle. The plot of overall noise showed a minimum at a jet pressure approximately equal to that required producing minimum base pressure. Rathakrishnan and Sreekanth [4] studied flows in pipe with sudden enlargement. They concluded that the non-dimensionalized base pressure is a strong function of the expansion area ratios, the overall pressure ratios and the duct length-to-diameter ratios. They showed that for a given overall pressure ratio and a given area ratio, it is possible to identify an optimal length-to-diameter ratio of the duct that will result in maximum exit plane total pressure at the nozzle exit on the symmetry axis (i.e. minimum pressure loss in the nozzle) and in a minimum base pressure at the sudden enlargement plane. The separation and reattachment seemed to be strongly dependent on the area ratio of the inlet to enlargement. For a given nozzle and enlargement area ratio, the duct length must exceed a definite minimum value for minimum base pressure. Tanner [5] studied base cavity at angles of incidence. He concluded that a base cavity could increase the base pressure and thus decrease the base drag in axi-symmetric flow. He varied the angle of incidence from 0 to 25°. At a. = 2°, he found the maximum drag decrease. Kruiswyk and Dutton [6] studied effects of base cavity on subsonic near-wake flow. They experimentally investigated the effects of the base cavity on the near-wake flow field of a slender twodimensional body in the subsonic speed range. Three basic configurations were investigated and compared; they are a blunt base, a shallow rectangular cavity base of depth equal to one half of the base height and a deep rectangular cavity base of depth equal to the base height. Schlieren photographs revealed that the base qualitative structure of the vortex street was unmodified by the presence of the base cavity. The weaker vortex street yielded higher pressures in the near-wake for the cavity bases, and increases in the base pressure coefficients of the order of 10-14%, and increases in the shedding frequencies of the order of 4 -6% relative to the blunt-based configuration. M. A. Baig and S.A. Khan [9] studied effect on base pressure due to active control in the form of Microjets at area ratio 2.56, and concluded that Microjets do not disturb flow field and base pressure increases for certain combinations of parameters of study. Suddenly expanded flow with control seems to be of interest with many applications. This will help in minimizing the base pressure in the case of combustion chamber to maximize the mixing, and maximize the base pressure in case of rockets, projectiles, aircraft bombs and missiles to result in base drag reduction. Therefore, an attempt has been made to investigate the control of base pressure field with micro jets by changing the location of the micro jets.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
Figure 1 shows the experimental setup used for the present study. At the exit periphery of the nozzle there are eight holes as shown in the figure, four of which (marked c) were used for blowing and the remaining four (marked m) were used for base pressure (Pb) measurement. Control of the base pressure was done, by blowing through the control holes (c), using the pressure from the blowing chamber by employing a tube connecting the chamber and the control holes (c). Pressure taps are provided on the duct wall to measure wall pressure distribution in the duct. First nine holes are made at an interval of 4 mm each and remaining holes are made at an interval of 8 mm each. Experiments were conducted for Mach numbers 1.87, 2.2 and 2.58. For each Mach number, NPR employed was 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11. PSI model 9010 pressure transducer was used for measuring pressure at the base and the stagnation pressure in the settling chamber. It has 16 channels and pressure range is 0-300 psi.
Fig. 1 Experimental Set-up
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The measured data consists of the base pressure (Pb), wall static pressure (Pc) distribution along the length of the enlarged duct and the nozzle pressure ratio (NPR) defined as the ratio of stagnation pressure (P0) to the back pressure (Pa). All the measured pressures were nondimensionalized by dividing them with the ambient atmospheric pressure (i.e. the back pressure). In addition to the above pressures, the other parameters of the present study are the jet Mach number (M), the area ratio (enlarged duct cross sectional area/nozzle exit area), length to diameter ratio of the duct (L/D) and the blow pressure ratio. To quantify the increase in base pressure achieved with active control, cross plots of base pressure in the form of percentage increase in base pressure is used for presenting the results. The percentage change in base pressure as a function of NPR has been shown in Fig. 2 to 4 for area ratio 3.24 at Mach 1.87, 2.2, and 2.58 under the influence of favorable as well as adverse pressure gradients (i.e. for correctly expanded, over expanded, and under expanded cases). Figure 2 shows percentage change of base pressure as a function of NPR for the cases (i.e. with control micro jets are located at base, at the duct and at both) at Mach 1.87. It is found that at lower NPRs the micro jets are not effective when placed at base and increase in base pressure is only marginal. When micro jets are placed at the duct the effectiveness is enhanced and it is effective for all the NPRs tested and the maximum gain is 10 percent. When micro jets are placed at base as well as at the duct its effectiveness is getting enhanced for all the NPRs tested. At NPR 11, 25 percent increase in base pressure is achieved. The physical reason for this trend may be that when micro jets are at base they are not able to break the powerful vortex positioned at the base, which otherwise they are able to do so when they are either placed at duct or at the base or both.
Base pressure results for Mach number 2.2 are shown in Fig. 3. They exhibit similar behavior as discussed above with the exception that the magnitude of increase in base pressure has changed. When the micro jets are at the base and at the enlarged duct the effectiveness is only marginal. This behavior seems to be due to the Mach number effect. However, when the micro jets are at the base as well as at the duct the control effectiveness has increased significantly and 30 percent increase in base pressure is achieved. Similar results for Mach number 2.58 are shown in Fig. 4. It is seen that for this case when micro jets are activated control results in decrease of base pressure when they are placed at base only. For the case of micro jets being placed at duct wall it was found that up to NPR 7 they are not very effective, however, their effectiveness gets enhanced when NPR is more than 7. When the combined effect is considered their effectiveness is increased and as high as 70 per cent increase in base pressure is achieved.
Non-dimensionalized base pressure variation with L/D ratio at Mach 1.87, 2.2, 2.58 for the cases with and without control is compared in Figs. 5 to 7. It is clearly seen that the functional dependence of base pressure with NPR is unaltered by the control. However, the control tends to modify the base pressure level at all NPRs. Also, the control effectiveness in modifying the level of base pressure gets enhanced with increase of NPR. At NPR 3 the control effectiveness is almost insignificant and the effectiveness increases with increase of NPR. For Mach 1.87, the NPR for correct expansion is 6.4. Therefore, up to NPR 6.4 the flow at nozzle exit is over expanded and hence adverse pressure gradient is present when the flow enters the enlarged duct. For NPR larger than 6.4 favorable pressure gradient exists at the nozzle exit. For NPR < 6.4, in the presence of adverse pressure gradient the control effectiveness is only marginal. Also, as the NPR increases from 3, i.e., as the level of adverse pressure gradient decreases, the control effectiveness increases. For the NPRs establishing favorable pressure gradient the control becomes progressively more effective with increase of favorable pressure gradient. Furthermore, it is seen that the control results in decrease of base pressure compared to without control case, up to certain NPR and then increases the base pressure to stay above that for without control case. A closer look at the flow process at the base of the duct will explain the reason for this behavior. The base pressure level is dictated by the expansion level at the nozzle exit and the duct L/D, for a given area ratio. There will be an expansion fan and oblique shock at nozzle lip, for under and over expanded flows, respectively. Thus, the wave at the nozzle lip has a dominant influence on the base pressure level. This causes the control to become more effective at higher NPR for higher Mach numbers, compared to lower Mach numbers.
It is important to realize that, even though it appears as though the base pressure increase from its minimum value takes place from NPR 5, 7, and 9 for Mach numbers 1.87, 2.2, and 2.58, respectively, to identify the NPR at which this begins, one has to conduct tests with close steps of NPR. In the present study such tests were not conducted. It is interesting to note that after the limiting NPR, increase in NPR results in increase of base pressure for all Mach numbers. However, the rate of increase becomes a function of nozzle expansion level. Once the flow becomes under expanded the increase be comes larger. Further, the micro-jets become effective in enhancing the base pressure when the nozzle is under expanded. It was found that wall the pressure field with control and without control behaves almost identically. This ensures that the active control in the form of micro jets does not influence the wall pressure adversely rendering it to oscillate violently. This can be considered as one of the major advantages since; the major problem faced while using a control either active or passive the control may augment the base pressure but the control may augment the nature of the wall pressure field in the duct.
Non-dimensionalized base pressure variation with NPR for duct L/D = 10 at Mach 1.87, 2.2 and 2.58 for the cases of flow when micro jets are at base, at the duct, and at both the places with and without control are compared in Fig. 8 to 10. Figure 8 presents the results for the case when the micro jets are at the base only. The control becomes effective for the NPRs beyond 5, 7, and 9 for Mach 1.87, 2.2, and 2.58. The reasons for this behavior have been explained above. Further, it is seen in the figure 9 when the micro jets are at the duct alone. The trend remains the as it was seen in figure 8 but the effectiveness is only marginal for Mach 1.87 and 2.2. For Mach 2.58 the micro jets are becoming progressively more effective. Figure 10 presents the results for all the Mach numbers tested for the case when the micro jets are placed at the base as well as in the duct. It is found that once the NPR values are more than the NPR required for correct expansion the base pressure increases progressively with NPR and control also becomes effective.
Wall Pressure Distribution
It can be seen from figures 11 to 13 that the location of Microjets at three different locations does not augment the wall pressure. The wall pressure studies are verily required to understand the oscillatory nature of flow which is one of the major problems in active methods of controlling base flows.
CONCLUSIONS
From the above discussion we can draw the following conclusions. The micro jets can serve as an effective controller to control the base pressure, raising the base suction for some combination of parameters. It is found that when the micro jets are employed at the base as well as the duct the control becomes very effective resulting in increase of base pressure and 70 percent increase in base pressure is achieved at Mach 2.58. Further, it is found that when NPR reaches the value required for correct expansion the control becomes effective. This agrees well with the findings of Navin Kumar Singh and Rathakrishnan [7] in the literature who reported that the effectiveness of passive control in the form of tabs in enhancing the mixing increases with increase of favorable pressure gradient. The base pressure level is dictated by the expansion level at the nozzle exit and the Mach number for a given area ratio. There is no adverse effect of the active control on the enlarged duct flow field. The nozzle pressure ratio and the Mach number have a definite role to play in fixing the level of base pressure with and without control at supersonic Mach numbers.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1682http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16821. Wick, R. S., The effect of boundary layer on sonic flow through an abrupt crosssectional area change, Journal of the Aeronautical Science, Vol. 20, 1953, pp. 675-682.
2. Korst, H., A theory of base pressure in transonic and supersonic flow, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 23, 1956, pp. 593-599.
3. Anderson, J.S. and Williams, T.J., Base pressure and noise produced by the abrupt expansion of air in a cylindrical duct, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Vol. 10, No. 3, 1968, pp. 262- 268.
4. Rathakrishnan, E. and Sreekanth, A.K., Flow in pipes with sudden enlargement, Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium on Space Technology and Science, Tokyo, Japan, (1984), pp.491-499, 1984.
5. Tanner, M. Base cavities at angles of incidence, AIAA Journal, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1988, pp. 376-377.
6. Kruiswyk, R.W. and Dutton, J.C., Effect of base cavity on subsonic near-wake flow, AIAA Journal, Vol. 28, No. 11, 1990, pp. 1885-1895.
7. Singh Naveen Kumar and E. Rathakrishnan, Sonic Jet Control with Tabs, International Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines (IJT), Vol. 19, No. 1-2, pp. 107- 118, 2002.
8. Khan S. A. and E. Rathakrishnan, Control of Suddenly Expanded Flow, International Journal of Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology (AEAT), Vol. 78, Issue 4, pp. 293-309, 2006.
9. M. Ahmed Ali Baig, F. Al-Mufadi, S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, “Control of Base Flows with Microjets”, International Journal of Turbo Jet Engines, Vol. 28 (2011), pp. 59-69.
10. M. Ahmed Ali Baig, S. A. Khan and E. Rathakrishnan, “Active Control Of Base Pressure In Suddenly Expanded Flow For Area Ratio 4.84” , International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 5, pp 1892- 1902, May 2012.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareIMMEDIATE EFFECT OF MYOFASCIAL RELEASE ON SPASTICITY IN SPASTIC CEREBRAL PALSY PATIENTS
English0919Akta BhalaraEnglishIntroduction: In CP, the lesion in CNS frequently results in spasticity of various muscle groups. Spasticity causes relative failure of muscle growth and deformation of joints over which spastic muscles work and may produce functional problems. Various techniques of soft tissue mobilization are adopted. In clinical setting slow and sustained static stretching is commonly followed, though MFR is also beneficial. Aim of Study: To study the immediate effect of stretching and MFR/ stretching alone on calf muscle spasticity in spastic diplegic patients. To compare the effect of stretching and MFR/Stretching alone on calf muscle spasticity in same population. Methodology: Study Design: Experimental study, Sample size: 18 Patients: Each group-9, Study setting: B1 Physiotherapy department, Civil Hospital, Ahmedabad. Duration of Study: Total duration of the study was 6 months. In the group A MFR, followed by static stretching in the form of SWB was given to the calf muscles, where as in group B only stretching was given. Outcome measures: Effect of intervention was seen immediately after the intervention by taking MAS and MTS. Results: Results of within group analysis, showed significant improvement in MTS R1 and MAS for both the groups, A and B at 5% level of significance, and showed no significant improvement MTS R2. Results of between the group analysis showed no significant improvements in MAS and MTS R2 but showed significant improvements in R1 value of MTS in Group A than group B at 5 % level of significance. Conclusion: Stretching can be used along with MFR in reducing spasticity in spastic CP patients rather than using stretching alone.
EnglishMyofascial release, Stretching, Spastic cerebral palsyINTRODUCTION
Cerebral palsy is a group of disorders affecting the development of movement and posture, causing activity limitation, that are attributed to non-progressive disturbances that occurred in the developing fetal or infant brain. 1 CP is the leading cause of childhood disability; the reported incidence varies, but is generally 2 to 3 per 1000 live births.1 One study done in north India reviewed one thousand children with cerebral palsy (CP) to study their clinical profile, etiological factors and associated problems. In that, spastic CP constituted the predominant group (83 per cent). Dyskinetic CP was present in 7.8 per cent of the cases. Acquired CP, particularly secondary to nervous system infections, constituted a significant proportion of cases. The clinical spectrum of CP is different in developing countries compared with developed countries. Associated problems were present in a majority (75 per cent) of cases2 . CP has been classified based on the type of movement disorder as spastic, athetoid, ataxic, and mixed and based on the area of the body involved as hemiplegia, diplegia, quadriplegia 1 . In CP the lesion in the central nervous system frequently results in spasticity of various muscle groups3 . Spasticity is defined as a velocity-dependent resistance to stretch. Spastic CP is caused by damage to the pyramidal parts of the brain1 . Bone and joint changes in cerebral palsy result from muscle spasticity and contracture. The spine and the joints of the lower extremity are most commonly affected. Early recognition of progressive deformity in patients with cerebral palsy allows timely treatment and prevention of irreversible change4 . One of the survey describing problems in adult CP reported that 77% of CP children were having problems with spasticity, 80% had contractures and 18% had pain every day5 . The increase in muscle tone is responsible for relative failure of muscle growth and may produce functional problems. Spastic deformities of the lower limbs affect ambulation, bed positioning, sitting, chair level activities, transfers, and standing up3 . There are three potential aims of treating the spasticity —to improve function, to reduce the risk of unnecessary complication and to alleviate pain6 . Traditionally the treatment of tightness in children with spasticity has consisted primarily of techniques which involve static stretching, strengthening of the antagonistic muscles, use of orthosis and postural education etc. Some authorities also recommend Myofascial release to cause elongation of the spastic muscle with a component of tightness. Myofascial therapy can be defined as ?the facilitation of mechanical, neural and psycho physiological adaptive potential as interfaced by the myofascial system?7 . Myofascial Release techniques are utilized in a wide range of settings and diagnoses; pain, movement restriction, spasm, spasticity, neurological dysfunction, ie, cerebral palsy, head and birth injury, cardiovascular accidents (CVA), scoliosis8 . Though both Static stretching and Myofascial release are expected to have an effect on the spastic/tight muscles, there is the need to establish efficacies of these methods of soft tissue elongation in clinical practice. Moreover, there are insufficient published evidences available for effect of MFR technique on spasticity, so need of the present study is to evaluate the immediate effect of stretching and MFR on calf muscle spasticity in spastic diplegic patients and to compare the immediate effect of stretching and MFR with stretching alone on calf muscle spasticity in spastic diplegic patients.
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
Study Design: Experimental study
Sample size: 18 Patients Group A- 9 (stretching and MFR) Group B- 9 (Stretching only)
Study Setting: B1 Physiotherapy department, Civil Hospital, Ahmedabad.
Duration of study: Total duration of the study was 6 months.
Materials:
Plinth
Floor mats
Stool
Vestibular ball
Bolsters of different sizes
Wedge
Standing frame
Inclsion Criteria:
Spastic diplegic type of CP patients
Age group: 2 – 8 years
Both genders
Modified ashworth scale 3 and less than 3.
Exclusion Criteria:
Patients who had undergone prior orthopedic surgery,
Patients who had received Botulinium toxin injection in the past 6 months,
Patients who had undergone serial casting in past 6 months
Patients taking oral or intrathecal myorelaxant drugs
Patients who had severe limitations in passive range of motion at lower extremities
Patients who were having systemic or localized infections
Patients who were having surgical incisions and open wounds
Patients who were having healing fractures
Patients who were having acute inflammationRheumatoid conditions
Patients who had cancer or tumors conditions
Outcome Measures:
Modified Ashwarth scale9 Modified Tardieu scale10
Procedure:
All the patients from specified source of data were assessed and those who fulfilled inclusion criteria were taken up for the study. The procedure was explained to parents of all the patients and written informed consent from the parents was taken. All eighteen patients were randomly allocated in to two groups, Group A (stretching and MFR) and Group B (Stretching only), with 9 patients in each. All the patients were evaluated with MAS and MTS for calf muscle, in supine position, at two instances viz, on day one before intervention and immediately after intervention. In Group A MFR, followed by static stretching, was given to the calf muscles of bilateral lower limb of nine spastic diplegic patients. MFR was given with patient in prone position with 120 second hold. For giving the MFR, finger pads were allowed to sink in to the central portion of the calf. It was held for 120 seconds to allow the tissue to soften and then myofascial structures were spread in a lateral direction until feeling of first fascial barrier. Again the position was held till the release of barrier and procedure was continued to follow the tissue through each subsequent barrier11 . Following MFR, static stretching was given to all the 9 patients in form of static weight bearing at different dorsiflexion angles for 30 minutes12 in standing frame, with dynamic AFO. In Group B only stretching was given, in same manner as given to Group A. Immediate effect of intervention was seen by taking MAS and MTS after giving the intervention in one session. Data for MAS and MTS was recorded and analyzed using appropriate stastical test.
RESULTS
18 patients, 9 in each group, were taken in the study. Group A: stretching and MFR Group B: stretching only Table 1 displays Clinical Data of age, sex and MAS among all 18 patients. All the statistical analysis was done with the help of Graph Pad Demo version. (For statistical analysis in MAS, 1+ is equated to 1.5) For within group analysis, comparison of data for MAS was done using Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test, and for MTS was done using paired t test. For between groups analysis, comparison of data for MAS was done using Mann Whitney U test, and for MTS was done using unpaired t test.
The results showed that, both the treatment groups that is stretching alone and stretching and MFR showed significant improvement in MAS and R1 value of MTS, not in R2 immediately after intervention. Results for between the group analysis showed that stretching and MFR was giving more effect, in reducing spasticity than stretching alone according to R1 value of MTS, where as no significant improvement was seen in MAS and R2 value of MTS. Thus according to the results, null hypotheses of no difference between stretching and MFR group and stretching alone group in reducing spasticity in spastic cerebral palsy patients, was rejected and the alternate hypotheses of stretching and MFR is more effective in reducing spasticity, than stretching alone in spastic cerebral palsy patients, was accepted.
DISSCUSSION
The probable mechanism for results could deal with neuroreflexive change that occurs with the application of manual force on the musculoskeletal system while giving MFR. The hands on approach offers afferent stimulation through receptors, which require central processing at the spinal cord and cortical levels for a response. Afferent stimulation frequently results in efferent inhibition. This principal is used in MFR technique when the afferent stimulation of a stretch is applied and the operator waits for efferent inhibition to occur so that relaxation results13 . In present study, after achievement of relaxation through MFR, stretching in form of SWB for 30 minutes12, 14, was given. SWB was believed to reduce spasticity by inhibiting motor neuron excitability through prolonged stretch and compression on the muscle spindles, GTOs, cutaneous receptors and joint receptors14 . It is thought that lengthening the hypertonic muscle, produces tension in the tendon, which stimulates the Ib endings, causing them to fire. The discharge synapses with an inhibiting interneuron causing the homonymous muscle to be relaxed, known as autogenic inhibition15 . Another possibility explained by Tremblay and Richard was the II afferent fiber: in this case, the muscle spindle of the calf muscle would be fired while the muscle is stretched. The impulse would be transmitted by the II afferent fiber through the spinal cord, thus, inhibiting the neuron excitability of alpha motor neuron16, 17, 18 . One of the article published in PT Today, 1995, by John F. Barnes had shown the effects of MFR. According to that the therapist giving the MFR is concerned with releasing and reorganizing the body’s fascial restrictions, mechanically and reorganizing the neuromuscular system. The reorganization occurs by supplying the central nervous system with new information (awareness) that allows for change and improved potential and consciousness8 . Thus in the present study relaxing the muscle through MFR, before giving stretching in form of SWB, could be the reason for enhancing the effects of inhibition of spasticity. One previous study done by Burris Duncan in 2008 0n ?effectiveness of osteopathy in the cranial field and MFR versus acupuncture as complementary treatment for children with CP?, concluded that, a series of treatments using osteopathy in the cranial field, MFR, or both improved motor function in children with moderate to severe spastic CP19 . In their study 11 outcome variables were taken, out of which statistically significant improvement in two mobility measures was found, in patients who received OMT. These measures were GMFM and mobility domain of FIM for children. But they didn’t get improvement in spasticity which was measured by MAS, which they themselves have proved subjective to be of value. In accordance with this study, in present study also improvement in spasticity in form of MAS was not significant But in present study significant improvement in spasticity was seen according to R1 value of MTS, which is a valid and a reliable tool to measure spasticity34. R1 values of MTS have smaller increments than MAS and therefore have the potential to represent more precise measure of technical changes3 . Moreover, according to results of a study done by Emily Patric in 2006 the Tardieu Scale is able to identify the presence of spasticity more effectively than the Ashworth Scale in both an upper and lower limb muscle. Experimental evidence suggests that increased resistance to movement is not exclusively dependent on stretch reflex activity but is also due to increased stiffness as a result of contracture. Therefore, by quantifying the resistance to passive movement, the Ashworth Scale measures a combination of neural and peripheral factors, that is, it does not differentiate spasticity from contracture, whereas Tardieu scale identifies presence of spasticity as well as presence of contracture, by differentiating both of them from each other. This is most likely because the Tardieu Scale takes into account the main factor to which the stretch reflex is known to be sensitive - the velocity of stretch. This velocity-dependence of the stretch reflex has been well established with several studies reporting no stretch reflex during slow passive movements20 . In addition MAS was tested in children with CP in context of a blinded randomized trial and found to be less effective in detecting the changes in spasticity than MTS3 . Thus in Burries’ study, functional improvement was seen through giving OMT with MFR, where as in present study improvement in spasticity was seen through giving stretching with MFR. Seeing the results of both the studies, it may be commented that, there can be a correlation between improvement in spasticity and function. In the present study, SWB was taken as a form of static stretching of calf muscle, because SWB was assumed to prevent tightness or contracture of soft tissue and restore the length of muscles by prolonged stretching and was believed to reduce spasticity also14 . One systemic review was done on ?effectiveness of SWB exercises in children with CP? by Tamis Wai-Mum Pin in 2007, in that, 2 studies with level 1 evidence, used SWB exercises as a method of prolonged muscle stretching to reduce muscle tone in children with CP. In summary of this systemic review, some favorable evidences were there indicating that SWB exercises through the lower extremity may temporarily reduce spasticity, as prolonged stretch, in children with CP14 . In another systemic review, done on, ? The effectiveness of passive stretching in children with CP? by Tamis Wai-Mum in 2006, there was some evidence to indicate that sustained stretching was preferable to manual stretching in improving range of movement and reducing spasticity in targeted joints and muscles in studies of children with spasticity. Moreover, duration of 30 minutes stretching was the most commonly chosen in studies12 . So, in present study, in accordance with above systemic review, static stretching in form of SWB was given for 30 minutes and it was proved to be effective. According Regi Boehme, while giving MFR one can expect to hold the traction in MFR for at least 90 to 120 sec before the tissues will begin to soften and lengthen11 . So in present study MFR was given with 120 second of hold. The major limiting factor in present study was smaller sample size. So future study can be done by taking a larger sample.
However according to the results of present study, stretching can be used along with MFR in reducing spasticity rather than using stretching alone. In present study immediate effect of MFR on spasticity have been studied, so future study can also be done to see the short term and long term effect of MFR on spasticity. In present study improvement in calf muscle spasticity was seen, so future study can also be done to see the effect of MFR and stretching on all affected muscles of CP patients and by taking functional scale to see the functional improvement secondary to reduction in spasticity.
CONCLUSION
Results of present study for between group analysis showed stastically significant improvement in spasticity according to R1 value of MTS, in Group A i.e. stretching and MFR, than Group B i.e. Stretching alone, immediately after the intervention, So conclusion can be made from this result that, stretching can be used along with MFR in reducing spasticity in spastic CP patients rather than using stretching alone.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am sincerely grateful to my mentor and guide Ms. Maya J. Chauhan and all the staff members of Government Physiotherapy College, Ahmedabad who has guided me in a right path and support throughout my work. I am also thankful to Dr. Atul Trivedi, Assistant Professor, PSM Department, B.J. Medical College, Ahmedabad, to guide me in my data analysis. I thank all my friends who helped me throughout my study. My heartfelt appreciation goes to all the patients and their parents without whom this study would not have been possible. Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The author is also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1683http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16831. Liza b. Green, edward a. Hurvitz, md, cerebral palsy, phys med rehabil clin n am 18 (2007) 859–882
2. Pratibha D. Singhi, Munni Ray and Gunmala Suri: Clinical Spectrum of Cerebral Palsy in North India—An Analysis of 1000 Cases, Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 2002, 48(3):162- 166;
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4. David S. Morrell, j. Michael pearson, and donald d. Sauser, Progressive bone and joint abnormalities of the spine and lower extremities in cerebral palsy, radiographics. 2002 ; 22:257- 268.
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6. Michael R Barnes , review management of spasticity, age and ageing 1998; 27: 239-245
7. Carol J. Manheim, The Myofascial Release Manual, 3rd edition, 2001, pg no. 2.
8. John F. Barnes, Myofascial Release The ""Missing Link"" in Your Treatment, PT Today, 1995
9. Bohannon, R and Smith, M : Interrater reliability of a modified ashworth scale of muscle spasticity. Phys Ther, 1987; 67 : 206.
10. Roslyn N. Boyd and H. Kerr Graham: Objective measurement of clinical findings in the use of botulinum toxin type A for the management of children with cerebral palsy, Europenn Journul of Neurology 1999, 6 (suppl 4):S23-S35
11. Regi Boehme, Johm Boehme, Myofascial Release and its Application to NeuroDevelopmental Treatment, 1991, pg. no. 5-8, 11- 16, 80.
12. Tamis Pin, Paula Dyke, Michael Chan: The effectiveness of passive stretching in children with cerebral palsy, Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology (2006), 48: 855-862
13. Ph. E. Greenman, Principles of Manual Medicine, 3rd edition, 2003, pg. no. 157.
14. Tamis pin: effect of weight bearing exercise in children with cerebral palsy, Pediatr Phys Ther 2007; 19:62–73
15. Darcy A. Umphred, Gordon U. burton, Ralando T. Lazaro, Margaret L. Roller: Neurological Rehabilitation, 4th edition, pg. no. 119.
16. Kuen-horng tsai, Chun-yu yeh, Hui-yi chang and Jia-jin chen, Effects of a Single Session of Prolonged Muscle Stretch on Spastic Muscle of Stroke Patients, Proc. Natl. Sci. Counc. ROC(B) Vol. 25, No. 2, 2001. pp. 76-81
17. Tremblay F, Malouin F, Richards CL, Dumas F, Effects of prolonged muscle stretch on reflex and voluntary muscle activations in children with spastic cerebral palsy, Scand J Rehabil Med. 1990;22(4):171-80.
18. Richards CL, Malouin F, Dumas F: Effects of a single session of prolonged plantarflexor stretch on muscle activations during gait in spastic cerebral palsy, Scand J Rehabil Med. 1991, 23 (2) : 103-11
19. Burris Duncan; Sharon McDonough-Means; Katherine Worden, DO; Rosa Schnyer; Jennifer Andrews; F. John Meaney, Effectiveness of Osteopathy in the Cranial Field and Myofascial Release Versus Acupuncture as Complementary Treatment for Children With Spastic Cerebral Palsy: A Pilot Study, JAOA • Vol 108 • No 10 • October 2008 • 559-570
20. Emily Patrick and Louise Ada: The Tardieu Scale differentiates contracture from spasticity whereas the Ashworth Scale is confounded by it ,Clin Rehabil 2006; 20; 173
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareASSESSMENT OF IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE IN NON DIABETIC ADULT PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC PERIODONTITIS AS A RISK FACTOR FOR DIABETES MELLITUS
English2028B.ArunaEnglish Vanaja K NaikEnglish C S Anand MohanEnglish D MythireyiEnglishBackground: Periodontitis is more prevalent in diabetic patients which can worsen diabetes. Periodontal disease alters the glycemic status in diabetic patients. In non diabetic adults periodontitis results in impaired glucose tolerance which is a prediabetic state and they are at a higher risk of developing diabetes. Aim: To examine the association between periodontitis and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) using oral glucose tolerance test in adult non diabetes patients. Materials and methods: A total of 50 healthy non diabetic subjects were recruited into the study from Dept of Periodontics, SRM Dental College & Hospital, Ramapuram Chennai, India. The study population comprised of 25 control group without periodontitis and 25 study group with periodontitis. Clinical periodontal parameters such as probing depth, attachment loss, gingival index and body mass index was assessed for all patients. Metabolic status was determined by 2 hour oral glucose tolerance test. The relationship between mean probing depth, mean attachment loss, gingival index with impaired glucose tolerance were analysed. Results: The proportion of subjects with IGT increased significantly in the subjects with higher GI, Mean PD, Mean CAL ( PEnglishINTRODUCTION
Periodontal disease is an infectious disease caused by small group of predominantly anaerobic Gram negative microorganisms. Progression and extent of periodontitis are modulated by bacterial virulence, and host immune response. Several risk factors play an important role in development of periodontitis like age, specific bacteria, tobacco use, genetic factors, pre existing disease which influence host response mechanism1 . Certain systemic disorders and conditions alter host tissue physiology, which may impair host barrier, integrity and host defense to periodontal infection resulting in most destructive disease.
In1900, William Hunter a British physician gave focal infection theory, which implied that there was a nidus of infection, somewhere in the body such as periodontitis which would affect distant site and organs through blood stream. Recent evidence also suggests that periodontal infection can adversely affect systemic health, with manifestation such as Coronary heart disease, Stroke, Diabetes, Premature labour, Low birth weight delivery, respiratory disease etc2 . Among the various hormonal disease, Diabetes mellitus is an extremely important disease from periodontal stand point, as periodontitis is seen in all diabetic patients, especially in patients with poor glycemic control. The increased prevalance and severity of Periodontitis commonly seen in patients with diabetes especially with poor metabolic control led to the designation of periodontitis as the 6th complication of Diabetes mellitus3 . It was estimated that the global burden of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) for 2010 would be 285 million people (2010) which is projected to increase to 438 million in 2030; a 65 % increase (Snehalatha and Ramachnadaran 2009). Similarly, for India this increase is estimated to be 58% from 51 million people in 2010 to 87 million in 2030 (Snehalatha and Ramachnadaran 2009).4 Periodontitis is more prevalant in diabetic patients and worsens diabetes. Also periodontitis results in impaired glucose tolerance which is a prediabetic state2 . Subjects in this category are at higher risk of developing diabetes5 . Any chronic subclinical inflammation plays an intermediary role in pathogenesis of Type 2 diabetes (Festa 2000)6 . Periodontal disease is a very common chronic subclinical inflammation in which there is an increase in CRP, IL-6,TNF alpha which are significant risk indicators of Type 2 diabetes.7 These inflammatory mediators generated interfere with action of insulin receptors thereby decreasing insulin sensitivity (or) causes insulin resistance. TNF alpha causes insulin resistance by phosphorylating the serine residue of insulin receptor substrate -1 and inhibiting tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin substrate-1 which is essential for insulin signal transduction. By this mechanism TNF-alpha blocks insulin receptors and inhibits glucose transport and insulin action and causes insulin resistance in turn causing hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia.8,9 Periodontal disease is seen in Diabetic patients, in turn periodontal disease also alters the glycemic status. Also studies have indicated that treating periodontitis in diabetic patients has a beneficial effect on glucose control.10,11 At present, studies have shown the relationship between the periodontal disease and glycemic control.12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20 Saito et al3 found that alveolar bone loss was associated with impaired glucose tolerance in Japanese men without diabetes. Similarly Nibali et al15 found slightly higher nonfasting glucose levels in periodontitis cases compared to healthy controls. These studies suggest that periodontitis may affect glucose metabolism in healthy non diabetic adults however not much studies were done in Indian subjects. The purpose of the current study was to examine the association between periodontitis and Impaired Glucose Tolerance(IGT) using Oral Glucose Tolerance Test(OGTT) in adult non diabetic patients cross sectionally. The hypothesis of this study is that patients with periodontitis have impaired glucose tolerance than healthy patients as periodontitis leads to insulin resistance which alters glycemic status.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
To examine the association between periodontitis and impaired Glucose tolerance in adult non diabetic patients.
To examine the association between impaired glucose tolerance with various parameters like age, sex, smoking, Body mass index, Probing depth, Clinical attachment level and gingival index.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fifty subjects were screened and selected from Department of Periodontics, SRM Dental College and Hospital, Ramapuram, Chennai, India. The study population were comprised of 25 study subjects diagnosed with chronic periodontitis (15 male, 10 female age 25-60 years, mean age 40.6+10.3) and 25 control subjects without periodontitis , (13 male ,12 female age 25-60 years, mean age 39.2+8.5) All the participants were above 25 years of age had not been diagnosed with diabetes, no history of long term antibiotic use in the past 6 months , had no other systemic complications and were not obese. Study group (group I) comprised of patients with generalized chronic periodontitis with at least 30%of sites had probing depth more than > 5mm, and radiographic evidence of bone loss. Control group (group II) comprised of Healthy subjects who had Gingivitis and with no signs of periodontitis(who had probing depth not more than 3mm, no radiographic bone loss). Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Clinical parameters:
Clinical periodontal parameters were recorded on a full mouth basis including probing depth(PD), Attachment Loss(AL), and Gingival Index(GI). Probing depth and Attachment loss were determined at 6 sites per tooth and mean PD and mean CAL were calculated. Subjects were divided into 3 categories with respect to PD and CAL as Normal 5. Gingival index was determined at 4 sites per tooth ( Mesiobuccal, Mid buccal, Distobuccal and lingual) on a full mouth basis. Subjects were categorized into 3 groups in relation to GI Good 0.1-0.9, Fair 1.0-1.9, Poor 2- 3.
Measure of obesity:
Body mass index was measured and divided into 3 categories as Normal 18-23, Preobese 25-30, Obese above 30, and all obese patients were excluded.
Metabolic parameters:
Metabolic status was determined by a 2 hour oral GTT. Blood samples were collected from antecubital vein the morning after an overnight fast and plasma glucose levels were recorded at 0 hour, ½ hour, 1 hour, 2 hour after consumption of 75 g of glucose mixed in water. However Fasting plasma glucose and 2 hour post challenge glucose was adopted as cut off values. The criteria for diagnosis of Diabetes was based on World Health Organisation criteria for diagnosis of diabetes7,5 ( Table 1).
Statistical analysis:
Chi-square test with Yates, Fisher exact test and student independent t – test, Mann – Whitney U test was used to compare different variables between study group and control group and also for comparison of mean values between IGT and non IGT in study group.
RESULTS
When the study group and control group were compared statistically significant difference was seen in relation to smoking habit, IGT, BMI, CAL, PD, and GI. There was increase in BMI, CAL, PD, GI in study group compared to control group. Among the study population none of them had IGT and no smokers in control group .Among the study group (n=25), 6 subjects were identified with IGT and 18 subjects had NIGT. Among these 6 subjects who had IGT 50%(3) had moderate CAL and 50% (3) had severe CAL, and 100%(6) had increased Probing depth (PD) and 100% had poor GI and only one was a smoker (16.7%). When NIGT and IGT were compared in study group statistically significant difference was seen with GI, CAL, PD, where as no significant difference was seen with age, BMI, smoking and gender.
DISCUSSION
Type 2 Diabetes mellitus has long been known to be risk factor for periodontitis. Successful periodontal treatment appears to have beneficial role in the metabolic control in Type 2 Diabetes indicating that Type 2 Diabetes influences the pathophysiology of periodontal disease which in turn influences the disease status of Type 2 Diabetes in reciprocal fashion. Relationship between diabetes mellitus and periodontal disease in which the diabetic condition exacerbates periodontal disease and reduces the effect on periodontal treatment has been known for many years. Saito et al 20047 reported a relation between a deep pockets and IGT in which deep pockets were closely associated with the past deterioration of glucose tolerance from NGT to IGT rather than IGT condition on the examination day, suggesting that deep pockets are a risk factor for glucose tolerance. This implies that periodontitis reversibly affects host glucose metabolism. Since both Type 2 Diabetes and periodontal disease takes a long time to develop and to manifest in middle aged people, IGT caused by obesity may be a true risk factor for periodontitis. Obesity is the strongest risk factor for Type 2 Diabetes mellitus which is in turn a risk factor for periodontal disease. In this study obese patients were excluded to see whether periodontitis could associate directly with IGT independant of obesity. In this cross sectional analysis, periodontal pockets and clinical attachment level which indicates the degree of tissue destruction and gingival index, indicator of periodontal inflammation were significantly associated with IGT. Since worsening of diabetic condition is associated with detoriating periodontal tissue a cross sectional relationship between deep pockets and diabetes was presumed. Our results support the hypothesis that deep pockets not only increases the risk of diabetes mellitus but also increases the risk of IGT. In this study deeper pockets were associated with IGT. Generally pocket depth is directly related to subgingival bacteria. In periodontium LPS continuously produced by Gram negative bacteria such as P.ginivalis which triggers the action of TNF alpa - a pro inflammatory cytokine, which in turn causes Insulin resistance. The area of the interface where the subgingival bacteria can interact with gingival tissue is estimated to be as much as 72cm2 in patients with severe periodontitis and deep pockets, and this results in an enormous burden of Gram negative bacteria 16(Page et al). Periodontal treatment to remove the bacteria, appears to reduce circulating TNFα levels (Iwamato et al 2001).TNF α induced from the periodontal pathogen may increase insulin resistance which may lead to increase risk of CVD A deep pocket usually means exisiting periodontal inflammation where as severe attachment loss usually represents a history of periodontal destruction and denotes past disease activity. Clinical attachment loss was found to be statistically significant with IGT. Gingival index, indicator of periodontal inflammation was also significant associated with impaired glucose tolerance. The probable reason may be any chronic inflammation causes release of inflammatory mediators mainly TNF alpha causing insulin sensitivity. Though obesity was excluded body mass index of pre obese, normal patients were not significantly associated with impaired glucose test. Smoking history was not associated with IGT, because there were low proportion of smokers in study group. The results of study were consistent with the reports of Losche et al 200017, Saito et al 200613, Nibali et al 200715, Ryan E Wolff et al 200912, that collectively suggests that periodontitis is associated with elevated blood glucose levels in adults who have not been diagnosed with diabetes. Loseche et al showed elevated fasting blood glucose levels in periodontits patients when compared with healthy patients. Saito et al 200613 found that degree of alveolar bone loss is significantly associated with IGT. Ryan et al12 found elevated glucose related haemoglobin in patient with periodontitis. Our results were not consistent with the studies by Saito et al 20047 , Saito et al 200521. Saito et al 20047 reported that deep periodontal pockets were significantly associated with IGT were as severe attachment loss were not associated with IGT. Saito et al 200521 found that deep periodontal pockets were not associated with IGT. Whether deep periodontal pockets is the cause or result of IGT could not be determined as this was a cross sectional study and only a limited number of subjects were examined. However further longitudinal studies with review and follow up of IGT patients and a large sample size could help to clarify whether periodontal disease is indeed a risk for diabetes mellitus.
CONCLUSION
As periodontal disease is significantly associated with IGT, all subjects having deep pockets, clinical attachment loss and poor gingival index can be screened for IGT who are at a risk for diabetes mellitus at a future date. As diabetes is associated with significant morbidity and mortality it is reasonable to propose that the dental office can be a health care location actively involved in screening for IGT in patients with severe periodontitis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. Authors also wish to acknowledge Dr Devapriya M.D.S., for her support and help during the study. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1684http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16841. Brain L.Mealey . Influence of periodontal infections on systemic health. Periodontology 2000, Volume.21, 1999, 197-209.
2. Page RC, Offenbacher.S, Schroeder HE, Seymour GJ. Advances in the pathogenesis of Periodontitis. Summary of Development of clinical Implications, Future Directions. Perio 2000; 1999: 21.
3. Loe.H. Periodontal Disease. 6th complication of Diabetes mellitus; Diabetes Care 1993. 16(suppl);329-334.
4. Snehalatha and Ramachandran 2009, Insight into the mechanism of primary prevention of type 2 diabetes , Improvement in Insulin sensitivity and beta cell function, “Genetic and epigenetic basis of complex diseases”, Conference in centre for cellular and molecular biology, Dec 2009
5. The Committee of the Japan Diabetes Society on the diagnostic criteria of diabetes . Report of the Committee on the Classification and diagnostic criteria of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 55 (2002) 65-85.
6. Andreas Festa, Relph d’agostino.Jr, George Howard, Leena Mykkanen, Russell P.Tracy, Steven M. Haffner. Chronic Subclinical inflammation as Part of the Insulin Resistance Syndrome. Circulation. 2000; 102: 42-47.
7. T.Saito, Y.Shimazaki, Y.Kiyohara, I.Kato, M.Kubo, M.lida et al. The Severity of Periodontal Disease is Associated with the Development of Glucose Intolerance in Non-diabetics: The Hisayama Study. J Dent Res 83(6): 485-490,2004.
8. Hannah Kanety, Revital Feinstein, Moshe Z.Papa, Rina Hemi and Avraham Karasik. Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha-induced Phosphorylation of Insulin Receptor Substrate-1 (IRS-1).J. Biol. Chem. 270, 23780-23784.
9. Mealey BL, Campo GL. Diabetes Mellitus and Periodontal Disease. Perio 2000; 2007; 44: 127-153.
10. Koromantzos PA, Makrilakis K, Dereka X, Katmilambras N, Vrotsos IA, Madianos PN. A Randomized, controlled trial on the effect of non-surgical periodontal therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes. Part I: effect on periodontal status and glycaemic control. J Clin Periodontol 2011; 38: 142-147.
11. Sara G.Grossi. Treatment of Periodontal Disease and Control of Diabetes: An Assessment of the Evidence and Need for Future Research. Ann Periodontol 2001; 6: 138-145.
12. Ryan E.Wolff, Larry F.Wolff,and Bryan S.Michalowicz. A Pilot Study of Glycosylated Hemoglobin Levels in Periodontitis Cases and Healthy Controls. J Periodontol 2009;80:1057-1061.
13. T.Saito, M.Murakami, Y.Shimazaki, S.Matsumoto, and Y.Yamashita . The Extent of Alveolar Bone Loss Is Associated with Impaired Glucose Tolerance in Japanese Men. J Periodontol 2006; 77:392-397.
14. Benguigui C, Bongard V, Ruidavets J-B, Chamontin B, Sixou M, Ferrieres J et al. Metabolic Syndrome, insulin resistance, and periodontitis: a cross-sectional study in a middle-aged French population. J Clin Perodontol 2010; 37: 601-608.
15. Nibali L, D’Aiuto F, Griffiths G, Patel K, Suvan J, Tonetti Ms. Severe periodontitis is associated with systemic inflammation and a dysmetabolic status: a case-control study. J Clin Perodontol 2007; 34: 931-937.
16. Ryan T Demmer, David R.Jacobs, Moise Desvarieux. Periodontal Disease and Incident Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care, Volume 31, Number 7,July 2008.
17. Losche W, Karapetow F, Pohl A, Pohl c, Kocher T. Plasma lipid and glucose levels in patients with destructive periodontal disease. J Clin periodontal 2000: 27: 537-541.
18. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2002. Prevalence of Diabetes and Impaired Fasting Glucose in adults in the U.S. Population. Diabetes care, Volume 29, number 6, June 2006.
19. Ira B.Lamster , Evanthia Lalla. Periodontal Disease and Diabetes Mellitus: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Ann Periodontol; Volume 6: Number 1; December 2001.
20. Han D-H, Lim S-Y, Sun B-C, Paek D, Kim H-D. The association of metabolic syndrome with periodontal disease is confoundednby age and smoking in a Korean population: the Shiwha-Banwol Environmental Health Study. J Clin Periodontol 2010; 37: 609- 616.
21. Saito T, Shimazaki Y, Kiyohara Y . Relationship between Obesity, glucose tolerance and periodontal disease in Japanese Women. The Hisayama Study. J Perio Res; 2005; 40: 346-353.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28TechnologyANALYSIS OF COIL SPRING: A REVIEW
English2934Ashwani ShrivastavaEnglish Amrita FrancisEnglish Chetna MasihEnglish Nidhi DiwediEnglish Priyanka TiwariEnglish Raji NareliyaEnglish Veerendra KumarEnglishHelical coiled springs are used as an integral part of many mechanical systems. Helical spring is also used in several industrial applications like balancing, brakes, vehicles suspensions in order to satisfy required functions. It applies forces, store or absorb energy, provide the mechanical system with the flexibility and maintain a force or a pressure. A mechanical spring is defined as an elastic body which has the primary function to deflect or distort under load, and to return to its original shape when the load is removed. The main objective of this review paper is to analyze various types of methods, formulas and theories used for the calculation of different stresses in helical coil spring. Prediction of stress involved in helical coil spring is a very important aspect. This study mainly focuses on various types of factors that affect the strength of coil spring. Reasons for the failure of coil spring were also studied.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
Springs are elastic bodies that can be twisted, pulled, or stretched by some force. They can return to their original shape when the force is released. In other words it is also termed as a resilient member. They are classified as : ? Helical spring :- It is made up of the wire coil in the form of spring. A helical spring is a spiral wound wire with a constant coil diameter and uniform pitch. The most common form of helical spring is the compression spring but tension springs are also widely used. Helical springs are generally made from round wire. It is comparatively rare for springs to be made from square or rectangular sections. The strength of the steel used is one of the most important criteria to consider in designing springs. Most helical springs are mass produced by specialist’s organization. Types of helical springs : ? Open coiled springs: - In helical springs the gaps between the successive coils is larger. It is made of round wire and wrapped in cylindrical shape with constant pitch between the coils. By applying the load the spring contracts in action. ? Closed coiled springs: - It has some means of transferring the load from the support to the body by means of some arrangement. It stretches apart to create load. The gap between the successive coils is small. The wire is coiled in a sequence that the turn is at right angle to the axis of the spring. The spring is loaded along the axis.
? Leaf spring: - A Leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used in the suspension vehicles. Types of ends in springs: ? Closed and ground: Closed and ground end springs offer better seating which also influences how the axial force produced by the spring is transferred to its mating part, or the mechanism that it works in. Buckling is reduced when the ends of the spring are closed and ground ? Closed and not ground ends: A spring with closed ends and not ground is the most economical to manufacture and often performs well when the wire size is smaller than .020 and/or the spring index exceeds 12:1. ? Open and ground ends: Springs that are open and ground are usually produced this way when it is necessary to have a lower solid height and/or more active coils are required to affect the needed rate. ? Open and not ground ends: Springs with open ends, which are not ground, are normally produced this way when the solid height and rate are not an issue and where the design allows for more generous length tolerance. Open ends are also specified when the spring screws onto a threaded part. For compression or extension springs, which are loaded by axial forces along the helix axis, the primary stress produced in the cross section is shear stress. If the spring is closely coiled, the helix angle measured from a plane normal to the helix axis is sufficiently small that its effect. Helical springs are widely used in many engineering applications. Because of their importance the free vibration analysis of helical springs has been extensively investigated. Literature Review Extraction of Finite element model was done in which a helical spring was considered which was subjected to either a tension or compression load F and a twisting moment M along the spring symmetric axis. Then the constraint equations were formulated. In the Finite Element model (FEM) of the helical spring, the tension and torsion in the helical spring had been formulated. As a result of the Finite element analysis it is seen that the helical angle is increased. The equivalent stress on wire for tension and torsion in the spring was analyzed and then the variation of the equivalent stress at inner most point in the tension and torsion spring with R/Rm and α were graphed. The FEM results matches with the analytical models for the tension and the torsion springs as the helical angle and the ratio of the wire radius to coil radius tend to zero [12]. The failure analysis of the passenger car coil spring has been done which had been failed after 100 km (approx.) running. It had been done by experimental techniques like, micro structural analysis and fractography by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), inclusion rating by optical microscopy, hardness testing, residual stress measurement by X-Ray diffraction (XRD) and instrumental Chemical analysis. It had been observed that failure is due to, presence of Si and Mn in the excess percentage, inclusion of Oxide was found. It had been observed by using Optical micrograph and SEM, SEM fractography conclude that elliptical projection was slanted with respect to the axis of spring rod, the dimples and slanting nature was also observed by using SEM and by XRD it had been observed that residual stresses is not uniform and varies from location to location. The mode of failure is fatigue because the type of loading is cyclic in nature. Therefore maximum load is below the yield strength and the number of cycles is about 106 to 107 [8]. Two nodes finite element with six degree of freedom per node is capable to model the total behavior of the helical spring. The formulation, which includes the shear deformation effects, is based on the assumed forces hybrid approach. The resultant equilibrium equation determine by the resultant forces. The model provides accuracy and compared with other elements. Finite element allows distributing the different stresses along the spring and through the wire surface by only one element. [4]. The Differential Quadrature Method (DQM) has been applied for the first time to computation of the maximum shear stress in helical springs of rectangular cross section. The results obtained with a limited number of grid points agree well with available results obtained by previous investigators. The Quadrature rule for derivatives of functions was formulated as an analogous extension of the familiar integral quadrature. Quadrature refers to the idea of approximating a function by the linear weighted sum of the function values between the boundaries of the domain of interest. Here the shear stress concentration factor for various numbers of grid points; square cross section and spring index value is found to be 20 and the effect of spring index on shear stress concentrate on factor of springs of square cross section had also shown in the tabulated form [3]. A 3D geometric modeling of a twin helical spring and its FEA to study the spring mechanical behavior under tensile axial loading is done. The spiraled shape graphic design is achieved through the use of Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools, of which a finite element model is generated. Thus, a 3D 18 degree of freedom pentaedric elements are employed to discretise the complex wired shape of the spring, allowing the analysis of the mechanical response of the twin spiraled helical spring under an axial load. The study provides a clear match between the evolution of the theoretical and the numerical tensile and compression normal stresses, being of sinusoidal behavior. The advantage of numerical approach related to the ability to access nodal data (internally) so that stress fields can be visualized. The isovalues of Von Mises equivalent stresses clearly indicate a predominance of the stresses along the internal radial fibers with maxima at the filament straight sections corresponding to 180, whilst the central fiber is less exposed to internal stresses [9]. Free vibration analysis of the cylindrical helical springs is done by using pseudospectral method. The displacement and rotation are given by series expansion of the chebyshev’s polynomial and the governing equations are collocated. The number of collocation points is less than the number of expansion terms to handle the boundary condition. The results of different boundary condition like fixed-fixed, free-free, fixed-free and hinged-hinged had been analyzed. For Pseudospectral formulations of a helical spring the geometry of the typical helical spring. R, s and a are the centerline radius of the helix, the distance along the helical spring and the pitch angle of the helix, respectively. Assuming the centroid of the cross-section and the shear centerline to coincide and neglecting the warping of the cross-section due to torsion, and derived the equations of motion of a uniform cylindrical helical spring for the free vibration. The parameters that affect the convergence of the solution of the pseudospectral method are investigated. It is found that the number of turns of the helix plays an important role on the convergence of the solution. The results of present study show good agreement with those of the transfer matrix method and the dynamic stiffness method [6]. This is the discussion is about the parameters influencing the quality of the coil spring. For reducing the weight of the automobile coil spring should also be analyzed. While utilizing the higher strength of steel, it posses advantages as well as disadvantages. A coil’s failure to perform its function properly can be more catastographic than if the coil spring used in lower stress. For increasing stress level the material and the manufacturing quality should be increased. Material cleanliness and decarburization is also important. The failure analysis of the broken coil spring has been analyzed to design the coil spring. The failure presented the range from the basic load carrying capacity, raw material defect to complex stress usage and chemically induced failure. FEA of the stress distribution of the around typical failure initiation sites are also presented [13]. For the safety and comfort of the vehicle occupants the finite element model were developed to optimize the material and the geometry of elliptical spring depend on the spring rate, log life and the shear stress parameters. The composite elliptical spring had been analyzed. While applying the load tension and compression experienced, outside and inside the spring. The material used was woven fiberglass fabric due to its strength, weight and the widest range. It has been formally conclude by using Newton second law of motion. By using FEA the design parameters like spring rate, fatigue life and the shear stress parameters were measured as a function of ellipticity ratio. Spring rates have been calculated from the slope of load displacement curve in the precrush and the linear stage. It had been concluded that the ratio of a and b is 2 gave the lower shear stresses and the log life data against the ellipticity ratio, varying from 0.5 to 2.5 and the number of the layers varying from the 20 to 30 for the composite elliptical spring model. The result conclude that the composite elliptical spring have better fatigue behavior than the conventional composite leaf and coil spring [1]. Using Timoshenko beam theory and Frenet formulae the equation of wave motion in helical spring had been derived and dynamic stiffness matrix also obtain. By applying the boundary condition, the natural frequency had been calculated by using Wittrick-Williams method. The results of finite element method and transfer matrix calculation had been compared. It is also analyze that at low frequency four propagating waves are found and at transition frequency only two waves remain, involving axial and transverse motions. It had also been conclude that spring is much stiffer at higher frequency as compare to the low frequency. The three different frequencies due to the effect of helix angle had also been investigated which show that at low helix angle an intermediate frequency range exists where six propagating wave types can occur that creates clustering of modal peaks in the transfer stiffness while at high helix angle only one of the transition frequencies remains and this clustering does not occur. For an automotive suspension spring, significant dynamic stiffening has been shown to occur at frequencies as low as 40 Hz, due to internal resonances of the spring [5]. The numerical and analytical studies for the free vibration analysis of non cylindrical helical spring had done. And after verification of the numerical frequencies, the non dimensional fundamental frequencies of fixed-fixed non-cylindrical helical spring with circular section are expressed with an absolute error of 5%. These expression restricted to the fundamental frequencies are also verified by ansys result [10]. The free vibration analysis of cylindrical helical springs is carried out by means of an analytical study and in the governing equations of the motion of the springs, all displacement functions are defined at the centroid axis and also the effects of the rotational inertia, axial and shear deformations are included in the proposed model [2]. In order to increase the mechanical strength of the manufactured bolt, the bolt-forming process was introduced based on extrusion process. Aluminum alloy 6061-T6 was used to produce an ultrafine-grained specimen by spring-loaded equal channel angular pressing (ECAP). Both the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and elongation to fracture of the manufactured bolts increased compared to the conventionally made bolts [14]. Under uniaxial tension, large deflections of elastic composite circular springs had been derived. Non-linear spring behavior are obtained and verified by experimental testing. Three E-glass woven cloth/epoxy composite springs with different aspect ratios are tested. The influence of elastic to shear modulus ratios and radius to thickness ratios to deformation are considered and discussed [7]. Depending upon the first order shear deformation theory and using transfer matrix method the linear free vibration analysis of symmetric cross-ply laminated cylindrical helical springs had been performed. The free vibration equations consisting of 12 scalar ordinary differential equations are solved by the transfer matrix method. The overall transfer matrix of the helix is computed up to any desired accuracy. The soundness of the present results is verified with the reported values which were obtained theoretically and experimentally [11]. The influence of ellipticity ratio on performance of woven roving wrapped composite elliptical springs has been investigated both experimentally and numerically. A series of experiments was conducted for composite elliptical springs with ellipticity ratios ranging from one to two. CONCLUSION The pseudospectral method will be applied to various problems such as the forced vibration analysis and multidimensional problems in the future. Finite Element Method results agree well with the analytical models for the tension and torsion springs whose helical angle and the ratio of wire radius to coil radius tend to zero which is beneficial for the analysis by multi-step loading process. Integrating finite element modeling in metallurgical failure analysis synergizes the power of failure analysis into convincing quantitative analysis which presumably trend in failure analysis. Composite elliptical springs have better fatigue behavior than the conventional composite leaf and coil springs. It can be utilized for vehicle suspension with substantial weight savings. The elliptical configuration successfully eliminates any possibility of delamination. Comparison of the results obtained with those of Finite element and transfer matrix calculations show very good agreement in dynamic stiffness, spring becomes much stiffer at high frequencies, compared to the static stiffness. The spring failed due to the inadequate shot peening process used to impart residual compressive stresses on the surface. On the basis of mixed-hybrid formulation, the finite spring element with two nodes is given and it is conclude that it is a single element that permits to avoid the classical modeling, which necessitates more time for resolving problems. The differential Quadrature Method has been applied to calculate the maximum shear stress in helical spring of rectangular cross section and compare the results with the previous investigator. There is no formula to be used for predicting the natural frequencies of noncylindrical helical springs, the frequency expressions obtained can be a valuable tool for spring designers. In future the analytical expressions developed can be used in cylindrical or non-cylindrical helical springs with other cross-sectional shapes and various end conditions. Ultrafine-grained high strength aluminum bolts was manufactured with no defects. The UTS of the developed bolts was approximately 7.9% higher than that manufactured by the conventional process and elongation to failure increased up to 9.8%. The spring stiffness increases with deflection and hard spring behavior is exhibited throughout the whole range of the dimensionless load. The effects of including shear and longitudinal deformations are found to be negligible for configurations in which the elastic modulus to shear modulus ratios are not large and the radius to thickness ratios are large. Hybrid composite elliptical springs have better fatigue behavior than the conventional and composite leaf and coil spring. The hybridization technique can be used effectively to improve weight saving and performance in the automotive industry. Composite elliptic spring with ellipticity ratios of 2.0 displayed the highest spring rate.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1685http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16851. Abdul Rahim Abu Talib , Aidy Ali, G. Goudah , Nur Azida Che Lah and A.F. Golestaneh, Developing a composite based elliptic spring for automotive applications, Materials and Design (2010); Volume 31 : 475–484. 2. Aimin Yu, Changjin Yang, Formulation and evaluation of analytical studies for cylindrical helical spring, Acta Mechanica Solida Sinica(2010); Vol. 23: 3. Charles W. Bert and Kijun Kang, Stress analysis of closely-coiled helical springs using differential Quadrature, Mechanics Research communication (1996); 589- 598. 4. Dammak Fakhreddine, Finite element method for the stress analysis of isotropic cylindrical helical spring , European Journal of Mechanics A Solids 24 (2005) 1068– 1078. 5. J. LEE, Dynamic stiffness formulation, free vibration and wave motion of helical springs, Journal of sound and vibration (2001) 239(2) 6. Jinhee Lee, Free vibration analysis of cylindrical helical springs by the pseudospectral, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2007);302: 185–196 7. P.C. Tse, Large deflections of elastic composite circular springs under uniaxial tension, International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics; Vol. 35: 293-307. 8. S.K. Das, N.K. Mukhopadhyay, B. Ravi Kumar a, D.K. Bhattacharya c , Failure analysis of a passenger car coil spring , Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 158–163 9. Sid Ali Kaoua, Numerical modeling of twin helical spring under tensile loading , Elsevier science ltd. (2011) 10. V. Yildirim, expression for predicting fundamental natural frequencies of non cylindrical helical springs, Journal of Sound and vibration (2002); Volume 252: 479-491 11. Vebil Yildirim, Linear free vibration analysis of cross-ply laminated cylindrical helical springs, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences(2000); Vol. 42: 1153- 1169 12. W.G. Jiang, J.L. Henshall, A novel finite element model for helical springs, Finite Elements in Analysis and Design (2000); Volume 35: 363-377. 13. Y. Prawoto, Design and failure modes of automotive suspension springs, Engineering Failure Analysis 15 (2008) 1155–1174 14. Young Gwan Jin, continous high strength aluminum bolt manufacturing by the spring loaded ECAP system, Journal of Materials Processing Technology (2012); Vol.212 : 848– 855 15. E. Mahdi, Light composite elliptic springs for vehicle suspension, Composite Structures (2006); Vol.75: 24–28
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareCOMPLETE UNILATERAL DISCOID LATERAL MENISCUS IN AN ADULT CADAVER: A CASE REPORT
English3538C AshwiniEnglish CM NanjaiahEnglish GS SaraswathiEnglishThe menisci and their attachments into bone represent a functional unit. The menisci are able to distribute loads and therefore reduce the stress on the tibia, a function which is regarded as essential for cartilage protection and prevention of osteoarthritis. Lubrication, proprioception and joint stabilization, load transmission are the major functions of the knee meniscus. Lateral meniscus tends to show more developmental variations. Among many types of meniscal anomalies reported, discoid meniscus is the most common entity. The etiology of discoid meniscus has only been partially explained. Here we report a case of unilateral discoid lateral meniscus which was observed in an adult male cadaver.
EnglishLateral Meniscus, Discoid, adult, knee joint.INTRODUCTION
The menisci and their attachments into bone represent a functional unit. The menisci are able to distribute loads and therefore reduce the stress on the tibia, a function which is regarded as essential for cartilage protection and prevention of osteoarthritis.1 The traumatic lesions of the medial meniscus is more common than the malformation and degeneration, where as malformation is more common in lateral meniscus. Congenital abnormalities of menisci like complete absence of menisci, change in the shape of the menisci like C, U, V, and Discoid have been observed. Among many types of meniscal anomalies reported, discoid meniscus is the most common entity. Incidences of tears are more common in discoid menisci and absence of menisci leads to degenerative changes within the knee. The snapping knee syndrome, which appears more often in Children and Adolescents, is usually related with the type of the meniscus or to the presence of a tear of the meniscus.2, 3, 4 Here we report a case of unilateral discoid lateral meniscus which was observed in an adult cadaver.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
During routine dissection for I MBBS students we observed a Discoid lateral meniscus in an adult cadaver in a Department of Anatomy, JSS medical college, Mysore, India
Figure 1: Photograph showing the complete lateral discoid meniscus of left knee joint. (DLM- Discoid lateral meniscus, MM- Medial meniscus, A- Anterior, P- Posterior) The complete type of Lateral discoid meniscus was found on the left side knee of the cadaver. It was disc shaped (fig 1) and occupying 90% of the tibial plateau. The meniscus was wider than usual and measuring 0.8cm, 1.3cm, 1.0cm in anterior one third, middle third and posterior third respectively. Measurements were taken by using a sliding caliper. Lateral meniscus on right side was normal. Medial menisci on both the sides were normal in shape.
DISCUSSION
The anatomical abnormalities and variations of the intraarticular structures of the knee joint have recently become significant because of new techniques available in diagnostic and surgical fields such as arthroscopy, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and knee replacement surgery. The differential diagnosis of the lateral meniscal anomalies include discoid meniscus, ring shaped meniscus, double layered meniscus, hypoplastic meniscus, accessory meniscus, partially deficient meniscus and abnormal band of meniscus. Also the investigation of these variants is important in order to define the morphological features for clinical diagnosis and surgical interventions.2 Meniscal hyperplasias, or discoid menisci, have been the focus of many studies because they are frequently the source of symptoms. Corresponding to the condyles of the femur and tibial plateau, the normal morphology of the lateral and medial menisci differs from each other.5 The most commonly used classification system for discoid lateral menisci, by Watanabe, is based upon their shape and tibial attachments. This classification was developed from arthroscopic observations, divides discoid lateral menisci into three types, complete, incomplete, and Wrisberg ligament. If the meniscus occupies more than 80% of tibial plateau it is considered as complete type and less than 80% which is wider than usual is called as incomplete type. Type III DLM, the so-called ‘Wrisberg ligament type’, is more normal in morphology except for a thick posterior horn and they lack posterior capsular attachments other than the posterior meniscofemoral ligament.6 Smillie was the first to proposed the theory about the cause of the discoid meniscus, according to him it results from failure in the resorption of the central area of the cartilage plate during development.7 A study which was done in Japan to verify the developmental etiology significantly larger in fetuses on 41 human fetuses knee joint (from 14 to 30 weeks of gestation) and 14 adults (from 56 to 91 years of age) comparatively. They have observed that the proportion of the area covered by the meniscus in the tibial plateau is than in adults, suggesting that the incomplete type possibly originates from fetal morphology of the meniscus. While the areas of the medial meniscus and tibial plateau increased more rapidly than those of the lateral meniscus and tibial plateau, the ratio of the meniscus area to the plateau in the lateral side was constitutively larger than in the medial side. With their results they have concluded that the covered area of the tibial plateau by the meniscus during the fetal period is larger in the lateral side than in the medial side, which may contribute to the higher incidence of discoid meniscus in the lateral side.8 Le Minor JM reported that no embryological study in the human fetus had ever shown this initial discoid stage, the LM having its adult crescent shape from its inception. He added that the DLM did not originate by the persistence of a normal embryonic structure but resulted directly from abnormal morphogenesis.9 There are racial differences in the incidence of discoid lateral meniscus. Robert H, Miller (2003) reports that the incidence of discoid lateral meniscus has ranged from 26% to even less than 1%.10 In fetal cadaver study, Kale A et al (2006) reported that 77% of the lateral menisci were discoid (n=22). The reported incidence of discoid menisci has ranged from 0.4 to 17%, with the vast majority occurring on the lateral side of the knee. Cadaver studies have reported the prevalence of lateral discoid menisci to be between 0 and 7%, whereas arthroscopic studies have demonstrated ranges from 0.4 to 16.6%. 2 Murlimanju et, al. in fetal cadaver study has reported the incidence of discoid lateral meniscus as 17.9% in South Indian population.3 Murlimanju et al studied 54 lateral menisci in adult cadavers of Indian population for morphological variants. In their study there was no discoid lateral menisci. 11 In contrast, from a study conducted by P.S. Rao and S.K.Rao in South India, based on 3,167 knee arthroscopies done between the years1993 and 2004, 177 (5.59%) discoid lateral menisci were encountered.12 Compared with the normal meniscus, the discoid lateral meniscus has a higher frequency of meniscal tears, more so the solitary tears are more common. In meniscal allograft transplantation, it has been stated that providing a meniscal allograft that matches the size and shape of the meniscus to the recipient’s knee is the responsibility of the tissue bank providing the graft.
CONCLUSION
This is a case report of the discoid lateral menisci in an adult cadaver. Discoid lateral meniscus is a rare anomaly which is clinically important because of its higher incidence of tear. There are differences among authors regarding its etiology though most of the authors believe that it must be of congenital origin. We believe that this report discusses etiological factors, embryology and clinical anatomy of the discoid lateral meniscus. This report will be helpful for Orthopedicians during diagnosis and treatment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors sincerely thank Dr N M Shamsundar Professor and Head, Dept of Anatomy, JSS Medical College, Mysore for his constant support. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars who articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1686http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16861. Messner K, Gao J. The menisci of the knee joint. Anatomical and functional characteristics and rationale for clinical treatment. J of Anat.1998; 193:161-178.
2. Kale A, Kopuz C, Edyzer M, Aydin M.E, Demyr M, Ynce Y. Anatomic Variations of the Shape of the menisci: a neonatal cadaver study. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2006; 14: 975-81.
3. Murlimanju BV, Nair N, Ray B, Pai M, Amin S, Pai SR. Morphological variants of lateral meniscus of the knee: a cadaveric study in South Indian human fetuses, Anat Sci Int.2011 June; 86(2): 63-8.
4. Murlimanju BV, Nair N, Ray B, Pai M, Amin S, Pai SR, Morphometric analysis of the menisci of the knee joint in South Indian human fetuses. Int. J. Morphol. 2010; 28(4): 1167-71.
5. Fukazawa I, Hatta T, Uchio Y, Otani H. Development of menisci of the knee joint in human fetuses. Congenital anomalies. Mar 2009; 49 (1): 27-32.
6. Kocher MS, Klingele K, Rassman SO. Meniscal disorders: normal, discoid and cysts. Ortho clin North Am.2003; 34: 320- 340
7. Smillie IS. The congenital discoid meniscus. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1948; 30B: 671–682.
8. Kato Y, Oshida M, Aizawa S, Saito A, Ryu J. Mod Rheumatol. 2004; 14: 154-9.
9. Le Minor JM, Comparative morphology of the lateral meniscus of the knee in primates, J Anat, 1990, 170:161–171
10. Miller RH III Knee Injuries, Campbell’s Operative Orthopaedics, 10th edn, Mosby (Elsevier), Philadelphia, 2003; Vol 3:2182- 99.
11. B.V. Murlimanju, et al. Morphological study of the menisci of the knee joint in adult cadavers of the South Indian population Marmara Medical Journal 2010;23(2); 270- 275
12. Rao SK, Rao PS. Clinical, radiologic and arthroscopic assessment and treatment of bilateral discoid lateral meniscus. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2007; 15: 597- 601.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesANTAGONISTIC ACTIVITY OF MARINE BACILLUS SPECIES FROM MARINE SEDIMENT OF PUNNAIKAYAL ESTUARY OF TUTICORIN AGAINST ASPERGILLUS NIGER
English3946V.BharathiEnglish Jamila PattersonEnglish R. RajendiranEnglishA total of 15 marine Bacillus species were isolated from estuarine sediment of Punnaikayal estuary of Tuticorin, Tamilnadu, India. The marine Bacillus was evaluated for biocontrol activities against Aspergillus niger a phytopathogenic fungus causing Aspergillus rot of papaya, collar rot of groundnut, post harvest disease, food spoilage and human pathogen. In vitro dual culture and volatile assay of marine Bacillus and A. niger on agar plates showed that the bacterium effectively inhibited radial growth of the fungus. Among the inhibitory marine Bacillus isolates, MB-13 and MB-6 significantly suppressed hyphal growth of A. niger in dual culture assay and MB-6, MB-13, MB-5 isolates inhibit the growth of A. niger by volatile assay. These findings support the potential use of marine Bacillus also for biological control of plant pathogens.
EnglishBiological Control, Dual culture assay, Volatile assay, Black mould, Marine Bacillus species.INTRODUCTION
Diseases of plants by fungi can cause vast crop damages which may lead to hunger disasters of great part of populations. Different methods may be used to prevent, mitigate or control plant diseases. Beyond good agronomic and horticultural practices, producers often rely heavily on chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Pal and McSpadden Gardener, 2006). Synthetic chemicals have been used to control plant diseases, but abuse in their employment has favored the development of pathogens resistant to fungicides (Benitez et al., 2004). Chemical compounds have been used to control plant diseases, but abuse in their application has favored the development of pathogens resistant to fungicides (Yaqub and S.Shahzad, 2009). By contrast, the potential use of microbes based biocontrol agents that antagonize plant pathogens is slow, gives few quick profits, but can be long lasting, inexpensive and harmless to life (Zamanian et al., 2005). During the past decades, various groups of microorganisms including bacteria, yeasts and filamentous fungi have been screened for antagonistic activities against certain plant pathogens and numerous effective antagonists have been reported (Siripornvisal, 2010). Among them, Bacillus species such as B. subtilis (Xiaoxi and Liu Wenhong, 2011), B. licheniformis (Kong et al., 2010), B. megaterium, B. cereus, B. pumilus, and B. polymyxa (Utkhede, 1984; Silo et al., 1994) are the most promising antagonists due to its ability to produce various antimicrobial compounds which contribute to its biocontrol capability. The genus Bacillus, or use of their metabolites, may be an alternative or supplementary method to chemical plant protection to control of plant disease (Leifert et al., 1995; Berger et al., 1996; Sharga and Lyon 1998). The aquatic environment, representing more than two thirds of our planet, is still underexplored and is considered to be a prolific resource for the isolation of less exploited microorganisms (Sponga et al., 1999) and to produce new antifungal substances. Preliminary data was encouraging marine isolates produce antibiotic activities with frequencies comparable to terrestrial ones (Burgess et al., 1999). Most of recent studies on marine microorganisms are more studied on human drugs than plant pathogens. Therefore the objective of this investigation was to explore the potential of biological control of plant pathogen, Aspergillus niger with marine Bacillus species in vitro condition.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation of marine Bacillus isolates
Estuarine sediment was collected from Punnaikayal estuarine environment of Tuticorin on July 2011 and brought to laboratory in polythene bag. For isolation of Bacillus species, Each 1g of the sample was suspended in 9 ml of half strength sterile sea water and shaken vigorously for 2 min. The samples were heated at 80oC for 40 min in a water bath (Al-Ajlani and Hasnain, 2010). The suspensions were serially diluted and spread on nutrient agar medium. The plates were incubated at 28 - 37° C for 24 - 48 h. Individual colonies were isolated on the basis of their different visual characteristics and identified as Bacillus species by grams and spore staining. Test strain: A. niger was used as test strain which isolated from market waste of Tutucorin District. The strain of A. niger was maintained on slant tubes of PDA medium at 4°C and cultivated on plates of PDA medium at 23°C for at least 4 days for sufficient growth of conidia. The conidial suspension of A. niger was prepared by adding the conidia to a sterile saline solution (0.85% NaCl), counting the conidia with a haemocytometer and adjusting to 1x104 conidia/ml. Antagonistic activity of Marine Bacillus isolates against A. niger
1) Dual culture method
For detection of antagonistic activity of bacterial isolates towards the growth of the fungal cultures Montealegre et al., (2003) methods were used. One 10-mm disk of a pure culture of A. niger was placed at the center of a Petri dish containing PDA. All the plates were individually and equally marked into two parts. In the peripheral region of a part of a plate was streaked with the Bacillus isolates (5 x 109 cfu mL1), the second part of the peripheral region just three cm away from the edge of the plates, but direct opposite to first part of peripheral region was inoculated by using a 5mm mycelial disc of A. niger. The same procedure was followed to all the plates. In the control experiment an A. niger disc only placed on agar plate without bacterial streaking. Plates were cultured for 72 hours at 22ºC and growth diameter of the pathogen was measured and compared to control growth where the bacterial suspension was replaced by sterile distilled water. Each experiment considering a single A. niger isolate was run in triplicate and was repeated at least three times. Results are expressed as means % inhibition of the growth of the corresponding A. niger isolate in the presence of any of the bacterial isolate. The percentage inhibition of the fungus was calculated with the following formula (Sivakumar et al., 2000)
C – T X 100 C Where, C is radial growth measurement of the pathogen in control and T is radial growth of the pathogen in the presence of marine Bacillus isolates.
2) Volatile antagonistic activity
The volatile antagonistic activity described by Dennis and Webster, (1971) was used for the in-vitro test of antagonistic activities of bacterial isolates against test fungi. Bacillus isolates were grown on nutrient agar plates (90mm) at 28±2?C. After 16 - 20hours, the lid of the plate was replaced by a bottom plate containing 20ml of PDA and spot inoculated with test fungus. The two plates were sealed together with adhesive transparent cello – tape. Plate without Bacillus isolates served as control at 28±2?C. After 48 hours, the percentage of growth inhibition of the test fungus was calculated with the following formula r1 – r2 X 100 r1 Where, r1 is radial growth of a fungus in control sets (i.e. without the bacterium) and r2 is the radial growth of a fungus in sets inoculated with the bacterium.
Satistical analysis
The statistical software package Minitab version 15 (Minitab Ltd., Coventry CV3 2TE, UK) was used for analyzing the experimental data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Aspergillus niger Van Teighem cause Aspergillus rot of papaya (Llondu, 2011), collar rot of groundnut (Chohan, 1969), post harvest disease (Ogawa et al., 1995), food spoilage (Suman Singh, 2010) and human pathogen (Bansod and Rai, 2008). This universal fungus can be controlled by antagonistic microorganisms. Many of the genus Bacillus and their secondary metabolites have been found to show antibacterial and/or antifungal activity against phytopathogenic and food borne pathogenic microorganisms (Moyne et al., 2001). Due to the ability to form endospores, Bacillus species exist in many various environments (Leifert et al., 1995; Foldes et al., 2000). The fifteen isolates come from the marine environment which is morphologically similar with terrestrial habitats. Its potential as a biocontrol agent for black mould is interesting and worth for further investigation. Bacillus isolates effectively inhibited the mycelia growth of A.niger, A.fumigatus, A.flavus, A.tereus, A.glacus (Bottone and Peluso, 2003) by production of secondary metabolites (Krebs et al., 1996). Table 1 and figure 1 showed the MB13 isolate showed maximum inhibitory activity (53.16%) on radial growth of A. niger on 96 hours incubation followed by MB6. The isolates like MB1, MB5, MB8, MB9, MB10 and MB11 showed moderate inhibitory action against A. niger. In general, volatile compound from Bacillus sp. have been investigated for different purposes and the compounds have been used as inhibitors of fungi and bacteria (French, 1992).
In table 3, maximum percent inhibition of radial growth of fungi was observed with isolates of MB6-1 (60.78%) followed by MB 5 and MB13 (56.86%) and MB10 (50.98%). The remaining isolates were inhibited the radial growth of A. niger in the range of medium to low. In table 2 and 4 represented two way ANOVA of dual culture assay and volatile assay respectively, which clearly indicated to extend of inhibition increased with increase in incubation period. Bacillus isolates produced metabolites like bacitracin, bacillin, bacillomycin B, bacilysin, which belong to iturin family (Parry et al., 1983), phenazine (Pierson and Thomashow, 1992) and antibiotics like difficidin and oxdifficidin (Zimmerman et al., 1987) antifungal peptides such as iturin (Krebs et al., 1996) highly influenced to inhibit the growth of A. niger. The variation of A. niger inhibition may have been due to the fungus may respond to different strains of Bacillus, or that variation in antifungal activity may reflect differences in the site of action or the ability of fungi to detoxify the metabolites. It may have also been due to the inactivation of the antibiotics in the environment.
CONCLUSION
Marine Bacillus isolates MB-6 and MB13 considered as best isolate which significantly diminished the growth of A. niger. From all these results it may be concluded that the biocontrol effect of antagonistic bacteria isolated from estuarine source against A. niger are adequate for their use at the various field. Within the mechanisms used by these bacteria are the secretions of volatile and difusible metabolites and also fungal cell wall hydrolytic enzymes. Therefore, these bacteria could be used for biocontrol the A. niger disease in the agriculture, food spoilage and post harvest disease. Even more investigation is needed to elucidate the modes of action of marine Bacillus species against A. niger and other fungal pathogens and the condition in which the biocontrol isolate can be used effectively.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to the Director of Suganthi Devadason Marine Research Institute, Tuticorin, TamilNadu, India for permitting to explore the field of biological control of plant pathogenic fungi using marine Bacillus species. We are also thankful to the Poultech Agro Research centre Bioinput Production Unit, Namakkal, TamilNadu, India for permitting to do the research work
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesGEOINFORMATICS APPROACH TO QUALITATIVE FOREST DENSITY LOSS ESTIMATION AND PROTECTION CUM CONSERVATION STRATEGY- A CASE STUDY OF PIR PANJAL RANGE, J & K, INDIA
English4761Gowhar MerajEnglish Shakil A. RomshooEnglish A.R. YousufEnglishThe present work is an attempt to qualitatively assess forest density losses very rapidly over a comparatively large area. This study unravels the forest density loss rates of forest compartments in district budgam, central Kashmir between 1992 and 2008, wherein forest compartments are grouped based on the emergency of forest conservation required. Satellite remote sensing and GIS technology has been used in this study for land use/land cover inventorization. Methodology consisted of using visual image interpretation and vector GIS overlay analysis. The data sets used were Landsat TM-1992 and IRS-LISS III-2008. Forest density classification was performed using Forest survey of India (FSI) classification scheme. In order to analyze forest density losses within forest compartments, vector GIS overlay analysis of forest class theme-1992, forest class theme-2008 and forest compartment boundary was performed. The resultant overlaid theme was analyzed for forest density change between 1992 and 2008.The highest percent forest density loss was observed in Danizar (90.60%) followed by Nilnag (90.24%), Sangarwain (87.48%), Nagabal (81.24%), Doodhganga (69.04%), Yus (41.55%), Guravet (27.17% ), Brenwar (25.70%), Kachwari (23.05%), Handpathar (15.36%), and Nambian (1.13%).On the basis of percent forest density loss status of forest compartments a protective cum conservative prioritization grouping was performed wherein those compartments which have degraded more than 30 % were grouped into highest priority status compartments. As for as the immediateness of the protection cum conservation is required, it was concluded that Yus, Doodhganga, Nagabal, Sangarwain, Nilnag and Danizar fall in the highest priority group while as Nambian, Handpathar, Kachwari, Brenwar and Guravet fall in the least priority group. This study provides a methodology to quickly assess forest density loss rates and an effective approach for forest conservation and protection strategy using satellite remote sensing and GIS technology.
EnglishForest Density Class, Vector GIS overlay analysis, Forest Conservation, Forest compartment, Pir Panjal Range, Protective cum Conservative Prioritization Grouping.INTRODUCTION
Jammu and Kashmir is has been endowed with Nature’s most treasured resources. Gushing waterfalls, magnificent flora and fauna, majestic mountains and water not. Kashmir is well known as a place of bliss and delight and peace. One of the reasons for Kashmir’s such grandeur can be imparted to its rich treasure of forest resources. The total land under forests in J and K is 2,023,000 Km2 (J and K, Forest Digest-2005; J and K Digest of Statistics (DES), 2005) which comprises about 10% of its geographical area.
Forests are among those natural resources which intertwine the web of life and are thus subservient to overall livelihood. Fuel wood, fodder, soil erosion check and improvement, etc. are some of the functions of forests. However the services forests provide are under threat to these services of the forests is the deforestation. It has several potential impacts on the climate through biogeochemical cycles, particularly via atmospheric component of the carbon cycle i.e., CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. It is estimated that each year about 2 Gt C is released to the atmosphere as a result of tropical deforestation (Gornitz, V. 1987). Deforestation in tropics is considered as one of the major cause of global climate change. In Brazil alone, 1.5 million ha had been deforested in 1978, increasing to 4.26 million ha in 1991 (Frohn et al., 1996). Moreover, deforestation has tremendous ecological, hydrological, and geomorphological impacts on Earth system (Baumler, R and Zech, W. 1999; Goudie, A. S. 2000; Lal, R. 1999). Deforestation and forest degradation although synonymous in terms of consequences they manifest, are two different anthropogenic impacts on the forests. Forest degradation is a process leading to a ‘temporary statistically representative data on land-cover change or permanent deterioration in the density, structure of vegetation cover or its species composition (Grainger, 1993). The first one is the total clearance of trees in the forested land while as the latter is the deterioration of the quality of forests in terms of density, health, genetic diversity and age profile degradation. Tropical forests are suffering the greatest current losses in forest area and quality; however temperate forests have been affected more than other forest types by fragmentation and disturbance (Echeverria C. et al., 2006). In temperate zones, such as the study area of the present work although deforestation has been controlled to a large extent but cutting up of trees within the dense forest resulting in the degradation of forest density has been going on unprecedented. Estimations of the forest density degradation is therefore one of the most important tasks in the restoration of quality of forests. The present work has been carried out in the temperate climatic regime of lesser Himalayas- a pilot study area of the Pir-Panjal range and forest degradation in terms of density losses has been evaluated using remote sensing and GIS. The approach adopted in the present study is to evaluate forest degradation status of the forest compartments and emphasis has been laid upon using forest compartment as unit of conservation. Since a forest compartment is a permanent, geographically recognizable unit of forest land forming the basis for planning, prescription, implementation, monitoring and recording of forest operations (FAO, 1996). It can be best used as a unit of forest conservation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS.
Study Site
The Pir Panjal is the main barrier between the plains of India and the Kashmir valley. A pilot study area comprising of 13 forest compartments was chosen for this study. An important meadow Yusmarg falls in this area which is well known tourist spot. This study area falls in the district Budgam, Jammu and Kashmir, India. It falls in a forest compartment called yus which is among other 13 forest compartments associated with two forest ranges-Doodhganga and Raithan in the study area (Figure 1). The study area lies between lies between longitude 74o 27’ 7.9’’ – 74o 45’37.9’’ E and latitude 33o 42’16.67’’N – 33o 52’57.75’’ N. Height in this area is generally between 1600 to 2100 meters above sea level. The study area supports a varied topography. From southwest to northeast the area consists of lofty Pir Panjal, and flat topped Karewa as foothills and plains. The slopes of this range are gentle. The Pir Panjal mountain range covers the Kashmir valley on the south and southwest, separating the Kashmir valley from the Chenab valley and Jammu region (Raza et al., 1978). The present work is an attempt to put forward a methodology to qualitatively assess the forest density losses very rapidly over a comparatively large area using remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies and to give legislators efficient and logical information about how to stop forest degradation effectively. Although there are sophisticated approaches to quantify forest density using remote sensing and GIS techniques(Jamalabad M. S. et al., 2002; Azizia Z. et al., 2002; Han Liu et al., 2011) but the approach used in this study is less scholarly and at the same time efficient enough to arrive at the forest protection policies. The current study is an assessment of the forest degradation rates within forest compartments of a pilot study area of Pir Panjal mountain range. Methodology adopted includes visual image interpretation and vector GIS analysis.
Datasets, Software and Tools
a. IRS-1D LISS III of 21-October-2008 (Figure 2)
b. LANDSAT-TM of 24-October-1992 (Figure 3)
c. Forest working plans provided by Jammu and Kashmir state forest department and territorial boundary by Survey of India (SOI). The overall methodology is represented in (Figure 4)
Datasets used were first preprocessed for radiometric and geometric corrections. IRS-1D LISS III has spatial resolution of 23.5 m and sense radiations in near infrared (NIR), red, green and blue, the wavelengths are enlisted in the table. LANDSAT-TM has spatial resolution of 30 m and senses radiations in seven bands. High spatial resolution near infrared band (NIR) is the primary band for vegetation analysis using remote sensing techniques. The software utilized were Arc INFO/ ArcGIS 9.3 and Erdas Imagine 9.1. For ground truthing GARMIN GPS Map 76CS Global Positioning System (GPS) was used. Also classification was aided by high spatial resolution images from Google Earth. It is one of the best tools for evaluation of visual image interpretation results.
Visual Image Interpretation and Vector GIS Analysis
Visual image interpretation approach of land use / land cover classification uses on-screen digitization technique to classify different land surface features on the basis of tone, texture, pattern, shadow, association etc (Lillesand T. M. and Kiefer R. W. 1987, Jensen. J. 1996). It has been demonstrated that this technique in accuracy is similar to the digital classification methods when applied to medium and low resolution satellite images (Puig C. J. et al., 2002). Forest Survey of India classification (FSI) scheme was used to delineate forest density classes (Table 1) (FSI, 2001).The classified area was then overlaid by forest compartment boundary to evaluate forest degradation between 1992 and 2008 within the forest compartments (FAO, 1996). The results were then used to assign protection cum conservation prioritization grouping for indicating the emergency of conservation required. The vector GIS overlay analysis combines the geographic features and attributes tables of both inputs into a single new output. In this study union overlay tool was used. After union operator data is applied data is extracted using a "clip" or "mask" to take out the features of one data set that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset (Burrough P. A. 1986).
Forest Density Degradation Indices
The most important aspect of this study is the evaluation of the forest degradation through following degradation indices. (FDDg = ΔVDF + ΔMDF + ΔOF)C16……..1 (%FDDg) = FDDg/TF_ 1992) C16………….2 FDDg stands for forest density degradation and represents the change in the land area under different forest density classes. Subscript C16 represents sixteen year change in the forest compartment between 1992 and 2008. Negative Δ values indicate that the land under particular forest class has increased. However while evaluating FDDg negative signs were neglected so as to provide total change in area under different forest density classes. This forms the basis for evaluating forest density degradation between 1992 and 2008. Forest degradation indices are represented by the equations 1 and 2. Equation 1 gives the forest degradation in terms of hectares of forest land degraded and equation 2 gives percent degradation status of the forest compartment. Using equation 2 as the basis for immediate protection needed in a forest compartment to stop its degradation, those compartments which have been degraded more than 30 % between 1992 and 2008 were grouped into highly prioritized compartments. These empirical relationships are very much helpful in evaluation of the qualitative forest degradation status of the compartments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It was observed that Nambian forest compartment possessed the maximum land under forests followed by Yus Nagabal, Doodhganga, Brenwar, Sangarwain, Nilnag, Guravet, Kachwari, Handpathar, and Danizar in 1992 (Figure 5). The compartment wise distribution of different forest density classes in 1992 and 2008 (Table 2). It was observed that in almost all compartments, land moderately dense forests and open forests have increased indicated by the negative ΔMDF and ΔOF values (Table 3). This is attributed to the decrease in the land under very dense evergreen forests shown by positive Δ VDF values (Table 3; Figure 6). Forest density degradation index (FDDg) in terms of hectares of forest land degraded was found greatest in Nagabal followed by Sangarwain, Yus, Doodhganga, Brenwar, Guravet, Danizar, Kachwari, Handpathar, Nilnag and Nambian (Table 4) (Figure 7). However in terms of % FDDg Danizar (90.60%) has been degraded maximally and is closely followed by Nilnag (90.24%), Sangarwain (87.48%), Nagabal (81.24%), Doodhganga (69.04%), Yus (41.55%), Guravet (27.17%), Brenwar (25.70%), Kachwari (23.05%), Handpathar (15.36%), and Nambian (1.13%) (Table 3, Figure 8). More than 30 % of Nilnag, Sangarwain, Nagabal, Doodhganga, and Yus forest compartments have seen forest density degradation and therefore are grouped into highly prioritized forest compartments for immediate protection measures (Figure 9).
CONCLUSION
From this study it has been concluded that remote sensing and GIS technique can provide immediate forest conservation cum protection status of an area. The methodology used in this work in which forest density degradation has been qualitatively evaluated within a forest compartment is very efficient in providing government agencies a quick look about what is happening within a forest. Among the thirteen forest compartments, five have been severely degraded indicated by the greater than 30% decrease in their forest density from 1992 to 2008. If such degradation is not stopped, over the coming years whole forest area would be finally deforested.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This works forms a part of the Master’s thesis in Environmental Science of the author. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1688http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16881. Baumler, R and Zech, W. 1999: Effects of forest thinning on the stream chemistry of two forested watersheds in the Bavarian Alps. Forest ecology and management 116, 119-128
2. Burrough P A 1986 Principles of Geographic Information systems for land resources assessment. Oxford University Press UK
3. Cristian Echeverria David Coomes, Javier Salas, Jose Mar?a, Rey-Benayas, Antonio Lara, Adrian Newton. 2006: Rapid deforestation and fragmentation of Chilean Temperate Forests. Biological Conservation 130 (2006) 481–494
4. Digital Classification vs. Visual Interpretation, a case study in humid tropical forests of the Peruvian Amazon Carlos JavierPuig,Glenn Hymanand Sandra Bolaños; http://gisweb.ciat.cgiar.org/sig/download/gh yman/Puig2002DigitalVsVisual.pdf
5. FAO, 2000b. On Definitions of Forest and Forest Change. Forest Resources Assessment Programme Working Paper 33. FRA 2000
6. Forest canopy density estimating using, using satellite images, Z.azizia, A.Najafia, H.Sohrabia; www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVII/congre ss/8_pdf/11.../21.pdf
7. Forest canopy density monitoring, using satellite images, M. Saei jamalabad, A.A. Abkar; http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxv/cong ress/comm7/papers/48.pdf 8. Forest Digest-2005 and Digest of Statistics (DES), Government of Jammu and Kashmir
9. Forest Survey of India (FSI) scheme of classification; http://www.fsi.org.in/scheme_of_classificati on.htm
10. Frohn, R. C., McGwire, K. C. Dale, V.H. Estes, and J.E. 1996: Using satellite remote sensing analysis to evaluate a socioeconomic and ecological model of deforestation in Rondonia, Brazil. International journal of Remote Sensing 17, 3233-3255.
11. Gornitz, v. 1987: Climatic consequences of anthropogenic vegetation changes from 1880-1980. In Rampino, M. R., Sanders, J.E., Newman, W.S. and Konigsson, L.K. (eds), Climatic: periodicity and predictability, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 47-49
12. Goudie, A. S. 2000: The hum,an impact on the natural environment, 5th edition, Oxford: Blackwell
13. Grainger, A. (1993) Controlling tropical deforestation, p.310. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London
14. Han Liu et al., Journal of Machine Learning Research 12 (2011) 907-951
15. Jensen J 1996 Introduction to digital image processing: A remote sensing perspective (Ist ed.). Prentice Hall, New York, US
16. Lal, R. 1999: Deforestation effects on the soil degradation and rehabilitation in western Nigeria. 4. Hydrology and water quality. Land degradation and development 8, 95-126
17. Lillesand T M and Kiefer R W 1987 Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
18. Moonis R, Aijazuddin A and Ali M 1975 The Valley of Kashmir: A Geographical Interpretation, Vikas publishing House New Delhi. P. 95-99
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareEFFECT OF VARIED FEEDBACK SCHEDULE ON MOTOR LEARNING IN PARKINSON'S DISEASE PATIENTS
English6268Md Haider AliEnglish Bhaskar MunjalEnglish Nusrat HamdaniEnglish Shahnawaz AnwerEnglishA simple reaction time task was used to investigate augmented feedback on motor learning in Hoehn and Yahr stage 2 of Parkinson’s disease patients. During acquisition, participant received knowledge of results (KR) about their error after every trial (100%) or every alternate trial (50%). Participants then performed an immediate retention test after 5 minutes and delayed retention test after 24 hours without KR. Parkinson’s disease patient showed superior retention with 50% KR. This suggests that the Parkinson’s disease patients with simple task are more reliant on decrease frequency of KR for learning motor skills.
EnglishKnowledge of Results; Parkinson’s disease; Motor learning, Feedback trainingINTRODUCTION
The acquisition of motor skill is a process, usually acquired through practice, that leads, for example, to improvement in speed and accuracy of voluntary movement.1 Parkinson disease is regarded as a movement disorder associated with basal ganglia dysfunction.1,2,3,4 Clinical and physiological studies of patients with Parkinson’s disease have clearly shown the importance of basal ganglia in voluntary movement control.3,1 For example, Parkinson’s disease patients are slower than normal in starting and executing movements.3,1 In addition, rapid single joint or multi joint, simultaneous, and sequential movements are executed abnormally in Parkinson’s disease, and impairments in executing movements of differing complexity may be task dependent.5 Parkinson’s disease patients have impaired sensory motor processing. Short term practice widely activates the cerebellar cortex, whereas prolonged practice decreases cerebellar activity and increases activation in the basal ganglia and frontal lobe.4 These patients are overly reliant on augmented feedback to monitor their movements.3 Experimentally, augmented feedback has been termed knowledge of results (KR), and is defined as error information provided by an external information source (e.g. computer, experimenter) after task has been completed.2 K. R. for optimal learning. For a relatively simple task and / or practiced subjects, a high frequency of KR enhances acquisition performance, but retards retention performance.2 However, with a relatively difficult task and/or little practice a high frequency of KR enhances both acquisition and retention performance. The explanation of these results is that proprioceptive information is available and utilized with a relatively simple task, and therefore, less augmented feedback is necessary.2 Therefore, it is predicted that in the current study, Hoehn and Yahr stage 2 of Parkinson’s disease patients would show superior retention after having learned the skill with a low frequency of Knowledge of Results (50% KR).
METHODS
Subjects:
A total of 30 patients with idiopathic Parkinsonism with stage 2 Hoehn and Yahr, age 50-72 years were selected. MMSE score was greater than 24 of all the patients. All participants were on phase of medication, tested after an overnight abstinence of at least 12 hours from their usual medication regimen. Patients did not exhibit side effect (e.g. dyskinesia) that interfered or delayed completion of task during testing, and no clinical fluctuation of Parkinson’s disease were observed during experimental session. All participants were naive with respect to the experimental design.
Study design:
The study has two groups (Group A and Group B). Each group was 15 patients of Parkinson’s disease. The 100% KR group (Group A) got the verbal feedback about the total number of errors (number of time patient touched with switch of machine) after every trial. The 50% KR group (Group B) received Knowledge of Results on every alternate trial. An immediate reaction test was conducted 5 minutes6 after the end of last trial of practice session. Then, a delayed retention test was conducted 24 hours6, 7 past the end practice session.
Apparatus:
A standardized chair without arm support with appropriate height and width with respect to patient’s height was used. These chairs were medium, large and extra large size, wooden table was used for the placement of apparatus. A Reaction Time Apparatus (fig 1.1) – RTM608 manufactured by medical systems, Chandigarh, India- 160002 (An ISO 9001: 2000 Company). This instrument can be used for the study of reaction time in normal subjects, smokers, diabetics, psychiatric patients and neurologically affected patients. The machine is such that a physical barrier provided between the examiner and Subjects, so the movement of the examiner does not influence that subject.
Protocol for data collection:
Instruction to the participants: All the patients were explained about the procedure and demonstrated the activity. They also instructed to press the start switch as soon as they are ready and then response to the appropriate and corresponding stimulus as quickly as possible. The entire subject signed an informed consent approved by IEC of Hamdard University, New Delhi, India. A closed environment with least possible distraction was selected as site for data collection. General demographic data was taken. The subjects performed the activity after a demonstration and a trial session. All participants practiced the sequence for three blocks (18 trials). A short break of 1-2 minutes was provided at the end of each block. A pattern was given on three consecutive blocks as given bellow.8.
Day 1; 6 trials × 3 blocks = 18 trials; Day 2; 6 trials × 3 blocks = 18 trials; Day 3; 6 trials ×3 blocks = 18 trials; Day 4; 6 trials × 3 blocks = 18 trials; Day 5; 6 trials × 3 blocks = 18 trials.
Procedure:
The emphasis of this section was to focus on improvement of learning in terms of reaction time reading. The procedure for the collection of data closely followed those described by Kimberly Steinhauer et al6 and Carole J Winstein9 in their studies. The procedure followed in the study is as follows: Mini Mental Status Examination was conducted to ensure that entire subject fulfil the cognitive criteria for study. Those who fulfil the criteria were randomly assigned into two groups A and B having 15 subjects in each group. Group A: 100% relative frequency Knowledge of Results.
Group B: 50% relative frequency Knowledge of Results. The apparatus was shown to each subject and task goal were explained. The subject was seated in comfortable position and was asked to place his/her limb in the prescribed site. Subjects were informed to press the button of reaction time machine with index finger of the dominant hand when the corresponding light was illuminated. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as possible. The stimulus was presented before the subjects on the reaction time machine. The digital timer started with the initiation of this stimulus. The subjects were instructed to press the corresponding button which was marked for that particular kind of stimulus. Then timing circuit automatically switched off as soon as the subject pressed the button with index finger. Acquisition phase consisted of 5 days. 18 trials on each day were blocked in three (6 trials in three blocks). The 100% group (Group A) was got the verbal feedback about the total number of errors (number of times patient touched with switch of machine) after every trial. The 50% group was given Knowledge of Results on every alternate trial. An immediate retention test was conducted 5 minutes6 after end of last trial of practice session. Then, a delayed retention test was conducted 24 hours6, 7 past the end of practice session.
Statistical Analysis:
A pretest-posttest experimental group design is used for the study. The pretest values for immediate retention on day 1 (designated as IRD1) and delayed retention on day 1 (designated as DRD1) was taken. Post test values for immediate retention on day 5 (designated as IRD5) and delayed retention on day 5 (designated as DRD5) was taken. The data was analyzed using the SPSS 15.0 Software. Repeated measure ANOVA applied for comparison of immediate and delayed retention time within the groups. Further post hoc analysis done using bonferroni test to compare the retention time in each group. An independent ttest was used to compare the retention time between two groups. The results were taken to be significant if p0.05). Similarly, on comparing the value of DRD1 between group A (100% KR) and group B (50%KR), the result was found to be non significant (p>0.05).
RESULTS
Table 1 and Table 2 details the results of present study. Within group analysis revealed significant improvement of delayed retention on day 1(DRD1) and immediate and delayed retention on day 5 (IRD5 and DRD5) when compared to immediate retention on day 1 (IRD1) (p0.05). Similarly, on comparing the value of DRD1 between group A (100% KR) and group B (50%KR), the result was found to be non significant (p>0.05). However, comparison of immediate and delayed retention on day 5 (IRD5 and DRD5) between two groups was found to be statistically significant (PEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1689http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16891. Carolee J Winstein. Knowledge of result and motor learning implication for physical therapy. Physical Therapy 1991;71:140-149.
2. Mark A. Guadagnoli, Berta Leis, et al. The relationship between knowledge of results and motor learning in Parkinsonian patients. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 2002;9:89-95.
3. Katrina Gwinn Hardy. Genetics of Parkinsonism. Movement disorders 2002;17: 645-656.
4. Singhal B et al. Epidemiology and treatment of Parkinson’s disease in India. Parkinson’s and related disorders 2003 Aug;9 Suppl 2:S105-9.
5. Rocco Agostino et al. Motor skill learning in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurological Sciences. 1996;139:218 –226.
6. Kimberly Steinhuer, Judith Preston Grayback. The role of Knowledge of Result in performance and learning of a voice motor task. Journal of Voice 2000;14(2):137 – 145.
7. A.L. Smiley-Oyen, C.J. Worringham, C.L. Cross. Motor learning processes in a movement scaling task in olivopontocerebellar atrophy and Parkinson’s disease. Exp Brain Res 2003;152:453 – 465.
8. Swinnen SP, Steyvers M, Van Den Bergh L, Stelmach GE. Motor learning and Parkinson’s disease: refinement of withinlimb and between limb coordination as a result of practice. Behaviour Brain Research. 2000;111:45 – 59.
9. Carole J. Winstein, Richard A. Schmidt. Reduced Frequency of Knowledge of Results enhances motor skill learning. J Exp Psychology: Learning, Memory and cognition 1990; 16:677-691.
10. Gabriele Wulf et al. Reduced feedback frequency Enhances Generalized Motor Program but not parameterisation Learning. J Exp Psychology: Learning, Memory and cognition 1993;19(5):1134-1150.
11. Richard A. Schmidt, Duglas E. Young, et al. Summary Knowledge of Results for skill acquisition: Support for the guidance hypothesis. J Exp Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1989;15(2):352- 359.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesA STUDY OF TRACE ELEMENTS (IRON, ZINK, COPPER, SELENIUM) IN LIVER CIRRHOSIS PATIENTS
English6975Sunil GuptaEnglish Shravn Kumar MeenaEnglish Jitendra AhujaEnglish Vishnu Dutt BohraEnglishObjective — The aim of present study is to examine serum level of Selenium, Copper, Zinc and Iron in Liver cirrhosis patients and Compare the level of Selenium, Copper, Zinc and Iron in Patients with liver cirrhosis with age, sex matched normal control subjects. Research Design Methods— this open-ended comparative transverse study was designed to evaluate serum selenium, zinc, and copper and Iron levels in blood and liver function test (Bilirubin, Serum Glutamate Oxalate Transaminase, Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase, Akaline Phosphatse, Gamma Glutamyl transferase, Total Protein, Albumin, and Globulin) in 100 patients with liver cirrhosis and compared with 50 normal people without liver cirrhosis or any other clinical problems. Results— the values of serum GGT, Bilirubin, copper and Iron levels in blood were increased statistically significant (pEnglishTrace elements, liver cirrhosis, Liver function testsINTRODUCTION
Cirrhosis is a chronic disease of the liver in which diffuse destruction and regeneration of hepatic parenchymal cells has occurred, in which diffuse increase in connective tissue has resulted in disorganization of the lobular architecture. The triad of parenchymal necrosis, regeneration and scarring is always present regardless of individual clinical manifestations.1 Liver cirrhosis is a major cause of death in the United States.2 Hepatitis and cirrhosis are also considered serious liver disease even in western countries. Former is known to be reported in about 75000 patients in a year and latter one is responsible for 23000 deaths a year in USA. These figures certainly will be several times more for India.3 In developing countries such as India, viral hepatitis is the leading cause of cirrhosis and in the developed countries such as USA, ALD, HCV and NASH is the most common cause of cirrhosis.4 Cirrhosis and chronic liver diseases were the 10th leading cause of death for men and 12th for women in the United States in 2001, killing about 27000 people each year.5 Long term intake of alcohol increases reactive oxygen species and Free radicals by two mechanisms first, cytochrome P-450 2E1 is regulated, causes oxidation of NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenin Dinucleotide phosphate)
reduced to NADP generating free radicals and second, hepatic macrophages are activated which subsequently produce TNF-α. TNF-α induce mitochondria to increase production of reactive oxygen species. Free radicals initiates’ lipid peroxidation which causes inflammation and fibrosis and oxidative stress causes necrosis and ap of liver cells. Due to deficiency of glutathione and vitamin-E, necrosis/ apoptosis exaggerated.6 To prevent this mechanism our cells possesses antioxidant such as copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu-Zn SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase are present in the cell. All these antioxidant are designed to prevent the occurrence of free radical injury under normal condition. These antioxidants contain trace elements such as selenium, copper, zinc and iron.7 Increased level of lipoperoxidase have also been reported in the sera of liver cirrhosis patients which may be due to the reduction of glutathione peroxidase (a selenium containing enzyme) known to accompany liver impairment . 8 Zinc is associated with more than 300 enzymatic systems. Zinc augments the natural defense of reactive oxygen radicals by Zn-enzyme, Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase .9 Copper is an essential trace element which participates in many enzymatic reactions. Its most important role has in redox process. Reactive copper can participate in liver damage directly or indirectly through kupffer cells stimulation.10 On theoretical ground trace element may be protective against oxygen free radicals in the development of liver cirrhosis. So present study had been designed to study the levels of serum trace elements (Cu, Zn, Fe and Se) in patient of liver cirrhosis and compared to control subjects and to assess the level of trace elements.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This open-ended comparative transverse study was conducted on 100 patients of liver cirrhosis diseases admitted in medical wards, in a tertiary care Hospital, during the period of August 2009 to August 2010. Written informed consent by the subject and ethical approval was appropriately sought before the study. Fifty healthy controls were taken Control subjects were selected. This study was designed to evaluate serum selenium, zinc, and copper and Iron levels in blood and liver function test (Bilirubin, SGOT, SGPT, ALP, y-GT, TP, Albumin, and Globulin) in 100 patient with liver cirrhosis. The data obtained from our study is to be compared with 50 normal people without liver cirrhosis or any other clinical problems. The data is also used to see that if there is any variation in levels of trace metals with severity of disease. The blood samples were collected after 12 hours of fasting. The peripheral venous blood samples were taken at 8 AM. Subject selection:- Based on following inclusion and exclusion criteria, a random selection of subjects for the study was made on basis of detailed history and proper clinical examination.
Inclusion Criteria:
Patient with liver cirrhosis disease
Age 20-60 year
Exclusion Criteria:
Patient with the following condition:
Hepatocellular carcinoma
Age under 18
Renal failure
Lactation
Any chronic disease
Drugs affecting levels of trace metals eg. Corticosteroids, digoxin, thiazide diuretics etc.
A detailed clinical history of each patient, which included age, religion, residence, and socioeconomic status, Diet, Lifestyle, presenting complaints, Personal history, Past History family history, Drug history and Allergy history was recorded. A systemic examination was done to rule out presence of any systemic illness. The patient was made to lie in dorsal position and inspection, palpation and auscultation was done. The rest of the assessment was undertaken as per the prescribed study format. Serum Bilirubin, SGOT, SGPT, ALP, y-GGT, TP, Albumin, Globulin were estimated by enzymatic colorimetric method on Olympus AU400 auto analyzer after appropriate calibration. The copper, selenium, iron and zinc levels in the serum of each subgroup were measured with the help of an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS4 14 1AAS) in a standardized manner under set protocol.
RESULTS
The Mean age for case was 46.45 +7.00 and for control was 44.86 ±5.93.The maximum number of cases 41(41%) were in age group of 40-49 years ,followed by 36(36%) in more then 50 years age group, 23(23%) cases in 30-39 age group were present. It was observed that maximum number of cases was in age group 40- 49. This is consistent with the average age of diagnosis of liver cirrhosis. To avoid any variation that occurs due to difference in dietary habits of religions. We had taken liver cirrhosis patient and control persons according to the religion. The 79 (79 %) cases were of Hindu religion and 21 (21%) cases were of Muslim religion. In the control group 40 (80%) persons were of Hindu religion and 10 (20%) persons were of Muslim religion. The cases occurred in Middle Income Group class 37 (37%) followed by Lower Income Group 35(35%) and the only 28(27%) cases belongs to the Higher Income Group class. The maximum number of cases is of middle class supporting the fact that it is a disease of middle class persons. The maximum number of cases i.e. 70 (70%) included in the study were from Rural dwelling as compared to 30(30%) of cases from Urban background. This is consistent with the theory of cirrhosis as a disease of rural background. In the control group 41 (82%) persons is of urban background and 9 (18%) person is of rural background. The maximum number of the cases occurs in Alcoholic groups 64(64%) followed by 36(36%) cases belongs to the Non alcoholic groups. It reveals that cirrhosis occurred maximally in Alcoholic groups.
We observed in this study that the mean bilirubin and GGT levels were higher in liver cirrhosis patients as compared to control persons ( P 0.05).
Table 3 shows that there was negative correlation between levels of bilirubin and Zinc. The r value was — 0.042 1 in case group which is statistically significant ( P< 0.001 ) as compared to control group (Table no. 2)in which the r value was 0.153 and this was not significant statistically ( P>0.05 ). Similarly, as far as Zinc was concerned there was positive correlation between levels of Albumin and Zinc. The r value was 0.583 in case group which is statistically significant (P< .001 as compared to control group in which the r value was 0.O93and this was not significant statistically (P> 0.05).
DISCUSSION
The importance of trace elements in the process of maintaining life is well known. Trace elements are characteristically required for growth and maintenance of life. At present, it is recognized that so many trace elements including copper, zinc, iron and selenium are essential for human body. Lack or an insufficient intake of such micro nutrients turns out a functional impairment or can consequence in disease.11 The clinical significance and evaluation of trace elements such as Copper, Iron, Selenium and Zinc in regard to different diseases including liver cirrhosis remain conflicting as well as controversial and many questions still remain unanswered. Mechanisms linked on ethanol metabolism, especially oxidative stress, redox potentials and acetaldehyde, participate in the emergence of liver damage. Trace elements play an important role in oxidative stress and redox potentials. A possible role of zinc, copper, iron and selenium in pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis and its complications is still subject of research. The present study, though probably first of its kind in Indian population, is an attempt forward in series of previous studies done internationally to study the level of trace elements in the patients of liver cirrhosis. In our research study the serum levels of zinc were found significantly lower in patients with liver cirrhosis in comparison to controls. (Table no.1) The same finding was reported by Lin et al in 2006;12 they find that mean zinc level in the serum of patients with hepatic cirrhosis was significantly lower than that of the control group. Moreover they found markedly elevated Cu: Zn Ratio in patients with hepatic cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Their finding implies that the level of some trace elements, such as selenium, iron, copper, and zinc and Cu: Zn ratio might serve as biomarkers for the increased severity of viral hepatic damage. Alteration of Zn homeostasis in liver cirrhosis is supported by a large body of experimental and clinical evidence. Dario et al in 2006 demonstrated that the levels of zinc were significantly lower in patients with liver cirrhosis in comparison to controls (pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1690http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16901. Conn HO. Cirrhosis. In: Diseases of the liver 4th edition. Edited by Schiff L.Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company; 1975:833
2. Yoon, Y.—H.; Yi, H.; Grant, B.F.; et al. Surveillance Report #60: Liver Cirrhosis Mortality in the United States, 1970-99. Washington, DC: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2002.
3. Tandon, B.N., S.K. Acharya, A Tandem Epidemiology of Hepatitis B Virus Infection In India, Gut, 1996, 38 (Suppl. 2), S56— S59. 4.
4.Wynn T. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of fibrosis. J Pathol2008; 214: 199-210
5. Arias, E.; Anderson, R.N.; Kung, H.-C.; Murphy, S.L.; and Kochanek, K.D. Deaths: Final Data for 2001. National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 52, No. 3. Hyattsville, MD: NCHS, 2003.
6. Giovanni Tarantino, Matteo Nicola Dario Di Minno and Domenico Capone. Druginduced liver injury: Is it somehow foreseeable? World J Gastroenterol. 2009 June 21; 15(23): 2817-2833.Published online 2009 June 21. doi: 10.3748/wjg.15.2817.
7. Halliwell Barry, Antioxidants in Human Health and Disease, Annual Review of Nutrition Vol. 16: 33-50 (Volume publication.date July 1996)DOI: 10.1146/ annurev. nu .16.070196.000341
8. Diluzio N R (1973): Antioxidants, Iipid peroxidation and chemical induced liver injury. Federation Proc. 32, 1875- 1881.
9. William E Stehben, Oxidative stress, toxic hepatitis, and antioxidants with particular emphasis on zinc, Experimental and Molecular Pathology,Volume 75, Issue 3, December 2003, Pages 265–276
10. Klein, D.,J. Lichtmannegger, U. Heinzmann, J. Muller Hocker, S. Michaelsen , K. H. Summer, Association of copper to metallothionein in hepatic lysosomes of Long–Evans cinnamon (LEC) rats during the development of hepatitis Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 28 (1998) :4,302.—310.
11. K. O. Soetan,C. O. Olaiya and O. E. Oyewole, The importance of mineral elements for humans,domestic animals and plants: A review, African Journal of Food Science Vol. 4(5) pp. 200-222, May 2010
12. Lin CC, Huang JF, Tsai LY, Huang YL. Selenium, Iron, Copper, and Zinc level and copper to zinc ratios in serum of patients at different stages of viral hepatic disease. Biol Trace Elem Res 2006; 109: 15-24.
13. Dario R.,Milan K., , Zljko Romi,Kristina Brki and Mladen Petrove~ki, Serum Concentration of Zinc, Copper, Manganese and Magnesium in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis, Coll. Antropol. 30 (2006) 3: 523– 528
14. Celik, H. A., H. H. Aydin, A. Ozsaran, N. Kilincsoy, Y. Batur, B. Ersoz, Clin. Biochem., 35 (2002) 477. — 12
15. Loguercio C, De Girolamo V, Federico A, Feng SL, Crafa E, Cataldi V, et al. Relationship of blood trace elements to Mohammad H. Somi et aL32 liver damage, nutritional status, and oxidative stress in chronic nonalcoholic liver disease. Biol Trace Elern Res 2001; 81: 245-54.
16. Nakayama A, Fukuda H, Ebara M, Hamasaki H, Nakajima K, Sakurai H. A new diagnostic method for chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma based on serum metallothionein, copper, and zinc levels. Biol Pharm Bull 2002; 25: 426-3 1
17. Jurczyk K, Syczewska M, Kaczrnarska A, Sych Z. Serum iron parameters in patients with alcoholic and chronic cirrhosis and hepatitis. Med Sci Monit 2001; 7: 962-5.
18. Mohammad H. Somi, Alireza Ostad Rahimi, Behnaz Moshrefi,Parisa Rezaeifar,Jamal Ghaem Maghami Nutritional Status and Blood Trace Elements in Cirrhosis Hepatitis monthly 2007;7(1):27-32
19. Kalkan, A., Bulut, V., Avci, S., Celik, I. and Bingol, N. K., Trace elements in viral hepatitis. J. Trace Elem. Mcd. Biol., 2002, 16,227—230.
20. Jan Aaseth, Jan Alexander, Yngvar Thornassen, Jan P.Blomhoff and Sverre Skrede , Serum selenium levels in liver diseases, Clinical Biochemistry Volume 15, Issue 6, December 1982, Pages 281–283 Available online l8October 2004
21. Banares, F.F., E. Cabre, M. Esteve, Serum Selenium and risk of large size colorectal adenomas in a geographical area with a low selenium status, Am. J. Gastroenterol., 2002, 97, 2 103—8.
22. Beáta Éva Petrovski,Vera Pataki,Tibor Jenei,Róza Ádány,Zoltán Vokó Selenium levels in men with liver disease in Hungary, Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology Volume 26, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 31–35
23. Dreher, I., T.C. Jakobs, J. Kohrle, Cloning and characterization of the human selenoprotein P promoter. Response of selenoprotein P expression to cytokines in liver cells, J Biol Chem., 1997, 272(46), 29364—7 1.
24. Taylor, E.W., R.G. Nadimpalli, C.S. Ramanathan, Genomic Structures Of Viral Agents In Relation To Biosynthesis Of selenoproteins, Biol. Trace Element Res., 1997, 56, 63—9 1.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareA CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY TO ASSESS THE MORBIDITY PATTERN IN FLOOD AFFECTED AREAS IN RAICHUR
English7679Mallikarjun K. BiradarEnglish S.M. BiradarEnglish VS KambleEnglishBackground: To identify common diseases encountered in flood affected areas. Aims and objectives: To know the morbidity pattern of different diseases in flood affected areas. Materials and methods: It is a community based cross sectional study done in 3 flood affected areas. All the patients attending the health camp were clinically examined and interviewed using a semi structured questionnaire. Data was analysed using appropriate statistical test. Results: A total of 750 patients attended the health check up camp. There were 40% cases of Acute GE, 25% cases of ARI, 12% cases of undiagnosed fever and 11% myalgia. Dermatological conditions like rashes, local allergic reactions and scabies together contributed to 9% cases. Other illness such as injuries, ENT infections and mental illness accounted to 3% cases. Conclusion: The majority of patients were suffering from Acute GE 40% and ARI 25%. Since GE and ARI is major problem faced during floods, proper health education should be given to the people regarding safe water usage and waste disposal methods .Measures to prevent overcrowding should be undertaken.
Englishfloods, morbidity pattern, overcrowdingINTRODUCTION
Disaster can be defined as “any occurrence that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life or deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area” 1 . In the past 20 years natural disasters have affected at least 800 million people and caused more than 3 million deaths. Each week there is one natural disaster of sufficient magnitude to require external assistance from the international community.2,3 Natural disasters may be associated with a wide variety of acute and long term health effects.4,5 The health problems faced by disaster victims vary depending on the type of disaster. The morbidity pattern in floods consists of immediate problems like drowning and injuries. This is followed by occurrence of Acute GE, ARI, fever, skin infections etc. Immediate public health actions following floods include the provision of potable water, food, vector control and restitution of vital environmental health services 6, 7, 8. The present study was carried out to assess the morbidity pattern in flood affected areas.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A cross sectional study was conducted by Department of Community Medicine, Navodaya Medical College, Raichur as a part of Disaster management free health check up camp. The study was carried out in Seyatalab, Mooraradoddi and Moodmalai area of Raichur. A total of 750 patients attended the health check up camp. These patients were subjected to a semi structured questionnaires followed by clinical examination. Data was analysed using proportions and descriptive statistics.
RESULTS
A total of 750 patients were examined in health check up camp. The numbers of male and female patients examined were 56% and 44% respectively. Adult patients constituted to about 65% and children were 35% in number. It was observed that Acute GE was the most common morbidity accounting to 304 (40%) cases, of which children affected were 108 (36%) and adults were 196 (64%).The next common morbidity was found to be ARI 25% cases, which included common cold, cough, upper respiratory infection and pneumonia. Fever of unknown origin was found in 12% patients. This was closely followed by myalgia reported by 11% cases with patients complaining of generalized body pain which may have been due to the injuries suffered during the floods. The 9% patients had skin infections constituted of local allergic reactions, scabies and pyoderma. The other diseases such as mental illness, ENT infection, conjunctivitis, jaundice and wounds constituted to about 3% cases which were treated accordingly.
Acute GE cases were reported to be highest in Moodmalai 115 (38%) and least in Seyatalab 82 (27%). Rests of the diseases like ARI, fever, myalgia, skin infections and other diseases were reported higher in Seyatalab when compared to Moodmalai and Mooraradoddi.
On comparison with age, ARI was reported to be high in children 109 (59%) when compared to adults who constituted to 76 (41%). Other diseases were found to be significantly high in adults. DISCUSSION The diseases and injuries observed in the health check up camp provides an interesting perspective on the morbidity pattern that can be associated with disasters. A large number of cases (40%) of gastrointestinal diseases were seen and given treatment. The similar findings were observed in the aftermath of Orissa flood in 2001, where (54%) of Acute GE was reported 9 . In Bangladesh, the flooding that followed by 1991 Tropical cyclone reduced the portability of water from wells and caused widespread outbreak of diarrhoeal diseases 10. During the Somali famines (1991- 92), Measles and Diarrhoeal diseases accounted for the vast majority of deaths among persons in temporary camps 11. The causes for such cases in our study could have been due to the lack of potable water and general insanitary conditions in the aftermath of the floods. The rise in ARI cases (25%) could have resulted from overcrowding and lack of ventilation in the makeshift camps. The findings of our study of ARI cases were similar to the result observed in Central Viet Nam 2003 floods 12 and in Balochistan Pakistan floods in 2003 13 . As per our study Fever of Unknown Origin cases constituted to about (12%) which was in accordance to the findings followed by Bangladesh floods (6.5%) in 1988 14. Skin lesion consisting of local allergic reaction, rashes, scabies and pyoderma constituted to about 9% of cases in our study. The reason could be overcrowding and unhygienic conditions.
CONCLUSION
The majority of patients were suffering from Acute GE (40%) and ARI (25%). Acute GE could be due to the lack of safe drinking water and general sanitary conditions in the aftermath of floods. Overcrowding and lack of ventilation in the makeshift camps attributed to the increased incidence of ARI. Ecological changes favour the breeding of vectors. Population displacement might have lead to the introduction of communicable diseases
RECOMMENDATION
Implementation of public health measures to reduce the risk of transmission of communicable diseases. Proper health education and IEC activities should be undertaken in community regarding safe water usage and to avoid overcrowding. Proper sanitary and waste disposal methods should be applied. Ensure adequate excreta disposal away from the water sources. Vector control measures should be undertaken by health authorities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to thank all the participants of study. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors, editors and publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1691http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16911. Coping with major emergencies – WHO strategy and approaches to humanitarian action, Geneva, World Health Organization, 1995.
2. National Research Council: Confronting Natural Disasters: an International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987, pp 1- 67.
3. Wasley A: Epidemiology in the disaster setting. Current Issues in Public Health 1:131 – 135, 1995.
4. Noji EK: Disaster Epidemiology. Emerg Med Clin North Am 14: 289-300, 1996.
5. Centre for Disease Control and Prevention: Public Health Consequences of Disasters. Atlanta: Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 1989.
6. Centre for Disease Control and Prevention: Rapid health needs assessment following Hurricane Andrew-Florida and Louisiana. MMWR 41: 696-698, 1992.
7. Sommer AS, Mosley WH: East Bengal Cyclone of November 1970. Lancet1:1029- 1036, 1972.
8. Lillibridge SR: Managing the environmental health aspects of disasters: water, human excreta and shelter. In Noji EK (Ed): Public Health Consequences of Disasters. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp 65- 78.
9. Maj MP Cariappa, Maj P Khanduri Medical Journal of Armed Forces India, Vol. 59, No. 4, 2003; 59 : 286-289.
10. Bilqui AH, Hoque R, et al: Environmental health and the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone. Disasters 17:143-152, 1993.
11. Moore PS, Maraffin AA, et al: Mortality rates in displaced and resident populations of central Somalia during 1992 famine. Lancet 341:935-938, 1993.
12. Www. Who.int/disasters/repo/who_vietnamfloods srep_12 may.
13. World Health Organization, Emergency Humanitarian Action (EHA) Islamabad, Pakistan. Epidemiological Week (1-5), January-2009.
14. Siddique AH, Baqui AH, et al. Journal Diarrhoeal Dis Res, 1991 December; 9 (4): 310-4.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareTARGETING ANGIOGENESIS: AN OVERVIEW
English8092Mandeep KaurEnglishBlood vessels constitute the first organ in the embryo and form the largest network in the body, but sadly are often deadly. Angiogenesis is the process of generating new capillary blood vessels. Vasculogenesis is the term used for spontaneous blood-vessel formation, and intussusceptions is the term for new blood vessel formation by splitting off existing ones. Angiogenesis is a normal and vital process in growth and development, as well as in wound healing and in granulation tissue. It is also a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a dormant state to a malignant one, leading to the use of angiogenesis inhibitors. Angiogenesis may be a target for combating diseases characterized by either poor vascularisation or abnormal vasculature. Application of specific compounds that may inhibit or induce the creation of new blood vessels in the body may help combat such diseases. In this review, we will present an overview of the knowledge gained in studies related to the identification and characterization of different inhibitors and regulators of angiogenesis and also to highlight briefly the pathological and physiological angiogenesis.
EnglishAngiogenesis, vascularisation, regulators, inhibitors, growth factors, tumor angiogenesis.INTRODUCTION
Blood vessels are assembled during embryonic development by vasculogenesis, in which a primitive vascular network is established from endothelial cell precursors called angioblast. The process of angiogenesis or neovascularisation has been thought to depend on the branching and extension of adjacent blood vessels. Recent work has demonstrated that angiogenesis can occur by recruitment of endothelial progenitor cells from the bone marrow. Angiogenesis is critical to chronic inflammation and fibrosis, to tumor growth and to vascularisation of ischemic tissue. Therefore great efforts have been made to explore therapeutic effects of agents that are proangiogenic (increase blood vessels when needed) and antiangiogenic (block pathologic angiogenesis). Small blood vessels consist of only endothelial cells whereas large blood vessels are surrounded by mural cells (pericytes in medium sized and smooth muscle cells in large vessels). Vessels can grow in several ways. Vasculogenesis refers to formation of blood vessels by endothelial progenitors. Angiogenesis and arteriogenesis refer to sprouting and subsequent stabilization of these sprouts by mural cells and collateral growth denotes the expensive growth of pre-existing vessels, forming collateral bridges between arterial networks. Both capillary angiogenesis and arterial growth are targets for therapy, as distal capillaries distribute the flow while proximal arterioles provide bulk flow to the tissue. When vessel growth is deregulated, it has a major impact on our health and contributes to the pathogenesis of many disorders. The best known are cancer, psoriasis, arthritis, blindness, obesity, asthma , atherosclerosis, infectious disease, heart and brain ischemia, neurodegeneration, hypertension, pre-eclampsia, respiratory distress and osteoporosis1,2 .
DISCUSSION
Angiogenesis from endothelial precursor cells:
The formation of hematopoietic and vascular system is closely linked during embryonic development. The two systems share a common precursor, the hemangioblast, which can generate hematopoietic stem cells and angioblast, the cells that give rise to the vascular system. Angioblast proliferate, migrate to peripheral sites and differentiate into endothelial cells that form arteries, veins and lymphatics. They can also generate pericytes and smooth muscle cells of the vessel wall (periendothelial cells). It has now been established that angioblast like cells called EPC has been stored in the bone marrow of adults and can be recruited into the tissue to initiate angiogenesis. The nature of homing mechanism is uncertain. Marrow derived circulating angioblasts, or EPC in adults, express markers of hematopoietic stem cells as well as endothelial specific markers such as vascular endothelial- cadherin, E-selectin and the tie2 receptors. EPC participate in the replacement of lost endothelial cells, in the reendothelization of vascular implants and in the neovascularisation of ischemic organs, cutaneous wounds and tumors. It has been proposed that the number of circulating EPC may influence vascular functions and determine the risk of cardiovascular disease3 .
Angiogenesis from pre-existing vessels:
In this type of angiogenesis, there is vasodilatation and increased permeability of existing vessels, degradation of extracellular matrix and migration of endothelial cells. The major steps are listed below:
Vasodilatation in response to nitric oxide and VEGF induced increased permeability of the pre-existing vessels.
Proteolytic degradation of the basement membrane of the parent vessels by metalloproteinase and disruption of cell to cell contact between endothelial cells of the vessels by plasminogen activator.
Migration of endothelial cells towards the angiogenic stimuli.
Proliferation of endothelial cells, just behind the leading front of the migrating cells.
Maturation of the endothelial cells, which includes inhibition of growth and remodelling into capillary tubes.
Recruitment of periendothelial cells to support the endothelial tubes and form the mature vessels4 .
Angiogenesis inhibitor
An angiogenesis inhibitor is a substance that inhibits angiogenesis. Some angiogenesis inhibitors are a normal part of the body's control, some are administered as drugs, and some come from diet. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once thought to have potential as a "silver bullet" treatment applicable to many types of cancer, but this has not been the case in practice. Nonetheless, inhibitors are used to treat cancer, macular degeneration in the eye, and other diseases that involve a proliferation of blood vessels. Matrix-Derived Inhibitors of Angiogenesis Arresten: The main component of vascular basement membranes is type IV collagen, forming a mesh-like structure with other macromolecules, such as laminin, heparan sulfate proteoglycans, fibronectin, and entactin. Arresten is a recently identified endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis. It is a 26-kDa molecule derived from the noncollagenous (NC1) domain of the α1 chain of type IV collagen. Arresten selectively inhibits endothelial cell tube formation. It also inhibits the formation of new blood vessels in Matrigel plug assay in mice. Arresten inhibits endothelial cell proliferation and migration. Arresten does not have a significant effect on the proliferation of several cancer cell lines even at very high doses. Arresten affects metastasis leading to significant reduction of pulmonary nodules in arresten-treated mice and inhibition of large and small renal cell carcinoma tumor growth. The existing evidence suggests that arresten might function via α1β1 integrin and block the binding of α1β1 integrin to the type I collagen. In this regard, α1 integrin neutralizing antibodies can suppress angiogenesis associated with tumor growth. The β1 integrin is also involved in angiogenesis. Ablation or blocking of the interactions with integrin α1β1 inhibits indicating that integrin α1β1 acts as a proangiogenic factor. Arresten might also function via binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan and previous studies have shown that heparan sulfate proteoglycan binds to the α1 NC1 domain of type IV collagen5,6,7 . Canstatin: Canstatin is a 24-kDa fragment of the α2 chain of type IV collagen. Recombinant canstatin significantly inhibits endothelial cell migration and tube formation in a dosedependent manner. Canstatin inhibits serumstimulated human endothelial cell proliferation and induces apoptosis with no inhibitory effect on proliferation or apoptosis of nonendothelial cells. Canstatin also suppresses growth of tumors in human xenograft mouse models, with histology revealing decreased CD31-positive vasculature. It inhibits the phosphorylation of Akt, focal adhesion kinase (FAK), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein-1 (4E-BP1), and ribosomal S6 kinase in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). It also induces Fas ligand (FasL) expression, activates procaspase-8 and -9 cleavage, reduces mitochondrial membrane potential, and increases cell death8.9.10 . Endorepellin: Perlecan is basement membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that plays key roles in vascular growth. The COOH-terminal end of perlecan, called endorepellin or perlecan domain V, potently inhibits several aspects of angiogenesis: endothelial cell migration, collagen-induced endothelial tube morphogenesis, and blood vessel growth in the chicken chorioallantoic membrane assay and in mouse Matrigel plug assays. Endorepellin binds to endothelial cells as well as to squamous cell carcinoma cells and breast carcinoma cells via high-affinity receptors. Interestingly, endorepellin binds endostatin, another matrixderived inhibitor of angiogenesis, and counteracts its antiangiogenic effects11 . Endostatin: Endostatin is an endogenous collagen XVIII–derived angiogenesis inhibitor identified and purified from murine hemangioendothelioma cell line and later characterized in mice. It corresponds to a 20- kDa fragment derived from the COOH-terminal NC1 domain of type XVIII collagen12 . Recombinant endostatin efficiently blocks angiogenesis and suppresses primary tumor growth and metastasis in experimental animal models without any apparent side effects, toxicity, or development of drug resistance. Recent studies have reported that endostatin interferes with FGF-2-induced signal transduction, blocking endothelial cell motility inducing apoptosis, causing G1 arrest of endothelial cells through inhibition of cyclin D1, blocking VEGF-mediated signaling and blocking tumor necrosis factor. Recently, it is shown that endostatin down-regulates many signaling pathways in human microvascular endothelium associated with proangiogenic activity and at the same time up-regulating many antiangiogenic genes13.
Endostatin binds to the α5β1 integrin and inhibits the migration of endothelial cells by blocking signaling pathways via Ras and Raf. Moreover, a recent study shows that endostatin action is dependent on expression of E-selectin on the endothelial cells, although a direct binding of endostatin to E-selectin was not observed. Therefore, more work needs to be done to sort out the exact mechanism of action associated with endostatin. Endostatin inhibits the activation and activity of certain matrix metalloproteinases (MMP; i.e., MMP-2, -9, and -13 and MT1-MMP) and it binds directly to at least MMP-2 and -9 14,15 . Endostatin-like fragment from type XV collagen: Based on a homology search with endostatin, a 22-kDa fragment of collagen XV was found with 70% homology to endostatin. It inhibits the migration of endothelial cells but has no effect on proliferation. Systemic administration of endostatin-like fragment from type XV collagen (EFC-XV) suppresses the growth of tumors in a xenograft renal carcinoma model. It seems that the functions of endostatin and EFC-XV somewhat overlap, double knockout mice show no additional defects compared with the single knockout mice16,17 . Anastellin—a fibronectin fragment: Incubation of soluble fibronectin with a small fibronectin-derived fragment, called anastellin, results in a polymeric form of fibronectin that is strongly antimetastatic in tumor-bearing mice. Both anastellin and polymeric fibronectin reduce tumor growth in mice, and the tumors are less vascularized. Anastellin is unable to inhibit Matrigel plug angiogenesis in mice that lack plasma fibronectin, but it is fully active in mice that are null for vitronectin, which like fibronectin is a major endothelial cell adhesion protein18 . Fibulins: Proteolytic digestion of basement membrane preparations by elastases and cathepsins releases fragments, which possess antiangiogenic activity. The report recently shows that fibulin 5 promotes wound healing in vivo. Considering that wound healing is dependent on angiogenesis, this report opposes the notion that fibulin 5 is an inhibitor of angiogenesis. Future studies will hopefully shed more light on this opposing action of fibulin 519 . Thrombospondins: Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) was the first protein to be recognized as a naturally occurring inhibitor of angiogenesis. It is a large multifunctional ECM glycoprotein that regulates various biological events, like cell adhesion, angiogenesis, cell proliferation and survival, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) activation, and protease activation. Some studies suggest that TSP-1 may possess dual activity (proangiogenic and antiangiogenic) depending on proteases that generate fragments of TSP-1. It has been shown to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis, thus making it a potent inhibitor of in vivo neovascularization and tumorigenesis. Overexpression of TSP-1 in mice suppresses wound healing and tumorigenesis, whereas the lack of functional TSP-1 results in increased vascularization of selected tissues. Expression of TSP-1 has been inversely correlated with malignant progression in breast and lung carcinomas and melanomas20,21 . TSP-2 also shows antiangiogenic activity. Injection of TSP2-transfected squamous cell carcinoma cells into the dermis of nude mice resulted in inhibition of tumor growth that was even stronger than the inhibition observed with TSP-1-transfected cells. The combined overexpression of TSP-1 and TSP-2 completely prevented tumor formation. Daily injections of TSP-2 resulted in a significant inhibition of the growth of human squamous cell carcinomas in vivo and reduced tumor vascularization. Possible mechanisms for this antiangiogenic activity are inhibition of VEGF-induced endothelial cell migration, tube formation, and increased endothelial cell– specific apoptosis22 . Tumstatin: The entire 28-kDa fragment of α3 chain of NC1 domain of type IV collagen was named tumstatin. In vivo overexpression of tumstatin domains by tumor cells inhibits their invasive properties in a mouse melanoma model. Tumstatin inhibits formation of new blood vessels in Matrigel plug assays and suppresses tumor growth of human renal cell carcinoma and prostate carcinoma in mouse xenograft models. This is associated with in vivo endothelial cell– specific apoptosis. The antiangiogenic and proapoptotic activity of tumstatin is specific for endothelial cells. Maeshima et al. show that tumstatin functions as an endothelial cell– specific inhibitor of protein synthesis23. MMPs are capable of degrading type IV collagen and liberating fragments containing tumstatin. MMP-9 is the most effective in cleaving tumstatin-containing fragments from type IV collagen, but MMP-2, -3, and -13 also can release tumstatin. MMP-9-deficient mice have decreased levels of tumstatin in their blood, and the tumors in MMP-9-null mice grow faster than the tumors in wild-type mice24 . Non-Matrix-Derived Inhibitors of Angiogenesis Angiostatin: Angiostatin is a cryptic fragment of plasminogen that possesses antiangiogenic properties, a property not shared by the parent molecule (plasminogen). Angiostatin was originally purified from serum and urine of mice bearing s.c. Lewis lung carcinoma, where the growth of metastases was inhibited by tumorgenerated angiostatin. Angiostatin also inhibits migration and tube formation associated with proliferating endothelial cells25,26 . Cleaved antithrombin III and prothrombin kringle-2: Circulating clotting factors in the blood seem to play an important role in angiogenesis. It inhibits angiogenesis and tumor growth27 . Chondromodulin-I: Although cartilage contains many angiogenic factors during ossification, in adults it is an avascular tissue. The 25-kDa cartilage-specific NC1 matrix protein chondromodulin-I is a strong inhibitor of angiogenesis. Local administration of recombinant human chondromodulin-I almost completely blocks vascular invasion and tumor growth in vivo. Furthermore, it inhibits the growth of colon adenocarcinoma in vivo, implying therapeutic potential for other solid tumors.28 Soluble Fms-like tyrosine kinase 1: The soluble version of VEGFR-1 [soluble Fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt-1)] was identified by Kendall et al. sFlt-1 has a strong affinity for VEGF and placental growth factor. In this regard, several reports have suggested that sFlt-1 can serve as an antitumor agent by inhibiting VEGF. The relevance for sFlt-1 at the normal physiologic concentration in the regulation of cancer progression is not understood29 . Interferons: IFNs, pleiotropic cytokines that regulate antiviral, antitumor, apoptotic, and cellular immune responses, were the first endogenous antiangiogenic regulators identified. IFNs inhibit angiogenesis induced by tumor cells in mice. IFN-α or IFN-β has biological activity against squamous cell carcinomas and inhibits angiogenesis in tumor-bearing nude mice. IFN-α and IFN-β treatment also inhibits angiogenesis by down-regulation of bFGF expression but other studies suggest that the action of IFN-α is not mediated by bFGF or VEGF30,31 . Interleukins: ILs is a family of leukocytederived proteins with broad-ranging effects on multiple physiologic properties, including angiogenesis. ILs bearing a NH2-terminal GluLeu-Arg (ERL) motif, such as IL-8, tends to display proangiogenic properties, whereas those lacking this motif have been found to inhibit angiogenesis. IL-1, mainly secretable IL-1β, is involved in inflammation, tumor growth, and metastasis. IL-4 inhibits bFGF-induced angiogenesis. IL-12 can inhibit angiogenesis. IL18 inhibits FGF-stimulated endothelial cell proliferation in vitro 32,33 .
2-Methoxyestradiol:
2-Methoxyestradiol (2- ME), an endogenous estradiol metabolite, is an inhibitor of angiogenesis, with direct effect on cancer cells. The endogenous physiologic role for 2-ME as an inhibitor of angiogenesis is not yet understood34 . Pigment epithelium-derived factor: Because pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), a noninhibitory member of the serpin superfamily, was identified to be responsible for the avascularity of ocular compartments in 1999, it is the most potent inhibitor of angiogenesis in the mammalian eye and is involved in the pathogenesis of angiogenic eye diseases, such as proliferative diabetic retinopathy. It also has neurotrophic activity both in retina and in the central nervous system35,36. Its antiangiogenic activity is selective, in that PEDF targets only new vessel growth but spares existing ones, and it is reversible. Recent study highlights two beneficial effects of PEDF treatment on tumor growth and expansion. One is the suppression of tumor angiogenesis. Overexpression of PEDF was found to significantly inhibit melanoma growth. In addition, PEDF may serve as a multifunctional antitumor agent in neuroblastomas, inhibiting angiogenesis while promoting the numbers of Schwann cells and differentiated tumor cells that in turn produce PEDF37 . Prolactin fragment: The intact prolactin (23 kDa) is enzymatically cleaved in several different tissues to generate a 16-kDa (16K PRL) and 8-kDa fragment. Although the intact prolactin has activities consistent with proangiogenesis, the generation of the 16K PRL fragment exposes a cryptic antiangiogenic activity38 . Platelet factor-4: PF-4 is a protein released from platelet α-granules during platelet aggregation that has been shown to have antiangiogenic properties both in vitro and in vivo. PF-4 inhibits angiogenesis by associating directly with FGF-2, inhibiting its dimerization and blocking FGF-2 binding to endothelial cells39 . Tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases: Tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMP) suppress MMP activity and ECM turnover. In addition to their MMP inhibitory activity, TIMPs have pluripotent effects on cell growth, apoptosis, and differentiation. TIMP-2 inhibits angiogenic factor–induced endothelial cell proliferation in vitro and angiogenesis in vivo, independent of MMP inhibition.40 Vasostatin: Vasostatin, a NH2-terminal domain of human calreticulin inclusive of amino acids 1,180, is a potent angiogenesis inhibitor. It selectively inhibits endothelial cell proliferation and angiogenesis in response to stimulation from growth factors and suppresses tumor growth41 . Troponin I: Troponin I (Tn I) is a novel cartilage-derived angiogenesis inhibitor, which inhibits endothelial cell proliferation and angiogenesis in both in vivo and in vitro model systems. Tn I also inhibits metastasis of a wide variety of tumors in vivo. Tn I is a subunit of the troponin complex, which along with tropomyosin is responsible for the calciumdependent regulation of striated muscle contraction42 . Regulators of angiogenesis Angiopoietins: The angiopoietins, Ang1 and Ang2, are required for the formation of mature blood vessels, as demonstrated by mouse knock out studies. Ang1 and Ang2 are protein growth factors which act by binding their receptors, Tie1 and Tie-2; while this is somewhat controversial, it seems that cell signals are transmitted mostly by Tie-2; though some papers show physiologic signaling via Tie-1 as well. These receptors are tyrosine kinases. Thus, they can initiate cell signaling when ligand binding causes a dimerization that initiates phosphorylation on key tyrosines43 . Fibroblast growth factor: The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family with its prototype members FGF-1 (acidic FGF) and FGF-2 (basic FGF) consists to date of at least 22 known members. Most are single-chain peptides of 16- 18 kDa and display high affinity to heparin and heparan sulfate. The FGF-receptor family is composed of seven members get activated through autophosphorylation induced by a mechanism of FGF-mediated receptor dimerization. Receptor activation gives rise to a signal transduction cascade that leads to gene activation and diverse biological responses, including cell differentiation, proliferation, and matrix dissolution, thus initiating a process of mitogenic activity critical for the growth of endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and smooth muscle cells. Expression of basic FGF and its receptor FGF-2 has been identified in normal oral keratinocyte, as well as in oral cancer. Furthermore, the levels of bFGF found in these tumors were similar to or lower than those found in the adjacent normal mucosa. Elevated levels of bFGF in the serum and urine of SCCHN patients and have correlated this with poor prognosis44 . VEGF: It belongs to the VEGF family, which currently consists of six members: VEGF-A (or VEGF), PlGF,VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, and of virus VEGF.(VEGF-E) It has been demonstrated to be a major contributor to angiogenesis, increasing the number of capillaries in a given network45 . Upregulation of VEGF is a major component of the physiological response to exercise and its role in angiogenesis is suspected to be a possible treatment in vascular injuries. In vitro studies clearly demonstrate that VEGF is a potent stimulator of angiogenesis because, in the presence of this growth factor, plated endothelial cells will proliferate and migrate, eventually forming tube structures resembling capillaries. VEGF causes a massive signaling cascade in endothelial cells. Mechanically, VEGF is upregulated with muscle contractions as a result of increased blood flow to affected areas. The increased flow also causes a large increase in the mRNA production of VEGF receptors 1 and 2. The increase in receptor production means muscle contractions could cause upregulation of the signaling cascade relating to angiogenesis. As part of the angiogenic signaling cascade, NO is widely considered to be a major contributor to the angiogenic response because inhibition of NO significantly reduces the effects of angiogenic growth factors. However, inhibition of NO during exercise does not inhibit angiogenesis, indicating there are other factors involved in the angiogenic response46,47 . MMP: Another major contributor to angiogenesis is matrix metalloproteinase (MMP). MMPs help degrade the proteins that keep the vessel walls solid. This proteolysis allows the endothelial cells to escape into the interstitial matrix as seen in sprouting angiogenesis. Inhibition of MMPs prevents the formation of new capillaries. These enzymes are highly regulated during the vessel formation process because destruction of the extracellular matrix would decrease the integrity of the microvasculature48 . DII4: Delta-like ligand 4 (DII4) is a recently discovered protein with an important negative regulatory effect on angiogenesis. Dll4 is a transmembrane ligand, for the notch family of receptors49 . Angiogenesis in inflammation The Hallmark of the acute inflammation is increased vascular permeability leading to escape of a protein rich – fluid into extravascular spaces. There is a discrete order of events in physiologically acute inflammation and repair. However, these events become disorganized during chronic unresolved inflammation and carcinogenesis. This local microenvironment has led to the suggestion that tumors are „wounds that do not heal?. The constant disruption of homeostasis by proliferating epithelial cells produces a chronic inflammatory reaction, which is an abortive attempt to re-establish homeostasis through tissue remodeling. However, the classic players in acute inflammation (granulocytes, macrophages, endothelial cells and fibroblasts) that ordinarily lead to the resolution of a wound through an orderly series of events instead react paradoxically to the presence of dysfunctional epithelial cells by promoting their survival and replication. This process includes inflammatory angiogenesis50 . Leukocytes are cells of defense. Their main function is to protect our body against invading microorganisms. Activated endothelial cells promote leukocyte recruitment at inflammatory sites; new blood vessel formation, sustains chronic inflammation, and lymphatic vessels transport antigens and antigen-presenting cells to lymph nodes, where they stimulate naive T and B lymphocytes to elicit an antigen-specific immune response. In contrast, leukocytes and lymphocytes are far less efficient in protecting us from cancer, the "enemy from within." Worse, cancer can exploit inflammation to its advantage. Monocytes and macrophages produce tumor promoting factors which stimulate angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis and tumor cell invasion. Recent reports indicate that angiopoietin Tie and the ephrin Eph ligand receptor systems regulate leukocyte trafficking across the endothelium, thereby revealing connections among the regulation of vascular homeostasis, angiogenesis, and leukocyte trafficking51 . Tumor angiogenesis and Metastasis Tumor growth is often a multi-step process that starts with the loss of control of cell proliferation. The cancerous cell then begins to divide rapidly, resulting in a microscopically small, spheroid tumor, an in situ carcinoma. As the tumor mass grows, the cells will find themselves further and further away from the nearest capillary. Finally, the tumor stops growing and reaches a steady state, in which the number of proliferating cells counterbalances the number of dying cells. The restriction in size is caused by the lack of nutrients and oxygen. In situ carcinomas may remain dormant and undetected for many years, and metastases are rarely associated. Yet, several months or years later, an in situ tumor may switch to the angiogenic phenotype, induce the formation of new capillaries, and start to invade the surrounding tissue. The “angiogenic switch” depends on a net balance of positive and negative angiogenic factors in the tumor. Thus, the angiogenic phenotype may result from the production of growth factors, such as FGF-2 and VEGF, by tumor cells and/or the downregulation of negative modulators, like TSP-1, in tissues with a quiescent vasculature. In both normal and pathological angiogenesis, hypoxia is the main force initiating the angiogenic process. Also, several oncogenes such as v-ras, K-ras, v-raf, src, fos and v-yes induce the upregulation of angiogenic factors like VEGF and increase the production of cytokines and proteolytic enzymes. In contrast, the tumor suppressor p53 has been found to cause degradation of HIF-1a, inhibition of VEGF production, and stimulation of the inhibitor TSP1.The final step in the progression of a tumor is metastasis. Neovascularization of a primary tumor increases the possibility that cancer cells will enter the blood stream and spread to other organs and is also necessary for the growth of metastases in distant organs. Most of the micrometastases have a high death rate and are not vascularized until they switch to the angiogenic phenotype52,53,54 . Physiological angiogenesis Besides during embryogenesis, angiogenesis is also activated in the female reproductive system during ovulation, corpus luteum formation, and embryo implantation. During these processes, angiogenesis is mediated mainly by VEGF. Neovascularization also plays a critical role in successful wound healing that is probably
regulated by growth factors such as FGF-2 and VEGF. Macrophages may contribute to the healing process by releasing these angiogenic factors. Angiogenesis is generally associated with aerobic exercise and endurance exercise. While arteriogenesis produces network changes that allow for a large increase in the amount of total flow in a network, angiogenesis causes changes that allow for greater nutrient delivery over a long period of time55 . Diseases caused by abnormal or excessive angiogenesis Numerous organs: Cancer (activation of oncogenes and loss of tumor suppressor genes), infectious disease (pathogens express angiogenic genes, induce angiogenic programs or transforms Ecs), autoimmune disorders (activation of mast cells or other leukocytes). Blood vessels: vascular malformations (Tie-2 mutation), DiGeorge syndrome (low VEGF and neuropilin-1 expression), HHT (mutations of endoglin or ALK-1), cavernous haemangioma (loss of Cx37 and Cx40), artherosclerosis, transplant arteriopathy. Adipose tissue: Obesity (angiogenesis induced by fatty diet, weight loss by angiogenesis inhibitors. Skin: Psoriasis, warts, allergic dermitis, scar keloids, pyogenic granulomas, blistering disease, Kaposi sarcoma in AIDS. Eye: Persistent hyperplastic vitreous syndrome (loss of Ang-2 or VEGF, diabetic retinopathy, retinopathy of prematurity, choroidal neovascularisation (TIMP-3 mutation). Lung: Primary pulmonary hypertension (germline BMPR-2 mutation, somatic EC mutations), asthma, nasal polyp. Intestine: Inflammatory bowel and periodontal disease, ascites, peritoneal adhesions. Reproductive system: Endometriosis, uterine bleeding, ovarian cyst, ovarian hyperstimulation. Bone and joints: Arthritis, synovitis, osteomyelitis, osteophyte formation56-59 .
Diseases caused by insufficient angiogenesis or vessel regression
Nervous system: Alzheimer disease (vasoconstriction, microvascular degeneration and cerebral angiopathy due to EC toxicity by amyloid), Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, diabetic neuropathy (impaired perfusion and neuroprotection, causing motoneuron or axon degeneration due to insufficient VEGF production), stroke (correlation of survival with angiogenesis in brain, stroke due to arteriopathy, notch-3 mutations). Blood vessels: Atherosclerosis (impaired collateral vessel development), hypertension (microvessel rarefaction due to impaired vasodilatation or angiogenesis), diabetes (impaired collateral growth and angiogenesis in ischemic limbs), restenosis (impaired reendothelization after arterial injury at old age). Gastrointestinal: Gastric or oral ulcerations (delayed healing due to angiogenesis inhibitors by pathogens), crohn disease (due to mucosal ischemia). Skin: Hair loss (due to angiogenesis inhibitors), skin purpura, telangiectasia and venous lake formation (age dependent reduction of vessel number maturation due to EC telomere shortening). Reproductive system: Pre-eclampsis (EC dysfunction resulting in organ failure, thrombosis and hypertension due to deprivation of VEGF by soluble Flt-1, menorrhagia (fragility of SMC –poor vessels due to low Ang-1 production. Lung: New natal respiratory distress (insufficient lung maturation and surfactant production in premature mice due to reduced HIF-2alpha and VEGF production), pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema (Alveolar EC apoptosis upon VEGF inhibition). Kidney: Nephropathy ( Age related vessels loss due to TSP-1 production). Bone: Osteoporosis, impaired bone fracture healing (impaired formation due to age dependent decline of VEGF- driven angiogenesis, angiogenesis inhibitors prevents fracture healing)60-63 .
CONCLUSION
Angiogenesis is the process of generating new capillary blood vessels and is among the key events in various tissue destructive pathologic processes, such as tumor growth, metastasis, arthritis, etc., as well as in physiologic processes, like organ growth and development, wound healing, and reproduction. A hypothesis that tumor growth is angiogenesis dependent was first proposed by Folkman. Angiogenesis is thought to depend on a delicate balance between endogenous stimulators and inhibitors. Stimulators of angiogenesis include growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and platelet-derived growth factor, and hypoxic conditions that activate hypoxia-inducible factor-1, which itself can up-regulate angiogenic proteins, as well as angiogenic oncogenes, such as Ras, and tumor suppressors, such as p53. Endogenous inhibitors of angiogenesis include various antiangiogenic peptides, hormone metabolites, and apoptosis modulators. As our understanding of mechanism of angiogenesis increases, this will have a significant impact on several divergent areas in biology, including growth and development, wound healing, neoplasia, and tissue reconstruction.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesAQUEOUS LEAF EXTRACTS ALLELOPATHIC EFFECT OF TECTONA GRANDIS ON SEEDLING GROWTH OF VIGNA MUNGO AND VIGNA RADIATA
English93102A. ManimegalaiEnglishAllelopathy plays a vital role both in natural and managed ecosystems.Eventhough allelopathy includes both positive and negative effects of one plant on the other,most of the studies seems to focus only on its deleterious impacts alone. Tectona grandis(Teak) is the most valuable timber of the world and indigenous to Burma,India and Thailand under social forest scheme.Also introduced in Thanjavoor district on the banks of rivers,streams and ponds. This experiment was conducted in order to evaluate the allelopathic effects of the aqueous extract (A.E.) of Tectona grandis Linn.f. on the seedling growth in Vigna mungo(Black gram) and Vigna radiata (Green gram) . For this present study the seeds of Vigna mungo (Black gram)Var.ADT-3. and Vigna radiata(Green gram)Var.Co.3.were selected. Dried fallen leaves were collected from coastle area of Cuddalore District.The sterilized fifty seeds were placed in petridishes containing different concentrations of teak leaf extract(0,5,10,25,50,75 and100%).The dry weight of both crops Vigna mungo and Vigna radiata were increased in 5% concentrated treatment. All other concentrations showed a decreased dry weight and very low dry weight were observed in 100% treated seedlings. Results showed that low concentrations of T.grandis dry leaves Allelopathic Effect( A.E.) had significant promotary effect on the Black gram and Green gram seedlings growth.The higher applied concentration from aqueous extracts of T.grandis was completely inhibited Vigna mungo and Vigna radiata seedling seedling growth by 100%, at 50 g compared to its control. However, treatments with higher concentrations had negative effects on rate of seedling growth. Low concentration increase the seedling growth increase in both crop seedlings shows promontory effect. As the concentration of T.grandis extract increased seedling growth of black gram and green gram decrease shows inhibitory effect.
EnglishAllelochemicals, Allelopathic effect, Root length, Shoot length, Tectona grandis, vignamungo, vigna radiata.INTRODUCTION
Teak ( Tectona grandis), large deciduous tree of the family Verbenaceae, or its wood, one of the most valuable timbers. Teak has been widely used in India for more than 2,000 years. The name teak is from the Malayalam word tekka. Tree reaching over 30 m in height in favourable conditions. Tectona grandis grows best in a warm, tropical climate with a temperature above 22 ºC. Teak prefers well-drained, fertile soils and is a strong light demander. Trees are 96 to 100% self-incompatible. The timber is used for ship decking, flooring, furniture and construction. It is particularly recommended for construction in seaside environments (such as bridges and docks) because it is resistant to shipworm, a wood-boring sea mollusc (Teredo spp., Teredinidae). 4-sided leaves are shed for 3- 4 months during the later half of the dry season, leaving the branchlets bare. Shiny above, hairy below, vein network clear, about 30 x 20 cm but young leaves up to 1 m long. The leaves are opposite or sometimes whorled in young specimens, about 0.5 metre (1.5 feet) long and 23 cm (9 inches) wide. In shape they resemble those of the tobacco plant, but their substance is hard and the surface rough. During the dry season the tree is leafless; in hot localities the leaves fall in January, but in moist places the tree remains green until March. At the end of the dry season, when the first monsoon rains fall, the new foliage emerges. In India it was found that teak plantations with groundnut and soybean were very successful (Mishra and Prasad, 1980). However, later studies showed that leaves of T.grandis had allelopathic effect on several crop plants. In 1996 The International Allelopathy Society defined allelopathy as follows: “Any process involving secondary metabolites produced by plants, microorganisms, viruses, and fungi that influence the growth and development of agricultural and biological systems (excluding animals), including positive and negative effects” (Torres et al. 1996). Allelopathy is the direct influence of chemicals released from one plant on the development and growth of another plant (Mafeo et al, 2010).Allelopathy is the overall influence of one plant on another due to the chemical compounds being added to the environment(Muller,1996). Allelopathy is believed to be involved in many natural and manipulated ecosystems and it plays an important role in the evolution of plant communities, exotic plants invasion and replant failure ( Inderjit, 2003). Some authors have used the term in a more restricted sense to describe only the harmful effects of one higher plant upon another. Allelopathy occurring among individuals of the same species is termed autotoxicity. Allelopathy is fascinating and perplexing subject that concern with the interaction of plants as influenced by the chemical substances that they release into the environment ( Machado, 2007). Many plant species including medicinal plants are able to produce and release bioactive compounds which are secondary metabolites into the environment and are capable of suppressing the growth of other plants. Such chemicals include tannins, phenolic acids, lignins, alkaloids, flavonoids, coumarins and terpenoids. They are present in all plant tissues including leaves, stems, roots, rhizomes, flowers, fruits and seeds, and even in pollen grains (Ahmad et al., 2011). Allelopathy is a complex phenomenon between phenolic compounds and concentration of allelochemicals. It has both inhibitory and stimulatory effects, which may be decided by concentration of allelochemicals present in extraction. Allelochmicals which inhibited the growth of some species at certain concentrations may stimulate the growth of same or different species at lower concentrations. Chemicals released from plants and imposing allelopathic influences are termed allelochemicals or allelochemics. Most allelochemicals are classified as secondary metabolites and are produced as offshoots of the primary metabolic pathways of the plant. some allelochemicals are known also to have structural functions (e.g. as intermediates of lignification) or to play a role in the general defence against herbivores and plant pathogens (e.g. Einhellig 1995). Allelochemicals when released to the soil, inhibit germination, shoot and root growth of other plants, affect nutrients uptake or naturally occurring symbiotic relationship, thereby destroying the plant’s usable source of nutrients (Abu-Romman et al., 2010). .The effects of the presence of allelochemicals was not limited to germination inhibition alone, it also brings about impairment in the metabolic activities of the targeted plants, leading to decrease in their root and shoot length (Abu-Romman et al., 2010). Several studies have been shown that allelopathic crops reduce growth and development of other crops growing simultaneously or subsequently in the fields (Fenandez et al, 2007; Oussama, 2003). T. grandis has also shown high allelopathic activity on Triticum aestivum (Krishna et al., 2003).Interest in allelopathic studies in agroforestry systems is growing, because knowledge of these interations could provide powerful tools for the integrated in management of plagues and a better exploitation of natural resources anywhere in the world.We report here the allelopathic effect of Tectona grandis leaves extract on enzymes content of black gram and green gram were studied. MATERIALS AND METHODS The pulses of Vigna mungo(Black gram) and Vigna radiata(Green gram) have been selected for the present study. In this present investigation, the allelopathic effect of Tectona grandis Linn.f. on the germination of Vigna mungo and Vigna radiata were studied.All the experiments were conducted in the physiology laboratory of the Department of Botany,Annamalai University,Annamalai Nagar. Collection of Donor plant material: The dried leaf of Tectona grandis was collected as Donor plant, from the coastal area of Cuddalore district.Leaves were again dried and powdered with the help of willey machine at Chidambaram. Collection of Recipient plant materials The pulses seeds of Vigna mungo. L. And Vigna radiata. L. were procured from Tamilnadu Research Station, Aduthurai. Seeds with uniform size, colour and weight were selected and stored in metal tins as suggested by Rao(1976). Pretreatment of seeds Both Vigna mungo and Vigna radiata seeds used in the experiment were pre-cleaned and treated by using 0.1% mercuric chloride solution for 2-3 minutes. Effect of aqueous extracts: The 50g of Tectona dried leaf powder was soaked in 500ml of distilled water. After 24 hours, they were filtered with the help of Whatman No.1 filter paper and pure extracts of leaf were obtained. Using this stock solution, various concentration of extracts(0,5.10,25,50,75 and 100%) were prepared by using distilled water and used for the present study. These extracts were tested against Vigna mungo and Vigna radiata on 2- folds of filter paper in Petri dishes separately. The filter papers were moistened with the respective extracts or the distilled water as the case may be Germination, growth of plumule and radical were noted after 24 hours. Petridish Technique and Sowing The methods of seeds germination were carried out as recommended by International Seed Testing Association(1979). The seeds were thoroughly washed under tap water. Sterilized fifty seeds were arranged equi-specially in sterilized petri dish lined with filter paper. In each petri dish to uniform seeds were placed and irrigated. Each petri dish was irrigated uniformly by different concentration of Tectona leaf in the respective petri dishes. In addition to this, petri dishes containing seeds were irrigated with distilled water and maintained as control. Each treatment including control was replicated three times. The petri dishes were kept under light at room temperature(28±2°C)The number of seeds germinated in each treatment was counted daily starting from II nd day up to 10th day after sowing for growth . Root length Root length was measured on eighth day from five randomly selected normal seedlings.
Average of five root length was calculated and expressed in centimeter. Shoot length The seedlings which were used for measuring root length were also used for measuring shoot length and mean was calculated and expressed in centimeter. The root and hypocotyl lengths were measured with a ruler.Percentages of growth inhibition of root and shoot lengths under the influence of the aqueous Tectona grandis leaf extract were calculated from the equation: T-C Percentage= ——— × 100 C where T=length of treatment organs (mm) and C=length of control organs (mm). The experiments were conducted using a randomized complete block design with three replications. RESULTS Results obtained from this present investigation of aqueous leaf extracts allelopathic effect of Tectona grandis on seedling growth of Vigna mungo and Vigna radiata were present in Table 1.From this results 5% leaf extract treatment shows stimulatory effect on both test crops.the inhibitory effect obtained in 100% treatment. From the results it is observed that in 5% leaf extract treated seedlings, in shoot length (20.24 ± 1.01),root length(6.34± 0.31) and leaf area(4.02 ± 0.20) Vigna mungo seedlings than control (20.14± 1.00),(5.22 ± 0.26) and (3.80± 0.19) respectively. Mishra et al,(2004) who stated that aqueous leachates up to 5 per cent concentration was found to be non toxic, further increase in concentration (10 per cent) significantly inhibited the germination and seedling length. Towata and Hongo (1987) tested mimosine for its allelopathic activity against rice, radish, turnip, kidney bean, and carrot. Radical growth was inhibited at 10 ppm concentration while growth of rice, radish, turnip and kidney bean was stimulated at 1ppm concentration. According to Jabeen & Ahmed (2009), the plants may exhibit inhibitory or rarely stimulatory effect on germination and growth of other plants in the immediate vicinity. From 10% concentration of extract increase this values decreased gradually upto 75% treatment.Very high inhibitory effects observed in 100% treatment of shoot(15.90 ± 0.79),root length (2.64± 0.13) and (0.44± 0.02) leaf area in Vigna mungo seedlings.Similar kind of Allelopathic Effects(AE) observed in 5% treatment of Tectona dry leaf extract in shoot(20.02±1.00),root length(4.68± 0.23) and leaf area(3.61± 0.18). Mubarak et al. (2009), who reported that the leaf water extract of some trees significantly increased hypocotyl and radicle length of maize.The inhibitory effect of 100% treated Vigna radiata seedlings exhibit more inhibitory effect in shoot,root length and leaf area (9.02 ± 0.45),(0.90 ± 0.04) and (0.19± 0.00) than control(19.90 ± 0.99),(4.84 ± 0.24) and(2.81 ± 0.14) respectively. Tawaha and Turk (2003) reported black mustard extracts reduced wild barley hypocotyl length, hypocotyl weight, radicle weight, seed germination, and radicle length by as much as 44, 55, 57, 63 and 75 %, respectively, when compared with a water control. The reduction pattern in seedling growth was highly similar to root length and leaf area of both crops growth. DISCUSSION Allelopathy is expected to be an important mechanism in the plant invasion process because the lack of co-evolved tolerance of resistant vegetation to new chemicals produced by the invader could allow these newly arrived species to dominant natural plant communities (Hierro, 2003).Allelopathy is a mechanism of plant interference by the addition of plant-produced phytotoxins to the plant environment.
Allelopathy can enhance the competitive success of the invader plants, since the release of phytotoxins in the environment may affect the growth and life processes of other community species (Callaway, 2002). Recently, it has been suggested that the establishement of species with strong allelopathic effects could be used as biointrusion barriers ( Vyvyan, 2002 and Cooke and Johnson, 2002). Bhatt et al, (1994) reported that aqueous extracts of Parthenium hysterophorus and Xanthium stromonium adversely affected the radical extension of Glycine max and Vigna mungo. Allelopathic substances released by the plants accumulate in the soil to physiologicaly activity level (Hussain et al., 2004;and Samreen et al.,2009). Results obtained from this present investigation on the effect of aqueous leaf extracts of Tetona grandis Linn.f. on seedling growth of Vigna mungo revealed that shoot and root length and leaf area increased in 5% leaf extract (Table-1). Shoot length ,root length and leaf area of V.mungo and V.radiata seedlings showed an increase in 5% leaf extract over control.As the concentration increased from 10%,25%,50% and 75% seedling growth also decreased concomitantly.A low percentage of shoot,root length and leaf area was observed in 100% leaf extract treatment.Among the different concentrations of the leaf extract the 5% extract alone showed a promotary effect while the other concentrations exhibited inhibitory effect on these parameters of both test crops. The reduction in seedling root and shoot length may be attributed to the reduced rate of cell division and cell elongation due to the presence of the allelochemicals (Javaid and Anjum, 2006). We reported similar stimulatory responses in previous research on juglone effects on the growth of coniferous seedlings (Funk et al., 1979). This is generally accepted in the literature that phenolic compounds at low concentrations are stimulatory to germination and plant growth (Hegab et al., 2008; Gharieb et al., 2010;Manimegalai. Ei.al.,2012). Allelopathic effects of C. album on wheat (T. aestivum) with reduced germination (%), decreased shoot and root length (Daizy et al., 2006); However, later studies showed that ( Jayakumar et al.,1987) The allelopathic extracts from teak leaves significantly inhibited germination and growth of Lycopersicum esculentum, Solanum melongena and Capsicum annum (Krishna et al., 2003). Sahoo et al. (2007) have reported teak as a potential harmful allelopathic plant to maize. But the in length of shoot,root and leaf area decreased while increasing the concentration of Tectona dry leaf extract treatment on seedling growth. The allelopathic influence of Eucalyptus sp. has been significantly inhibited the germination speed, radical and plumule length of crops with increased concentrations of leaf extracts (Zhang, C. and fu, S.,2010) These results are partially in agreement with previous findings of Narwal and Sharma (1995) who reported that aqueous extract of wheat straw stimulated the germination and seedling growth of carpet weed (Trianthema portulacstrum), barnyard grass (Echinocloa crusgalli) and crowfoot grass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium) and inhibited that of pig weed (Amaranthus spp) and sunberry (Physalis minima) at higher concentration. Seedlings with 100% treatment shows very high reduction inhibition. Randhawa et al. (2002) reported that root length of Trianthema portulacastrum was affected by sorghum water extract and significantly reduced by high concentration of 75 and 100% sorghum water extract. These previous research strongly supports the present observation.Similar result obtained in Vigna radiata seedling treatments. But the rate of inhibition was higher than V.mungo seedlings. Turk and Tawaha (2003) found that aqueous extracts of black mustard (Brassica nigra) caused the reduction in germination, hypocotyl and radicle length of Avena fatua. Singh et al. (2005) also found a strong positive correlation between extract concentration of residues of Parthenium hysterophorus and reduction in seedling length of Brassica species. Agarwal et al. (2002), Stavrianakou et al. (2004) also reported inhibition in the length of plumule and radicle, a reduction in their dry weights and total seedling weight in wheat, pea and lentil with water extracts of various weeds. Seedling growth significantly decreased by increasing the allelopathic concentrations. The reduction pattern in seedling growth was highly similar to root growth. The present study shows that both stimulatory (at lower concentration) and inhibitory (at higher concentrations) effects of fresh aqueous leaf extracts of Tectona grandis on growth of V.mungo and V.radiata were recorded. Like other parameters, seeds growth in the present study was found to be concentration dependent. Lower extract concentration had positive effects on seeds growth while higher concentrations corresponded to lower growth. The results showed that the leaf litter extracts of Tectona exerted allelopathic effects on seed growth of crop species. The inhibition increased with increasing concentration i.e. it was concentration dependent. The intensity of inhibition was directly proportional to the concentration of the extract employed.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareAUTOEROTIC DEATH IN A TRANSVESTITE: AN ACCIDENT OR SUICIDE?
English103107Sandesh H. Chaudhari English Mandar SaneEnglish Anand MugadlimathEnglish D. B. DeshmukhEnglish K. J. PimpaleEnglish Dr. WaghmareEnglishVolatile substance abuse and autoerotic behaviour are distinct phenomenon. Still considerable overlap is observed in some cases. Autoerotic deaths in transvestite are reported in young males, who tend to experiment alone and are heterosexual. We present a rare case of an autoerotic death involving a fatal combination of plastic bag asphyxia, and, intoxication with inhaled toluene whitener and alcohol. Of note in this case is the fact that the victim was a male with transvestite attire. Toluene and alcohol are known to have additive effects. Furthermore, toluene inhalation may induce cardiac arrhythmias, particularly aggravated by high sympathetic activity during autoerotic ritual. We discuss the death scene investigation, past use of lethal and nonlethal paraphilia, and, findings at autopsy in arriving at conclusion of accidental mode of death.
Englishglue sniffing, autoerotic activity, asphyxiophilia.INTRODUCTION
Autoeroticism represents deviant sexual behaviour (paraphilia) that seeks sexual gratification by means of manipulations with the own body. Different practices of autoeroticism are known like asphyxiophilia, anesthesiophilia, and electrophilia.1 Most common methods of asphyxiophilia are, plastic bag asphyxia, strangulation, etc, while various methods used for anesthesiophilia may be inhalation of nitrous oxide, gasoline, propane, aerosols like toluene,etc.2 The usual method of abuse is for a quantity of the solvent or other chemical to be placed in a plastic bag. The warmth of the hand holding the bag, as well as the warm breath, encourages vaporization of the solvent, which enters the tidal air stream and is absorbed through the pulmonary membranes into the blood.3 Accidental deaths are occasionally reported due to such practises. Transvestism is described as the wearing of clothes of the opposite sex for sexual purposes. It is seen in both sexes. There are two types of transvestite, a heterosexual group and a group with strong homosexual tendencies. The homosexual male transvestite tends to wear clothes which caricature and mock women. The heterosexual male transvestite wears conventional female clothing and unresolved problems in his marriage or other heterosexual relationships are often evident.4
Case history
In the present case, the victim, a student of IInd MBBS in a Private Medical College was found in his room which was locked from inside with no response to repeated loud door knocks. When his friend forcibly broke open the door, they found him dead with female dress and polythene bag over his face. At the scene of incidence they were surprised to see multiple bottles of Camlin whitener eraser along with empty bottles of alcohol and smoked bits of cigarette [Fig 1]. Police were immediately intimated and body shifted for medicolegal autopsy. At autopsy, on external examination, it was a body of an adult male moderately built and well nourished. He was in transvestite attire in the form of pink sari, blouse, petticoat and ladies underwear [Fig 2]. Polythene bag covering the face was smeared from inside with whitish colloid substance having turpentine like smell. Whitish slightly blood tinged froth was collected around his mouth. Rigor present partly in the upper limbs and well marked in lower limbs. Post mortem lividity was fixed over back of the trunk. Subconjunctival haemorrhages were noted with petechial haemorrhages around the eyes. Nail beds were bluish discoloured. Dried seminal fluid was present around glans penis and inner aspect of thigh. Turpentine like smell was emanating from the body. On internal examination, Petechial haemorrhages were present over pleura and epicardium. Generalized visceral congestion was noted. Stomach contained semi digested unrecognized food particles (250 ml.), congested and haemorrhagic mucosa with peculiar spirit like smell.
Chemical analysis
All the articles were collected immediately packed in nylon bag and preserved for chemical analysis. 1. Organic solvent Toluene was detected in Camlin Dilutor (fluid) bottle and polythene (covering the face). 2. 154mg% of ethyl alcohol was detected in stomach and intestines contents, 117mg% ethyl alcohol in liver, spleen and kidney, 85mg% of ethyl alcohol was detected in blood, brain and lungs. Retrospective detailed interview of deceased friends revealed that deceased was addicted to toluene inhalation, with whitener as a means of it. He used to practise it alone since last 6 to 8 months. . However, he was not known to be a homosexual or suffering from depressive disorder. Overtly, there was no history suggestive of his transvestite perversion.
DISCUSSION
Autoerotic deaths can be classified into- Typical and Atypical depending on the presence or absence of accompanying non-lethal paraphilia. Lethal paraphilia may be in the form of compression around the neck, restrictive bondage, plastic bag asphyxia, chest compression, inhalation of volatile substances, insertion of objects in genitals, stimulation of genitals by low voltage electricity. While non lethal paraphilia are fetishism, transvestism, usage of mirror, pornography, etc. An autoerotic death may be diagnosed if it is solitary, accidental, and caused by any lethal paraphilia.4 Volatile substance abuse and autoerotic behaviour are distinct phenomenon. Still considerable overlap is observed in 8% of cases reported by Anderson HR.5 Autoerotic deaths in transvestite are reported in young males.6, 7 Adolescents tend to experiment alone and are heterosexual. On the other hand, adults often practice sexual asphyxia in pairs and are primarily homosexual in orientation. Clearly, the "sole-practitioner" in the adolescent population is at high risk for accidental death due to the lack of supervision by a sex partner.8 In the present case, the victim was known to have practised toluene inhalation for euphoric effects on many occasions, either alone or with his friends. On the fateful day, he used a plastic bag and toluene inhalation for inducing autoerotic asphyxia, both being lethal paraphilia. He was wearing transvestite female attire reflecting non-lethal paraphilia. He was not known to have homosexual behaviour.
Paraphilia are associated with alcoholism, which was more than average for general population.9 Alcohol has varied physiological effects in presence of toluene. Toluene is an aromatic petrol hydrocarbon used widely in industry as a solvent and thinner for whitener. Euphoric effect of alcohol and toluene show additive effect and lasts longer.10 Impaired judgement and increased sexual desire are effects of alcohol at higher BAC levels. This may further lead the victim to overindulge in inhalation of volatile solvent for autoerotic purpose which may reach fatal levels. Volatile substances sensitise the heart to the effects of sympathetic stimulation which may occur during sudden exercise and other activities.5 It is relevant, like in present case, that amongst the deaths from autoerotic activity along with abuse of volatile substances, cardiac arrhythmia is the most likely cause of death. Like other volatile substances, Toluene is quickly eliminated from the body, so tests for qualitative and quantitative analysis are only useful if they are done very soon after exposure. The unknown factor is usually of ‘tolerance’ and there is no method of assessing this at autopsy. Determining the manner of death has always been a challenge for Forensic experts and investigating agency. Different views may be present about deaths with substance abuse. Death may not be considered accidental since addict may foresee the risk and deliberately takes the drug knowing that he risked the death. It may be considered as accidental as being inadvertent death due to self administration of drug for purpose of euphoria.11 Manner of death can be inferred by various circumstances like location, attire, sexual paraphernalia, evidence of previous experience, and lack of suicide note.8 In the present case, suicidal manner was unlikely because victim was not known to suffer from any premorbid psyche and no suicide note was found near the body. Victim was practising toluene inhalation for more than 6 months, female attire, co-intoxication by alcohol and absence of rescue help due to secluded place corroborated to manner of death as accident. Though sporadically reported in newspapers, magnitude of deaths due to autoerotic deaths, particularly in sexually perverts like in transvestism is highly unaddressed. There are several limitations in the data concerning autoerotic asphyxiation. Difficulty in ascertaining the number of practitioners of asphyxiophilia due to the social stigma, lack of statistics available in the Indian literature, relatives often hide the evidence of asphyxiophilic deaths due to the negative societal perception and finally, there is no specific category in the ICD codes for deaths by sexual asphyxiation, hence, these deaths may be misclassified as accidents, suicides, or homicides. As a result, there is probably an underestimation of the rate of death by sexual asphyxiation in Indian setup. We highlight importance of positive interpretation of autoerotic death with regards to death scene circumstantial evidence, past history of lethal and non-lethal paraphilia and autopsy findings in determining manner of death.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1694http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16941. Janssen W, Koops E, Anders S, Kuhn S, Puschel K. Forensic aspects of 40 accidental autoerotic deaths in Northern Germany. Forensic Science International, 2005: 147S; S61–S64.
2. Seidl S. Accidental autoerotic death. In: Tsokos M, editor. Forensic Pathology reviews, Vol 1. New Jersey: Humana Press; 2004. p238
3. Saukko P and Knight B. Knight’s Forensic Pathology. London: Arnold press; 2004. P 595
4. Bhardwaj DN, Rautji R, Sharma RK, Dogra TD. Suicide by a Transvestite or Sexual Asphyxia? A case report. Med. Sci. Law. 2004: 44(2); 174.
5. Anderson HR, Macnair RS, Ramsey JD. Deaths -from abuse of volatile substances: a national epidemiological study. British Medical Journal,1985: 290; 304-307
6. Breitmeier D, Mansouri F, Albrecht K, Bohm U, Troger HD, Kleemann WJ. Accidental autoerotic deaths between 1978 and 1997, Institute of Legal Medicine, Medical School Hannover. Forensic Science International, 2003:137; 41–44
7. Johnstone JM and Hunt AC. Plastic-bag asphyxia in adults. British Medical Journal, 1960; 1714
8. Uva JL. Review: Autoerotic Asphyxiation in the United States. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 1995: 40(4); 574-581.
9. Allnutt SH, Bradford JMW, Greenberg DM, Curry S. Co-Morbidity of alcoholism and the paraphilias. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 1996: 41(2); 234-239.
10. Http://www.dhs.ca.gov/ohb/HESIS/toluene. htm. Accessed on 09/06/2012 11. Vij K. Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology. New Delhi: Elsevier; 2008. P 632.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareSTUDY OF SERUM ADENOSINE DEAMINASE AS AN EFFECTOR OF OXIDATIVE STRESS IN DIABETES MELLITUS TYPE 2
English108115B. Sree Hari BabuEnglish D.Lakshmi LalithaEnglish P.K BeheraEnglish D.S.S.K RajuEnglishDiabetes Mellitus (DM) is the most common disorder characterized by metabolic abnormalities and long term complications. Hyperglycemia is considered a primary cause of diabetic vascular complications and is associated with oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of hyperglycemia in generating oxidative stress if any, in DM Type 2. The study was carried out in 55 patients of DM Type 2 and also in 50 healthy controls. The patients were divided into two groups Group I (n=35) comprising patients of DM Type 2 with out complications and Group II (n=21) comprising patients of DM Type 2 with complications. Various parameters like Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) activity which is found to be a marker of abnormal lymphocyte response and a producer of reactive oxygen species (ROS), Malondialdehyde (MDA) which is a parameter to study increased oxidative stress leading to lipid peroxidation and Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity which is an indicator of antioxidant status were taken into consideration to establish the existence of oxidative stress in DM Type 2. Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) was also assessed to determine the status of diabetic control. The parameters like HbA1c, serum ADA and serum MDA were significantly raised in DM Type 2 cases (both Group I and Group II) when compared to controls. Likewise the mean serum SOD was significantly lower in DM Type 2 patients (both Group I and Group II) as compared to Control group. When the levels of HbA1c, serum ADA and serum MDA in Group II patients of DM Type 2 when compared with those of Group I patients of DM Type 2, they were significantly increased. Likewise the serum SOD in Group II patients of DM Type 2 registered a significant decline as compared to Group I patients of DM Type 2. These alterations in DM Type 2 especially in Group II are ascribed to increased glycation, T-lymphocyte response, oxidative stress and limited defense against the radicals ,which act as harbinger of various metabolic complications.
EnglishHbA1c; ADA; MDA; SOD; Oxidative stress; Lipid Peroxidation.INTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a complex metabolic disorder characterised by chronic hyperglycemia with disturbances of carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action or both. DM Type 2 is a heterogenous group of disorders characterised by variable degrees of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion contributing to hyperglycemia. The metabolic dysregulation associated with DM causes secondary pathophysiological changes in multiple organ systems that impose a tremendous burden on individual. It is the leading cause of end stage renal disease, non traumatic lower extremity amputation and adult blindness.With an increasing incidence world wide, DM is likely to continue to be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. The identification of distinct pathogenic processes in DM Type 2 has important potential therapeutic implications. Hyperglycemia, which is due to insulin resistance, impaired insulin secretion and increased glucose production resulting from environmental and genetic factors acting together is considered as the diagnostic parameter1 . The long term control of DM is judged by levels of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c). The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of hyperglycemia in generating oxidative stress, if any, in Type 2 DM. To this effect, various parametes like Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) activity which is found to be a marker of abnormal lymphocyte response and a producer of reactive oxygen species (ROS), Malondialdehyde (MDA) which is a parameter to study increased oxidative stress leading to lipid peroxidation and Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity which is an indicator of antioxidant status were taken into consideration, to establish the existence of oxidative stress in DM Type 2.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study comprised of 55 patients between age groups 45-65 years of both sexes of DM Type 2 reporting to MIMS, Nellimarla, Vizianagaram for treatment.The patients were divided into Group I (DM Type 2 without complications) and Group II (DM Type 2 with complications). The criteria for the diagnosis of DM were the same as the one which was given by the National Diabetes Data Group 1999. 50 healthy subjects of similar age, sex and socioeconomic status served as controls.The controls were free from any major ailment which could alter the parameters under study. Informed consent was taken from the patients and subjects who participated in the present study. Institutional ethical committee approval has also been obtained. Blood was drawn in the fasting state for Fasting Blood Sugar (FBS) in the fluoridated vial. For HbA1c estimation, the sample was collected in heparinized vial.The samples were collected in plain vials for the estimation of serum ADA, MDA and SOD.Sera were separated from samples and analysis was done. FBS was estimated by GOD-POD method (Trinder 1969)2 .HbA1c was estimated by the method of Trivelli et al 19793 .ADA was estimated by the method of Giusti 19844 .MDA was measured by colorimetric assay with 2- thiobarbituric acid by the method of Satoh 19785 . SOD was estimated by the method of Kakkar et al 19846 .
DISCUSSION
The diagnosis of DM in the present study was based on criteria issued by consensus panel of experts from National Diabetes Data Group (NDDG) 19797 and World Health Organisation (WHO) 19808 , According to these criteria, DM was diagnosed on the basis of the fasting plasma glucose ≥ 126 mg/dl and symptoms of diabetes. The classic symptoms of DM include polyuria, polydypsia, polyphagia and unexplained weight loss. The principal complications associated with DM are retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, angiopathy, susceptibility to infection, dyslipidemia, ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic non ketotic coma. It is observed that in the present study the mean fasting plasma glucose level was significantly raised in both Group I without complications(166.4mg/dl±16.63) and Group II with complications (202.5 mg/dl±20.3) as compared to Control Group(82.86 mg/dl ±11.59). This rise is statistically significant (pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1695http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16951. Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jamesor JL. Harrison’s principles of Internal Medicine Mc Graw Hill .2003;333: 2109-2105. 2. Trinder P. Blood sugar estimation by GODPOD method. Ann. Clin. Biochem.1969; 6: 24-27.
3. Trivelli, LIA.et al Glycosylated Hemoglobin estimation by Ion Exchange Resin Method .New Eng.J.Med 1971; 284:353.
4. Giusti G, Galanti B. Colorimetric method.Adenosine deaminase In: In Bergmeyer Hu, (Ed). Methods of enzymatic analysis, 1984; 3rd ed. Weinheim: Verlag chemie: 315-24
5. Satoh K. Serum lipid peroxide in cerebro vascular disorders determined by a new colorimetric method. Clin.Chim.Acta 1978; 90: 37-43.
6. Kakkar P, Das B, Viswanathan PN. “A modified spectrophotometric assay of superoxide dismutase”. Ind J Biochem Biophysics 1984; 21: 130-2.
7. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and other categories of glucose intolerance. National Diabetes Data Group. Diabetes .1979; 28:1039–57.
8. WHO Expert Committee on Diabetes Mellitus: second report. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 1980; 646: 1–80.
9. Geofrey Becket, Simon Walker, Peter Rae, Peter Ashby .Lecture notes, Clinical Biochemistry, 2006;7: 152.
10. Hovi T, Smyth JF, Allison AC,Williams SC.Role of adenosine deaminase in lymphocyte proliferation.Clin Exp Immunol 1976;23:395-403.
11. Sullivon JL, Oxborne WRA, Wedgewood RJ.Adenosine deaminase in activity in lymphocytes.Br J Haematol1977;37:157-8.
12. Baghanha MF,Pego A,Lima MA et al.Serum and pleural adenosine deaminase correlation with lymphocyte populations.Chest 1990;87:605-10.
13. Hoshino T, Yamada K, Masuoka K, et al. Elevated adenosine deaminase activity in the serum of patients with DM. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1994; 25: 97-102.
14. Kurthul N, pence S, Akarsu E et al.Adenosine deaminase activity in the serum of type 2 diabetis patients.Acta Medica (HradecKralove) 2004; 47(1):33-5.
15. Shiva Prakash M, Chennaiah S,Murthy YSR,Anjaiah E,Anandha Rao S,Suresh C ,Altered Adenosine Deaminase Activity in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, JIACM 2006; 7(2): 114-17.
16. Mokhtari M, Hashemi M, Yaghmaei M, Molashahi F, Shikhzadeh A, Niazi A, Ghavami S. Serum adenosine deaminase activity in gestational diabetes mellitus and normal pregnancy. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2010; 281:623–626.
17. Siddiqi SS, Ahmad J, Islam N, Ashraf SMK, Mishra SP. A Study on the Modulation of Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Activity in Monocytes of Type 2 Diabetic Patients by Antioxidants. JIACM 2011; 12(2): 113-6
18. Gitanjali G,Sudeep G,Neeraja,Mili G,Deepak A, Priyanka S. The effect of hyperglycemia on some Biochemical parameters in Diabetes Mellitus.Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, october 2010; 4: 3181-3186.
19. Abuja PM, Albertini R. Methods for monitoring oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and oxidation resistance of lipoproteins. Clin Chim Acta. 2001 Apr; 306(1-2):1-17.
20. Vasudevan DM, Sreekumari S, Vaidyanadhan K, Text book of Biochemistry.Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers 2011;20:239.
21. Aria K, Lizuka S, Tada Y, Oikawa K, Taniguch N. Increase in the glucosylated form of erythrocyte Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase in diabetes and close association of the nonenzymatic glucosylation with the enzyme activity. Biochem Biophys Acta 1989; 924:292 – 6.
22. Lin J. The association between copper ions and peroxidativereaction in diabetic cataract. Nippon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi1996;100 (9):672 – 9.
23. Zbronska H, Grzeszczak W, Jendryczko A, Zbronski R, Kuzniewicz R. Activity of superoxide dismutase in erythrocytes and leukocytes and levels of zinc and copper in blood of patients with diabetes. Effects of diabetic treatment on examined parameters. Pol Arch Med Wew 1995; 94(3):228 – 34.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28TechnologyANALYSIS OF DEEP GROOVE BALL BEARING USING FEM-A REVIEW
English116119Sumit Kumar DahiyaEnglish A.K. JainEnglishIn a deep groove ball bearing various research has been done for improving the performance .In this paper in various parameters like stress, strain, vibration effect, penetration, failure analysis, deflection and various localized effect on the ball bearing are presented. Even during various operations seizing of bearing was also found. All these failures were determined by using FEM & various method & experimental setup.
EnglishBearing, FEM,ReviewINTRODUCTION
The term rolling bearing includes all forms of roller and ball bearing which permit rotary motion of a shaft. Normally a whole unit of bearing is sold in the market,which includes inner ring, outer ring,rolling element(balls or rollers) and the cage which separates the rolling element from each other. Rolling bearings are high precision, low cost but commonly used in all kinds of rotary machine.it take long time for the human being to develop the bearing from the intial idea to the modern rolling bearing.Deep groove ball bearing is the more popular rolling bearing.normally this kind of bearing is used to support only radial load.the deep groove ball bearing has high load carrying capacity because it has high osculation and relatively large ball diameter. Literature Review In a deep groove ball bearing J. lieblein & M.zelen(1) discussed Fatigue is an important factor in determining the service life of ball bearings. Bearing manufacturers are therefore constantly engaged in fatigue-testing operations in order to obtain information relating fatigue life to load and other factors. Several of the larger manufacturers have recently pooled their test data in a cooperative effort to set up uniform and standardized ball-bearing application formulas, which would benefit the many users of antifriction bearings. These data were compiled by the American Standards Association, which subsequently requested that the National Bureau of Standards perform the necessary analyses. This paper summarizes the principal results of the analyses undertaken by the Bureau, and describes the statistical procedures used in the investigation. Zeki kiral, Hira karugulle (2) discussed dynamic loading of a rolling element bearing structure was modeled by a computer program developed in visual basic programming language.A force model was proposed to model the localized rolling element bearing defects.The enevelop method was employed in the frequency domain analysis.The effect of the rotational speed on the diagonostics of rolling element bearing defects was investigated effect of the structure geometry on the monitoring techniques was studied.An optimum monitoring method could be employed by analyzing the rolling element bearing structure following the procedure proposed in that study. Wouter Ost & Patrick De Baets (3) have discussed failure analysis for the deep groove ball bearing of an electric motor were periodically monitored for vibration, the ball bearing were replaced when before the expected lifetime of the bearing the measured vibration exceeded the tolerated level.The bearing on the axle side of the motor was the locating bearing while the ball bearing of the fan side was mounted as a floating bearing.The outer rings of the fan side bearing showed signs of fretting wear.Through visual inspection,optical microscopy & scanning electron microscopy of the raceways indicated that the bearing were subjected to an axial load. While replacing the deep groove ball bearing by a cylindrical roller bearing can easily prevent the fretting wear on the fan side bearing. Yuon kang & Ping-Chen shen ,et al (4) .study presented a modification of the Jones-Harris Method (JHM) for the determination of deflection in deep groove ball bearing. The finite element method (FEM) & curve fitting have been utilized to modify the load- deflection relationship of Hertz contact formula in JHM, several cases of deep- groove bearings are simulated to determine contact deflection.Results obtained from the modified JHM (MJHM) are more accurate than the JHM result by the comparison between FEM & experiment result, through which accuracy of determination for load – deflection relationship of deep groove ball bearing.The factor & exponent of the load- deflection relationship are determined by using FEM ,experiments have verified that MJHM result are approximately equal to FEM result L.Hua, & D.S.Qiah ,et al (5).discussed the principal of groove ball section ring rolling & characteristic of plastic penetration, a 3-D finite element (FE) analysis model for the plastic penetration of ball groovesection ring is established under ABAQUS software environment. The distribustion pattern of the plastic zone in the process of plastic penetration is reveated by 3D simulation by researching the diffusion rules of the plastic zone under the conditions of different ring radial thickness & feed speed, the influences of ring radial thickness & feed speed on plastic penetration are obtained that result validated by experiment & simulation. Tuncay Karacay, Nizami Akturk(6) . Have discussed vibration measurement & signal analysis was widely used for condition monitoring of ball bearing as their vibration signature reveals important information about the defect development with in them. Each defect produces characteristic vibration in ball bearings. The bearing run through out their life span under constant speed & loading condition vibration signatures produces are recorded & statistical measures are calculated during the test. Vibration spectra are obtained & examined to determine where the defect was on the running surfaces. M.S.Patil, Jose Mathew,et al.(7) have presented analytical model for predicting the effect of a localized defect on the ball bearing vibration. In the analytical formulation the contacts between the ball & the races are considered as non-linear springs, the contact force is calculated using the hertzians contact deformation theory. A computer programmed was developed to simulated the defect on the raceway with the result presented in the time domain & frequency domain. Tang Zhaoping, Sun Jiapping(8). Wrote about the contact analysis in a 3-D model of deep groove ball bearing was built by using APDL language in the finite element software ANSYS, through contact analysis, the change could be showed in stress ,strain, penetration, sliding distance friction stress,among the inner ring, outer ring rolling element & cage . the simulation result revealed that the computational values were consistent with theoretical values. M.Dougdag, M.Ouali et al. (9) have conducted an experimental verification of a simplified model of a nonlinear stiffness ball bearing in both static & dynamic modes & testing its capabilities to simulate effects. Analytical model was developed using a different method comparatively to classical ones the ball’s deformation is obtained without using palmgren’s method. These modification were done in order to realize two objectives . The first one ball bearing stiffness computing & to improve a more realistic simulation of dynamic behavior of a defective ball bearing. To verify experimentally the developed mode of rigidity in both static & dynamic conditions a number of compression test were done on the ball bearing . result of defects simulation & model behavior in statics & dynamics are compared to experimental result. Abhay k. Jha , M.Swathi kiranmayee (10). Have discussed 440c stainless steel of martensitic grade is being extensively used for bearing application because of its high wear & corrosion resistances . during one of the ground test of propulsion system booster pump bearing seized operation after performing its partial intended function. The bearing was removed from the assemebly & cut operation. The ball & outer caging were analyzed used metallographic technique & compared with another bearing taken from the fresh stock. V.N. Patel , N Tandon et al. wrote about the defection of local defects existing on race of deep groove ball bearing in the presence of external vibrations using envelope analysis & doffing oscillator.through these techniques it has been revisited & confirmed that the defect detection in evelope analysis mainly depended on the selection of centre frequency & bandwidth. Centre frequency with several bandwidths have been studied & compared for identification of defective frequency.
CONCULSION
This paper present a review on various method used for the analysis of deep groove ball bearing considering various parameters. The review is presented in the tabular form. It is found that FEM and experimental setup was used in most of the cases. Various parameters are stress, strain , penetration,deflection,vibration effect etc. also the effect of operating condition on the seizing is presented
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1696http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16961. Lieblein & m.zelen “statistical Investigation of the fatigue life of deep –groove ball bearing”.Journal of research of the national bureau of standard vol 57, no 5, nov 1956 research paper 2719
2. Zeki kiral & hira karagulle “simulation & analysis of vibration signals generated by rolling element bearing with defects”.Tribology International 36 (2003) 667-678.
3. Wouter Ost & Patrick de baets “failure analysis of the deep groove ball bearings of an electric motor “Engineering failure analysis 12 (2005) 772-783
4. Yuan Kang Ping-chen shen et.al “A modification of the Jones- Harris Method for deep- groove ball bearings” Tribology International 39 (2006) 1413-1420
5. L.Hua & D.S Qian & L.B.Pan “Analysis of plastic penetration in process of groove ball –section ring rolling” Journal of Mechanical science & Technology . 22 (2008) 1374- 1382.
6. Tuncay Karacay & Nizami A Kturk “Experimental diagnostics of ball bearing using statistical & spectral method. “ Tribology international 42 (2009) 836-843
7. M.S. Patil & Jose Mathew et.al “A theoretical model to predict the effect of localized defect on vibration associated with ball bearing “International Journal of Mechanical science 52 (2010) 1193-1201.
8. Tang Zhaoping & Sun Jianping “The contact analysis for deep groove ball baering based on Ansys “ procedia Engineering 23(2011) 423-428
9. M.Dougdag & m ouali et.al “An experimental testing of a simplified model of a ball bearing : stiffness calculation & defect simulation springer science
10. Abhay K.Jha & M.swathi Kiranmayee et.al “ Metallurgical Analysis of ball bearing seized during operation” ASM- International 1059-9495 11. V.N.Patel & N.Tandon et.al “defect detection in deep groove ball bearing in presence of external vibration using envelope analysis & doffing oscillator “ Journal of measurement 45 (2012) 960-970
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesTRAFFIC ANALYSIS ATTACKS ON ANONYMITY NETWORKS
English120124Vetrivendan. REnglishIn this paper, we focus on a particular class of traffic analysis attacks, flow correlation attacks, by which an adversary attempts to analyze the network traffic and correlate the traffic of a flow over an input link with that over an output link. Two classes of correlation methods are considered, namely time-domain methods and frequency-domain methods. Based on our threat model and known strategies in existing mix networks, we perform extensive experiments to analyze the performance of mixes. We find that all but a few batching strategies fail against flow-correlation attacks, allowing the adversary to either identify ingress or egress points of a flow or to reconstruct the path used by the flow. Counter intuitively, some batching strategies are actually detrimental against attacks.
EnglishTraffic analysis, flow-correlation attack, counter intuitively, detrimental attacks.INTRODUCTION
As the Internet is increasingly used in all aspects of daily life, the realization has emerged that privacy and confidentiality are important requirements for the success of many applications. It has been shown that, in many situations, encryption alone cannot provide the level of confidentiality required by users, since traffic analysis can easily uncover information about the participants in a distributed application. Anonymity Network The anonymity of a system can be passively attacked by an observer in two ways, either through inspection of payload or headers of the exchanged data packets, or, when encryption is used, through traffic analysis. Traffic analysis is typically countered by the use of intermediary nodes, whose role is to perturb the traffic flow and thus confuse an external observer. Such intermediaries (often called mixes) delay and reroute exchanged messages, reorder them, pad their size, or perform other operations. Chum proposed such a mix network to handle mail traffic. The original Chum mix network operates on entire mail messages at a time and therefore does not need to pay particular attention to latency added by the mixes. Increasingly, the data exchanged exceed by far the capacity of mixes, for example, in file-sharing applications. In conjunction with source routing at the sender, this allows for very efficient network-level implementations of mix networks. Mixes are also being used in applications where low latency is relevant, for example, voice-over-IP or video streaming.
Two classes of correlation methods are considered, namely time-domain methods and frequency-domain methods. In the time domain, for example, statistical information about rate distributions is collected and used to identify the traffic dependency. Similarly, in the frequency domain, we identify traffic similarities by comparing the Fourier spectra of timing data. Our experiments indicate that mixes with many currently used batching strategies are weak against flow-correlation attacks, in the sense that attackers can easily determine the path taken by a protected flow.
Related Work
The idea of anonymous communication in 1981. Since then, researchers have applied the idea to different applications such as message-based email and flow-based low-latency communications, and they have developed new defense techniques as more attacks have been proposed. For anonymous e-mail applications. Using relay servers, called mixes, which encrypt and reroute messages. An encrypted message is analogous to an onion constructed by a sender, who sends the onion to the first mix: 1. Using its private key, the first mix peels off the first layer, which is encrypted using the public key of the first mix. 2. Inside the first layer is the second mix’s address and the rest of the onion, which is encrypted with the second mix’s public key. 3. After getting the second mix’s address, the first mix forwards the peeled onion to the second mix. This process repeats all the way to the receiver. 4. The core part of the onion is the receiver’s address and the real message to be sent to the receiver by the last mix.
Terminology
Enhancement of Mix Network
In this module the sender of a message attaches the receiver address to a packet and encrypts it using the mix’s public key. Upon receiving a packet, a mix decodes the packet. Different from an ordinary router, a mix usually will not relay the received packet immediately. Rather, it collects several packets and then sends them out in a batch. Building Batching Strategies Building batching strategies are designed to prevent not only simple timing analysis attacks, but also powerful trickle attacks. We will evaluate each of these strategies to send the packets. Traffic Flow Correlation Traffic flow-correlation used to the adversary either to correlate senders and receivers directly or to greatly reduce the searching time for such a correlation in a mix network.Objective is to correlate an incoming flow to an output link at a Mix. Also find the Flow-correlation attack. Detection Metrics This module used to analyze the detection rate of the traffic attacks. Use detection rate, the probability that the adversary correctly correlates flows into and out of a mix, defined as the measure of success for the attack. We will show that, given a sufficient amount of data, known mix strategies fail.
METHODS
An encrypted message is analogous to an onion constructed by a sender, who sends the onion to the first mix:
1. Using its private key, the first mix peels off the first Layer, which is encrypted using the public key of the first mix.
2. Inside the first layer is the second mix’s address and the rest of the onion, which is encrypted with the second mix’s public key.
3. After getting the second mix’s address, the first mix forwards the peeled onion to the second mix. This process repeats all the way to the receiver
4. The core part of the onion is the receiver’s address and the real message to be sent to the receiver by the last mix.
Mix Network
Different from an ordinary router, a mix usually will not relay the received packet immediately. A mix network, such as Onion Routing network or Tor Network, consists of multiple mixes that are interconnected by a network. Building Batching Strategies Any of the batching strategies can be implemented in two ways: Link-Based BatchingWith this method, each output link has a separate queue. A newly arrived packet is put into a queue depending on its destination (and hence the link associated with the queue). Once a batch is ready from a particular queue (per the batching strategy), the packets are taken out of the queue and transmitted over the corresponding link. Mix-Based Batching In this way, the entire mix has only one queue. The selected batching strategy is applied to this queue. That is, once a batch is ready (per the batching strategy), the packets are taken out the queue and transmitted over links based on the packets’ destination. Each of these two methods has its own advantages and disadvantages. The control of link-based batching is distributed inside the mix and hence may have good efficiency. On the other hand, mix-based batching uses only one queue and hence is easier to manage. We consider both methods. Threat Model :The adversary uses a classical timing analysis attack, which we summarize as follows: The Mix network topology and the general Mix strategies are known to the adversary. This is a natural assumption for many overlay mix networks.
Traffic Flow Correlation
Recall that the adversary’s objective is to correlate an incoming flow to an output link at a Mix. We call this flow correlation. This flowcorrelation attack is harmful in a variety of situations. For example, in the single-mix, the adversary can discover whom sender (say, S1) is talking to (R1 or R2 in this case) by correlating the output traffic at the Mix to S1’s traffic despite cross traffic from S2 or other senders.
Performance Evaluation
Mixes in Networks with Packet Losses Fig.1 & Fig.2
Fig. 2 shows the detection rate for emulated networks using the detection method based on mutual information. We can observe that flowcorrelation attacks approach a 100 percent detection rate when the sample size is sufficiently large. Fig. 3 shows the detection rate when the network is dropping packets. The mix strategy used in this set of experiments is , that is, a timed dynamic-pool Mix with pool size 10, batch size 10, batch interval 10 msec, and forwarding probability 0.5. Based on the results, we make the following observations: 1. The detection rate still approaches 100 percent when the sample size is sufficiently large. 2. The results for small drop rates (5 percent or less) appear to be no different than for no packet drops at all. As expected, for larger drop rates (more than 5 percent) the detection rate is higher than for lower drop rates. The reason for this is that a large number of packet drops makes the timing footprint of the TCP dynamics more obvious. Fig. 4 shows the network setup in this experiment. The center part of the topologies used in experiments is the mix cascade of different number of layers. Each sender on the left side has four flows traversing the mix network. We arrange paths of traffic flows so that each link in the cascade has some number of traffic flows. To simulate the cross traffic in the mix network, four larger aggregates of flows are added to the mix network. According to the selfsimilar nature of the network traffic, the highvolume cross traffic is Pareto distributed.
CONCLUSIONS
The analyzed mix networks in terms of their effectiveness in providing anonymity and quality-of-service. Various methods used in mix networks were considered: seven different packet batching strategies and two implementation schemes, namely the link-based batching scheme and mix based batching scheme. Found that mix networks that use traditional batching strategies, regardless of the implementation scheme, are vulnerable under flow-correlation attacks. By using statistical analysis, an adversary can accurately determine the output link used by traffic that comes to an input flow of a mix. The detection rate can be as high as 100 percent as long as enough data are available. This is true even if heavy cross traffic exists. The data collected in this paper should give designers guidelines for the development and operation of mix networks. The failure of traditional mix batching strategies directly leads us to the formulation of anew packet control method for mixes in order to overcome their vulnerability to flow correlation attacks. Appropriate output control can achieve a guaranteed low detection rate while maintaining high throughput for normal payload traffic. Our claim is validated by extensive performance data collected from experiments.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1697http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16971. D. Chum, “Untraceable Electronic Mail, Return Addresses, and Digital Pseudonyms,” Comm. ACM, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 84-90, Feb.1981.
2. A. Saratov and G. Danzig, “Towards an Information Theoretic Metric for Anonymity,” Proc. Privacy Enhancing Technologies Workshop (PET ’02), R. Dingle dine and P. Ryerson, eds., pp. 41-53, Apr. 2002.
3. C. D?´az, S. Says, J. Claessens, and B. Preneel, “Towards Measuring Anonymity,” Proc. Privacy Enhancing Technologies Workshop (PET ’02), R. Dingle dine and P. Ryerson, eds., pp. 54-68, Apr. 2002.
4. Y. Zhu and R. Bettati, “Anonymity vs. Information Leakage in Anonymity Systems,” Proc. 25th IEEE Int’l Conf. Distributed Computing Systems (ICDCS ’05), pp. 514-524, 2005.
5. O.R.D. Achives, “Link Padding and the Intersection ttack,”http://archives.seul.org/or/dev, 2002. [6] P.F. Ryerson, D.M. Goldschlag, and M.G. Reed, “Anonymous Connections and Onion Routing,” Proc. IEEE Symp. Security and Privacy, pp. 44-54, 1997.
6. R. Dingle dine, N. Mathewson, and P. Ryerson, “Tor: The Second-Generation Onion Router,” Proc. 13th USENIX Security Symp, pp. 303-320, Aug. 2004.
7. M.K. Reiter and A.D. Rubin, “Crowds: Anonymity for Web Transactions,” ACM Trans. Information and System Security, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 66-92, 1998.
8. K. Suh, D.R. Figueiredo, J. Kurose, and D. Towsley, “Characterizing and Detecting Skype-Relayed Traffic,” Proc. 25th IEEE INFOCOM ’06, pp. 1-12, Apr. 2006.
9. Y.J. Pyun, Y.H. Park, X. Wang, D.S. Reeves, and P. Ning, “Tracing Traffic through Intermediate Hosts that Repacketize Flows,” Proc. 26th IEEE INFOCOM ’07, pp. 634- 642, May 2007.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareDOUBLE LATERAL SLIDING BRIDGE FLAP - A LESS TRODDEN PATH FOR THE COVERAGE OF DENUDED ROOTS-A CASE REPORT
English125130R.VijayalakshmiEnglish B.AshwathEnglish Rani ChellamEnglish P.K.SaraswathiEnglishRoot coverage has become an important aspect of periodontal plastic surgery. It is a challenge in the presence of a high frenal pull and inadequate attached gingiva. This article reports a case of gingival recession, which has been treated with double lateral sliding bridge flap. The main advantages of this technique are that it doesn’t require a separate frenectomy procedure and it can be used to cover multiple gingival recession defects, without a second surgical site. The treated case demonstrated adequate root coverage and increase in width of the attached gingiva at three months follow-up.
EnglishRoot coverage, bridge flap, gingival recessionINTRODUCTION
“Pink esthetics” is the terminology of concern in periodontal plastic surgery for root coverage. Gingival recession is an intriguing and complex phenomenon that may present numerous therapeutic challenges to the clinician. Patients are also frequently disturbed by recession owing to sensitivity and esthetics. Gingival recession is the exposure of the root surface by an apical shift in the position of the gingiva1. The term “marginal tissue recession” was proposed by Maynard and Wilson in 19792 to indicate exposure of root surface caused by apical migration of the soft tissue margin. The term was widely accepted because the soft tissue margin may not always be composed of gingiva; it may even be formed only by alveolar mucosa in some instances. For many years the presence of an adequate zone of gingiva was considered critical for the maintenance of gingival health and for the prevention of progressive loss of connective tissue attachment. It is generally acknowledged that an inadequate zone of gingiva would facilitate subgingival plaque formation as well as the apical spread of plaque-associated gingival lesions. Bowers in 19633 stated that it is possible to maintain a clinically healthy gingiva despite a narrow zone of attached gingiva i.e. Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1698http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16981. In the treated case, the double lateral sliding bridge flap technique had been successful in treating gingival recession in the presence of high frenal pull and shallow vestibule and the outcome was dependent on the careful performance of the operation. Carranza, Newman, Klokkevold, Takei. Clinical features of gingivitis: In: Clinical Periodontology 2006;10:369.Bowers G.M. A study of the width of attached gingiva. J Periodontol 1963; 34: 201 – 209.
2. Maynard and Wilson. Physiologic dimensions of the periodontium significant to the restorative dentist. J Periodontol 1979;50:170-174.
3. Bowers G.M. A study of the width of attached gingiva. J Periodontol 1963; 34: 201 – 209.
4. Ainamo J and Löe H. Anatomical Characteristics of gingiva. A clinical and microscopic study of the free and attached gingiva. J Periodontol 1966; 37: 5 – 13.
5. Lang NP, Loe H. The relationship between the width of keratinized gingiva and gingival health. J Periodontol 43: 623-627, 1972.
6. Jan Lindhe, Thorkild Karring, Niklaus P Lang. Mucogingival therapy – Periodontal plastic surgery.In: Clinical Periodontology and Implant dentistry. 2003;4:579.
7. Smith RG. Gingival recession: reappraisal of an enigma condition and a new index for monitoring. J Clin Periodontol 24: 201- 205,1997.
8. Grupe H, Watten R. Repair of gingival defects by a sliding flap operation. J Periodontol 27: 92-95, 1956.
9. Lindhe J, Nyman S. Alterations of the position of the marginal soft tissue following periodontal surgery. J Clin Periodontol 7: 525-530, 1980.
10. Marggraf E. A direct technique with a double lateral bridging flap for coverage of denuded root surface and gingival extension. Clinical evaluation after 2 years. J Clin Periodontol 1985; 12: 69 – 76.
11. Romanos GE, Bernimoulin JP, Marggraf E. The double lateral bridging flap for coverage of denuded root surface. Longitudinal study and clinical evaluation after 5-8 years. J Periodontol 1993;64:683-688.
12. Edlan A and Mejchar B. Plastic surgery of the vestibule in periodontal therapy. Int Dent Journal 1963;13:593-597.
13. Karring T, Lang NP, Loe H. The role of gingival connective tissue in determining epithelial differentiation. J Dent Res 1972;51:1303-1304.18
14. Niklaus P.Lang and Thorkild Karring. Proceedings of the first European Workshop on Periodontology 1994.In: Mucogingival surgery; 193-209.19
15. Miller PD, Jr – Root coverage with free gingival graft: J Periodontol 1987; 58:674 – 681.20
16. Wennström JL. Lack of association between width of attached gingiva and development of soft tissue recession. A 5-year longitudinal study. J Clin Periodontol 1987; 14: 181 – 184.21
17. Ivan Bokan. Potential of gingival connective tissue to induce keratinization of an alveolar mucosal flap: A long-term histologic and clinical assessment. Case report. Quintessence International 1997; 28: 731- 736.22
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesPERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF DOMESTIC REFRIGRERATOR USING WIRE-ON-TUBE CONDENSOR- A REVIEW
English131133Vivek SahuEnglish Pooja TiwariEnglish Abhishek TiwariEnglishThis review article presents the experimental and theoretical analysis of domestic refrigeration system by using wire-on-tube condenser with different spacing of wire, operating parameters like heat transfer rate , condenser pressure and condenser temperature , refrigerating effect is increased by using wire-on-tube condenser comparatively power consumption remain same as with air cooled condenser in a domestic refrigeration system. Therefore wire-on-tube condenser can replace the ordinary air cooled condenser in a domestic refrigeration system.
EnglishHousehold refrigerator, wire-on-tube condenser, heat transfer.INTRODUCTION
Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in which the refrigerant undergoes a phase change. Next to compressors, proper design and selection of condensers and evaporators is very important for satisfactory performance of any refrigeration system. Since both condensers and evaporators are essentially heat exchangers, they have many things in common as far as the design of these components is concerned. However, differences exist as far as the heat transfer phenomena are concerned. In condensers the refrigerant vapour condenses by rejecting heat to an external fluid, which acts as a heat sink. Normally, the external fluid does not undergo any phase change, except in some special cases such as in cascade condensers, where the external fluid (another refrigerant) evaporates. In evaporators, the liquid refrigerant evaporates by extracting heat from an external fluid (low temperature heat source). The external fluid may not undergo phase change, for example if the system is used for sensibly cooling water, air or some other fluid. Earlier different types of condenser slides air cooled condenser, water cooled condenser is been used in a domestic refrigeration system. Air cooled condenser is most popular condenser for a refrigerator. Many researches done in a past ion the condenser, one of them wire-on-tube condenser where main tube is used in a spiral form with vertical wire (fines) with different spacing. Heat transfer rate increased by using this condenser.
Literature Review
1.Bansal et al-
experimental analysis is done by using wire-on-tube condenser in a refrigerator with different operating parameters and compare these results with a simulation modeling finally they optimized the condenser performance.
2.Looza et al-
evaluated the performance of wireon-tube condenser with the help of basic operating parameters and compare with different fin design of condenser.
3.Hoke et al-
they have performed with seven different spacing with wire-on-tube condenser for increasing the air heat transfer rate during operating this experiment new type of coil and heat exchanger is usded.
4.Tanda et al-
they investigated a Nusselt number and operating parameters for predicting the free convections heat transfer from a wire-on-tube condenser.
5.Reeves et al-
the demonstrated the domestic refrigerator performance under of conditions , by using different instrumentations with different range of room temperature.
6.Lee et al-
he developed heat transfer coefficient for wire-on-tube condenser using single layers.
Optimization of condenser
In the past single coil air cooled condenser was used by the refrigerator companies, as the time progressed many changes is done by the researchers to enhance the performance of the condenser, different types of fines and coils with different shapes is now been used to increased the heat transfer rate by the air cooled condenser. Coils having different diameter also been used to increased then over all COP of the vapour compression refrigeration system.
CONCLUSION
Since many experimental and analytical study is done in recent passed on air cooled condenser, earlier R-12 refrigerant used in a refrigeration but because of its harmful effects in a Ozone Depleation Potentioal(ODP) has been replaced by R-134a using this refrigerant in a refrigerator performance is investigated with wire-on tubecondenser and found that heat transfer rate, maintenance cost increased and decreased respectively therefore wire-on-tube condenser can be replaced by the ordinary air cooled condenser used in a domestic refrigerator with out any change in a design of the component of the refrigerator.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1699http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=16991. Numerical analysis and experimental investigation into the performance of a wireon-tube condenser Ahmadul Ameen et al International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 495–504.
2. B. Khastoo, Design and optimization of Iranian refrigerators, Research report in Amirkabir University, vol II, 2001.
3. S. Porkhial, Experimental and mathematical modeling of transient behavior of a domestic refrigerators (improving in refrigerator performance), Ph.D. Thesis, Amirkabir University, Mechanical Engineering Department, 2003.
4. B. Palm, Refrigeration systems with minimum charge of refrigerant, App.Therm. Eng. 27 (2007) 1693–1701.
5. T. Dutto, J.C. Blaise, T. Benedic, Performances of brazed plate heat exchanger set in heat pump, in: Proceedings of the 18th Int. Congr. Refrig., Montreal, Canada, 1991, pp. 1284–1288.
6. M.A. Kedzierski, Effect of the inclination on the performance of a compact brazed plate heat exchanger, Heat Transfer Eng. 18 (1997) 25– 38.
7. Lesson 22 Condenser & Evaporator Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1.
8. A text book of refrigeration and air conditioning by R.S. KHURMI et al with a revised edition 2008.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesISOLATION OF EXTRACELLULAR FUNGAL PECTINOLYTIC ENZYMES AND EXTRACTION OF PECTIN USING KINNOW WASTE AS SUBSTRATE
English134145Yogesh SainiEnglish Ramavtar SharmaEnglish Mukesh KumarEnglish Sumer SinghEnglish Pawan KumarEnglishVarious types of fungal species have been reported to be employed for production of pectinases. As extracellular pectinases are easier to harvest and thus the scale up is cheaper and simpler. Thus in the present study, kinnow waste was used to generate extracellular fungal pectinases from natural sources along withextraction of pectin. Morphological examination of screened isolates revealed that Isolate#1 and Isolate#3 could be of Rhizopusgenus and Isolate#2 could of Aspergillus genus. Aspergillusoryzaevaroryzaewas used as standard fungi in the present. Quantitative estimation of total protein was made to know total enzymatic activities generated from isolates. It was done via SmF as well as SSF and pure pectin resulted in maximum activity among substrates, followed by peel powder and finally pomace. In SmF, among all isolates, Isolate #3 was found to produce maximum total protein and all other enzymatic activities(Total protein-8.69mg/ml/10min, Pectinase-763.82 nmoles/ml/60min, Polygalacturonase activity-99.83 nmoles/ml/10min andPL-1038.68nmoles/ml/15min). Extraction of pectin resulted in 20% yield from kinnow peel powder, 80% Ethanol was found to be suitable for extraction of pectin and 7.3% calcium pectate was obtained.
EnglishKinnowpeels; Polygalacturonase; Aspergillusoryzaevaroryzae; Pectinase; Extracellular fungalINTRODUCTION
Kinnow is one of the most important citrus crops of northern India especially of Punjab, which produces about 0.180 MMT of kinnow, accounting over 50% of the national produce (Hindustan Times; May 7, 2011). Kinnow is highly relished as a fresh fruit owing to its rich organoleptic and thirst quenching properties and has a high appeal. Steps are already underway to harness the immense potential ofthis cropandtap the market, by attacking the major problem of bitterness in extracted kinnow juice. The attempts have been mainly based on curative approaches and of late, preventive approach is also being worked out. Processing and utilization of kinnow into various products eventually leads to generation of waste in form of peels and pomace. Kinnow waste is conventionally biotransformed anaerobically into humus, although many valuable byproducts can be produced from the rich waste. In other words wealth can be derived from this waste by value addition and products such as pectin, peel oil, pomace powder, dietary fibers and predominantly pectinases can be easily harnessed. Of these products, pectin and pectinases have a wide global market. Pectinases accounts for 10% of global industrial enzymes produced and their market is increasing day by day (Stutzenberger, 1992). Pectinases are the group of enzymes, which cause degradation of pectin that are chain molecules with a rhamnogalacturonan backbone, associated with other polymers and carbohydrates. These pectinases have wide applications in fruit juice industry and wine industry. In fruit juice industry, it is used for clarification, where reduction in viscosity is caused which ultimately leads to formation of clear juice. They increase the yield of juices by enzymatic liquefaction of pulps; these pectinases also helps in formation of pulpy products by macerating the organized tissue into suspension of intact cells. In wine industry pectinases are mainly used for decreasing astringency by solubilizing anthocyanins without leaching out procyadin polyphenols, and pectinases also increase pigmentation by extracting more anthocyanins(Tucker and Woods, 1991) Pectinases can be produced by both submerged and solid state fermentation (SSF). Submerged fermentation is cultivation of microorganisms on liquid broth. It requires high volumes of water, continuous agitation and generates lot of effluents. SSF incorporates microbial growth and product formation on or within particles of a solid substrate (Mudgett, 1986) under aerobic conditions, in the absence or near absence of free water, and does not generally require aseptic conditions for enzyme production. Many filamentous fungi like Aspergillusniger, Aspergillus. awamori, Penicilliumrestrictum, Trichodermaviride, Mucorpiriformis and Yarrowialipolytica.etc are used in both submerged as well as solid state fermentation for production of various industrially important products such as citric acid, ethanol etc. Fungi like Aspergillusniger, Aspergillusoryzae, Penicilliumexpansum, which are generally regarded as safe (GRAS) by United States Food and Drugs Administration (USFDA) are employed in food industry (Pariza and Foster, 1983).Some bacteria (Bacillus licheniformis, Aeromonascavi, Lactobacillus etc), yeasts like Saccharomyces, Candida and Actinomycetes like Streptomycetes are also used. Amongst these, the filamentous fungi are most commonly employed (Pandeyet al, 1999). Fungi can produce both intracellular as well as extracellular enzymes. All fungi are hetrotrophic, and rely on carbon compounds synthesized by other living organisms. Small molecules like mono disaccharides fatty acids and amino acids can easily pass through but for breaking down of larger complex compounds like pectin, fungi secrete extra cellular enzymes. It is well known that as compared to intracellular enzymes, the extra cellular enzymes are easier to be extracted. Intracellular enzymes require more time and costly chemicals for extraction (Hankin and Anagnostakis, 1975).Till date, Substrates used for solid-state fermentation are materials of plant origin like grains rice, corn, root, tubers, and legumes. Apart from these, pomace, mango peels, orange waste like peels and other fruit and vegetable industry waste are also being in much use (Smith and Aidoo, 1988) Kinnow waste also holds a promising substrate because of rich pectin content in peels. Sudhakar and Miani (1992) have reported 18.3% pectin in mandarin peels, which is quite close to the pectin content of apple pomace and is utilized for commercial extraction of pectin (Girdharilal et al, 1998). As Pectin is the ideal substrate for production of Pectinases; it was thought that attempts should be made to extract pectinase from kinnow waste after isolation of potential pectinolytic fungi from natural sources. Till now, no report isavailable on pectinase production using kinnow waste as substrate. Also, pectin itself can be extracted from kinnow waste (mainly from peels) as a commercially important by-product. Apple, lemon, orange, mango, tomato, beet, carrots etc are the commonly used sources for extraction of pectin. Of these, mango peels, apple pomace, lemon pulp and orange pulp are most commonly used. Pectin finds wide application in the manufacture of many fruit products like jams, jellies, marmalades, preservatives etc and thus are indispensable to the fruit juice industry. It is also used as a thickening agent for sauces, ketchups, flavored syrups and as a texturing agent in fruit flavored milk desserts (Girdharilalet al, 1998). In view of the above-mentioned points, the present investigation was undertaken and attempts were made to produce pectinases from the isolated fungi from natural sources and to extract pectin from kinnow Waste as substrate.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Material procurement
Kinnow as natural source of pectinolytic fungi Rotten and fungus infected kinnow fruits were collected from different fruit shops/ vendors in Bikaner in the month of January 2012.
Kinnow peels and Kinnowpomace powder
Kinnow peels and Kinnowpomace, which is juice extracted kinnow fruit, were collected from different fruit shops/vendors in Bikaner and also from Plant Biotechnology Cente, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agariculture University ,Bikaner , where another project on kinnow fruit was going on during the course of present study. Kinnow peel powder and pomace powder was made by followingprocedure - Peels and pomace were first washed many a times with water to remove all adhering substances. Small pieces of peels were made using knife and these were then dried in tray drier at 500C for 24 hr with intermittent shaking. Similarly washed pomace was well spread uniformly and dried. The dried kinnow peels and pomace were then made to powder using a mechanical grinder (Philips India limited, Kolkata).
Aspergillusoryzaevaroryzae (as standard)
Freeze dried culture of Aspergillusoryzaevaroryzae (MTCC 3567) were collected from Microbial Type Culture Collection and Gene Bank(MTCC), Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Chandigarh. The culture was activated according to the following method mentioned as by suppliers: 1. Firstly, a mark was made on the ampoule near the middle of cotton wool with a sharp file. The surface around the mark was then disinfected with 100% alcohol. 2. The ampoule was then wrapped with thick cotton wool and marked area was broken, cotton plug was then carefully removed and 0.4ml sterile water was added to make a suspension. 3. The suspension was allowed to stand for 20 minutes, after 20 min, few drops of suspension were streaked onto Medium 117 (Annexure I) in number of petri plates and slants. 4. Rest of the suspension was transferred to 5 ml of Medium 117(broth) in a test tube. 5. The plates were then incubated in BOD at 250C for 5 days. 6. After the growth of fungi, fungal culture was maintained by subculturing the fungi on the same medium throughout the experimental period. Chemicals, media and standard enzyme All the chemicals used in the present investigation were of Analytical grade (AR grade). Dgalacturonic acid and Disodium hydrogen arsenate were procured from Sigma, Aldrich Corp, MO, USA. Polygalacturonic acid, Neocuproine, pectin, Congo red dye was procured from Himedia Laboratories Limited, Mumbai. Standard enzyme- Pectinase was procured from Himedia Laboratories Limited, Mumbai. All the experiments for isolation, screening and pectinolytic enzyme production were done under sterile conditions and adequate safety measures were undertaken (Annexure IX)
Isolation of Pectinolytic fungi
Rotten and fungus infected kinnows were swabbed in 0.8% saline in an autoclaved stomacher bags. Dilutions upto10-8 was made and pour plating of higher dilutions namely 10-5, 10-6, 10-7, and 10-8 was done using melted CzapekAgar (Annexure II). The above dilutions were plated in duplicates. The plates were then incubated at 300C for 12 days. The colonies thus isolated were then subcultured3- 4 times on Czapek agar till active growth of isolates were obtained, and thereafter maintained on the same media for further experimental work.
Screening of isolates having pectinolytic activity
Qualitative test for screening of isolates having pectinolytic activity For screening purpose, Czapek agar having1% pure pectin was used as sole carbon source and Congo red (@150mg/l) was also added in medium, so as to clearly visualize the formed clear zones. Simultaneously, control plate was set having Congo red but without pectin or any other carbon source. Following methodology was adopted for screening of potential isolates -Using a flamed and cooled cork borer, one disc of fungal hyphae from leading edge of actively growing colonies was cut on petri plate. With a flamed and cooled transfer needle, discs were then transferred to Czapek agar media having pectin as sole carbon source. Plates were then incubated at 300C for 12 days. Selection was done on the basis of formation of clear zones and the corresponding diameters were noted during that span of time. Morphological examination of isolates was done using Image Analyser having compound microscope. Quantitative estimation of pectinolytic activity of screenedpectinolytic isolates Quantitative estimation of pectinolytic activity screened isolates was done on submerged as well as solid state fermentation. Submerged Fermentation In order to undertake submerged fermentation firstly pure pectin was used as substrate, subsequently it was replaced by kinnow peel powder and then finally by kinnowpomace powder. For each isolate, 2 flasks were prepared; one was treated as test flask and the other as control flask. In every sterile flask, 1 disc of respective fungal isolate was added and the flasks were properly plugged. The flasks were then incubated in incubator shaker for 12 days at 300C at 250 rpm. Aliquots were withdrawn every 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 day for carrying out assays namely: Total protein, Pectinase assay, Polygalacturonase assay and Pectin Lyase assay according to methods explained in section 3.5. Experiments were also conducted to know the effect of number of fungal discs (1, 2 and 3) as well as amount of pectin 1% and 2% on total protein using the above methodology. Solid State Fermentation Solid State Fermentation was carried out in sterile250ml flasks. Experiments were performed using only kinnow peel powder as sole carbon source. For every isolate and standard fungus, experiments were set up using 5 sterile flasks. Aliquots were drawn after adequate dilution (10 times) on every 0, 3rd, 6th, 9th and 12thday.
Solid State Fermentation was carried as follows:
15g of substrate was taken and 8ml of sterile water was added. One disc of respective fungal hyphae was mixed to 5ml of sterile water and a suspension was made. From this suspension, 1ml was withdrawn and inoculated into each of the 5 flasks. The flasks were then incubated at 300C for respective period of time. For proper aeration, flasks were intermittently shaken. In order to estimate the Total Protein, Pectinase, Polygalacturonase and Pectin Lyase, 10ml ofSterile water was added and then properly mixed; the mixture thus obtained was gently shaken and was filtered using coarse filter paper.The obtained filtrate was then centrifuged and resulting supernatant was used for conducting the assays.
Assays
In order to quantify total protein and pectinolytic enzymes produced via submerged and solid state fermentation, following experiments were conducted: Total protein content (BIURET METHOD) 5mg albumin/ml was used as protein standard Reagents used: Biuret reagent (Annexure III) Firstly standard curve with different concentrations of bovine albuminserum (BSA) namely-100l, 150l, 200l, 250l 300l was made. For analysis of total protein, 3ml of biuret reagent was added to 2ml of test protein solution in a sterile test tube and the mixture was properly mixed. The tubes were then warmed at 370C for 10 min with shaking and finally the tubes were cooled and absorbance was noted at 540nm.
Pectinase assay
WBC Home manual/protocol index methodology was followed to estimate the pectinase activity. Reagents used:
I) 0.1 M Phosphate buffer pH 5.0
ii) Color reagent A (Annexure IV)
Iii) Color reagent B (Annexure V)
IV) D-galacturonic acid-1mg/ml
V) 0.5%Polygalacturonic acid substrate (Annexure
VI)
1. In one test tube 6ml of substrate and 1ml of buffer was added and thenproperly mixed (reagent blank).
2. In second test tube 6ml substrate and 1ml of enzyme solution 0.1mg/mlwas added (test sample).
3. In third test tube 6ml buffer and 1ml enzyme sample at 1mg/ml (sampleblank) was taken.
4. For standard D- galacturonic acid, different concentration 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 ?g of D-galacturonic acid was used.
5. The above three reaction tubes along with standard tubes were incubated at 370C water bath with shaking for 60min±1min. After incubation the tubes were immediately placed into ice water to stop reaction.100µl aliquot was drawn from each tube and was pipetted into another set of tubes also placed on ice water.
6. To each reaction tube and standard tube. 2ml color reagent A and 2ml color reagent B was added, and the mixture was mixed properly by inversion. The tubes were then placed into boiling water bath for 13min±1min. The tubes were then cooled and then 2ml water was added. Again proper mixing was done by inversion. The absorbance was noted at 450nm using water blank and disposable cuvettes were used throughout the assay owing to sticking of formed orange color in cuvettes.
Polygalacturonase (PG)
PG assay was carried by method as described Baldwin and Pressey(1989).
1. In a test tube, 2ml of 0.1M Sodium acetate, .025ml of 0.15 M Sodiumchloride, 0.5ml of 1% polygalacturonic acid and .05ml of enzymesolution was taken. Test tubes were then incubated at 370C for 15 minin water bath with shaking.
2. The above solution was then analyzed for reducing groups following theArsenomolybdate method given by Nelson Somogyi (1952). Reagents usedAlkaline copper tartarate (Annexure VII) Arsenomolybdate reagent (Annexure VII)
i) Aliquots of .1 or .2 ml of above solution was pipetted out in test tube.
ii)0.2,0.4,0.6,0.8,1.0 ml of standard solution (100?g/ml glucosesolution) were taken into series of tubes.
iii) The volume in both sample and standard tubes was made to 2ml with distilled water
IV) 2ml distilled water was pipetted out in separate test tubes to set up ablank. v) 1ml of alkaline copper tartarate reagent was added to each tube
vi) The tubes were then placed in boiling water bath for 10 minutes andthen cooled; and 1ml of arsenomolybdolic reagent was added to alltest tubes taking full precautions
vii) The volume in each tube was then made to 10ml with water
viii) The absorbance of blue color was then determined at 620 nm after10 min.
PectinLyase Assay
Pectin lyase was assayed by measuring the increase in absorbance at 235nm according to method described by Albersheim and Killias (1962). In a properly washed and cleaned test tube 0.2ml of 0.1M Sodium acetate (pH 5.5), 25ml of 0.12M sodium chloride, 0.5ml of 1% pectin (pH 5.5) and 0.05ml of enzyme solution was pippeted out and mixed. The tubes were then incubated at 370C for 15 min in water bath with shaking. 5ml of water was then added to the above reaction mixture and absorbance was then determined at 235nm.
Extraction and estimation of pectin
Pectin was extracted by method given by Rao and Maini, (1999) as shown in Figure 2.1. 15 g of peel powder was weighed and was taken in 150ml flask; to it 30ml of dilute acid .05N Hydrochloric acid was added. Extraction was done by boiling the above mixture at 1000C for 60 min. The marc was then separated from the extract after filtration. The extraction was performed2 Times. Filtrates obtained were then combined and then cooled. Two volumes of absolute alcohol were added to precipitate pectin. Pectin was also precipitated using different strengths of alcohol namely 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, and 50%. Yield of pectin was calculated by the following formula:
Amount of pectin obtained x 100
Yield of pectin = --------------------------------------------
Amount of peel powder
Estimation of pectin (Ranganna, 2000)
The procedure followed was as follows: 1.200mg of dried pectin was weighed into a 1-litre beaker and it was wetted with 2 or 3 ml of 100% alcohol. 2.400ml of water was added with stirring to it. 3. The solution was then boiled and then cooled immediately. 4. Then it was transferred into a 500ml volumetric flask and volume was made up. 5. 200ml aliquot was pipetted out each into two 1l beakers. 6. 250ml water was added and solution was neutralized with 1N Sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein as indicator Afterwards, 10ml of 1N Sodium hydroxide was pipette out in excess with constant stirring and was allowed to stand overnight. 7. Then next day 50ml of 1N Acetic acid was added and after 5minutes25ml of 1N calcium chloride was added with stirring. 8. Solution was allowed to stand for 1 hour, and was then boiled for 2 min. 9. The solution was filtered using previously prepared filter paper (filter paper was made wet in hot water, dried in oven at 1020C for 2 hours, cooled in a dessicator and weighed in a covered dish) precipitate obtained was washed thoroughly with boiling water. 10. In an originally weighed dish, the filter paper containing calcium pectat was transferred and was dried overnight at 1000C. 11. Weighing dish was cooled in dessicator and then it was finally weighed. % Calcium pectate was calculated using following formula:
Wt of calcium pectate x 500 x 100
% Calcium Pectate = -----------------------------------------------
Ml of filtrate taken x wt of
Sample taken for estimation
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The present investigation was undertaken in order to harness the valuable products namely fungal pectinases as well as pectin from waste obtained from processing/ utilization of kinnow fruits. As it is well reported that certain sporulating strains like Aspergillusniger, Aspergillusoryzae, Rhizopusoryzaeetc have pectinolytic activity, the purpose was to screen similar isolates from nature and employee them for the production of pectinolytic enzymes. Only extracellular pectinases were targeted because in comparison tointracellular pectinases, extracellular are easier to harvest and scaling up work can be more easily attempted. Furthermore, as the isolated strains were to thrive only on pectin, pectin content of kinnow fruit was determined. The results of experiments performed to quantify enzymatic activity as well as amount of pectin are being systematically represented below.
Isolation of pectinolytic fungi
The collected rotten and fungus infected fruits were used as source of natural pectinolytic fungi and such fruits were collected in the month of January 2012. From the collected samples, eight potential fungi were screened for pectinolytic activity on selective media (Czapek media having pure pectin as the only carbon source) in duplicates, by taking higher dilutions from 10-5 to10-8 . Plates having Czapek media without any carbon source were treated as control, which showed no sign of growth. Based on visual observance, only three isolates gave clear zones of diameter 2.3mm to 4.1mm as shown in Plate 4.1 -4.3. In the first isolate, clear zone of diameter 2.9mm was observed on 4th day of its incubation at 300C, for the second isolate clear zone of diameter 2.2mm was observed on 6th day of its incubation, and for isolate#3 zone of 4.1mm was observed on 4th day; thereafter excessive growth was seen in each plate thus covering entire plate by mycelia. On the basis of literature review, Aspergillusoryzaevaroryzae and Rhizopusoryzae were treated as standard. Freeze dried culture of R. oryzae failed in being activated even after performing repeated trials. Thus onlyAspergillusoryzaevaroryzae was treated asstandard in the present study.
Morphological examination of the screened isolates
Morphological examination of screened isolates was performed using Image Analyser with compound microscope. Isolate # 1 and Isolate # 3 showed clear aerial hyphae, and black colored spores were also found by macroscopicalexamination microscopic examination showed presence of sporangiospores in sporangia at the tip of fertile hyphae, the sporangiophore. Sporangiophoreswere arising from the nodeand sporangia were present at the end of sporangiophores. The swollen tip of sporangiophorecolumella, projecting into sporangia, was also seen. Rhizoid like structures were also found arising from node as shown in Plate .4 (a and b) and in Plate 3.6 (a and b). As these characters belong to Rhizopus genus from this observation it can be inferred that Isolate # 1 and Isolate # 3 belongtoRhizopus genus. Isolate #2
showed definite zones of growth and mycelia were greenish. Spore bearing heads were seen as large and globular and were tightly packed.Chains of conidia were also seen. Conidia weregreenish in color. From these observations, it can beinferred that Isolate#2 might be belonging to Aspergilus genus (Plate3.5 a and b).
ANNEXURE
ANNEXURE
I Medium 117 Composition of Czapek yeast extract agar (CYA) Czapekcocncentrate 10.0ml K2HPO4 1.0g Yeast extract 5.0g Sucrose 30.0g Agar 15.0g Disttiled water 1.0L Czapek Concentrate
NaNO3 30.0g KCl 5.0g MgSO4.7H2O 5.0g FeSO4.7H2O 0.1g Distilled water 100.0ml
ANNEXURE II
Czapek agar Stock solution A50.0ml Stock solution C50.0ml Sucrose 30.0g Zinc solution 1ml Copper solution 1.0ml Agar 20.0g Distilled water 1 litre Stock solution A NaNO3 4.0g KCl 1.0g MgSO4.7H2O 20.0mg Distilled water 100.0ml Zinc solution ZnSO4.7H20 1.0g Distilled water 100.0ml Stock solution C K2HPO4 2.0g Distilled water 100.0ml Copper solution CuSO4.5H2O 0 .5g Distilled water 100.0 ml
ANNEXURE III
Biuret reagent Copper sulphate 3.0g Sodium potassium tartarate 9.0g (in 500ml of 0.2M/L Sodium hydroxide) Sodium iodide 5.0g Make up to 1L with 0.2mol/litre Sodium hydroxide
ANNEXURE IV
Color reagent A Sodium carbonate 40.0g (in 600ml water) Glycine 16.0g Copper sulphatepentahydrate Make up to 1L with Color reagent B Neocuprine-HCl 0 .450g
ANNEXURE V
1.2g Make up to 1 L with water and store at 40C in a brown bottle
ANNEXURE VI
.5% Polygalacturonic acid substrate Heated 500ml Phosphate buffer on hot plate. While heating slowly 2.5g polygalacturonic acid is slowly added. Heated and stirred until dissolved, cooled and stored at 40C.
ANNEXURE VII
Alkaline Copper tartarate (A) Anhydrous sodium carbonate 2.5g Sodium bicarbonate 2.0g Potassium sodium tartarate 2.5g Anhydrous sodium sulphate 20.0g Dissolved in 80 ml water and make up to 100 ml (B) Copper sulphate 15g. Dissolved in small amount of water added 1 drop of Sulphuric acid and make up to 100ml. Mix 4mlof B and 96 ml of A.
ANNEXURE VIII
Arsenomolybdate reagent Ammonium molybdate 2.5g Sulphuric acid 2.5ml Disodium hydrogen arsenate 0.3g(dissolved in 25ml water) Mixed well and incubated at 370C for 24 to 48 hours
ANNEXURE IX
Biosafety precaution while performing experiments
1. Hand gloves and mouth covers were worn while performing all fungal experiments in sporulating rooms.
2. Sporulating room was properly fumigated before performing experiments.
3. Discarded the fungi by properly autoclaving the flasks after performing experiments. Precautions taken during Nelson Somogyi method
1. Mouth covers and hand gloves were worn while handling dihydrogensodium arsenate, as it is very carcinogenic.
2. Mouth pippeting was completely avoide
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank the almighty whose blessings have enabled me to accomplish my dissertation work successfully. It is my pride and privilege to express my sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Ramavtarsharma, Associate Professor Plant Biotechnology Centre, Swami keshwanad rajasthan agriculture university, Bikaner for her valuable advice, splendid supervision and constant patience through which this work was able to take the shape in which it has been presented. It was her valuable discussions and endless endeavors through which I have gained a lot. Her constant encouragement and confidence-imbibing attitude has always been a moral support for me.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesPROTEASE ACTIVITY OF PEPTOCOCCUS ACTIVUS
English146151Zinnat ShahinaEnglish Mohammad Towhid HossainEnglish Mohammad Abdul HakimEnglishPeptococcus activus are anaerobic, non motile, non spore forming gram positive cocci. The objective of this study was to investigate the availability of this bacteria and their ability to protease production. Eleven different bacterial colonies were isolated from shrimp and dry fish(shrimp).Of them, eight colonies(Z1-Z8) were isolated from shrimp and rest of the three isolated from dry fish (Z9-Z11).Among them peptococcus activus which was named Z10 before identification exhibited highest protease production at temperature 37ºC,medium pH 5.0 and 48 hours of incubation period. Maximum protease activity was achieved at 400C for 70 minutes and pH 5.0 along with 2% gelatin as substrate concentration during enzyme substrate reaction.
EnglishPeptococcus activus ,Protease, Extracellular protease, enzyme activity.INTRODUCTION
Proteases represent the class of enzymes which play an important role as well as their commercial applications. Commercial proteases account for nearly 60% of the total industrial enzyme market. This proteolytic enzyme finds numerous applications in pharmaceutical, food and detergent industries [1]. Proteases of commercial importance are produced from microbial, animal and plant sources [2].Microorganisms are a great source of proteases owing to the limited space required for their cultivation and their ready susceptibility to genetic manipulation. For the production of enzymes for industrial use, isolation and characterization of new promising strain is a continuous process[3].As protease represents one of the major groups of industrial enzymes, it is worthwhile to screen microbes from new habitats for proteases with novel properties to meet the needs of rapidly growing industries[4]. The aim of this study was to isolate a bacterium capable of producing protease which was isolated from dry fish. The ability of the bacteria to grow and produce protease under different environmental conditions was studied. The microorganism was capable of producing large amount of protease when the condition varies. Effects of pH, temperature and substrate concentration of protease were evaluated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Microorganisms
The study of protease activity by the bacterial isolate Peptococcus activus was carried out at the Department of Microbiology, University of Chittagong, starting from August 2006 to April 2007, which were isolated from dry fish(shrimp). Isolation and screening of the isolates For the isolation of proteolytic microorganisms enrichment technique was followed. Primary screening was done by three methods – Boiled egg albumin degradation, Skimmed milk casein hydrolysis and Gelatin hydrolysis. During secondary screening 3 different broth media such as (i) Peptone 2%-yeast extract 1%,dextrose 2% [5],(ii) Tryptone 1%-yeast extract 0.5%-dextrose 0.1% [6],(iii) Gelatin 1%- yeast extract-0.2%-glucose 1%-K2HPO4-0.3%- KH2PO4 0.1%-MgSO4.7H2O trace [7] broth were used. Measurement of enzyme activity Protease activity was done by the modified method of Hayashi et.al.,[8],as followed by Meyers and Ahearn [9].Enzyme solution (3ml) was incubated with 3ml of 1% casein as substrate in 3ml of citrate phosphate buffer at 350C in a water bath for 1 hour. The reaction was terminated by 20% TCA and was further incubated for 1 hour it was then filtered through Whatman no.40.One ml enzyme substrate mixture was taken into a test tube and to this 2ml of 20% Na2C03 was added, followed by 1 ml of Folin Ciocalteu Reagent was added and shaken well. After 30 minutes 6ml distilled water was added and absorbance of the solution was measured at 650 nm in a spectrophotometer. The amount of amino acid released in the reaction was calculated from a standard curve previously plotted from the known concentration of tyrosine. Enzyme activity was expressed in Unit, which was defined as the amount of enzyme that releases 1 ?g of tyrosine /ml of crude extract /hour. Optimization of culture conditions A. Effect of incubation time, temperature and medium pH To ascertain the effect of culture conditions the present study was carried out at different incubation time (24, 48, 72 and 96 hours), pH (such as 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 and 8.5 respectively) and temperature (such as 30?2 0C, 37?2 0C, and 45?2 0C respectively).Their effect of temperature on biomass characteristic, biomass yield and protease production was recorded. B. Effect of carbon sources The production of extracellular proteases using different carbon source and the original nitrogen source (peptone) were studied in the liquid culture medium [6]. Five carbon sources (sucrose, dextrose, fructose, starch, and maltose) were added to the medium and their effect on the production of protease, extracellular protein and biomass yield were recorded. Factors affecting enzyme activity To determine the optimum condition for the crude enzyme activity several factors such as pH (ranging form 5.0 to 8.5), optimum temperature (35 to 45?2 0C), incubation time (50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 minutes ), substrate concentration (i.e. 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0%) substrate specificity (using Casein, Egg albumin, BSA and Gelatin) were observed for highest enzyme activity. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Primary screening confirmed that the strain Z10 showed greater albumin degradation, casein and gelatin hydrolysis. After primary screening this bacteria allowed to grow in three liquid media and maximum enzyme activity was found in the trypton-yeast extract-dextrose broth. On the basis of morphological (including size, shape; arrangement of the cell; presence and absence of spores; acid fast reaction, gram reaction etc), cultural, physiological and biochemical properties the strain was characterized. Then compared with the standard description of “Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology”, 8th ed. [10]. The bacterial isolate Z10 was found to belong to the genus Peptococcus and provisionally identified as Peptococcus activus (Fig: 1.a,b,c,d, e & f). Optimization of different cultural conditions Effects of incubation period The Bacterial isolate Z10 (Peptococcus activus) showed maximum protease production 48.61 U/ml) after 48 hrs of incubation period (Fig-2.a) but highest biomass (1.020 absorbance at 600nm) was recorded after 72 hrs of incubation time. The pH of the culture filtrate were ranged from 5.05 to 5.77 . Production of maximum protease within 48-hours by bacteria was reported by Das et al. [11]. Effects of temperature The influence of incubation temperature on protease production by bacteria was studied by several workers [12-13].Among the different incubation temperatures tested for protease production 37ºC was found to be optimum for this isolate. At this temperature highest protease activity was 52.5 U/m1 and the highest biomass yield was 1.072 absorbance at 600nm (Fig-2.b). Effects of pH In the present study, maximum protease production was achieved at medium pH 5.0 (Fig-2.c). Production of protease at acidic medium pH ranged form 4.5 to 6.5 by microbes was observed by North [14]. Effect of carbon source Maximum production of protease was achieved by the isolate when gelatin was used as a nitrogen source and glucose as a carbon source (Fig-2.d). Factors involved in enzyme activity Enzyme activity depends upon the pH, temperature, incubation time, substrate concentration and many others factors. So it is necessary to find out different limiting factor for maximum activity of proteases.Thus the crude enzymes obtained were studied for the determination of different factors for maximum protease activity. Enzyme-substrate reaction incubation time The culture filtrate of bacterial isolate Z10 exhibited highest protease activity when enzyme substrate reaction mixtures were incubated at 40 ºC for 70 minutes (Fig-3) Substrate concentration The crude enzyme extract of isolate Z10 (Peptococcus activus) were allowed to react with different substrate concentrations(0.5- 3.0%) and maximum activity was recorded with 2.0% substrate concentration (fig-4). Substrate specificity Different substrate such as casein, gelatin, bovine serum albumin (BSA) and egg albumin were used to observe the efficiency of enzyme activity on different substrate and gelatin gave the highest value of activity (77.8 U/ml) with the crude of bacterial isolate Z10 (Peptococcus activus) (Fig-5). Temperature and pH Temperature and pH are also most important limiting factors, which markedly influenced enzyme activity. Maximum protease activity of crude enzyme extract of bacterial isolate Z10 was recorded at temperature 40ºC and pH 5.0 (Fig:6).similar temperature was also observed by Lee [15].
CONCLUSION
The inability of the plant and animal proteases to meet current world demands has led to an increased interest in microbial proteases. Proteases from microbial sources are preferred to the enzymes from plant and animal sources since they possess almost all the characteristics desired for their biotechnological applications. Despite the extensive research on several aspects of proteases, there is a paucity of knowledge about the roles that govern the diverse specificity of these enzymes. Deciphering these secrets would enable us to exploit proteases for their application in biotechnology. Further investigation on this bacterial (peptococcus activus) species can possibly reveal it’s potentiality as a source of protease for any biotechnological approach.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of their manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1701http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17011. Moon, S. H. and S.J. parulekar. 1991. A parametric study of protease production in batch and fed-batch cultures of Bacillus firmus. Biotechnol. Bioengg., 37: 467-483.
2. Patel, P.R., 1985.Enzymes iaolation and purification. In: Biotechnology: Applications and Research. Technomic Publishing Co. Inc., USA, pp: 534-564.
3. Kumar., A. Sachdev., A. Balasubramanyam., SD. Saxena., AK. And Lata, 2002. Optimization of conditions for production of Neutral and Alkaline protease from species of Bacillus and Pseudomonas. Ind. J. Microbiol.42:233-236.
4. Kumar, D., Savitri, N. Thakur, R. Verma and T. C. Bhalla, 2008.Microbial proteases and application as laundry detergent additives. Res. J. Microbial., 3: 661-672.
5. Amar, J.S., and Halvorson, H.O. 1975. Proteinase activities of Saccharomyces cerevisiae during sporulation. Journal of Bacteriol. 124(2): 863-869.
6. Matta,H.,V.Punj and S.S.Kanwar,1997.An immuno-dot assay for detection of thermostable protease from Pseudomonus sp.AFT-36 of dairy origin.Appl.Microbiol.,25:300-302.
7. Shalinisen and Satyanarayana, T. 1993. Optimization of alkaline protease production by thermophilic Bacillus licheniformis S-40. Indi J. Microbiol. 33(1): 43-47.
8. 8.Hayashi,L.D.,D.Fukushima and K.Mogi,1967.Agr.Biol.chem.., Tokyo,31:1237-1241.Cited from Physiology and Parasitism.Edt.By G.P.Agarwal and K.S.Bilgrami.Today and tomorrow’s printers and publishers,New Delhi,India,pp:194.
9. Meyers,S.P. and D.G.Ahearn, 1977. Mycologia,69:649-651. Cited from Physiology and Parasitism.Edt.By G.P.Agarwal and K.S.Bilgrami.Today and tomorrow’s printers and publishers,New Delhi,India,pp:195.
10. Buchanan,R.E. and Gibbons,N.E.(8th eds),1974.The William and Wilkons Co.Baltimore.
11. Das,F.,Hossain,MD.T.and Anwar,M.N.2005.Protease production by Bacillus Sphericus.TheChittagong univ.j.Sci,29(1):71-76.
12. Al-Saleh, A.A. and Zahran, A.S. 1997. Protease production by Pseudomonas fleorescens CM12 isolated from raw camel milk. Egypt. J. Dairy Sci. 25 (2): 327-336.
13. Sharmin, S., Hossain, M.T. and Anwar,M.N.2005. Isolation and characterization of a protease producing Bacteria Bacillus amovivorus and optimization of some factors of culture conditions for protease production, Journal of Biological Sciences 5(3):358-362.
14. Lee W., Young-Jecho, Gyu-Mok S. and Cheong Choi. 1992. Characteristic and action pattern of alkaline protease produced from Bacillus sp. CW-1121. Korean Biochem J. 24(6): 537-542.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareBIFID INTRATHORACIC RIB A RARE ANATOMICAL VARIATION
English152155Rohini. S. KoriEnglish Londhe Shashikala R.English Samreen PanjakashEnglishBifid intrathoracic rib is very rare anomaly of the rib that is characterized by an osseous prominence of a rib into thoracic cavity. We came across two right sided bifid ribs while teaching in department of anatomy, Al- Ameen medical college Bijapur. These ribs bifurcated at the sternal ends, in rib 2 it was 2.4cm and in rib 1 it was 3.3cm behind the costochondral joint as in fig. 1. Both bifurcated sternal ends had depressions at the tips for costal cartilages. Remaining features of the ribs were similar to normal rib. Bifid ribs are asymptomatic and associated with other diseases. Bifid ribs are common in 3rd or 4th rib. Knowledge of this malformation is needed for the differential diagnosis with other diseases such as chest wall tumor or rib fracture.
EnglishIntrathoracic bifid rib, anatomical variation, developmentINTRODUCTION
In the thoracic cage there are 12 bilateral ribs which are classified as true ribs upper 1 to 7, false ribs 8 to 10 and floating ribs 11 and 12. Another classification is atypical ribs are 1, 2, 10, 11, 12 and remaining are typical ribs. Each rib has two ends vertebral and Sternal, shaft in between two ends has two surfaces outer and inner, two borders upper and lower. Vertebral end has head which articulates with body of thoracic vertebra, tubercle which articulate with transverse process of same vertebra. Sternal end is flat articulates with costal cartilage and form costochondral joint, cartilage articulate with sternum and form chondro sternal joint.1a Ribs usually develop in association with the thoracic vertebrae occasionally they can arise from the C7 - L1 vertebrae. Each rib originates from the caudal half of one sclerotome and the cranial half of the next subjacent sclerotome. Head develops from sometocele cells from one somite which migrate with the caudal half of the sclerotome. The proximal portion of the rib forms from both caudal and cranial sclerotomal halves, there is no mixing of cells from these origins. The distal portion of rib forms from caudal and cranial sclerotomal halves, these cells mix as the rib extends into the ventral body wall and segmentation diminishes. Ribs 1-7 (vertiberosternal) curves round the body wall to reach the developing sternal plates. Ribs 8-10 (vertebrochondral) are progressively more oblique and shorter, only reaching the costal cartilage of the rib above and contributing to the costal margin. Ribs 11and12 are free (floating) and have cone shaped terminal cartilages to which muscles become attached.1b
MATERIAL AND METHOD
We got two bifid ribs in department of anatomy Al-Ameen medical college Bijapur. Rib 1 was 21.5cm long, width at midpoint of rib 1.5cm, width of the shaft at bifircation2.5cm, width of upper divided part 0.9cm, width of lower divided part 1.1cm, length of upper divided part is 2.4cm, length of lower divided part 2.5cm and length of the space between two bifurcated parts at the tip 1.2 cm. Rib 2 was 20.5cm long, width at the midpoint of rib1.5cm, width of the shaft at bifurcation 2.9cm, width of upper divided part 1.1cm, width of lower divided part 1.2cm, length of upper divided part 2.8cm, length of lower divided part 3.8cm, length of the space between two bifurcated parts at the tip 1 cm. We compared total length of these ribs with total length of 3rd and4th rib of articulated skeletons in our department; these bifid ribs were correlated with 3rd rib so these bifid ribs may be 3rd number rib.
DISCUSSION
Bifid rib is a rare anomaly. Hiroshi Kamano etal reported second case of this type of intrathoracic rib worldwide. They reported a 21- year old woman with bifid intrathoracic rib arising from the anterior-lateral portion of a depressed 4th rib, based on finding from chest radiography and computed tomography (CT). 2 Wu-chul song etal reported bifid ribs in three different cases. Case 1 was 80 year old male cadaver with a right fourth rib around costochondral joint. The bifid space between upper and lower division was round, the two cartilaginous divisions reunited and articulated with sternum. The breadth of the upper and lower divisions was smaller than those of the third and fifth ribs, upper intercostal space was narrowed and lower intercostal space was slightly widened. Bifid space was supplied by anterior intercostal artery and intercostals nerve ran along the costal groove of the lower division. Case 2 was 59 year old male cadaver with a bifid right fourth rib around a costochondral joint, The morphology was similar to case 1, but bifid space was triangular. Case 3 was 50 year old male cadaver with a bifid right fourth rib, bifid space was very large and round and lower intercostal space was narrower than case 1 and 2.Cotal cartilages were covered with calcified cortex in case 1 and 2 but in case 3 costal cartilage was not calcified.3 Osawa T etal observed three cases of bifid ribs in two cadavers during routine dissections. All of the cases were found in the third or fourth rib. The distal pats of the osseous rib bifurcated with an acute angle of 60 degrees and both of the branches had their own costal cartilage. The costal cartilage fused again to form the trunk which was connected to the sternum. The space between two segments was filled by intercostal muscles. Blood supplied by branch of internal thoracic artery and nerve ran along with lower margin of lower segment.4 N. Bottosso and B. Ghaye observed bifid intrathoracic rib in a 79 year old man admitted for routine check- up following resection of melanoma. He had no medical history except appendectomy and cholecystectomy two years earlier, radiography and CT of chest were performed, patient was symptom-free. The anomaly originated from the inferoposterior margin of 6th rib.5 Benjamin J. etal reported a bifid fifth rib in a 9 year old girl. A 9 year old girl was brought to pediatric clinic complaining of chest pain on the right side because of minor fall. Chest radiograph was performed as part of the initial work up. Film did show a bifid fifth rib on right side.6 Little information exists in the medical literature about the clinical significance of bifid ribs. One syndrome, however, does appear in association with bifid ribs. Basal cell nevus syndrome, also called Gorlin-Goltz syndrome, is a multisystem disorder that predominately affects the white population. Cutaneous manifestations of this disease include epidermal cysts palmoplantar pits, facial milia and subcutaneous calcifications.7 Skeletal defects are also found, including costal anomalies such as bifid ,splayed or synostotic ribs associated with the cervical spine.8 The disorder, though rare, is well described in the medical literature. The incidence is estimated at 1 per 600,000 live births, it is most commonly inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. 60% to 70% of patients with diagnosed Gorlin-Goltz syndrome demonstrate rib anomalies. 8, 9
CONCLUSION
The proximal portion of the rib develops from both caudal and cranial sclerotomal halves; there is no mixing of cells from these origins. Any change or variation at this stage of development might be the region of bifid rib.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1702http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17021. Standring S, Johnson D, Ellis H and Collins P. Gray’ s Anatomy. 39th Edition. Churchill Livingstone, London, 2005. pp. 955-59,
2. Standring S, Johnson D, Ellis H and Collins P. Gray’s Anatomy. 39th Edition. Churchill Livingstone, London, 2005. pp.796.
3. Hiroshi Kamano, Takuo Ishihamo, Hidenobu Ishihama, Yoshitsugu Kubota,Terukazu Tanaka and Katashi Satoh. Bifid Intrathoracic Rib: a Case Report and Classification of Intrathoracic Ribs. Internal Medicine . 2006; 45(9): 627-30.
4. Wu-Chul Song, Sang-Hyun Kim, DaeKyoonPark and Ki- Seok Koh. Bifid Rib: Anatomical Considerations in Three Cases. Yonsei Med J. 2009 April 30; 50(2): 300-03.
5. Osawa T, Sasaki T, Matsumoto Y, Tsukamoto A, Onodera M, NaraE, Chen JK, Fujimura A, Nozaka Y. Bifid ribs observed in the third and the fourth ribs. Kaibogaku Zasshi. 1998 Dec; 73(6):633-35.
6. N. Bottosso, B Ghaye. Bifid Intrathoracic rib. JBR-BTR.2008; 91:86-87.
7. Benjamin J, Lawner, EMT- P, OMS IV. Bifid Fifth Rib in a 9- Year- Old Girl With Chest Pain. J Am Osteopath Assoc.2006 1 June; 106(6): 359-60.
8. Crutchfield CE, Geiger J, Gorlin RJ, Ahmad I. What syndrome is this? Pediatr Dermatol. 2000 ; 17:484-86.
9. Bakaeen G, Rajab LD, Sawair FA, Hamdan MA, Dallal ND. Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome: a review of the literature and a report of a case. Int J Pediatr Dent.2004; 14:279-87.
10. Bitar GJ, Herman CK, Dahman MI, Hoard MA. Basal cell nevus syndrome: guidelines for early detection. Am Fam Physian.2002; 65:2501-04.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28General SciencesTHERMODYNAMIC AND SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION OF POLAR PROTIC SOLUTIONS OF L. ARGININE MONO HYDROCHLORIDE
English156167K. KannagiEnglish E. Jasmine Vasantha RaniEnglish R. PadmavathyEnglish N. RadhaEnglishFTIR spectroscopic techniques are widely used as a tool with unique capability and sensitivity. The shift and splitting up of the frequencies of molecular ions are interpreted in terms of molecular interactions. In the present investigation an attempt is made to correlate the spectroscopic results with thermodynamic study of L. Arginine mono hydrochloride in non-aqueous solutions. FTIR spectra of L. Arginine mono hydrochloride solutions and pure solvent are recorded. The observed vibrational spectra are analysed. Thermodynamic parameters such as internal pressure, free volume, Rao’s constant, Wada’s constant and adiabatic compressibility are measured. The results obtained from FTIR ananlysis are found to be in good agreement with the thermodynamic studies.
EnglishInternal pressure, Free volume, Vibrational spectraINTRODUCTION
The molecular behaviour of liquids can be investigated both by spectroscopic and nonspectroscopic methods[1]. The ultrasonic velocity measurement is a unique technique for the characterization of structure and properties of liquid and solution[2]. During the past decades, studies of ultrasonic velocity have been carried out to investigate the hydration of proteins using volume and ultrasonic measurements because these properties are sensitive to the degree and nature of hydration.[3,4] The amino acids and proteins are the basic components which have been investigated in detail with respect to their thermodynamical behavior in solutions[5]. Salt solutions have large effects on the structure and properties of proteins, including such properties like solubility and dissociation[6,7]. In the present work L.Arginine monohydro chloride in non-acqueous solution is analyzed for the specific bonding interactions. The ultrasonic velocity along with other experimental data such as density and viscosity furnish wealth of information about the interaction between ions-dipoles, hydrogen bonding, multi-polar and dispersive forces[8]. Internal pressure is the important thermo dynamic parameter to determine the various molecular interactions occurring in the solution[9]. FTIR spectroscopic study finds wide spread application in qualitative and quantitative analysis of many components and it is well employed to understand the nature of interatomic bonding and for the identification of the various phases present in the sample and shifts in frequencies[10]. L-Arginine mono hydrochloride is commonly used in cell culture media and drug development.
EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
L-Arginine monohydrochloride solutions of different concentration is prepared with AR grade salt. It is used without further purification. The sample solution is studied at different concentrations (0.001, 0.01, 0.05,0.1, 0.2) mol. d.m-3 with an accuracy of 0.0001gm is maintained. The density of the solutions is determined using 25ml specific gravity bottle, using the thermostatic bath with a compressor unit. A Cannon Fenske viscometer (10ml) is used for the viscosity measurements. Variable bath interferometer having a frequency of 2MHz (Mittal Enterprises, New Delhi) with overall accuracy of 0.1% is used for velocity measurements. The fundamental parameters such as density, viscosity and ultrasonic velocity are measured for different molalities in the temperature range of 278.15K to 328.15K. The FTIR spectrum of this solution is recorded in the region of 4000-400 cm-1 using (PERKIN ELMER) model SPECTRUM RXI FTIR spectrometer. The following formulae are used for the computation of Internal Pressure (π i), Free Volume(Vf), Rao’s constant and Wada’s constant:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Internal Pressure and Free Volume Internal pressure and free volume are easily measurable parameters which are fundamentally responsible for various interactions occurring in the solution[11]. Internal pressure can be expressed as sum of an attractive and repulsive contribution. The attractive forces mainly comprise hydrogen bonding. Dipole-dipole, multipolar, and dispersion interactions. Repulsive forces, acting over very small intermolecular distances, play a minor role in the cohesion process under normal conditions[12]. Generally, the significance of the internal pressure and its correlation with the solubility parameter (widely used for instance in paints, pharmaceutics, polymers, and petroleum industry) has been discussed among others in review articles by Dack [13] and Barton [14]. Internal pressure varies due to all the internal interactions[15]. The variations of internal pressure and free volume with temperatures and molalities are shown in figures 1 and the values are tabulated in Table 1. The increase in internal pressure of the solution at very low concentrations suggests that there is a structure promoting nature[16] of the salt in non-aqueous. It is also confirmed from the free volume values of the solution. The temperature increases, there is a tendency for the ions to move away from each other[17]. Hence, there is a reduction in internal pressure with increases in temperature. Internal pressure shows an increasing trend upto 0.01 molality at all the temperatures. A dip is observed at 0.05m at all the temperature in the solution. These results supports that there is a weak ion-solvent interaction within the solution. Free volume is one of the significant factors in explaining the variations in the physicochemical properties of liquids. The molecules of the liquids are not closely packed and there is some free space between the molecules for movements which is called as free volume [18]. The concept of free volume is an extension of the idea that each molecule is enclosed by its neighbours in a cell, the free volume is however not the whole cell volume but rather than average volume in which the center of the molecule can move inside the hypothetical cell due to the repulsion of the surrounding molecules[19]. Free Volume is the free space available for the ions to move[20]. The variations of free volume with respect to molalities and temperatures figures 2 confirm that there is a weak interaction in L-Arginine Mono- hydrochloride solution. Rao's and Wada’s Constant Studying the molecular interactions is to evaluate certain parameters which are constant in non interacting systems[21]. The variation of this constant indicates the measure of interaction in interacting systems. In liquid systems the sound velocity varies linearly with concentration[22]. It is known that in two component liquid systems which are noninteracting, the sound velocity varies linearly with concentration. Rao [23] established an empirical relation linking molecular weight, density and ultrasonic velocity of a mixture. Rao's constant is found to be independent of concentration in non-interacting systems[24]. The variation in the Rao’s constant was explained as arising from molecular association[25]. The irregular behavior of Rao’s and Wada’s constants in Table 2, figures 3 and4 also supports that there is a molecular dissociation existing in the solution. Adiabatic Compressibility The orientation of solvent molecules around the solute is determined by adiabatic compressibility[26]. Elastic deformation is propagated by acoustic waves. The longitudes waves are generated by isotropic pressure, causing a uniform compression and thus a deformation in the direction of propagation[27]. The primary effect of dissolving a solute is to lower the compressibility of the solvent. The lowering is attributed to the influence of the electrostatic field of the ions on the surrounding solvent molecules[28]. This variation represents the existence of weak hydrogen bonding arising as a result of hydrophobic interactions occurs between the solute and solvent molecules. This weak bond is responsible for the existence of weak interactions. In L-Arginine Monohydrochloride system, the rise and fall in compressibility shows in Table 2 and figure 4 supports the pre-dominance of dissociation of molecules occurring in the solution.
FTIR spectral analysis of L.Arginine Mono Hydrochloride: Solute-solvent interactions are conveniently studied by several spectroscopic techniques. Infrared spectroscopy is normally carried out in the mid infrared region 4000 – 200 cm-1 . The near infrared region at higher frequency 12500 – 4000cm-1 and the far infrared region at lower frequency 200 to 10cm-1 required special techniques. L.Arginine mono hydrochloride is dissolved in non-aqueous solution, the following spectral changes are observed. Table 3, figures 6 and 7. L-Arginine mono hydrochloride exists in ionic form and it is solvated both at NH3 + site of guanidino group and COOsites of solute in which the existence of zwitterionic form to a greater extent[29]. These findings support that at lower molalities there is a strong solute-solvent interaction. There is a significant shift by 88cm-1 of the enolic form of solvent, towards the lower wave number region. this indicates the binding of the solute molecule to C=N of solvent resulting in bond lengthening, on the others hand there is a shift of NH2 stretching vibration by 21cm-1 and about 50 cm-1 for the bending vibration for the salt shown in Table 3. These shifts confirms that L-Arginine mono hydrochloride exists in Enolic and Amide forms figure 8 and 9 by the solvent. CONCLUSION In the present investigation, L-Arginine and LArginine Monohydrochloride in non-aqueous medium have been analyzed both by acoustic and spectroscopic methods. The results obtained from the above two methods are as follows. The results obtained from the acoustic study supports that there is a weak ion-solvent interaction with in the solution. A weak hydrogen bonding exists in the solution. It exhibits the hydrophobic interaction takes place within the solution. This weak bond is responsible for the existence of weak interactions in the solution of L-Arginine Monohydrochloride. From FTIR analysis L.Arginine mono hydrochloride is present in protonated ionic form and it is solvated both at NH3 + site of guanidino group and coosites and also the existence of zwitterionic form is found to be very high in the solution. The results obtained from FTIR analysis are found to be in good agreement with the acoustic studies.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1703http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17031. C. Kapota; J. Lemaire,; P. Maiitre, G.Ohanissian, J.Am.Chem.Soc. 2004, 126, 1836
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241416EnglishN2012August28HealthcareSEXING OF SKULL THROUGH THE MORPHOMETRICS OF HARD PALATE
English168171Pooja GangradeEnglish Hitesh BabelEnglish Ramavtar SainiEnglish Anamika VyasEnglishOne of the most important reasons for conducting anthropological studies on human skeleton is to determine the sex of the remains. This article presents an approach for evaluating the sexual dimorphism of the adult crania using the hard palate. The study comprised of 100 adult crania of known sex (50 male and 50 female). The parameters of hard palate were measured by the help of a sliding vernier calliper. The palatal length was measured from the anterior margin of incisive fossa to the posterior nasal spine. Palatal breadth was measured as the maximum width of the palate at right angles to the palatal length. The mean values for the palatal length in male and female were found to be 54.59 mm and 52.44 mm respectively. The reading observed for the palatal breadth in males and females were 38.49 mm and 35.89 mm respectively. The results after being put to statistical analysis, showed a significantly higher value of palatal breadth in males than in females (p < 0.001).The present study shows that mean palatal breadth values are sexually dimorphic.
Englishpalate, sexual dimorphism, forensic, anthropologistsINTRODUCTION
The determination of sex is an important concern for the forensic experts, osteologists, anthropologists and jurists as it is critical for identification of an unknown individual. In cases of unidentified and missing people, it eliminates around 50% of the population from being considered further1 . The degree of sexual dimorphism is influenced by environmental factors, and thus differs in each population. Various previous studies have pointed out significant sexual differences between populations and that therefore all the discriminant formulae for determination of sex are population specific. The accuracy of the methods based on sexual dimorphism of the cranial measurements diminishes when used outside the reference population. Thus individual populations must have their own baseline standards2,3 . There are two osteological techniques used widely to determine sex of an unknown individual; first is visual assessment to evaluate the morphological sex traits. Pelvis is by far the choice of bone used for this type of evaluation, cranium being the second choice, but this requires years of experience and expertise, moreover it is subjective in nature. The second method undertakes systematically postulated metrical methods, where sexual dimorphism is challenged through defined osteometric methods. The second method is said to be more reliable as it is not subjective, it reduces the examiners bias and has higher sensitivity and specificity values 4 . During a review of morphological indicators of sexual dimorphism, 17 most important indicators used by researchers were analysed and their values were challenged to identify the collections of skull of known sex, individually as well as collectively. Observations thus made, proved the importance of palate in being sexually dimorphic and presented a high reproducibility of results5 .
MATERIALS AND METHOD
This study was conducted on 100 skulls of known sex (50 male and 50 female) collected after excluding those skulls that presented evidence of trauma or any deformity from the departments of anatomy at Indira Gandhi government medical college Nagpur, Geetanjali medical college, Darshan dental college, Udaipur. On each skull following two parameters were measured, with the help of sliding vernier callipers (with a least count of 0.001mm) by a single investigator as a single reading to avoid observer bias. (1) Palatal Length : measured from the anterior margin of incisive fossa to the post nasal spine. (2) Palatal Breadth : measured as the maximum breadth of the palate, perpendicular to the palatal length. The results were subjected to statistical analysis and were interpreted subsequently.
RESULTS
In the 100 analysed skulls, the lineal dimensions for the palatal breadth were found to be significantly higher in males as compared to females ( p < 0.001 ) The maximum and minimum values for the palatal length were found to be 65.9 mm and 44.04 mm, while the same values for the palatal breadth were found to be 44.0 mm and 30.7 mm. The values for the lineal dimensions for the palatal length and breadth have been shown in Table 1.
DISCUSSION
Standards of osteological determination of demographic characterstics as sex, are population specific2,6,7,8. Secular changes due to changes in nutrion, genetic constitution, extreme division of labour and changes in socioeconomic status and technology contribute to sexual dimorphism9,10,11,12 . Thus data base of individual population are encouraged by researchers. In sex determination, classical visual methods generally reach a sexing accuracy of about 90%. A set of morphometric traits of cranium allows for accurate estimation of sex in 80% of cases, with a risk of error of less than 10%13. The problem incurred by the researchers in determination of the sex of the individual is the damage the material has incurred. Determination of sex with the help of dimension from a single anatomic region of cranium provides a lower, but still relatively high success rate of classification 14,15,16 . The use of palate shape as a part of the protocol for the diagnosis of sex in human skills had been recommended by many researchers17,18. However, the palate, during its development and life, is subjected to various forces that change their shape, such as chewing forces, forces of the tounge muscles and perioral muscles which may also affect the study of morphological dimorphism using the palatal shape as a diagnostic indicator. In our study the mean palatal length was found to be 54.59 ± 4.076 mm and 52.44 ± 3.82 mm in males and females respectively. The mean palatal length in previous study carried out by Robert S el al19 were found to be 51.8mm ± 3.28 and 49.6mm± 3.03 for males and females respectively, and by Patel M20 were 50.28 ± 3.56mm and 47.45±3.68mm respectively. In the present study the palatal length was not found to be sexually dimorphic. The mean palatal breadth which was significantly sexually dimorphic was 38.49 ± 2.795 mm and 35.89 ± 2.534 mm in males and females respectively (p < 0.001). The study conducted by Robert S19 et al and that by Patel M20, also found the values to be dimorphic sexually. The comparative data with the previous studies have been depicted in Table 2. Thus the present study demonstrated the accuracy of diagnosis of sex was significant through the palatal breadth, but not by palatal length.
CONCLUSION
Palatal breadth which has proven to be sexually dimorphic can be used in future by investigators to differentiate sexes of the unknown crania.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cites and included in the references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to the authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1704http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=17041. Krogman WM, Iscan MY: The Human Skeleton In Forensic Medicine. Springfield IL: Charles C. Thomas 1986.
2. Attayeb AA, Hassen AM, Mohamed AH. Sex Determination from Cranial Measurements In Recent Northern Sudanese. Khartoum Medical Journal (2011), 4(1): 539-547.
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9. Jantz RL, Jantz LM. Secular Change In Craniofacial Morphology. Am J Hum Biology. 2000; 12: 327-38.
10. Stini WA. Reduced Sexual Dimorphism In Upper Arm Muscle Circumference Associated With Protein- Deficient Diet In A South American Population. Am J Phys. Anthropology 1972; 36:341-51.
11. Ruff Bb, Trinkaus E, Walker A, Harsen CS. Postcranial Robusticity In Homo.I: Temporal Trends And Mechanical Interpretation. Am J Phy. Anthropology. 1993; 91: 21-53.
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13. William BA, Rogers TL. Evaluating The Accuracy And Precision Of Cranial Morphological Traits For Sex Determination. Journal Scince. 2006; 51: 729-735.
14. Gapert R, Black S, Last J. Sex Determination From The Foramen Magnum: Discriminant Function Analysis In An Eighteenth And Nineteenth Century British Sample. Int J Legal Medicine. 2009; 123: 25-35.
15. Holland TD. Sex Determination Of Fragmentary Crania By Analysis Of The Crania Base. Am J Phy Anthropology. 1986; 70: 203-208.
16. Wahl J, Grawnl. Metric Sex Differentiation Of The Pars Petrosa Ossis Temporalis. Int J Legal Medicine 2001; 114: 215-223.
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20. Patel M. A Study Of The Hard Palate In The Skulls Of Central Indian Population. Int Journal Of Pharma And Bio Science. 2012: Vol 3(2): 527-532.