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<?xml version="1.0"?>
<xml><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>CALCULATIONS OF EPR PARAMETER HYPERFINE COUPLING CONSTANTS OF SOME DIPOLAR METAL COMPLEXES USING DENSITY FUNCTIONAL METHODS&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>01</FirstPage><LastPage>06</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Vinita Prajapati</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> P.L.Verma</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Calculations of the EPR spectral parameter hyperfine coupling constants of Dipolar Metal Complexes [Co (CO)4] ,[Mn(CN)5NO]2 &#x2013; ,[Mn(CN)4N]-, [Ni(CO)3H] have been carried out using density functional theory(DFT) with BHPW91, B3LYP, B3PW91, BLYP, BHLYP,BPW91, BP86, BHP86 functionals and the results obtained have been compared with experimental values. The results obtained from the density functional methods have been found in close agreement with the result obtained from the experiments. The performances of the different functionals for different transition metal complexes have been found different. The performance of the functional BP86 have been found better for [Ni(CO)3H] ,[Mn(CN)5NO]2&#x2013; ;BHLYP for [Co (CO)4] and B3LYP for [Mn(CN)4N]- Dipolar Metal Complexes. We have not identified any such functional, the performance of which is excellent for calculation of EPR parameter hyperfine coupling constant for all transition metal complexes considered in this study.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Density Functional Theory (DFT). Transition Metal Complexes, Hyperfine Coupling Constants.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
In view of that, accurate quantum-chemical calculations of EPR parameters of transition metal complexes are of considerable importance in the prediction and analysis of EPR spectra [10]. Hyperfine coupling (HFC) and g-tensors provide a large part of the information of an EPR spectrum and are regarded as sensitive probes of the spindensity distribution in molecules [14], Spin density, in contrast to the electron density, is the density of unpaired electrons and can therefore possess negative or positive values. EPR spectroscopy has often been used to estimate the spin distribution from experimental data. In contrast, density functional calculations provide independent access to spin-density distributions .They therefore are particularly valuable tools for investigating the electronic structure. Density functional theory (DFT) currently offers the only practical approach to reasonably accurate calculations of hyperfine tensors in transition metal systems. Recent systematic studies of both g-tensors and hyperfine tensors of transition metal complexes have shown that density functional theory (DFT) provides a useful basis for the calculation of both however, such computations still seem to be particularly difficult for transition metal complexes and usually do not achieve the precision which is found for organic main group radicals .For transition metal complexes a rather pronounced dependence of the results on the exchange-correlation functional is found. For example, gradient-corrected or local functionals&#xA0;underestimate core-shell spin polarization at the metal, which is important in the calculation of isotropic metal hyperfine coupling constants (HFCC) [11, 12]. In particular, the isotropic hyperfine couplings are frequently difficult to calculate, due to the need to describe accurately the important core-shell spin polarization without introducing spin contamination due to exaggerated valence-shell spin polarization. The second problem to be dealt with are relativistic effects on the HFC tensors, including both scalar (spin free) relativistic (SR) and spin-orbit (SO) effects. These are known to influence the HFC results even for 3d and 4d transition metal complexes appreciably [16] and they have to be considered for quantitative evaluation. Density functional theory is an extremely successful approach for the description of ground state properties of metals, semiconductors, and insulators. The success of density functional theory (DFT) not only encompasses standard bulk materials but also complex materials such as proteins and carbon nanotubes The basic idea behind DFT is to use the electron density rather than the quantum mechanical wave function to obtain information about atomic and molecular systems. While this idea came up in the very first years of quantum mechanics with the pioneering work of Thomas and Fermi in 1927[11,] and was continued with Slater in 1951 [19] the Hohenberg-Kohn theorems from1964 [4] are regarded as the real beginning of DFT. The most fundamental of these approaches originates from the pioneering work of Hartree and Fock in the 1920s [20] .Modern DFT rests on two theorems by Hohenberg and Kohn (1964) [16]. The major problem of DFT: the exact functional for exchange and correlation are not known except for the free electron gas. However, many approximations exist which permit the calculation of molecular properties at various levels of accuracy. The most fundamental and simplest approximation is the local-density approximation (LDA), in which the energy depends only on the density at the point where the functional is evaluated (Kohn and Sham) [8]. LDA, which in essence assumes that the density corresponds to that of anhomogeneous electron gas, proved to be an improvement over HF. While LDA remains a major workhorse in solid state physics, its success in chemistry is at best moderate due to its strong tendency for over binding. The first real breakthrough came with the creation of functionals belonging to the so-called generalized gradient approximation (GGA) that incorporates dependence not only on the electron density but also on its gradient, thus being able to better describe the inhomogeneous nature of molecular densities. GGA functionals such as BP86 [1]) or PBE [17] can be implemented efficiently and yield good results, particularly for structural parameters, but are often less accurate for other properties. The next major step in the development of DFT was the introduction of hybrid functionals, which mix GGA with exact Hartree&#x2013;Fock exchange .Now days, hybrid DFT with the use of the B3LYP functional is the dominant choice for the treatment of transition metal containing molecules .This method has shown good performance for a truly wide variety of chemical systems and properties. Several investigators have studied EPR parameters hyperfine coupling constant and g tensors using different density functional [2, 3, 6, 7, 13, 15, 18,21] and have been found close agreement with experimental results. In this investigation we have applied several density functional to calculate EPR parameter hyperfine coupling constants for Dipolar Metal Complexes [Co (CO)4] ,[Mn(CN)5NO]2 &#x2013; ,[Mn(CN)4N]- , [Ni(CO)3H] using Density Functional Theory. For these calculations, BHPW91, BHLYP,B3LYP, B3PW91, BLYP, BPW91, BP86, BHP86 functional have been used.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS&#xD;
The results of the EPR parameter hyperfine coupling constant of different transition metal complexes considered for the DFT calculation in this work, obtained by the application of different density functional BLYP, BP86, BPW91, B3LYP, B3PW91, BHLYP, BHP86 , BHPW91, EXP are listed in table No-1.The hyperfine coupling constant values obtained from different DFT functional of different complexes are also shown in Figure 1, 2,3and 4 also. From the comparison of DFT value with experimentally observed values the performance of different functional for different complexes have been found as follows.&#xD;
&#xD;
1-Dipolar Metal Complex [Co(CO)4] &#xD;
Results - BLYP &gt; BP86&gt; BPW91&gt; B3LYP &gt; B3PW91 &gt; BHPW91 &gt; BHP86&gt; BHLYP &gt;EXP.&#xD;
&#xD;
2-Dipolar Metal [Ni(CO)3H] &#xD;
Results - BHLYP &gt; BHP86 &gt; BHPW91&gt; B3LYP &gt; B3PW91 &gt; BLYP&gt; BPW91 &gt; BP86&gt;EXP.&#xD;
&#xD;
3-Dipolar Metal Complex [Mn(CN)5NO]2 &#x2013; &#xD;
Results- BHPW91&gt; BHP86 &gt;BHLYP &gt; B3PW91&gt; B3LYP &gt; BPW91&gt; BLYP &gt; BP86 &gt;EXP&#xD;
&#xD;
4-Dipolar Metal [Mn(CN)4N]- &#xD;
Results -BHLYP &gt; BHP86 &gt; BHPW91 &gt;B3PW91&gt; BP86 &gt; BPW91&gt;BLYP &gt; B3LYP &gt;EXP. The results obtained from Table 1 and Figure 1, we have inferred that BHLYP functional is better for Dipolar Metal Complex [Co(CO)4] .Further analysis shows that the performance of BLYP is poor for Dipolar Metal Complex [Co(CO)4]. These results suggesting that BHLYP functional may be used to calculate hyperfine coupling constant of Dipolar Metal Complex [Co(CO)4] .DFT results of Dipolar Metal Complex [Ni(CO)3H] obtained from the analysis of Table 1 and Figure 2, we have observed that that the performance of BP86 functional is good for but the performance of BHLYP functional very poor .This result suggesting that BP86 functional may be used to calculate hyperfine coupling constant of Dipolar Metal Complex [Ni(CO)3H]. From the further analysis of Table and Figure 3, it is concluded that BP86 functional is best for the calculation of HFCC of Dipolar Metal Complex [Mn(CN)5NO]2 &#x2013; but BHPW91 function is very poor From the further analysis of table and figure 4, it is inferred that B3LYP functional is best for the calculation of HFCC of Dipolar Metal&#xA0;Complex [Mn(CN)4N]- but BHLYP function is very poor .&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
From these results it is inferred that although the results of the density functional studies for hyperfine coupling constants A have been found in close agreement with the experimental results but the better performance of the functionals have been found different for different metal complexes. In our study we have obtained DFT functional BHLYP functional is better for Dipolar Metal Complex [Co(CO)4] , BP86 is better for Dipolar Metal [Ni(CO)3H] ,B3LYP and Dipolar Metal Complex [Mn(CN)5NO]2 &#x2013; and B3LYP functional is better for the calculation of HFCC of Dipolar Metal Complex [Mn(CN)4N]- .We have not identified any such functional, the results of which is excellent for all transition metal complexes considered for study in this work. From these results it is concluded that further studies is needed for development of density functional theory to search such functional which may be applicable for the majority of the complexes for calculation of EPR parameter, hyperfine coupling constant.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGMENT &#xD;
The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the research scholars and scientists whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. The authors would like to thank Dr .R.N Patel, Prof.K.B.Ponday and Dr.H.Surya Prakash.Rao for valuable suggestions.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>CMEs RELATED MODERATELY INTENSE GEOMAGNETIC STORMS AND THEIR RELATION WITH SOLAR FEATURES AND SOLAR WIND PLASMA PARAMETERS&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>07</FirstPage><LastPage>14</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>S.R.Lahauriya</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> P.L.Verma</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> A.P.Mishra</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>We have studied CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms-80nT ? Dst ?-200nT, observed during the period of 1997to2007 with solar features and solar wind plasma parameters. We have found that all the CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are associated with X- ray solar flares of different categories. The association rates of X class, M class, C class and B class X ray solar flares are 15.51%,31.03%,41.37% and 12.5% respectively. It is also found that majority of the CMEs related moderately geomagnetic storms are associated with radio bursts (81.03%).The association rates of type II and type IV radio bursts have been found 48.93% and 51.06% respectively. Further we have concluded that CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are closely related to disturbances in solar wind plasma parameters. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and maximum (peak) value of average interplanetary magnetic field of associated JIMF events. Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.40 between these two events. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and magnitude of maximum (peak) value of southward component of interplanetary magnetic field of associated JIMFBz events. Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.44 between these two events. Positive co-relation has also been found between magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and maximum (peak) value of solar wind plasma velocity. Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.28 between these two events.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Moderately intense geomagnetic storms, Coronal mass ejections, Solar flares, Solar wind plasma parameters.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Solar energetic features, like solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and fast solar wind streams that are accompanied by enormous energy and mass. Impact of these disruptive solar emissions on the earth&amp;#39;s magnetosphere leads to several kinds of geomagnetic field variations in the geomagnetic field, which are widely evidenced at all latitudes (Gonzalez and Tsurutani 1987). The estimation of ability to generate different types of geomagnetic field variations in the geomagnetic field by these solar and interplanetary phenomena is one of the most important problems of solar&#x2013;terrestrial physics. Although general concept on sources of geomagnetic disturbances does not change during many years (Crooker and (Gonzalez et al., 1999; Crooker, 2000). According to numerous observations, compressed streams of solar wind (co- rotating interaction region, CIR, and streams ahead magnetic clouds, MC), and magnetic clouds (ejecta), are geoeffective because they may include long southward Bz component of IMF (Gosling and Pizzo, 1999; Gonzalezet al., 1999; Crooker, 2000; Bothmer, 2004). The recurrent&#xA0;storm activity is due to coronal holes that cause fast solar wind streams (Crooker and Cliver, 1994, Webb et al 1995, Kamide 1998). The non recurrent (sporadic) geomagnetic storms are caused by interplanetary disturbances driven by fast coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (Cane et al. 2000, Cane and Richardson 2003, and Zhao and Webb 2003). Several investigators have studied geomagnetic storms with various solar features, solar wind parameters and inferred that CMEs which are the energetic solar features and associated with active regions are responsible for the most geoeffective solar wind disturbances and, therefore, the largest storms and are well associated with geomagnetic storms (Cane, H. V 2000, St. Cyr 2000, Webb, D. F 2000, Zhao, 2003) .Enhanced solar wind speeds and southward magnetic fields associated with interplanetary shocks and ejecta are known to be important causes of geomagnetic storms Gosling, J. T., 1991, Tsurutani, 1988. Mcallister. A.H and Crooker N. U. 1997 have studied effects of solar and heliospheric phenomena on geomagnetic field. They have concluded that major geomagnetic storms, both recurrent and non recurrent are the result of the combined effects of CMEs and CIRs. Correiaa, E. and De Souza R.V. Correiaa (2005) have presented the identification of solar coronal mass ejection (CME) sources for selected major geomagnetic storms. They have inferred that full halo CMEs originating from active regions associated with X-ray solar flares and propagating in the western hemisphere, cause strong geomagnetic storms. Gopalswamy et al ( 2008) have studied magnetic clouds ,coronal mass ejections and geomagnetic storms and they have found that 86% magnetic clouds are associated with full and partial halo coronal mass ejections .The remaining 14% of magnetic clouds are associated with non-halo CMEs originating from close to the disk center. They have concluded that magnetic clouds associated with partial halo and halo coronal mass ejections are most potential candidates for production of geomagnetic storms . They have further concluded that magnetic clouds associated with non halo CMEs may also cause geomagnetic storms . Verma P.L. et al (2009) have studied geomagnetic storms Dst &#x2264; - 50nT observed during the period of 1997-2006, with halo and partial halo coronal mass ejections associated with X-ray solar flares of different categories and concluded that halo and partial halo CMEs associated with X ray solar flares are most potential candidates for production of geomagnetic storms. Gopalswamy (2009) has studied the role of halo and partial halo CMEs in producing geomagnetic storms. He has reviewed the results obtained by previous investigators and concluded that the generation of geomagnetic storms rates can be readily explained by the different definition of halo CMEs used by different authors. Partial halos are less energetic and generally originate far from the disk center, so most of them behave similar to the non geoeffective CMEs and hence most of the partial halo CMEs may not produce geomagnetic storms. He has inferred those halos CMEs originating close to the disk center are very much effective in producing geomagnetic storms. Lyatsky 2003 has studied the semiannual variation in both geomagnetic activity indices and raw geomagnetic field data at a large number of geomagnetic observatories and found a dramatic decrease in the relative magnitude of this variation from low to high latitudes. While the semiannual variation in the Dst index at low latitudes is about 3 times, for the midlatitude Ap and Am indices it is only about 20&#x2013;30%, and the auroral electrojet AE index and polar cap PCN index show a very small or no semiannual variation. Echer, E et al (2004) have analyzed plasma and magnetic field parameter variations across fast forward interplanetary shocks during the last solar cycle minimum 1995 1996, and maximum year 2000 .They have observed that the solar wind velocity and magnetic field strength variation across the shocks are the parameters better correlated with Dst. Y. Liu, et al (2006) have studied geomagnetic storms with coronal mass ejections and associated&#xA0;solar flares and they have concluded that the flare associated CMEs and geomagnetic storms are closely related. R.V. de Souzaa (2005) have present the identification of solar coronal mass ejection (CME) sources for selected major geomagnetic storms (disturbance storm index&#x2013; Dst&#x2264;100 nT). They have inferred that full halo CMEs originating from active regions associated with X-ray solar flares and propagating in the western hemisphere, cause strong geomagnetic storms. Badruddin; Singh, Y. P. (2009) have studied the subset of CMEs, called interplanetary magnetic clouds (MCs), observed in the heliosphere and their associated features (shock/sheath, IR and HSS). Best-fit equations representing the relation between level of the geomagnetic activity and interplanetary plasma/field parameter have been obtained.Zhao, et al (2007) studied the source locations of 130 solar flares associated with type II radio burst events and interplanetary shocks observed by L1 spacecraft during February 1997-August 2002. They have investigated the relative positions between the flare sources, the heliospheric current sheet (HCS), and the Earth. They have found that (1) Solar flares are usually distributed within [S30&#xB0;, N30&#xB0;] in heliographic latitude and [S30&#xB0;, N30&#xB0;] &#xD7; [E10&#xB0;, W30&#xB0;] are the predominant source region on the solar disk that includes the majority of geoeffective solar flares. In this investigation CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms observed during the period of 1997 2007 have been studied with different energetic solar features and solar wind disturbances interplanetary parameters to know the physical process mainly responsible for CMEs related geomagnetic storms. Experimental Data In this investigation hourly Dst indices of geomagnetic field have been used over the period 1997 to 2007 to determine onset time, maximum depression time, magnitude of geomagnetic storms. This data has been taken from the NSSDC Omni web data system which been created in late 1994 for enhanced access to the near earth solar wind, magnetic field and plasma data of omni data set, which consists of one hour resolution near earth, solar wind magnetic field and plasma data, energetic proton fluxes and geomagnetic and solar activity indices. The data of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) have been taken from SOHO &#x2013; large angle spectrometric, coronagraph (SOHO / LASCO) and extreme ultraviolet imaging telescope (SOHO/EIT) data. To determine disturbances in interplanetary magnetic, hourly data of average interplanetary magnetic field has been used, these data has also been taken from Omni web data(http;//omniweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/form/dxi.html)) . The data of X ray solar flares radio bursts, and other solar data, solar geophysical data report U.S. Department of commerce, NOAA monthly issue and solar STP data (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/solar/solardataserv ices.html.) have been used.&#xD;
&#xD;
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS &#xD;
1-CMEs Related Moderately Intense Geomagnetic Storms with X- Ray Solar Flares &#xD;
From the data analysis we have identified 58 CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms during the period of 1997-2007 and all have been found to be associated with X ray solar flares of different categories. Out of 58 associated moderately intense geomagnetic storms ,09 (15.51%) geomagnetic storms are found to be associated with X class X-ray solar flares,18(31.03%) geomagnetic storms are found to be associated with M class X-ray solar flares ,24 (41.37% ) geomagnetic storms are found to be associated with C class X-ray solar flares and 07 (12.5%) CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are found to be associated with B class X-ray solar flares.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
2-CMEs Related Moderately Intense Geomagnetic Storms with Radio Bursts&#xD;
From the data analysis we have identified 58 CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms during the period of 1997-2007 and majority of the CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms 47(81.03%) have been found to be associated with radio bursts. Out of 47 associated moderately intense geomagnetic storms, 23 (48.93%) geomagnetic storms are found to be associated type II and ,24(51.06%) geomagnetic storms are found to be associated with type IV radio bursts.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
3-CMEs Related Moderately Intense Geomagnetic Storms with Disturbances in Interplanetary Magnetic Field. &#xD;
From the data analysis of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic and associated disturbances in interplanetary magnetic field, we have observed that 57out of 58 CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are associated with jump in interplanetary magnetic field (JIMF) events. To see how the magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are correlated with the peak value of JIMF&#xA0;events, we have plotted a scatter diagram between the magnitudes of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and peak values of associated JIMF events in fig.3.From the fig It is clear that maximum CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms which have large magnitude are associated with such JIMF events which have relatively large magnitude. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and maximum peak value of average interplanetary magnetic field of associated JIMF events. Statistically calculated co-relation coefficient is 0.40 between these two events.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
4-CMEs Related Moderately Intense Geomagnetic Storms with Disturbances in Southward Component of Interplanetary Magnetic Field. &#xD;
From the data analysis of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and associated jump in southward component of interplanetary magnetic field (JIMFBz), it is observed that 57 out of 58 CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are associated with JIMFBz events. Further to see how the magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are correlated with peak value of JIMFBz events, a scatter diagram have been plotted between the magnitudes of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and maximum peak values of associated JIMFBz events in fig.4.From the fig it is clear that maximum CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms which have large magnitude are associated with such JIMFBz events which have relatively large peak value. Positive corelation has been found between magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and maximum peak value of average interplanetary magnetic field of associated JIMF events. Statistically calculated co-relation coefficient is 0.44 between these two events.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
5- CMEs Related Moderately Intense Geomagnetic Storms with Disturbances in solar wind velocity &#xD;
From the data analysis of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and associated jump in solar wind velocity (JSWV), it is observed that 56 out of 58 CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are associated with JSWV events. Further to see how the magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are correlated with peak value of JSWV events, a scatter diagram have been plotted between the magnitudes of geomagnetic storms and maximum peak values of associated JSWV events in fig. 5 From the fig it is clear that maximum CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms which have large magnitude are associated with such JSWV events which have relatively large peak value. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of geomagnetic storms and maximum peak value of jump in solar wind velocity. Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.28 between these two events.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
From the analysis of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms with X-ray solar flares, it is concluded that majority of the CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are found to be associated with X-ray solar flares.&#xD;
&#xD;
Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and maximum (peak) value of average interplanetary magnetic field of associated JIMF events. Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.40 between these two events. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and magnitude of maximum (peak) value of average interplanetary magnetic field of associated JIMFBz events. Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.44 between these two events. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms and peak value of associated jump in solar wind plasma velocity JSWV events. Statistically calculated corelation co-efficient is 0.28 between these two events. From the above results it is concluded that CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms are closely related with X-ray solar flares, disturbances in solar wind plasma parameter, interplanetary magnetic fields and solar wind plasma velocity and play crucial role to explain characteristics of CMEs related moderately intense geomagnetic storms.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGMENT &#xD;
The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the research scholars and scientists whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. The authors would like to thank Prof.B.P.Chandra, Prof.S.K. Nigam and Prof.P.K. Shukla for valuable suggestions.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>EFFECT OF PROBIOTIC BACTERIA AS A BIOCONTROL AGENT AGAINST DISEASE CAUSING PATHOGEN IN CATLA CATLA (HAMILTON, 1822)&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>15</FirstPage><LastPage>24</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>R. Parthasarathy</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> V. Ramasubramanian</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> D. Ravi</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>The primary aim of the current study was to analyze and to find out the effectiveness of probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus plantarum andBacillus megaterium) on growth performance and immuno response of Catla catla. Growth parameters like final weight, weight gain, specific growth rate, survival rate, feed intake and protein efficiency ratio were increased among Catla catla were which fed with a diet containing L.plantarum. The combined effect of selected probiotic bacteria is shows significant level of the protein content when compared with control as well as single probiotic bacteria feed. L.plantarum gave larger inhibition zone (4 cm) than B.megaterium (1.8 cm). From the present study L.plantarum had a probiotic effect in vitro and in vivo against Aeromonas hydrophila, while B.megaterium had a probiotic effect in vitro and it small extinct in the in vivo. The Red blood cell levels were gradually decreased in all treatments (T1, T2 andT3). But in the all controls (C1, C2 andC3) the RBC values were gradually increased. White blood cell values are decreased in T1, T2 andT3 treatments and controls C1, C2 andC3 there is no much differences/changes. The plasma total proteins showed significantly decreased in fish fed with diet containing L.plantarum and mixture of L.plantarum andB.megaterium. The above results show that the probiotic bacteria can eliminate the pathogenic bacteria which cause disease in fish and other aquaculture organism.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Probiotics, Lactobacillus plantarum, Bacillus megaterium, Aeromonas hydrophila, hemorrhagic septicemia.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Disease outbreaks are being increasingly recognized as significant constraints on aquaculture fields by affecting the production and trade in many countries. Among those diseases, bacterial infections are considered as the major cause of mortality in fish hatcheries and farms (Grisez and Ollevier, 1995). The selective pressure exerted on the microbial world and encourages the natural emergence of bacterial resistance. i.e. such chemotherapeutic treatment may cause the development of resistant bacteria (Aoki et al.,1985). Also the yield residues in fish and introduce potential hazard to public health and to the environment. A new approach alternative method, that is gaining acceptance within the aquaculture industry, is by use of probiotic bacteria to control potential pathogens (Gomez-Gil et al., 2000). In recent years, development of the probiotic bacterial treatment in aquaculture to improve disease resistance, water quality and growth of farmed fish (Verschuere et al., 2000). Probiotics helps to protect the host against invasion or colonization of foreign pathogen like bacteria, viruses and fungi by re &#x2013; colonizing the gut with normal gut micro flora. Probiotics are&#xA0;critical to enhance resistance to infection and boosting immune status of the host. Probiotics are microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells that have a beneficial effect on the health and well &#x2013; being of the host (Salminen et al., 1999). Quite huge number of probiotic bacteria were been use to control many kind of diseases and also it is used to overcome any kind metabolic disorders as well as growth promoters (Swain et al., 2006). Based on the availability of many probiotic bacteria the present study reveals only for Lactobacillus plantarum and Bacillus megaterium, out of chosen probiotics (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus lactis, Streptococcus thermophilus, Bacillus subtillus). Aeromonas hydrophila is an opportunistic pathogen. Ventura and Grizzle (1987) and Eissa et al (1994) shows that A.hydrophila infected internal organs through the digestive tract or through uninjured skin under conditions of crowding (13.1 g of fish / L) and high temperature (24?C) (Cipriano, 2001). The author chosen the topic based on the above said importance and significant of the probiotic bacteria in controlling the disease out breaks in aquaculture farms. Therefore, the present study reveals that how to evaluate the role few of probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus plantarum, Bacillus megaterium) as a biocontrol agent against common fish pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila, in the fish Catla catla (Hamilton, 1822) and the effects on normal micro flora and some physiological, biochemical, and immunological parameters.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
Healthy fishes (Catla catla, Hamilton, 1822) weighed between 5 &#x2013; 6.5 g were obtained from Tamilnadu fisheries development corporation, Azliyar, Coimbatore District, Tamilnadu, India. And they were allowed to acclimatize the laboratory condition for 2 weeks and then used for experimental studies. Experiments were carried out in culture tubs with 30 L capacity filled with fresh, clean and unchlorinated ground water, and change of water was done once in 2 days intervals. The fishes were fed with feed composition of 35 % crude protein, crude fat 4% and crude fiber 9% which was commercially available.&#xD;
&#xD;
EXPERIMENT SETUP/TREATMENTS &#xD;
The fish were divided into 3 equal groups. Group I [Treatment 1 (T1) &#x2013; fishes are fed with L.plantarum blended granular feed]; Group II [Treatment 2 (T2) &#x2013; fishes are fed with B.megaterium blended granular feed]; Group III [Treatment 3 (T3) &#x2013; fishes fed with L.plantarum and B.megaterium blended granular feed]; Group IV [Control (Control) &#x2013; fed with normal feed]. Each treatment i.e.T1, T2, and T3 were divided into two equal numbers of fishes during the probiotic and pathogen treatments. Such as T1 and C1, T2 and C2, T3 and C3. All T1, T2, and T3 were fed with pathogen blended granular feed after 20 days of probiotic treatment. Whereas C1, C2, and C3 were fed with only respected probiotic blended granular feed. Each group contains 5 fishes. Stocking density is 5 L per fish (fish/5 L water).&#xD;
&#xD;
Culturing of Probiotic Bacteria &#xD;
In the present study Lactobacillus plantarum and Bacillus megaterium was a probiotic bacteria, which have obtained from IMTECH, Chandigarh, India. And these cultures were sub cultured in the nutrient agar slant. L.plantarum was cultured in lactic acid broth and B.megaterium was cultured in nutrient broth. After incubation period the broth culture were centrifuged and collected cells were washed twice with saline. Pellet was mixed properly with the 50 g of granular feed. Likewise prepared B.magaterium feed mixture. Mixed equal volume of both bacteria blended feed gives combination of the two probiotic bacteria (B.magaterium, L.plantarum). Fishes were fed once daily along with normal feed at a fixed feeding rate 3% (i.e. 1 &#x2013; 1.5 g) of the body weight of fish. The feed given rate were adjusted at 10 days intervals after fish were weight. Each tub&#xA0;(fish tank) were cleaned once in 2 days interval to remove fish feces remaining feed with complete water change i.e. refilled fresh water to fixed volume. The experiment (probiotic feeding) runs for 25 days (i.e. before pathogen treatment). The growth parameters and rate of feed intake was calculated according to Tekinay and Davis (2001) method.&#xD;
&#xD;
Inducing disease by A. Hydrophila &#xD;
In this study Aeromonas hydrophila is a predominant bacterium which obtained from Department of zoology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore and gram staining and biochemical tests are done for the culture confirmation. A.hydrophila was sub cultured in the nutrient broth (50 ml) and incubated 48 hrs at 30? C. After incubation period the broth culture were centrifuged and collected cells were washed twice with saline. Pellet was mixed properly with the feed. After 25 days of probiotic treatment pathogen (A.hydrophila), blended feed was introduced into respected treatment fishes (T1, T2, T3) via feed. Then carefully monitor the mortality rate of the fish was observed during this period. Antagonistic test The in - vitro probiotic activity was done using agar diffusion method (Muller &#x2013; Hinton agar plates) and the inhibition zone was determined (Ruiz et al., 1996). Biochemical analysis of fish (Protein and Carbohydrate) The initial and final (before and after pathogen treatment) biochemical (such as protein and carbohydrate) analysis were estimated in fish Catla catla (Hamilton 1822). The protein content of fish was estimated by Folin &#x2013; ciocalteau method. The carbohydrate estimation was done by anthrone method. Fish blood was drawn from the heart region by cardiac puncture by using a sterile syringe previously rinsed with EDTA as an anti coagulant. The collected blood was diluted with EDTA (2 mg/ml). Total number of Red blood cells and White blood cells in the blood were counted by haemocytometric method. Blood plasma also collected. The protein content of plasma was estimated by Folin &#x2013; ciocalteau method. Preparation of bacterial antigen from A.hydrophila: A.hydrophila was cultured in the LB broth for 24 hours at 37?C. After incubation of bacterial broth culture was centrifuged. Collected the pellet was washed twice with saline. Finally pellet was redissolved in 5 ml of saline. This bacterial suspension was treated with ultrasound 20 minutes at 10 seconds intervals on ice by sonicator and then centrifuged at 16,000 rpm for 30 minutes. The supernatant was used as antigen and stored in the refrigerator. Immuno electrophoresis: The immuno electrophoresis (IEP) technique combines electrophoresis and double immunodiffusion (DID), and helps resolve an antigen mixture and identify it. Microbial analysis: The samples from skin/fin/scales and internal organs (like kidney, stomach and intestine) and gills were taken for the further microbial analysis. Purification and identification of the isolates were done using sub &#x2013; culture techniques and biochemical tests (carbohydrate fermentation, Indole test, Methyl red test, VP test, starch hydrolysis, TSI agar test, H2S production test, Urea utilization test etc.) according to the Bergey&#x2019;s manual (Bergey et al., 1984) Morphology of the isolates was examined using staining technique (such as Gram&#x2019;s staining).&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS &#xD;
Growth/Mass weight &#xD;
The parameter like weight, active feeding status were done and tabulated in Table-1. The initial growth in term of weight ranges between 5.6 to 6.1 gms. Length is also measured during initial stage, which range between 6.5 and 7.2 cms. With reference to mass weight of the fish, there is a slow and steady growth was observed in control. i.e. the initial weight of the fish shows 5.8 gm on&#xA0;average and over a period of 60 days the fish has been gained a weight of 1.26 gm. Then coming to probiotic bacteria feed treatment (L.plantarum, B.megaterium and combination of L.plantarum and B.megaterium). The combine treatment of L.plantarum and B.megaterium shows very high growth rate, i.e. 4.97 g was gained an average within 60 days time. And individual probiotic bacteria treatments - C2 (B.megaterium) treatment shows 2.99 gm of weight gained within the 60 days with comparing to control. C3 (combination of L.plantarum, B.megaterium) treatment gain 4.97 gms and T2 and T3 shows 2.23 gm and 4.13 gm, respectively with compared to control. In the probiotic and pathogenic treatment the pathogen (A.hydrophila) is an opportunistic bacterium, which can control by the above said probiotic bacteria, the Table 2 shows there is gradual weight gained by T3 treatment, combine probiotic bacteria along with pathogen. It clearly shows that the pathogen in presence of probiotic bacteria won&#x2019;t establish the symptoms and won&#x2019;t cause disease, (because only in absence of probiotic bacteria), the purely treated pathogen along with normal feed was fed for a group of fish (5 numbers), subsequently one after other within 40 days all the 5 fishes were died. Here no probiotic treatment. The feed conversion ratio (FCR), Protein efficiency ratio (PER) and Specific growth rate (SGR) was been tabulated in Table 2. The feed conversion ratio is higher in the C1 (L.plantarum treatment) followed by C2 (B.megaterium treatment). When comparing the treated and untreated fishes for the PER analysis test. Protein efficiency ratio in combined bacterial treatment shows higher ratio (&gt;25%) more than that of control.&#xD;
&#xD;
Biochemical analysis &#xD;
Estimation of Protein (Table 3): During the initial stages the control and treated fishes shows an average of the crude protein 190 &#xB5;g/g of tissue sample and also the treatment lot shows between 189 - 191 &#xB5;g/g. After the study period the final stage of the protein estimation was done. The protein concentration for different treatments is varying when compared with controls. In control initial quantum of protein was 190 &#xB5;g/g of tissue. The same treatment fishes after 60 days with control feed shown 220 &#xB5;g/g, the probiotic bacteria (L.plantarum and B.megaterium and combined L.plantarum and B.megaterium) shown a slight improvement with compared to the control one. i.e. it was estimated that 236 &#xB5;g/g was been observed in C3 (combined treatment of L.plantarum and B.megaterium). Then coming to probiotic bacteria and pathogen treatments L.plantarum and combined probiotic bacteria treatment are shown almost the same results. B. megaterium was shown less than that of the control. This clearly indicates that either L.plantarum or the combined treatment (L.plantarum and B.megaterium) will always give the positive results and improvement over control once. Estimation of carbohydrate (Table 4): Analyzing carbohydrate from fish tissue, during the initial stage, almost all the treatments show that similar results, range between 39 to 55 &#xB5;g/g of carbohydrates in tissue samples. At the time of feeding stage the carbohydrates in the fish sample is gradually increasing in all the treatments. But there is a higher significant growth was observed in L.plantarum treatment and the combined treatment (combined L.plantarum and B.megaterium), between 5 &#x2013; 30% respectively. The same study of carbohydrate analysis was done during 60th day after the pathogen (A.hydrophila) treatment. Due to the presence of probiotic bacteria and its association with fish there is no much destruction caused by the pathogenic bacteria and it also never affect the protein profile or protein accumulation in its tissue. Rather, there is a significant increase in C3 and T3 (L.plantarum and B.megaterium with pathogenic treatment). Even in the B.megaterium treated (T3) fishes there is a significant increase in carbohydrate by 7% and&#xA0;along with pathogen 8%. But the combined treatment shows vary high percentage of carbohydrate. i.e. around 30% increase over the control.&#xD;
&#xD;
Microbial analysis &#xD;
Four isolates of Gram-positive bacteria and four isolates of Gram &#x2013; negative bacteria were isolated from the fish skin and internal organs (gonads, stomach, and intestine). Micrococcus spp., Lactobacillus spp., and Bacillus spp.,(one from skin and one from internal organs) are the Gram &#x2013; positive bacteria isolated from the fish organs. Gram negative bacteria isolated from the fish organs are Pseudomonas spp., E.coli, Klebsiella spp., Aeromonas spp. Immunotechnological studies WBC count (Table 5): White blood cells plays a very important role in controlling the disease, the initial count of the WBC was between 5300 &#x2013; 6200 cells/cu.mm an average. After 20 days interval (i.e. duration of probiotic treatment) again the WBC count was been carried out, during this stage the B.megaterium treatment shown the higher WBC count. i.e. 6450 cells/cu.mm). The above result reveals strong evidence that B.megaterium has slightly adverse affect when compare to L.plantarum. And also the immuno response study was been carried out after the pathogen treatment. i.e. after 60 days. The combined treatment shows the least WBC count when compared to control, L.plantarum and B.megaterium. This is clearly indicated that the T3 treatment were two probiotic bacteria and a pathogen (A.hydrophila) was given along with a feed that may be the reason for the decrease in WBC count. But the growth wise/feeding efficiency and activity wise the fishes were very healthy when it compared with other treatments. RBC count (Table 6): Before starting the treatment the initial of RBC during stage ranges 1.10 million/cu.mm to 1.45 million/cu.mm on average. The same trend of growth never observed at the end of the treatment. Were it shows the combined probiotic treatment without pathogen treatment shown very highest platelets (1.8 million/cu.mm RBC was founded). Then along with pathogen treatment (T3) has shown less when compared with other treatment. Based on the Table &#x2013; 6 the author found out that there is no much significant role played by B.megaterium. Under the pathogenic treatment the mechanism of infection is taken place and same time L.plantarum along with B.megaterium without pathogen shown highest RBC count (1.53 million/cu.mm) when compared to other treatments. The treatment were only pathogen alone given (without probiotic bacteria 1 and 2), none of the fishes was been survived till the end of the study. All fishes were died within 40 days. Plasma protein estimation (Table 7): The initial plasma protein is also estimated, to compare with the final stage of plasma protein. Here also it is directly correlated to that of the total crude protein in it system. For example T1 and T3 treatment is almost (i.e. 217.5 and 200 &#xB5;g/ml of plasma protein respectively) than that of T2 treatment plasma protein i.e.225 &#xB5;g/ml was recorded. Coming to probiotic bacteria treatment the highest plasma protein was observed in C3 treatment were the combined bacterial blended granules feed were fed i.e., 229.5 &#xB5;g/ml. Immuno electrophoresis: The whole cell antigen was been extracted from A.hydrophila and further centrifuged, separated and purified. Then by taking the serum of the fish which was under the treatment of L.plantarum and B.megaterium and A.hydrophila. The immuno electrophoresis result was positive, by band formation. Which is shows that the fish under treatment, developed antibodies against the pathogen. It may be a high complementary/competent antibody against the A.hydrophila antigen.&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
The aim of the study was to analyze and to find out the effect of few probiotic bacteria (L.plantarum and B.megaterium) on growth&#xA0;performance and immuno response of Catla catla. There are much remarkable differences between the control and L.plantarum and B.megaterium treatments with reference to growth parameters. To identify the bacterial species associated with the Catla catla, before treatments as well as after treatment. Before the treatment only very few gram positive/gram negative harmless bacteria were associated. Observation of micrococcus sp., E.coli, Pseudomonas sp., Enterobacter sp., klepsiella sp., were been reported. Whereas after the treatment, these initial bacteria were not predominant whereas L.plantarum, B.megaterium and here and there the pathogenic bacteria A.hydrophila was recorded. The current study of biochemical test author proves that when probiotic bacteria is predominantly associated with living system there is a chance of elimination of unwanted microorganism in the biological system. This is clearly evidence in the presence study. The similar study to that of carried out by Austin and Austin (1993). A wide range of Gram-positive (Bacillus, Carnobacterium, Enterococcus, Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, Micrococcus and Streptococcus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Aeromonas, Alteromonas, Photorhodobacterium, Pseudomonas and Vibrio) have been isolated from fish and has evaluated as probiotics in aquaculture (Irianto A. and Austin B. 2002). The final weight, weight gain, specific growth rate, survival rate, feed intake and protein efficiency ratio were increased among Catla catla fed a diet containing L.plantarum, so it may be considered as a growth promoter in fish aquaculture. The effect of probiotic feed in dietary protein and total plasma levels (from 30 &#x2013; 40%) crude protein) were compared along with the dual treatment (pathogen and probiotic treatments). From data presented on the tables shows that during the time of probiotic bacteria feed as well as at the end of the experiment, the combined effect of probiotic bacteria is shows significant level of the protein content when compared with control as well as single probiotic bacteria feed. This work is also supported by Slah mesalhy Aly et al (2008). During the present experimental conditions the study shows that 20 &#x2013; 25% of the best growth performance of Catla catla fingerlings. Feed conversion ratio is also decrease with increase with stocking density. The feed conversion ratio observed with fish reared at the lowest stocking density and fed the 30 crude protein diets. These results are similar those reported by, Essa and Nour (1998) and Zaki (1993). In the present study, L.plantarum and B.megaterium showed inhibitory effects in vitro against A.hydrophila. However, L.plantarum gave larger inhibition zone (4 cm) than B.megaterium (1.8 cm). Lewus et al. (1991) reported that the bacteriocins which produced by lactic acid bacteria had inhibitory effect against A. hydrophila pathogen protein. From the present study L.plantarum had a probiotic effect in vitro and in vivo against A. hydrophila, while B.megaterium had a probiotic effect in vitro and it small extinct in the in vivo. Our results agree with Chang and Liu (2002) who indicated that Bacillus toyoi suppressed the growth of Edwarsilla tarda in vitro, but did not reduce mortalities in eels due to edwardsillosis in vivo. In the present study author investigate the A.hydrophila cells are directly agglutinated with the fish (Catla catla) serum. In this regarding, further attentions are needed. Also much reference is needed, about the antigen &#x2013; antibody interaction. Much less work has been directed at the immunological enhancement of defense mechanisms of fish by probiotic bacteria or the protective mechanisms of probiotic bacteria in fish (Nikoskelainen et al., 2003). Also less work has been directed at the blood parameters. In the present study, shows the decrease of RBC values in all treatments (T1, T2 and T3). But in the all controls (C1, C2 and C3) the RBC values are increased. These results are in agreement with that of Palikova et al (2004) who observed&#xA0;pathomorphological findings (hemorrhages in the skin, eyes, and hepatopancreas and in swim bladder) in the common carp after exposure to Cyanobacteria extract. WBC values are decreased in T1, T2 and T3 treatments and controls C1, C2 and C3 there is no much difference. White blood cells are very important role in controlling the disease. Decreased WBC levels at all the test (T1, T2 and T3) groups, due to effect of pathogenic bacteria (A.hydrophila). Much less work has been directed at the number of WBC and also in their action against the pathogenic organism during the probiotic bacterial treatment. The plasma total proteins showed decreased significance in fish fed with diet containing L.plantarum and mixture of L.plantarum and B.megaterium. These results agree with those of Cruz et al. (1989) who found lower total protein in plasma of Salmo gairdneri when injected with Vibrio anguillarum extracellular products intramuscularly.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
The treatment of L.plantarum and combination of L.plantarum and B.megaterium was clearly revealed that it is beneficial for cultured when administered as a food additive/supplements. It is argued that such probiotic has a role in disease control strategies, growth promotion and it improves the blood platelets and biochemical parameters among Catla catla in aquaculture. However, a mixture of both bacterial species improved the protein content of fish. Many questions remain unanswered in the field of probiotics; a growing area of research indicates that they may be effective in treating or preventing a wide range of diseases in both humans and animals. The potential benefits of consuming probiotic bacteria include wide scale immuno &#x2013; modulation as in auto &#x2013; immune diseases and small scale suppression of specific intestinal pathogens. The list of targets is likely to grow as our understanding of the mechanisms behind probiotic activity continues to develop. Individual strain of probiotic bacteria was identified and carefully characterized for application of the aquaculture and other therapeutic uses. And also author suggested the more work on histopathological and immunological studies of diseased fish&#x2019;s gives answers to the unanswered questions about the probiotics activity against the pathogens, in the field of aquaculture.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1652</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1652</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Grisez, L. and Ollevier, F. 1995: Vibrio (Listonella) anguillarum infection in marine fish larviculture. In:Lavens, P., Jaspers, E., Roelande, l. (Eds.), Larvi 91-fish and crustacean larviculture symposium. Eur. Aquac. Soc. Gent. p. 497, Special publication no. 24.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>EFFECT OF TOXIC HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATED SOIL ON AN ORNAMENTAL PLANT GEORGINA WILD (DAHLIA)&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>25</FirstPage><LastPage>30</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Lovely Shivhare</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Sunita Sharma</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Phytoremediation is an emerging technology for cleaning up contaminated sites, which is cost effective, and has aesthetic advantages and long term applicability. The report suggests about the mobility, bioavaliability and plant response to the presence of soil heavy metals. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to determine the phytotoxic effect of heavy metals such as Ni and Pb on the growth of Georgina wild. The selected metals were dosed at various concentration ranging from 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 mg/kg for nickel and 5.0, 10, 15, 20 mg/kg for lead separately in soil. The results revealed that as the concentration of heavy metal in soil increases, the overall length of plant decreases with respect to control.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Heavy metal, Ornamental Plant, Phytoremediation, Georgina wild</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Soils contaminated with heavy metals cause many environmental and human health problems calling for an effective technological solution (Qadir et al., 1998; Boominathan et al., 2004). Many sites around the world remain contaminated because it is expensive to clean them up by available technologies (Mussarat and Bhatti, 2005; Yang et al., 2006; Akgucet al., 2008). There can be chemical and biological treatment of the same, the latter includes the microbial remediation and phytoremediation (Chaney, 1983; Cunningham and Berti, 1993; Baker et al., 1994a; Raskin et al., 1994). Phyto extraction may provide an attractive alternative for the clean up of heavy metalcontaminated soils. The goal of heavy metal phyto extraction is to reduce metal levels in the soil up to the acceptable levels with in a reasonable time frame (Raskin et al., 1994; Nanda-Kumar et al., 1995; Huang et al., 1997). Nickel, lead and mercury are the micronutrients essential for the soil. They occur naturally in the plant and animal tissue (Hao et al., 2004; Afzal et al., 2006; Wahla and Kirkham, 2008). They are required in only very small amount, if plants are supplied these heavy metals more than they require, it will lead to toxicity in them and ultimately death. The usual routes by which human receive exposure to these heavy metals are through skin or eye contact, as well as inhalation of powders and dust. In this study we choose Georgina wild (Dahlia) which is a popular ornamental plant for the Phytoremediation Nickel and Lead from the contaminated soil. Dahlia is a genus of bushy, tuberous, perennial plants native to Mexico. Nickel (Ni) is a nasty toxic metal and a known carcinogen. It is one of the metals we see most commonly in toxicity tests. Nickel can cause several unwanted effects, such as, higher chances of development of lung cancer, nose cancer,&#xA0;larynx cancer and prostate cancer, Sickness and dizziness after exposure to nickel gas, Lung embolism, Respiratory failure, Birth defects, Asthma and chronic bronchitis, Allergic reactions such as skin rashes, mainly from jewelry, Heart disorders. Lead poisoning (also known as plumbism, colica Pictonum, saturnism, Devon colic, or painter&amp;#39;s colic) is a medical condition caused by increased levels of the heavy metal lead in the body. Lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues including the heart, bones, intestines, kidneys, and reproductive and nervous systems. It interferes with the development of the nervous system and is therefore particularly toxic to children, causing potentially permanent learning and behavior disorders. Symptoms include abdominal pain, confusion, headache, anemia, irritability, and in severe cases seizures, coma, and death.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
Soil Collection Soil samples were collected from the farm site of MITS College Gwalior. The Soil samples were collected from surface, 10cm and 20cm depths by using soil sampler. Soil samples were air dried, sieved through 2mm screens and thoroughly mixed before use. Physical and chemical property (i.e., soil texture, moisture content, soil pH) were and analyzed. The pH of the soil is an important factor in determining the growth of plant because soil pH controls which nutrients are available to plant for use. 20 grams of soil was weighed in a beaker and 40 ml of distilled water was added with continuous stirring for 30 seconds in every 3 minutes for 15 minutes. After the final stir, the mixture was allowed to settle for 5 minutes and carefully the pH was recorded in the liquid phase Moisture content was determined by ratio of the weight of water in the soil to the weight of dry soil. The ratio was expressed as percentage, the percentage moisture contents was corrected by using moisture correction factor (MCF). MCF = 100 + %Moisture/100 100 grams of soil was weighed in the petriplate with water contents and after that the soil sample was dried in the hot air oven and after the proper drying the soil sample was weighed again and finally both values put in the formula and the moisture content of soil was calculated&#xD;
&#xD;
Experimental pots preparation &#xD;
To initiate the experiment under controlled condition the soil was air-dried, crushed, mixed thoroughly and passed through a 2 mm sieve About 1 kg of the soil placed into plastic pots (25 cm in diameter and 14 cm in length) and then various concentration of Nickel (0.5mg, 1.0mg, 1.5mg, 2.0mg) and Lead (5mg, 10mg, 15mg, 20mg) was added in the experimental polythene bags and mixed it in soil by using hand gloves. Thus metals are properly mixed with the soil. Next day 10-15 seeds of Dahlia were sown separately in each treated and control polythene bags. For each concentration of particular metal 5 pots are prepared. These polythene bags were properly and regularly irrigated.&#xD;
&#xD;
Plant harvest and analysis&#xA0;&#xD;
Plant samples were gently removed from the pots 45 days after sowing for the measurement of various growth parameters and biochemical analysis. Plants were harvested early in the morning between 8.0 to 9.0 AM. The collected plant samples were placed in plastic bags, labeled carefully and brought to the laboratory. Now the overall length of plant is measured with the help of cm scale.&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS &#xD;
Soil analysis It was necessary to determine the physical and chemical properties of the soil which govern both availability and relative toxicity of metal contamination such as soil pH, moisture content and the nutritional status.&#xD;
&#xD;
pH of the soil &#xD;
pH of soil affects the solubility and mobility of nickel, mercury and lead. At pH below 7.0 of soil most nickel, mercury and lead ions get reduced and the solubility of these ions is greater than the salt which was initially added to the soil. The pH of the soil used in this study was 6.8. Therefore, this pH value is suitable to nickel, mercury and lead uptake by plants. Moisture Content The moisture content of soil used in this study was 14.7%. Overall growth upon lead and nickel exposure The growth of Dahlia (D.cardiophylla) plant on various concentrations of heavy metals was found varying. It was observed that the dahlia plant grew well in the initial concentrations of the respective heavy metals. Significant toxicity was also tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA) test&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
Environmental pollution through heavy metals is growing concern. The discharge of heavy metals as a byproduct of various human activities has been accompanied by large scale soil pollution. So, the contamination level in these soil were either more than normal levels, or expected to reach those levels. Research findings show that at least 20 million hectares of land, in North and South America, South Europe, Mexico and East Asia is irrigated by raw sewages. The main sources of heavy metals in soil is the use of urban and industrial waste water, fertilizers, metal extraction mines. The primary heavy metals present in sewage include Zinc, Cu, Pb, Arsenic, Nickel, Chromium and Cadmium. The human has expressed concern about health and environmental safety, which have resulted in scientists searching for other phytoremediation method to reduce the use of heavy metal and&#xA0;maintaining economic level of heavy metals because heavy metals creates many problems such as liver and kidney, gasteroenteric problems and excess nickel and other heavy metals inhibit growth and photosynthetic activity in plants and may promote aging of plants. In recent year several plants have been used traditionally to reduce hazards heavy metals. The plant includes Tomato, spinach, ladyfinger, peppermint, brinjal, chilies, coriander, cauliflower, onion, radish, pointedgourd, bottlegourd were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer method for determination of cadmium, chromium in these vegetables irrigated with industrial waste water around Jaipur ( Kumar et al.,2008) In recent studies the heavy metal concentration above the normal concentration is found to inhibit the growth and accumulation ability of plant (Wilmer and Stomata,1983). In our study we determined the growth pattern of the dahlia on being exposed to different concentrations of heavy metal in the soil. The work was based on the recent studies that were carried out on the other plant than the Dahlia. We also determined the toxic concentration of lead and nickel which affected the growth and accumulation of lead and nickel in the plant growing in contaminated soil. The results indicated that the high concentrations of lead and nickel affected the growth of plant. Results showed that the root and shoot elongation decreased as the heavy metal concentration increased. It was also observed that the shoots of the Dahlia are more tolerant than roots of dahlia plant and the biomass and seed germination also affected by the nickel and lead toxicity above the normal concentration.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1653</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1653</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Alloway BJ, (1996). Heavy metal in soil. Halsted press, John wiley andsons Inc.&#xD;
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2. Alloway BJ, and Jackson AP,(1991). The behavior of heavy metals in sewage sludge amine soil. Sci. Total Environ, 100: 151-176.&#xD;
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3. Baker AJM, RD Reeves, and ASM Hajar, (1994). Heavy metal accumulation and tolerance in British populations of the metallophyte Thlaspi caerulescens J. andC. Prsl (Brassicaceae), New Phytol. 127: 61-68.&#xD;
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4. Baker AJM, SP McGrath, RD Reeves, and JAC Smith, (2000). Metal hyperaccumulator plants: A review of the ecology and physiology of a biochemical resources for phytoremediation of metal-polluted soils. 13: 85-107.&#xD;
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5. Baker AJM., Walker PL, (1989) physiological responses of plants to heavy metals and the quantification of tolerance and toxicity. Chem. Speciation Bioavail. 1:7-17.&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Barnaby J. Feder, (2008). Regulators Stamp copper as a Germ Killer. New York Times.&#xD;
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7. Bennett FA, EK Tyler, RR Brooks, PEH Gregg, and RB Stwart, (1998). Fertilization of hyperaccumulator to enhance their potential for phytoremediation and phytomining. Pp 249-260. In R.R. Brooks (ed.) Plants that hyperaccumulator heavy metals. Their role in phytoremediation, microbiology, archeology, mineral exploration and phytominin. CAB Int., Wallingford, UK.&#xD;
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8. Bennett LE, Burkhead JL, Hale KL, Terry N, Pilon-Smith EAH, (2003). Analysis of transgenic Indian mustard plants for phytoremediation of metals contaminated mine tailing J. Eniron, Qual. 32:432-440.&#xD;
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9. Campbell PGC, Stockes PM, and Galloway JN, (1983). The effect of atmospheric deposition on the geochemical cycling and biological availability of metals. 4: 760-763.&#xD;
&#xD;
10. Chaney, 1983; Cunningham and Berti, 1993; Baker et al., 1994a; Raskin et al., 1994&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Qadir, M.A., A. Ghafoor, S.L. Hussain, G. Murtaza and G.T. Mehmood. 1998. Metal ion accumulation m vegetables and soils irrigated with city effluents. In: Proceedings of 3rd National Symposium on Environmental Pollution. Held at Islamabad, p. 89-92.&#xD;
&#xD;
12. Raskin et al., 1994; Nanda-Kumar et al., 1995; Huang et al., 1997). 13. Wahla, I.H. and M.B. Kirkham. 2008. Heavy metal displacement in salt-water-irrigated soil during phytoremediation. Environ. Poll., 155: 271-283.&#xD;
&#xD;
14. Yang, T.X., M.S. Li, Y. Li and H.R. Huang. 2006. Study on heavy metal pollution in soil and plants in Pingle Manganese Mine, Guangxi and implications for ecological restoration. Mining Saf. Environ. Protec., 1: 21-23.&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>FT-IR SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF IMIDAZOLIUM CHLORIDE&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>31</FirstPage><LastPage>36</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Seethalakshmi K.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Jasmine Vasantha Rani E.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Padmavathy R.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Radha N.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>IR spectra find wide spread applications for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of compounds and this technique is also well employed in the field of research to understand the nature of inter atomic bonding. In the present study, FT-IR spectra are recorded for 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride (bmim)cl- and its solution in polar-protic solvent in the wave number region from 4000cm-1 to 450cm-1. The spectra are used to assign various stretching and bending modes of vibrations of the sample and also to identify the various phases present in the sample. A comparative study is made between the observed frequencies of the pure solvent and the solution. From this evaluation, the shifts in frequencies are corroborated. These shifts in the solution are ascribed to strong solute-solvent interaction by specific bonding between NH2 and C=O of solvent and Cl- and +NCH3 group of the imidazolium chloride.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Ionic liquid, 1-Butyl-3-Methyl imidazolium Chloride, vibrational frequencies.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Imidazolium chlorides are widely used as replacements for volatile organic solvents in industrial and laboratory processes as they are &#x201C;environmentally benign&#x201D;. They are non-volatile and non-flammable, with high thermal stability and show remarkable dissolution capabilities. Hence in the present investigation, solution of 1- butyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride in formamide is analyzed for the specific bonding and interactions using IR spectral results.&#xD;
&#xD;
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY &#xD;
Experimental technique &#xD;
1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride (bmim)cland formamide (99% purity AR Merck) were used as such.[1] The spectra are carried out in Sophisticated Analytical Instruments Facility (SAIF), IIT Madras. The IR spectroscopy is also carried out by using Fourier transform technique. The FTIR spectra of the compounds are recorded using PERKIN ELMER SPECTRUM ONE FTIR Spectrometer with a scan range MIR 4000 cm-1 - 450 cm-1 .This instrument has a typical resolution of 1.0 cm-1 .&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS &#xD;
The results of the current study are given under three headings.&#xD;
&#xD;
Table.1 &#x2013;Important stretching vibrations of Formamide &#xD;
Formamide has two functional groups of importance that can be easily identified[2] by the FTIR Spectrum (figure1). The &#x3BD;NH stretching vibration, the &#x3BD;CH vibration, the &#x3BD;C=N vibration, the &#x3BD;C-O vibration are observed at various frequencies and it reveals that the formamide exists both in amide and imide forms.&#xD;
&#xD;
Table.2 &#x2013; Important stretching vibrations of 1- butyl &#x2013; 3 methyl imidazolium chloride &#xD;
1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride exists in the solid state (figure 2). A series of peaks are observed and from the observation made, it is concluded that the change in vibrations are due to the resonating forms of the sample.&#xD;
&#xD;
Table.3 &#x2013;Important stretching vibrations of Solution of 1-butyl- 3 methyl imidazolium chloride and formamide &#xD;
In the solution spectrum of 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride and formamide, the important peaks are observed for various frequencies. The corresponding shifts in all the peaks obtained in the solution spectrum reveals the nature of the solute and the solvent.&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
FTIR Spectrum of formamide&#xA0;&#xD;
At 3409 cm-1 &#x3BD;NH stretching vibration is observed (Table.1). At 2886 cm-1, a sharp peak of CH stretching vibration is found. At 2771 cm-1 and 2689 cm-1 , the stretching vibrations are assigned to the CH of the enolic form. A small amount of enolic form is identified by the &#x3BD;C=N at 2395 cm-1 and 2198 cm-1 vibrations.[3] The CO group appears as a sharp peak at 1688 cm-1 . The amide II bending modes are observed at 1390 cm-1 and 1308 cm-1 , &#x3BD;C-O vibration is observed at 1054 cm-1 . Thus, the amide exists as the dimer (figure 1.1) and the formamide exists both as the amide and imide forms (figure 1.2)[4] .&#xA0;&#xD;
&#xD;
FTIR Spectrum of 1-butyl - 3 methyl imidazolium chloride &#xD;
1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride in the solid state (figure 2) exhibits the characterization of a &gt;N+CH3 group, the ammonium salt vibration at 2886 cm-1 . A series of peaks are observed in this region. (Table.2) At 2469 cm-1 , a broad absorption due to C=N is found. At 1624 cm-1 , C=C stretching vibration and CN bending vibration appeared as broad band. Further, at 1298 cm-1 , a sharp peak is observed due to CH bending vibration. At 1094 cm-1 and 898 cm-1 two bands of equal intensities are found[5,6]. This may be due to the resonating forms of the salt (figure 2.1 &amp; 2.2). At 549 cm-1 , the CCl vibrations are observed.&#xD;
&#xD;
FTIR Spectrum of Solution of 1-buty l- 3- methyl imidazolium chloride and formamide &#xD;
The &#x3BD;NH vibration is observed at 3409 cm-1 in pure formamide and in the case of solution, the &#x3BD;NH vibration is changing from 3409 cm-1 to 3414 cm-1 (figure 3). A red shift of 5 cm-1 is observed in this solvent peak. (Table.3). The &#x3BD;CH vibration at 2887 cm-1 has not undergone much shift. Hence solvation has occurred at the N-H bond in formamide. The important peak corresponding to amide- I vibration is noticed at 1689 cm-1 (&#x3BD;C=O) has shifted only by 2 cm-1 . [7,8] The characteristic change in absorption frequency (&#x3BD;C-O) is found at 1059 cm-1 in the solution and in the pure solvent, it is found at 1054 cm-1 . The solution spectrum is thus indication of solvation at NH2 group (figure 3.1) and the enolate position of formamide (figure 3.2). This is further supported by the C=N vibration of formamide at 2395 cm-1 which is blue shifted (11 cm-1 ) to 2384 cm-1 in the solution.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
	From the present study, FTIR spectral analysis leads to new insights about solvation.&#xD;
	Strong solute-solvent interaction occurs in the non-aqueous solution of formamide and 1- butyl -3 methyl imidazolium chloride.&#xD;
	Binding occurs between: NH2 and C=O of the solvent and Cland +NCH3 group of the imidazolium chloride through strong, coloumbic and ion-dipole interactions.&#xD;
	A chloride ion bridge exists between solute and the solvent molecule.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The&#xA0;authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. The author is highly thankful to the referees for their very constructive, valuable suggestions and useful technical comments, which led to a significant improvement of the paper.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1654</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1654</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Wilkes, J.S.; Zaworotko, M.J. Air and water stable 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium based ionic liquids. Chem. Commun. 1992, 965-967.&#xD;
&#xD;
2. Spectroscopic and thermodynamic analysis of some sodium salts in non- adequous medium. R.Padmavathy , E.Jasmine, K.Geetha, V.Solachi, N.Radha proceedings International Conference on Spectro Physics (INCONS 2005)&#xD;
&#xD;
3. Mu, Z.G.; Wang, X.X.; Zhang, S.X.; Liang, Y.M.; Bao, M.; Liu,W.M. Investigation of tribological behavior of Al-Si alloy against steel lubricated with ionic liquids of 1- diethylphosphonyl-n-propyl-3- alkylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate. J. Tribol.- Trans. ASME 2008, 130, Art. No. 034501.&#xD;
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4. Qu,J.; Blau, P.J.; Sheng, D.; Huimin, L.; Meyer, J.M.; Truhan, J.J. Tribological characteristics of aluminium alloys sliding against steel lubricated by ammonium and imidazolium ionic liquids. Wear 2009, 267, 1226-1231.&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Suzuki, A.; Shinka, Y.; Masuko, M., Tribological characteristics of imidazoliumbased room temperature ionic liquids under high vacuum. Tribol. Lett. 2007, 27, 307-313. Molecules 2009, 14,2906&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Mazyar, O.A.; Jennings, G.K.; McCabe, C. Frictional dynamics of alkylsilane monolayers on SiO2: effect of 1-n-butyl-3- methylimidazolium nitrate as a lubricant. Langmuir 2009, 25, 5103-5110.&#xD;
&#xD;
7. Minami, I.; Watanabe, N.; Nano, H.; Mori, S.; Kukumoto, K.; Ohno, H. Aspartic acid-derived wear preventing and friction reducing agents for ionic liquids. Chem. Lett. 2008, 37, 300- 301. Molecules 2009, 14 2907&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Wasserscheid, P.; van Hal, R.; Bosmann, A. 1- n-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium ([bmim]) octylsulfate - an even &amp;#39;greener&amp;#39; ionic liquid. Green Chem. 2002, 4, 400-404.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>THE IMPACT OF EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT ON CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN THE NIGERIAN SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS (A STUDY OF SOME SELECTED HOTELS IN JOS, PLATEAU STATE)&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>37</FirstPage><LastPage>52</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Vem Linus Jonathan</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Dakung Reuel Johnmark</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>The role of employees in service organizations is comparable to the role of the service itself. Their importance to the firm is critical to both service delivery and service production. No gainsay that, service is all about the people (employees) because they appear more often to be the most tangible clue to customers? perception of what quality service entails. It is in line this that this paper explored the following objectives: To determine the extent to which employee influences customer satisfaction, as well as establishing the extent to which the concept of empowerment is internalized by the players in the hospitality industry in Nigeria. It also ascertained the rate at which variables like; autonomy, responsibility, access to information, knowledge and competence development, equity reward system and power sharing translates into customer satisfaction, and determine how empowerment is perceived by employees. A sample size of about 400 was adopted from the twenty hotels which were selected at random. Furthermore, the data obtained were analyzed using simple percentage and presented in tables and charts, the hypothesis which states that; there is no significant relationship between employee empowerment and customers? satisfaction was supported following a z-test analyses of population proportion earlier conducted. This implies a weak hegemony between employees? empowerment and customers? satisfaction in the Nigerian hospitality industry. Based on the above inference, the paper further made the following recommendations: Hotel managers in Jos need to internalize the message in employee empowerment through granting of autonomy to employees in discharging their duties. Also the need to upgrade employees? service orientation and investing in training was advocated. Finally, paper also advocated the need for managers to encourage employees to consolidate on their achievements to explore the untapped potentials that abound in the hospitality industry in Nigeria.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Customer, Customer satisfaction, Empowerment, Employee Empowerment</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
One of the important ingredients of success in the market place is customers&#xA0;satisfaction. Customers are the life blood of an organization, so their satisfaction is the top goal of the firm, and are ranked by their satisfaction score. Wirtz (2003), lists the results of customer satisfaction to include: repeat purchase, loyalty; positive word-of-mouth and increased long term profitability. The academic literature postulates that customer satisfaction is a function of the discrepancy between customer?s prior expectations and perception regarding the patronage or purchase (Oliver, 1977; Churchill and Surprenant, 1982; Tse and Wilton, 1988; Yi 1990). When an experience is better than what the customer expects, there is thought to be positive disconfirmation of the&#xA0;expectation, and a favorable customers? evaluation is predicted. The role of employees in service organizations is comparable to the role of the service itself, as pointed out by Zeithaml et al (2002) that, employees are the service and the brand. Their importance to the firm is critical to both service delivery and service production. In services, it is all about the people (employees) because they appear more often to be the most tangible clue to the quality of the service. Zeithaml et al (2002), explains that the people factor in services is a very important element in the evaluation of that service &#x201C;as all human actors who play a part in service delivery and thus influence the buyers perceptions&#x201D; from the company?s personnel to the other customers in the service environment. Employees like the mirror of an organization are the interface between the organization and the customer, what they portray is what the customers see and use in their evaluation of the service experience. Zeithaml et al (2002), defines employees? role in the organization and to the customer saying, &#x201C;satisfied employees make satisfied customers&#x201D; and vice versa, adding that as the customers of the organization are important to their success so also are the employees relevant. It may therefore be inferred that customer satisfaction is the barometer for a satisfied employee. One of managers? valid rule of thumb that has stood the test of time is their strong position on job satisfaction and commitment. That individual who are not satisfied with their job are not committed to the organization, and because they are not committed, service delivery will certainly suffer serious setback. To dispense quality service to valued customers at the right time, form and place, most customer focused organizations in the 21st century positioned their employees strategically to anticipate and satisfy customers need through employee empowerment. Though the concept of empowerment has been a subject of intense debate, Kreitner and Kinicki (2004), opined that employee empowerment in modern organization gives employee better latitude in the work place. This is seen in the level of autonomy, responsibility, information accessibility and opportunity for creativity of employee in a workplace. Equidistantly, Lawler (1992), added that organization can create the best and flexible employee when high premium is given to knowledge and competence development, equitable reward system and power sharing. Exponents are optimistic that the concept is an important step in the evolution of organizational psychology which has the potential of building hugely more flexible and efficient corporate entities. In line with this, Kreitner and Kinicki (2004) argues that, empowerment enables organizations to be more responsive to the market place, by de-layering unnecessary structure, ensure lateral communication among work teams with minimal supervision to enable top management focus on strategic matters, while the empowered employees grapple with mundane issues. Other proponents argued with reference to the specific nature of service delivery observe that empowerment is becoming a very important issue to organizations producing services. In that, the customers and the employees are engaged simultaneously, this inseparability is what is considered by the organization in choosing how best to serve its customers. Therefore, the inability of the management to control the service encounter makes the employees responsible for the quality of service delivered to the customers. In order for the management to trust that the employees are successful in dealing with their customers, they have to give the employees the authority and necessary support to succeed at it.&#xD;
&#xD;
Problem Discussion&#xD;
Hospitality industry in Nigeria, particularly Plateau State, even though is still at its low level of activities and growth, offers vast opportunity to&#xA0;investors to explore the tourism potentials of the State. To succeed, investors must understand the interplay of success factors in the industry. One notable characteristic in hospitality organizations is the general offering in the industry that is averagely similar, even though they may engage in different approaches to gain more market share and customers? loyalty in the industry. When organizations compete in standardize product, the available success option is to differentiate themselves from their rivals by offering customers higher quality of services than their competitors hence, provides basis of their competition to be defined by their services. It is noteworthy to say that most players in the service industry in Nigeria have not fully internalized the significant interface between the organization and the customers; this is apparently manifested in their attitude towards employee empowerment. Because employees are the voice and face of the organization, Ashis (2008) observes that failure to train them to provide quality service, to know what to do and how to do it can simply amount to a paradox of value. He also acknowledged the need for employees to have the requisite authority to make decisions regarding customer satisfaction which is the basis of empowerment. However, Kreitner and Kinicki (2004) posit that; &#x201C;like other widely heralded management concept, such as TQM, 360-degree reviews, team and learning organization etc, empowerment has its faire share of critics and unrealistic expectations. In consonance with their observations, Doughty (2004), argues from both political economist and organizational psychologist point of views. From the former he said, employee empowerment represent a cunning strategy by an insidious management to gull workers not only into acquiescing in their own oppression but also into coming up with clever method of intensifying that oppression. He critique further by describing empowerment as exemplifying the tradition of noble proletarian struggle for recognition, respect and the rightful sharing of power in the work place, and hence subject themselves to the exploitative york of their pay masters. Unfortunately, most working environment today as observed by Doughty (2004), are characterized by mental anguish, emotional fatigue and existential angst unleashed on employees by their &#x201C;bosses&#x201D; consequently, they are treated with less respect than the think they deserve, some who are seen to be &#x201C;respected&#x201D; are subjected to constant monitoring and expose to arbitrary and capricious discipline. Their opinions are dismissed and have no say in their work schedules, to worsen their woes; they are supervised by petty micro managers who do not believe neither recognizes their sincere contributions to common project. In spite all these, organizations expect nothing short of customer satisfaction.&#xD;
&#xD;
Research Questions &#xD;
Having analyzed the context in which customer service is dispensed, in today?s organizations and need to improve and strengthen the interface between the organization and customer satisfaction, the paper seeks to unravel some critical issues which include:&#xD;
1. To what extent does employee empowerment influences customer satisfaction&#xD;
2. To what extent is the concept of empowerment internalized by the players in the hospitality industry in Nigeria&#xD;
3. How does the identified variables such as; autonomy, responsibility, access to information, knowledge and competence development, equity reward system and power sharing translated into customer satisfaction&#xD;
4. How is empowerment perceived from the employees? perspective?&#xD;
&#xD;
Objectives of the Paper &#xD;
In line with the research questions mentioned earlier, the following objectives are crafted:&#xD;
1. To determine the extent to which employee influences customer satisfaction.&#xD;
2. To establish the extent to which the concept of empowerment is internalized by the players in the hospitality industry in Nigeria.&#xD;
3. To ascertain how the identified variables such as; autonomy, responsibility, access to information, knowledge and competence development, equity reward system and power sharing are translated into customer satisfaction.&#xD;
4. To find out how empowerment is perceived by employees.&#xD;
&#xD;
Research Hypothesis&#xD;
Hypothesis I &#xD;
Ho: There is no significant relationship between employee empowerment and customer satisfaction in the Nigerian hospitality industry.&#xD;
&#xD;
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK &#xD;
Concept of Employee Empowerment Employee empowerment is neither a new or simple management concept. Nick, Jack, Warren and Barbara (1993) asserted that, it as a complex management tool that over 50 years of research has proven that, when applied properly, can be effective in improving performance, productivity and job satisfaction. Because of the overwhelming scholarly interest it has attracted over the years, there has been a multi facet dimensions to employee empowerment making it a difficult concept to define (Honold 1993). The beginnings of the concept of employee empowerment can be found in several places. The socio-technical approach (Lewin, 1951) combined two aspects of work in a systemic manner. The idea of job enrichment (Herzberg, Mausner et al., 1959) work was focused on increasing control and decisionmaking in one?s work. The literature on job autonomy, (Herzberg, Mausner et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1968; Hackman and Oldham, 1976; Menon, 1995) addresses another component of what is today referred to employee empowerment. Many writers have seen employee empowerment from leadership perspectives saying; approach to leadership that empowers subordinates as a primary component of managerial and organizational effectiveness is also called employee empowerment (Honold 1993, Bennis, 1989; Block, 1987; McClelland, 1975). Another dimension has its beginnings in the analysis of internal organization power and control which showed that the sharing of power and control increases organizational effectiveness. Aligning with this perspective, Legge (1995) argued that empowerment should be seen in terms of redistributive model whereby power equalization is promoted for trust and collaboration. Base on the aforementioned, it is clear that the central focus here, whether it is seen from individual of organizational paradigm, involves power redistribution through transfer of control such that employee have latitude to make and implement their own decision (Greasely, Bryman, Dainty, Price Soetanto and King 2005). Other rhetoric such as Conger and Kanungo (1988) attempted to distinguish between relational and motivational aspect of empowerment, even though in the long run the two seems as are intertwined. Relation examine the tie between managers and worker prior and after empowerment, while the motivational dimensions centered on process in which initiative is pass to the employee to feel motivated.&#xD;
&#xD;
Why employee Empowerment is Critical in Nigeria &#xD;
Nigerians and indeed Africans are still grappling with the understanding and implementation of management concepts. When compared with the early exposure and erudite contribution of pragmatist, such as classicist, behaviourialist etc in the Western and European context it be justified that, they are better placed on a pedestal. This paper is not in any way making case for&#xA0;mediocrity and ineptitude but rather acknowledging the sincere challenges that might emerge in the process of articulating and internalizing very conceptual management practice like employee empowerment in Nigeria. Considering the immense benefit accruable to organizations and individuals, it will be regarded as &#x201C;Penny wise&#x201D; on that part of organizations to ignore such a workplace revolutionary trend under any guise what so ever. Below are some reasons why employee empowerment is critical: ? Global competition and ever changing business environment requires empowered employee who can rapidly respond to customers? &#x201C;wildest&#x201D; expectations by not only responding to them, but take the lead on their behalves to ensure efficiency and performance (Greasly et al 2005). ? Lead to building a pool of knowledgeable employees, who works with least supervision. Information sharing as argued by Wilkinson (1998), is cardinal to empowerment, this involve exposing employee to basic knowledge and accepted work behaviour, which can result into employee job mastery giving managers leeway to focus on strategic matters. ? Reduce employee turnover and enhances retention capacity. Greasly et al(2005) contends that employee who considered themselves empowered are unlikely to experience conflict and ambiguity in their role to certain extend, as they are capable of controlling their work environment. This development Nykodym, Simoenetti, Waren, and Welling (1994) acknowledged; reduces emotional strain on the employee. Similarly, empowered employees have high possibility of job satisfaction, motivation, and organizational loyalty.&#xD;
&#xD;
Concept of Customer Satisfaction &#xD;
Consumer satisfaction is central to the fields of management and marketing. With evidence of strategic links between satisfactions and overall firm performance (Anderson, Fornell and Lehman, 1992), it is now common to find mission statements designed around the satisfaction notion, marketing plans and incentive programs that target satisfaction as a goal and consumer communications that trumpet awards for satisfaction achievements in marketplace. Satisfaction generally is conceptualized as an attitude like judgment following a purchase act or based on a series of consumer- product/service interaction (Yi, 1990). The popular view is that the confirmation/ disconfirmation of preconception product/service standards are the essential determinant of satisfaction (Erevelles and Leavitt 1992; Oliver 1996). By far, the most common are predictive expectations of attribute performance, as incorporated in the expectations &#x2013; disconfirmation (ED) model of satisfaction response (Boulding et al 1993; Oliver 1996, Tse and Wilton 1988). Desires based on features and benefits that are considered ideal or inspirational in the service quality domain have also been recommended (Westbroole and Reilly, 1983). Other models use equity expectations based on what the consumer believes reasonably should occur given the product/ service price (Oliver and Swan, 1989), and experience based norms derived from personal experiences or information received (Cadotte, Woodruff, and Jenkins, 1987). Although these four (4) types of comparison standards reflect the four principal satisfaction models articulated within the CS paradigm, past researchers probably have overemphasized the significance of predictive expectations and the ED model (Cadotte, Woodruff, and Jekins, 1987). A few CS paradigm researchers have gone beyond these cognitively toned model formulations to consider the affective nature of satisfaction (Oliver, 1996; Westbrook, 1995). Perhaps most intriguing is Oliver?s (1996), suggestion that there exist five different modes or prototypes of satisfaction: contentment (with its primary affect&#xA0;of acceptance or tolerance), pleasure (a positive reinforcement state that involves the evocation or enhancement of a positive, well- liked experience and primary affect happiness), relief (a negative reinforcement state occurring when an aversive state is removed), novelty (expectations of the unexpected that yield a primary affect of interest or excitation) , and surprise (a primary affect of either delight or outrage as occurs when service (in our case, service quality) perform outside the range of expectations). The customer satisfaction level has been analyzed in two terms i.e material customer satisfaction (MCS) level and abstract customer satisfaction (ACS) level. Customer satisfaction in material sense denotes the aggregate position of firm (hotel) in terms of fee charged, frequency with which problems are faced and post purchase behavior of the customers. In abstract sense, customer satisfaction level denotes the position of a firm (let?s say hotel) in terms of post purchase or patronage behavior, the efficiency of facilities provided and the examples of others using facilities of the same hotel (Komal, 2009). Material Customer Satisfaction (MCS) level has been examined on the basis of three variables as stated above (fee charged, problems faced and post purchase or patronage behavior). ? Fee charged by the hotels is one of the variables taken for checking customer satisfaction level. If customer feels that the fee charged by the hotel is reasonable then he is satisfied and vice-versa. This implies that there is direct relationship between fee charged and customer satisfaction ? Second parameter for measuring MCS level is problem faced by the customers while using facilities of a particular hotel. If consumers are facing problems more frequently, customer satisfaction level will be less and vice-versa. Hence, there is indirect relation between the problems faced and customer satisfaction. ? Post purchase or patronage behavior has been analyzed through two statements (Komal, 2009). If they are agreeing with these statements, then their customer satisfaction level is rated high. Post purchase or patronage behavior has direct reaction with customer satisfaction level.&#xD;
&#xD;
Employee empowerment and Customer Satisfaction&#xD;
In service industry, like the hospitality business, it is evidenced that employees are the interface between organization and their customers, they determine the possibility of actualizing organizational objective through quality service delivery, and because they have contact with the customers directly, it is logical that they understand them, know their needs, and meet those needs even better. Organizations that empower their employees have a likelihood of succeeding in terms of customers&#xA0;satisfaction. This is illustrated below:&#xD;
&#xD;
As illustrated above customer satisfaction is central to organizational objectives with evidence of strategic links between satisfaction and overall firm performance (Anderson, Fornell and Lehman, 1992). It is now common to find mission statements designed around the satisfaction notion, marketing plans and incentive programs that target satisfaction as a goal and consumer communications that trumpet awards for satisfaction achievements in marketplace. Although satisfaction has been conceptualized in terms of either a single transaction (i.e. an evaluative judgment following the purchase occasion) or a series of interactions with a product over time, Anderson and Fornell (1994), noted that nearly all satisfaction research has adopted the former, transaction- specific view. Indeed, several observers have chastised the marketing field for treating satisfaction as a static evaluation derived from a lone trial event, noting that comparison standards are likely to change with consumer experience (Iacobuca, Grayson, and Ostrom, 1994). Due to the role of the employees in service organizations, and the value customers place on services being rendered by them, the management would have to adopt a system or approach that can yield satisfactory results. There are basically two approaches that a company can choose to adopt: The traditional method of delegation and the empowerment approach. a) The traditional approach: Is characterized by simplification of tasks, clear division of labor, substitution of equipment and systems for employees, and little decision-making discretion afforded to employees. b) Empowerment approach: Less emphasis is put on the systems surrounding the service employees who are given more discretion and autonomy. Many studies have shown that due to the nature of services, empowerment approach tends to have a distinct impact on the service delivery process, customer perceived service quality, the service quality and customer satisfaction. Service&#xA0;organizations (for instance hospitality) in contrast to organizations that are into the production of physical goods have a different approach and contact method with their customers which are more personal. Hence, the issue of empowerment as regards to how employees are equipped to make independent decisions regarding offering quality services that will satisfy customers is pertinent. Furthermore, employee empowerment as a part of the internal marketing process in an organization which when correctly implemented can have a decisive impact on job satisfaction of employees as well as customer satisfaction. The role of employees in service organizations is comparable to the role of the service itself. As pointed out by Zeithaml et al (2002), employees are the service and the brand. Their importance to the firm is critical to service delivery. Employees like the mirror of an organization are the interface between the organization and the customer, what they portray is what the customers see and use in their evaluation of the service experience. According to Zeithaml et al (2002), &#x201C;satisfied employees make satisfied customers&#x201D; and vice versa, as the customers of the organization are important to their success so also are empowered employees. The empowered employees? relationship with the customer has a huge relevance. Its balance is necessary to the success of the both parties in the exchange relationship as their influence on the service and ultimately customer satisfaction is very substantial (i.e. sustenance of the business). These customercontact employees according to Zeithaml et al (2002) are referred to as boundary spanners.&#xD;
&#xD;
METHODOLOGY &#xD;
The study was undertaken to evaluate the impact of employee empowerment on customer satisfaction in the Nigerian service organizations (a study of some selected hotels in Jos, Plateau state). One may wonder why the choice of this population as subject of research, seeing that product here is standardized. This is simply because the services offered in this very important sector have gone through varying degree of change and sophistication in recent times with customer at its focal point. To actualize the objectives of this study, two sets of questionnaires were developed and administered to both employees and customers of the selected Hotels. The study interacted with the selected target from twenty (20) registered hotels before administering the questionnaires to ensure they have experienced the services of the hotel or have interacted with the customers prior to the study. Simple random sampling method was adopted in the selection of participants in the study. A total of 400 questionnaires were distributed to the respondents out of which 300 were customer related questionnaire while 100 questionnaires were distributed to employees. Data collected were presented using simple descriptive statistical method, such as percentage and charts. Hypothesis for the study which states that; there is no significant relationship between employee empowerment and customer satisfaction was tested, and z-test of population proportion was used to analyse the data obtained from the responses of the customers and employees.&#xD;
&#xD;
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS &#xD;
The questionnaires distributed were 400 (100 for employees and 300 for customers of some selected hotels in Jos). However, only 350 were properly filled and returned (80 for staff and 270 for customers).&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Responsibility: &#xD;
From the table above 40(50%) of the respondents agreed that members in a shift are not blamed for any service failure, 50% disagreed; 50(62.5%) strongly agreed that the supervisor bears responsibility for customers? satisfaction or disappointment, 37.5% strongly disagreed; 60(75%) strongly disagreed that they, not their immediate superiors bear responsibilities for errors committed or successes achieved, 25% strongly agreed. On the average it could be seen that 37.3 indicates positive responsibility, while 62.5 indicates negative responsibility. We could hence deduce here that there is poor empowerment with respect to handling of responsibility of the employees in the hospitality industry in Jos metropolis. Access to information: The above table reveals that 47(58.8%) of the respondents disagreed that their employers often share critical information concerning the mission and the vision of the organization, 41.2% agreed; 65(81.3%) disagreed that all necessary information they need to perform their job effectively are available at their disposal, 18.7% agreed; 55(68.8%) disagreed that their supervisors/management always give them the necessary clues on key success factors on the job, 31.2% agreed; 45(56.3% agreed that their achievements and successes recorded are always communicated to them, 43.7% disagreed. On the&#xA0;average it could be seen that 36.9 indicates positive access to information, while 63.2 indicates negative access to information. We could hence deduce here that there is poor empowerment with respect to access to information of the employees in the hospitality industry in Jos metropolis. Reward: From the table above it could be seen that 68(85%) of the respondents agreed that their pay is not necessarily subject to organizational performance, 15% disagreed; 70(87.5%) strongly agreed that their pay packages and the work they do is less than they deserve, 12.5% disagreed; 52(65%) disagreed that employees? initiative are always rewarded in their organizations, 35% agreed. On the average it could be seen that 20.8 indicates positive reward system, while 63.2 indicates negative reward system. We could hence deduce here that there is poor empowerment with respect to reward system of the employees in the hospitality industry in Jos metropolis. Autonomy: The above table shows that 54(67.5%) of the respondents strongly agreed that their supervisors must direct them before they embark on any action, 32.5% disagreed; 50(62.5%) agreed that customers? needs are met better without supervisors? input, 37.5%) disagreed; 60(75% strongly agreed that their supervisors have confidence in the ability of their team members always, 25% disagreed. On the average it could be seen that 56.7 indicates positive autonomy, while 63.2 indicates negative autonomy. We could hence deduce here that there is good empowerment with respect to autonomy of the employees in the hospitality industry in Jos metropolis.&#xD;
&#xD;
The responses of the respondents (customers of the hotels) as presented on the table and figure above reveal that 103(38.3%) opined that they patronize the hotels regularly, 120(44.5%) observed that they are not satisfied with the services of the hotels. 117(43.3%) agreed that employees of the hotels they patronize are always happy when attending to them, 120(45.5%) disagreed that employees of the hotels consult their supervisors before attending to them. 105(39.6%) of the respondents? assessed the handling of responsibilities by the employees of the hotels they patronize as good. 138(51.1%) rated the level of innovativeness of the employees as a result of their autonomy in attending to them at 41-60%, 151(55.9%) agreed that employees of the hotels show some sense of patriotism to their customers, while 178(65.9%) enunciated that the areas that the employees need to serve them better is through training of employees and upgrading the standard of the hotels.&#xD;
&#xD;
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION Ho:&#xD;
There is no significant relationship between employee empowerment and customer satisfaction in the Nigerian hospitality industry&#xD;
&#xD;
Interpretation Result &#xD;
The computed z which is 1.32 is less than the table value = 12.59 Hence, we accept the null hypothesis which states that; there is no significant relationship between employee empowerment and customer satisfaction in the Nigerian hospitality industry while the alternate hypothesis which states that there is a significant relationship between employee empowerment and customer satisfaction in the Nigerian hospitality industry was not supported. Discussion of Findings Hypothesis tested above is quite revealing, this is because findings differs the logical order. Ordinarily one would expect that negative employee empowerment as analysed in table 5 above would translate to negative customers satisfaction, but rather in spite of the unfavourable responses by the employees regarding empowerment, customers seems to be at home with the services rendered. One might attribute the weak hegemony in findings to low exposure, and dearth of world class facilities since the hospitality industry in this context is still at its infancy stage, hence customers? indifference to employee empowerment might be explained in increase in demand for such services.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
Employees like the mirror of an organization are the interface between the organization and the customer, what they portray is what the customers see and use in their evaluation of the service experience. This study was aimed at ascertaining the impact of employee empowerment and customer satisfaction, taking an empirical study of some selected hotels in Jos, Plateau. Concept of employee empowerment, why employee empowerment is critical in&#xA0;Nigeria, employee empowerment and delegation of power, concept of customer satisfaction, employee empowerment and customer satisfaction were reviewed. Furthermore, the result of the hypothesis tested revealed that there is a significant relationship between employee empowerment and customer satisfaction.&#xD;
&#xD;
RECOMMENDATIONS &#xD;
Based on our findings, we hereby advance the following recommendations:&#xD;
1. Since there is poor empowerment with respect to handling of responsibility, access to information and reward of the employees in the hospitality industry in Jos metropolis, management of these hotels should improve on their employee empowerment. 2. Hotels in Jos metropolis should maintain the pace of granting their employees autonomy in areas of discharging their tasks 3. To better serve their customers, the hotels in Jos metropolis should upgrade their standards and invest more in the training of employees. 4. Since customers? rating of the level of innovativeness of the employees as a result of their autonomy in attending to them is between 41-60%, hotels in Jos metropolis should keep encouraging their employees to consolidate on their achievements to explore the untapped potentials that abound in the hospitality industry in Nigeria.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1655</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1655</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Anderson, Fornell, C., and Lehmann, D. (1992). &#x201C;Perceived Quality, customer satisfaction, Market share, and profitability&#x201D;, working paper, Department of Marketing, University of Michigan.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>STUDIES ON GROWTH, MORPHOLOGY, SPECTRAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME DOPED L-ALANINE FAMILY OF SINGLE CRYSTALS&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>53</FirstPage><LastPage>61</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>K. Seethalakshmi</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> S. Perumal</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> P. Selvarajan</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Single crystals of L-alanine (LA), L-alanine doped with potassium chloride (LAPC) and L- alanine doped with potassium bromide (LAPB) have been grown from solution by slow evaporation technique at ambient temperature. The effects of dopants in the host L-alanine crystals have been investigated from growth, morphology, spectral and mechanical properties. Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) analysis was used to compare morphology of the grown crystals. The functional groups of the samples were identified by FTIR spectral analysis. The hardness of the crystals was found out by Vickers microhardness tester.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Characterization, Slow Evaporation, Single Crystal, SEM analysis, Vickers microhardness test.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
The present fascinating field of research is to synthesize, grow and characterize semi-organic Nonlinear Optical (NLO) crystals. The semiorganic crystals possess both the good qualities of host organic materials and additive inorganic materials [1]. This semi-organic NLO materials have been attracting great attention due to high non-linearity, chemical flexibility, high mechanical and thermal stability and good transmittance [2]. The amino acids exhibit specific features on interest such as (i) molecular chirality, which secures non-centrosymmetric crystallographic structure, (ii) absence of strongly conjugated bonds, which leads to wide transparency ranges in the visible and ultra-violet spectral regions and (iii) zwitter ionic nature of the molecule, which favours crystal hardness for applications in devices [3,4]. The &#x3B1;-carbon atom of L-alanine is bound with a methyl group making it one of the simplest &#x3B1;-amino acids with respect to molecular structure and also resulting in L-alanine being classified as an aliphatic amino-acid. The methyl group of L-alanine is non-reactive and is thus almost never directly involved in protein function [5]. The presence of dopants in small amount may greatly influence the crystallization kinetics of organic compounds from solution. A dopant may affect the activity of the crystallizing solute in solution and interface with the crystal growth process through adsorption onto the growing surface. It has been reported that doping NLO crystals with organic impurities can alter various physical and chemical properties and doped NLO crystals can be used for various applications. It is identified that adding dopants changes the properties of the crystals [6]. Hence the aim of this paper is to report the studies on growth morphology, spectral analysis and microhardness of some doped L-alanine crystals.&#xD;
&#xD;
Growth of sample crystals &#xD;
AR grade L-alanine was purchased commercially and single crystals of L-alanine were grown by saturating 20 g in doubly distilled water and allowing the solution by slow evaporation. 5 mole% of potassium chloride and potassium bromide were added separately into the solutions of L-alanine in two beakers and thoroughly dissolved in water by stirring well for about one hour using a magnetic stirrer simultaneously heating below an optimum temperature of 60 ?C, to get homogenous solution. The saturated solution was filtered using 4 micro Whatmann filter paper. Then the filtered solution was taken in a beaker and covered by a perforated cover for controlled of evaporation [7]. The variation in crystal configuration was observed right from its growth. The pure L-alanine (LA) crystal appears transparent and grows in size of 10?4?2 mm3 within 15 days, whereas L-alanine doped with potassium chloride (LAPC) and L-alanine doped with potassium bromide (LAPB) are semitransparent crystals and they grow in size of 10 ? 4 ? 2.5 mm3 and 12 ? 10 ? 3 mm3 between 20 &#x2013; 25 days. The harvested crystals are shown in figure 1.&#xD;
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&#xD;
Instrumentation&#xD;
In the present investigation, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of model Jeol 5600 was used to study the surface morphology of the grown crystals. The samples of SEM are coated with a very thin layer of gold in a sputter coater to provide electrical conduction and there by reduce dry charging effects. The current magnification and accelerating voltage are digitally displayed with light emitting diodes. Grown crystals were subjected to Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectral studies using a Perkin &#x2013; Elmer Spectrum FTIR Spectrophotometer, equipped with a KBr beam splitter and an air-cooled DTGS (Deuterated Triglycine Sulfate). In this method, 5 mg of sample crystal was mixed with 100 mg of dried KBr and subjected to pressure of 5?106 Pa and made into a clear pellet of 13 mm diameter and 1 mm thickness. The measurement of microhardness gives idea of mechanical strength of crystals and Vickers microhardness testing was carried out using the instrument named &#x2018;CLEMAX&#x2019;. Indentations were made for various loads from 25 g to 100 g. Several trials of indentations were carried out and the average diagonal lengths were measured for an indentation time of 15 s. The Vickers microhardness number was calculated using the relation, Hv = 1.8544 P/d2 kg/mm2 where P is the applied load and d is the diagonal length of the indentation [8,9].&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS &#xD;
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analysis In SEM, the surface of solid sample is scanned in a raster pattern with a beam of energetic electrons.&#xD;
&#xD;
The back scattered and secondary electrons produced from the surface by the interaction of the primary electron beam with loosely bound electrons of the surface atoms serve as the basis of SEM. When the electron beam scans the specimen surface, there will be a change in the secondary electron emission according to the surface texture. The SEM images of the crystals of pure Lalanine, L-alanine doped with potassium chloride (LAPC) and L-alanine doped with potassium bromide (LAPB) are presented in the figures 2 (a,b), 3(a,b) and 4(a,b).&#xD;
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&#xD;
Figs. 2(a) and 2(b) show the SEM images of Lalanine crystal at different magnifications and the anisotropic formation of flower shaped morphology in different directions are noticed. It is observed that there is a very densely packed granular structure with lack of distinct grain boundaries in the crystal [10]. The surface features of LAPC crystal at different magnifications are presented in the figures 3(a) and 3(b). Fig.3(a) shows the heart shaped and many rectancular shaped voids of irregular dimension indicating that this compound has high inter-granular porosity. Fig.3(b) shows the SEM image of LAPC at a magnification of 2000 x and it gives many rectangular shaped voids. The SEM images of LAPB sample are presented in the figures 4(a) and&#xA0;4(b) and in these images there are large sized, rectangular shaped voids comparing to the SEM images of LAPC sample and it is noticed that there are lazy and lumpy bigger structures dispersed in the matrix of fine grained crystallites. SEM images show a remarkable changes in the morphology between doped and undoped crystals. FTIR Spectral analysis The infrared spectroscopy is the powerful and potential analytical tool in the analysis of compounds and molecules. The interaction of molecules with electro &#x2013; magnetic waves forms is the main concept of IR spectroscopy. For a molecule to absorb IR radiations, the vibrations or rotations within a molecule must cause a net change in the dipole moment of the molecule [11]. FTIR spectra of pure L-alanine, LAPC and LAPB samples are shown in figures 5, 6 and 7 respectively.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
For pure L-alanine crystals the absorption peaks (Fig.5) at 3085, 1621 and 1518 cm-1 are the indication of the presence of ? NH3 group in the crystal. The peaks at 2994, 2850, 2600 cm-1 are attributed to the C-H stretching mode vibrations. The peaks at 1590 cm1 has a strong C=O stretching, at 1455 cm-1 it shows COOsymmetric stretching, wave numbers 1306, 919 and 649 show C-H bending. The O-CO bending mode at 772 cm-1 has been identified and assigned and at 849 cm-1 , a strong C-H wagging and twisting is identified. For LAPC crystals, the absorption peaks (Fig.6) at 3079, 3020, 3000 cm-1 are the indication of the presence of ? NH3 group in the crystal. The peaks at 2988, 2603, 2322 cm-1 are attributed to the C-H stretching mode vibrations, at 1594 cm-1 a very strong asymmetric deformation of ? NH3 is identified, at 1455 cm-1 , a strong COOsymmetric stretching is observed, at 1307 cm-1 , CH2 wagging is seen and a very strong aliphatic C-Cl absorption is identified and assigned at 850 cm-1 . For LAPB crystals, the absorption peaks (Fig.7) at 3066, 3033, 3020 cm-1 are the indication of the presence of ? NH3 symmetric stretching because of hydrogen bonding in the crystal. The peaks at 2591, 2314, 2293 cm-1 are attributed to the C-H stretching mode vibrations, at 1518 cm-1 it shows C=O stretching and at 1455 cm-1 a strong COOsymmetric stretching is identified, at 1307 cm-1 CH2 wagging is observed, at 850 cm-1 wagging and twisting is noted, C &#x2013; Br stretch is seen at 649 cm-1 and COOrocking is observed in 544 cm-1 . Thus, adding dopants into L-alanine crystal shows variations in the infrared spectra, especially at 850 cm-1 in case of LAPC and 649 cm-1 in case of LAPB. Similar features of bands are observed at 2113 cm-1 for pure L-alanine and 2112 cm-1 for LAPC and 2111 cm-1 for LAPB and this is an overtone region with a combination of a symmetrical ? NH3 bending vibrations and torsional oscillations. The assignments for the absorption peaks of the FTIR spectra have been&#xA0;given in accordance with the data reported in the literature [12].&#xD;
&#xD;
Microhardness studies &#xD;
The hardness of a material is a measure of its resistance to plastic deformation. This deformation can be achieved by indentation, bending, cutting or scratching. Here all the three crystals were subjected to Vickers microhardness test with a load varying from 25 g to 100 g [13,14]. Vickers microhardness profile as a function of the applied test loads were illustrated in the figure 8. It is clear from results that the micro &#x2013; hardness of the crystal decreases with increasing in the load, also the microhardness number decreases when Lalanine crystal is added dopants like potassium chloride and potassium bromide. The value of the work hardening coefficient &#x2018;n&#x2019; was estimated from the graph of log P versus log d drawn by least square fit method, shown in figure 9. The value of the work hardening coefficient &#x2018;n&#x2019; is found to be 1.733 for pure L-alanine and 2.7808 for LAPC and 1.833 for LAPB. According to Onitsch, 1.0 ? n ? 1.6 for hard materials and n &gt; 1.6 for soft materials [15]. Hence it is concluded that all the three crystals LA, LAPC and LAPB belong to the category of soft materials.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
Single crystals of some L-alanine family have been grown by solution method using waster as solvent. Transparent and semi-transparent crystals of well-defined morphologies were obtained. From SEM analysis, it is concluded that there is a formation of voids of different shapes on the surface of the grown crystals. FTIR spectral analysis confirmed the presence of functional groups in the crystals. From Vickers microhardness test, it is found that hardness number decreases with increasing load and it is concluded that the grown crystals of this work belong to the category of soft materials.&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
The authors would like to thank Prof. Surapaneni Krishna Mohan, Dept of Bio-chemistry, Saveetha Medical College, Chennai for his extended support and encouragement.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1656</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1656</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. J. Ramajothi, S. Dhanuskodi, Spectrochimica Acta Part A 68 (2007) 1213.&#xD;
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4. K.D. Parikh, D.J. Dave, B.B. Parekh and M.J. Joshi, Cryst Res. Technology 45 (2010) 603.&#xD;
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5. D. Prabha and S. Palaniswamy. International Journal of chemical, Environmental and Pharmaceutical Research. 1 (2010) 40.&#xD;
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9. P. Selvarajan, J. Glorium Arulraj. S. Perumal, J. Crystal Growth. 311(2009) 3835.&#xD;
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12. G. Socrates, Infrared and Rama Characteristic Group Frequencies, 3rd Ed. Wiley. New York (2001).&#xD;
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14. M. Vimalan. A. Ramanand and P. Sagayaraj. Cryst.Res.Technol. 42 (2007) 1091.&#xD;
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15. E.M. Onitsch, Mikroscopia 2(1947)131&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>GENETIC DIVERSITY IN FIVE CICER GENOTYPES USING OPM-05 PRIMER&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>62</FirstPage><LastPage>68</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Jahangir Ahmad</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Vaseem Raja</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Rajdeep Kudesia</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Five genotypes of Cicer (Dhawal, Ujjwal, Shubhra, DCP-92-3 and IPC-04-20) were analyzed to estimate genetic diversity by using OPM-05 primer. A total of 21 bands were detected, all of them were polymorphic. Similarity index calculated was found highest between Ujjwal and IPC-04-20 (37.5%) and lowest between Shubhra and IPC-04-20 (22.22%). Dice&#x2019;s similarity coefficient ranged from 0.00000 to 0.25000. A dendrogram constructed based on UPGMA revealed two clusters. Cluster 1 consists of three accessions-S1, S3 and S5 while as cluster 2 consists of two accessions- S2 and S4. It is evident from the dendrogram that accession DCP-92-3 and IPC-04-20 are genetically dissimilar; hence it is recommended that these should be used for future breeding programs to create higher amount of genetic variability in chickpea.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Genetic diversity, Cicer, RAPD, UPGMA dendrogram</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
The genus Cicer includes 33 perennials, eight annuals and one unspecified wild species as well as the cultivated chickpea (Van der Maesen 1987). Chickpea is the second most important cool season pulse crop in the world and is grown in atleast 33 countries including central and west Asia, South Europe, Ethiopia, North Africa, North and South America and Australia (Ladizinsky and Adler 1976; Singh and Ocampo 1997). Chickpea is the most important pulse crop in India. It is commonly grown in Uttar Pradesh, Panjab, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. These together accounts for more than 90% of the total area under it. There are two broad groups of gram-brown and white. The brown or desi type is most widely grown. The white or kabuli is characterized by larger seeds. In India, gram is sown as Rabi crop at the end of the rainy season. Sowing takes place from September to November, and harvesting from February to April. India is the largest producer of chickpea, accounting for 66% of the world production (FAO 2004). The average annual yield world wide (0.78 ton/ hectare) is considered to be somewhat lower than its potential yield (Singh et al., 1994; Sudupak et al., 2002). Assessment of the extent of genetic variability within chickpea is fundamental for chickpea breeding and the conservation of genetic resources and is particularly useful as a general guide in the choice of parents for breeding hybrids. Criteria for the estimation of genetic diversity can be different which include morphological traits (Upadhaya et al., 2007) or molecular markers (Sharma et al., 1995). Molecular markers have proved to be useful tools in the characterization and evaluation of genetic diversity within and between species and populations. A no. of DNA based markers is now available for the effective quantification of&#xA0;genetic variation in plant species. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFPL) and Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) have been applied successfully and have provided considerable genetic information in a no. of plant species (Vos et al., 1995, Xu et al., .2000). These techniques are slow and expensive and are not amenable for assessment of genetic variation in large scale population genetic studies. More recently PCR based RAPD and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers requiring small amounts of DNA have also been developed (Williams et al., 1990). SSR markers have been proved to be polymorphic but require nucleotide information for primer design (Sun et al., 1998). RAPD methodology overcomes this limitation; considerable polymorphic markers can be obtained with relative ease from minute amounts of genomic DNA without prior knowledge of sequence information RAPD is a PCR based technique first developed by Williams et al., (1990) widely used in molecular biology. Due to advances in molecular biology techniques, large numbers of highly informative DNA markers have been developed for the identification of genetic polymorphism. In the last decade, the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been one of the most commonly used molecular techniques to develop DNA markers. RAPD markers are amplification products of anonymous DNA sequences using single, short and arbitrary oligonucleotide primers, and thus don&#x2019;t require prior knowledge of a DNA sequence. Low expense, efficiency in developing a large number of DNA markers in a short time and requirement for less sophisticated equipment has made the RAPD technique valuable although reproducibility of the RAPD profile is still the centre of debate (Bardakcl F 2001).&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
The germplasm were obtained from Indian Institute of Pulse Research, Kanpur (U.P.) India. During the present study, five accessions of Cicer were used to estimate genetic diversity by using RAPD analysis. The details of five accessions are given in table 1.&#xD;
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RAPD analysis For RAPD, 1g seed of each accession was used to isolate the genomic DNA Genomic DNA isolation The problem of DNA extraction is still an important issue in the field of plant molecular biology. Various plants contain high levels of polysaccharides and many types of secondary metabolites affecting DNA purification (Zidani et al., 2005). CTAB procedure based on the protocol of Doyle and Doyle (1990) is the method of choice for obtaining good quality DNA from many plant species and also from fungi (Weising et al., 1991). CTAB is a cationic detergent which solubilizes membranes and forms a complex with DNA. One gram seed of each accession was ground to a fine powder in liquid nitrogen then transferred to PCR tubes and an equal volume of hot (650C) 2X CTAB was added to it. The mixture was incubated at 650C for 10 minutes and mixed it with an equal volume of chloroform/isoamyl alcohol (24: 1) and centrifuged at 13000 g for 5 minutes. The aqueous phase was then transferred to another tube and 1/10 volume of 10 X CTAB was added to it, mixed and treated with an equal volume of chloroform/isoamyl alcohol. An equal volume of CTAB precipitation buffer was added to the aqueous phase to precipitate the DNA. The DNA pallet was rehydrated in high salt TE buffer and the DNA reprecipitated with 2 volumes of chilled&#xA0;ethanol. Finally the DNA pallet was air dried rehydrated in 0.1 X TE buffer and treated with RNase. Selection of the primer The decamer primer OPM-05 (5&amp;#39;GGGAACGTGT 3&amp;#39;) used for RAPD analysis in chickpea was selected on the basis of prior study. It showed high polymorphism in the earlier studies also as revealed by Talebi et el 2009 and other workers. Polymerase Chain reaction PCR stand for polymerase chain reaction is a technique used to selectively amplify in-vitro a specific segment of the total genomic DNA a billion fold. The most essential requirement of PCR is the availability of a pair of short oligonucleotide called primers has sequences complementary to either end of the target DNA segment to be synthesized in large amounts (Ahmad et al., 2010). Amplification are carried out in a themocycler for about 35-40 cycles with an initial strand separation at 940C, 1 minute at 370C and 2 min. at 720C. Amplification products were electrophoresed in 2% agarose gels and detected by staining with ethiduim bromide. After electrophoresis, the RAPD patterns were visualized with UV transilluminator. RAPD markers were scored as DNA fragments present or absent. The bands scored were used for the construction of dendrogram by using UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group Mean and Arithmetic Average) method to know the phylogenetic relationships among the five accessions of Cicer. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The RAPD analysis of five Cicer genotypes was carried out to investigate genetic diversity using OPM-05 primer.RAPD markers represent an efficient and inexpensive way to generate molecular data, thus have been used successfully in various taxonomic and phylogenetic studies (Aboelwafa et al., 1995; Sharma et al., 1995; Friesen et al., 1997., Wolff and Morgan-Richards 1998). Only clearly scorable bands were included in the analysis. Minor bands which could not be scored reliably were not included in the analysis. In total 21 visible bands were scored in all accessions corresponding to an average of 4.2 bands per accessions. All bands were polymorphic (Table 2, Figure 1). Similar results were observed by Ahmad F (1999) in chickpea by using 75 random decamer primers. Several other workers also observed high polymorphism by using different random primers in different species. Sudupak et al., (2002) used seven decamer primers in chickpea and observed 96.82% polymorphism. Sharma et al., (2000) also recorded 100% polymorphism in Podophylum haxandrum by using seven decamer primers and SDS-PAGE. Jaya prakash et al., (2006) recorded 97.4% polymorphism in sorghum genotypes by using 64 RAPD primers. Aboelwafa et al., (1995) used 40 primers and recorded 90% polymorphism in Lens.Verma et al., (2009) used 20 random primers and observed 96.8% polymorphism in Trichodesma indicum. Iqbal et al., (2010) worked on Jatropa curcas L. and recorded 93.90% polymorphism by using 50 random primers. Chickpea genotype Dhawal produced the maximum number of bands (9), while Ujjwal gave the minimum number (4) of bands (Table 2, Figure 1).&#xD;
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The dendrogram obtained from the UPGMA method is shown in Figure 2. Cluster analysis divided the five accessions into two clusters. Cluster I comprising three accessions (Dhawal, Shubhra and IPC-04-20) while as the cluster II consists of two accessions (Ujjwal and DCP-92-3). It is evident from the dendrogram that Dhawal and Shubhra and Ujjwal and DCP-92-3 are very close to each other while as IPC-04-20 and DCP-92-3 are genetically dissimilar. Closely related species commonly lose the ability to interbreed and become genetically isolated due to chromosomal structural mutations (Tayyar and Wainess 1996). IPC-04-20 and DCP-92-3 are genetically distant, hence it is recommended that these two accessions should be used in future breeding programs to create higher amount of genetic variability in chickpea.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
RAPD analysis is efficient in revealing usable level of DNA polymorphism among cultivars of chickpea. By this study, we can show how much diversity and similarity level is present in five cultivars of chickpea. We can also be able to identify genetic makeup of the variety to protect the breeder&#x2019;s right. We can estimate the genetic distance among the cultivars of chickpea and calculate the similarity coefficient among the cultivars. It is suggested on the basis of RAPD analysis that chickpea cultivars DCP-92-3 and IPC-04-20 will produce higher hybrid vigour when they are utilized in breeding programs because they are genetically distinct from other cultivars of chickpea and have minimum genetic similarity. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are thankful to IIPR (Indian Institute of Pulse Research) Kanpur, India for providing germplasm. The lab facility provided by Dr. S. Chauhan and Mr. Sanjay are also greatly acknowledged.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1657</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1657</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Aboelwafa, A., Murai, K. and Shimada, T. (1995).Intra and interspecific variations in Lens revealed by RAPD markers.Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 90:335-340.&#xD;
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3. Ahmad, F., Khan, A.I., Awan, F.S.,Sadaqat, H.A.,Sadia, B. and Bhadur, S. (2010).Genetic diversity of chickpea (Cicerarietinum L.) germplasm in Pakistan as revealed by RAPD analysis. Genetic and Molecular Research.9 (3):1414-1420.&#xD;
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8. Ikbal, Boora, K.S.and Dilloon, R.S. (2010). Evaluation of genetic diversity in Jatropa curcas L. using RAPD markers. Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 9:50-57.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>General Sciences</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>IMPROVEMENT OF PYRAMID TYPE SOLAR STILL PERFORMANCE USING WAX LATENT HEAT MATERIAL&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>69</FirstPage><LastPage>77</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>S. Kalaivani</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> S. Rugmini Radhakrishnan</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Experimental measurements to determine conditions necessary for efficient solar desalination are given. The effects on performance of using wax latent haet material with storage system in pyramid type solar stills are investigated. Main objective of this present paper is to study the behavior of the still performance with latent heat material by analyzing the internal and external heat transfer modes and thermophysical properties of the pyramid type solar still.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>solar still; solar energy; distillation; distilled water.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Distillation has long been considered a way of making salt water drinkable and purifying water in remote locations. As early as fourth century B.C., Aristotle described a method to evaporate impure water and then condense it for potable use. P.I.Cooper, in his efforts to document the development and use of solar stills, reports that Arabian alchemists were the earliest known people to use solar distillation to produce potable water in the sixteenth century. But the first documented reference for a device was made in 1742 by Nicolo Ghezzi of Italy, although it is not known whether he went beyond the conceptual stage and actually built it. H.K.Gaur and G.N.Tiwari[1] (2010) optimized the number of collectors for PV/T hybrid active solar still. The number of PV/T collectors connected in series has been integrated with the basin of solar still. The optimization of number of collectors for different heat capacity of water has been carried out on the basis of energy and energy computed value of daily yield is approximately 7.9Kg for 50Kg water and 0.055 Kg/s, which is higher than that of the daily yield obtained from passive solar still by various researchers. Thermal modeling of a double slope active solar still has been carried out by V.K.Dwivedi and G.N.Tiwari [2](2010) has been observed that the thermal efficiency of double slope active solar still is lower than the thermal efficiency of double slope passive solar still. However, the energy efficiency of double slope active solar still is higher than the energy efficiency of double slope passive solar still under natural modes gives 51% higher yield in comparison to the double slope passive solar still. K.Kalidasa murugavel et al.,[3] (2010) developed a solar still which can convert available waste brackish water into potable water using solar energy. A single basin double slope solar still with an inner basin size, 2.08mx0.84mx0.075m and that of the outer basin size2.3mx1mx0.25m has been fabricated with mild steel plate and tested with a layer of water and different sensible heat storage materials like quartzite rock, red brick pieces and cement concrete pieces. The production rate depends on water-glass temperature difference and glass atmospheric temperature difference.&#xD;
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Farshad farshchi tabrizi et al.,[4] (2010) have demonstrated that solar sills were used for water desalination in arid lands with lack of water in the fair climatic conditions. Two cascade solar stills were constructed with and without latent heat thermal energy storage system (LHTESS) paraffin wax is selected as the phase change material (PCM) which acts as a LHTESS. Thermal performances of the stills were compared in typical sunny and partially cloudy days. However, foe a partially cloudy day, the still with LHTESS has a significantly higher productivity. The still without LHTESS is preferred for sunny areas because of its simplicity and low construction costs, while the still with LHTESS is proposed for partially cloudy areas due to the higher productivity. Rocio Bayan A et al.,[5] (2010) have tested the latent heat thermal storage prototype under real working condition with steam produced by a parabolic-trough collector test facility at the plataforma solar de Almeria. The proto type contained KNO3/NaNO3 eutetic mixture as phase change material (PCM) and expanded graphite fins arranged in a sandwich configuration for improving thermal conductivity. Experimental data such as steam quality, PCM temperature distribution, stored energy and thermal power have been analyzed for a selected day. It has been noted that stored energy and the resulting thermal power are 40kwth and 50kwth respectively. Al-Hinti et al.,[6] (2010) investigated on the uses of water-phase change material storage in conventional solar water heating system. Paraffin wax contained in small cylindrical aluminum containers is used as the PCM. The PCM storage advance is first demonstrated under controlled energy input experiments with the arid of an electrical heater on an isolated storage tank, with and without the PCM container. The storage performance was also investigated when connected to flat plate collectors in a closed-loop system with conventional natural circulation. Over a test period of 24h.The stored water temperature remained at least 30&#xB0;c higher than the ambient temperature. H.Shabgard et al.,[7 ](2010) developed a thermal network model and used to analyze heat transfer in a high temperature latent heat thermal energy storage unit for solar thermal electricity generation. Two storage configurations are considered: one with PCM surrounding a tube that conveys the heat transfer fluid, and the second with PCM contained within a tube over which the heat transfer fluid flows. Both melting and solidification are simulated. It is demonstrated that adding heat pipes enhance thermal performance, which is quantified in terms of dimensionless heat pipe effectiveness. M.Medrano A et al.,(8) (2009) made a study on the phase change material (PCM) possess a great capacity of accumulation of energy in their temperature of fusion thanks to the latent heat. These materials are used in applications where it is necessary to store energy due to the temporary phase shift between the offer and demand of thermal energy. Possible applications are the solar system as well as the recovery of residual heat for its posterior use in other processes. The thermal storage technology based on the use phase change materials (PCM) has recently raised an important practical interest. Yibing Cai et al.,[9] (2009) have presented work the thermal energy storage phase change materials (PCM) based on paraffin/high density polyethylene (HDPE) composites were prepared by using twin-screw extruder technique. Therefore, considering applications in lowtemperature heat storage of paraffin, the HDPE still can acts as supporting materials and prevent the phase change from solid to liquid. Humid EL Qarnia [10] (2009) presented the theoretical model based on the energy equations was developed to predict the thermal behavior and performance of a solar latent heat storage unit (LHSU) consisting of a series of identical tubes embedded in the phase change material (PCM). A series of numerical simulations were conducted for&#xA0;three kinds of PCM to find the optimum design for a given summer climatic conditions. N.Nallusamy and R.Velraj[11] (2009) have studied the experimental apparatus utilizing paraffin as PCM, which is filled in high-density polyethylene spherical capsules, is constructed and integrated with a solar flat plate collector to conduct the exprements. The water used as HTF to transfer heat from the solar collector to the storage tank also acts as sensible heat storage (SHS) material. It is found that the results of the numerical model are in good agreement with the experimental results. Frederic Kuzhik et al., [12] (2008) have constructed the use of phase change materials (PCM) allows storage of energy from the solar radiation. The application of such possible to improve thermal comport and reduce energy consumption B.B.Sahoo et al.,[13] (2008) made a performance study on the assessment of a solar still using blackened surface and thermocol insulation. The present work is aimed at utilizing solar energy for removal of fluoride from drinking water by using a solar energy. Also test have been conducted with the solar still to find out hourly output rate and still efficiencies with various test matrices. Cemil Alkan[14] (2007) investigated paraffin&#x2019;s are used as phase change material (PCM) for latent heat thermal storage (LHTES). The efficiency of a PCM is dependent on the encapsulated quantity and energy storage capacity per unit mass during its melting and solidifying. Two different kinds of paraffin were sulfonated at three different mole percentages to increase the LHTES efficiency for this purpose. Rustum mamlook &amp; Omar Badran[15] (2007) have made an attempt to find out the effect of different parameters on the solar still output using a fuzzy set technique. The study reveals that the major factors that affect yield are: wind speed(WS),ambient temperature(AT),solar intensity(SI),sprinklers(SPR),coupled with collector(CC),salt concentration(SC),water depth(WD) Hiroshi Tanaka and yasuhito nakatake[16] (2006) presented a theoretical analysis of a basin types still with internal and external reflectors. The numerical analysis of heat and mass transfer in the still, and found that the internal and the external reflectors can remarkably increase the distillate productivity throughout the year except for the summer season. W.Saman et al., [17] (2005) analyzed and discussed the thermal performance of a phase change storage unit. The storage unit is a component of a roof integrated solar heating system being developed for space heating of a home. The unit consists of several layers of phase change material (PCM) slabs with a melting temperature of 29oC.The effects of sensible heat which exists when the initial temperature of the PCM is well below or above the melting point during melting were taken in to account. Abdulhaiy M.Radhwan[18] (2005) made an attempt to find out the still was designed for heating and humidification of agriculture green houses (GH) in remote areas. The basin was placed on a slab filled with a layer of paraffin wax that acts as a latent heat thermal energy storage system (LHTESS).The still performance parameters investigated were analyzed and the results compare d with the case of a still with LHTESS has an efficiency of 57% and the total daily yield is about 4.6 L/m2 .&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS&#xD;
Fresh water is the essence of life and it is an urgent need for human life. Fresh water is the most important constituent of the environment brackish water contains harmful bacteria and therefore cannot be used for drinking. About 97% of available water source are saline or include harmful bacteria and 2% is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. Hence, only 1% of the world&#x2019;s water is usable for drinking and domestic usage (Farshad Farshchi Tabrizi et al., 2010).Solar&#xA0;distillation is one of the many processes that can be used for water purification. Solar stills can provide a solution for those areas where solar energy is available in plenty but water quality is not good. This device can be used for producing drinking water. Solar stills are cheap and having low maintenance cost. Solar radiation can be the source of heat energy where brackish or sea water is evaporated and is then condensed as pure water.&#xD;
&#xD;
(A.A.EI-Sebaii et al., 2009)&#xD;
Construction of Pyramid Solar Still&#xD;
General Setup of the Still &#xD;
Pyramid solar still of base area 0.85m x 0.85m is designed. The still is filled with the water to a height of 0.05m. Top of the system is covered by a 3 mm transparent glass pyramid cover with a height of 0.30m at the middle. It is air tightened using the cushion supports at the interface between the top cover and the sides of sliding support for uniform landing. Bottom of the still is insulated using sawdust.&#xD;
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PCM STORAGE MATERIAL &#xD;
The PCM storage material used for the performance study of both the pyramid type solar still and single solar still is the pure wax, uniformly chopped of almost uniform size. The Wax pieces were spread to a uniform thickness of 0.025 mm in the Aluminum blackened box. The area of the aluminum box is 24 gauge mild steel. The Wax storage material can store more amount of heat energy and increase the heat capacity of the basin. Paraffin wax is an attractive material for heat storage application. Phase change materials (PCMs) are latent thermal storage materials. They use chemical bonds to store and release heat. The thermal energy transfer occurs when a material changes from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid to a solid form. This is called a change in state or phase initially these solid-liquid PCMs perform like conventional storage materials: their temperature rises as they absorb solar heat. Unlike&#xA0;conventional heat storage materials, when PCMs reach the temperature at which they change phase (their melting point), they absorb large amounts of heat without getting hotter. When the ambient temperature in the space around the PCM material drops, the phase change material solidifies, releasing its stored latent heat.PCMs absorb and emit heat while maintaining a nearly constant temperature. Within the human comfort and electronic-equipment tolerance range of 20&#xB0;c to 35&#xB0;c, latent thermal storage materials are very effective. They are also useful for equalization of day night temperature and for transport of refrigerated products.&#xD;
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INTERNAL HEAT TRANSFER &#xD;
Internal heat transfer occurs within the solar still. The internal heat transfer modes are due to convection, evaporation and radiation.&#xD;
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a) Convection: &#xD;
The convective heat transfer is conveniently considered in terms of dimensionless parameters namely Nusselt number (Nu), Grashof number (Gr), Prandtl number (Pr) and Reynolds (Re). The expressions for these numbers are Nusselt number (Nu) = (hcwX/K) &#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026; (9) Grashof number (Gr) = (X3 &#x3C1; 2g&#x3B2;T/&#xB5;2 ) &#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026; (10) Prandtl number (Pr) = (C&#x3C1;&#xB5;/K) &#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026; (11)&#xD;
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b) Evaporation: &#xD;
Dunkle (1961) connects convective and evaporation heat transfer coeffients as Hew = 16.273 x 10-3 hcw .R1W/m2 &#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026; (18)&#xD;
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c) Radiation:&#xD;
In the usual analyses of solar stills, the water surface and the glass cover are considered as infinite parallel planes. Using Stefan Boltzmann&#x2019;s constant, the heat transfer coefficient is given by, qrw=hrw(Tw-Tg) &#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026; (21)&#xD;
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EXTERNAL HEAT TRANSFER &#xD;
The external heat transfer modes are due to convection, radiation, and conduction.&#xD;
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a) onvection: &#xD;
The external Convention loss from glass cover to the outside atmosphere is, qca= hca (Tg-Tamb) &#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026; (22) hca is a function of wind velocity and is given by, hca = (5.7 + 3.8 V)&#xD;
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b) Radiation: &#xD;
The external radiation loss from the glass cover to the atmosphere is given by, qra = &#x3B5;&#x3C3;[(Tg + 273)4 &#x2013; (Tsky + 273)4 ] &#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026; (23)&#xD;
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c) Conduction: &#xD;
External heat transfer due to conduction through the bas is found using the formula qb = hb (Tw-Tamb) &#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026;&#x2026; (26)&#xD;
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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY &#xD;
The performance of the still has been studied on clear sunshine for a no of days during the period December to march, 2010-2011. The following observations are taken for analyzing the performance of square trough solar still with pyramid shaped top cover &amp; sloped sheet made of glass. The observations carried out are measurement of temperature profiles, total solar insulations measurement and distillate water output measurement, including nocturnal output. These observations are made from 9 am to 5:30 pm for every half an hour intervals on selected clear shiny days.&#xD;
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DISCUSSION&#xA0;&#xD;
The performance of the pyramid cover solar still and single slope solar still is analyzed in this study for normal sunny days. Temperature profiles of water, ambient, cover and amount of distillate output were observed, including nocturnal output along with the measurement of solar radiation for every half an hour interval. The performance of a pyramid cover solar still and single slope solar still&#xA0;is analyzed with PCM storage material of wax were augmenting the productivity . The instantaneous and daily efficiency were calculated along with the computation of heat transfer coefficients. Numerical calculations are carried out for comparing the observed values of heat transference with theoretical simulation values for the same. The system reliability and viability are estimated by a techno economic analysis. The standard and quality of distilled water yield is examined for physical and chemical properties in the regional laboratory, Tamil Nadu supply and drainage board, Coimbatore.&#xD;
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Graphical Analysis &#xD;
The pyramid cover solar still and single slope solar still graphs are plotted for various observed parameters such as solar insolation, efficiency, distillate output, temperature profile of various junctions etc., during selected sunny days of experimentations with heat absorbing PCM storages materials. Typical results of variation of the temperature profile with respect to time, with PCM storage material are shown in fig(5.1).The cover temperature of the still increases as the day progresses because of the increased evaporation of water from basin and consequent condensation of water vapour at the bottom surface of the top cover. Ambient temperature variation depends on atmospheric conditions. The temperature of water and glass cover have similar trends and increases in the morning hours to maximum values and decreases Late in the afternoon. Instantaneous efficiency as a function of time with PCM storage in both the stills fig (5.3). Instantaneous efficiency of pyramid cover solar still and single slope solar still was in the range of 0-44 and 0-49 respectively observed with PCM storage material. It is found that the efficiency of single slope solar still with PCM storage material is more than the pyramid type solar still. Fig (5.2) &amp; Fig (5.4) water temperature and distillate output with respect to time observed with PCM storage material in pyramid type solar still and single solar still respectively. The water collection from pyramid cover solar still and single slope solar still was 1876ml and 1726ml respectively. The pyramid cover solar still performance is reasonably good compared to sinsgle slope solar still in daily output with nocturnal output. The addition of sensible heat absorbing materials were capable of enhancing the productivity with heat retention causing continued evaporation.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1658</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1658</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Gaur H.K and Tiwari G.N .(2010) ,optimized of number of collectors for integrated PV/T hybrid active solar still, Applied Energy,Vol.87,Issue 5, pp 1763-1772.&#xD;
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2. Dwivedi V.K and Tiwari G.N. (2010), Experimental validation of thermal model of a double slope active solar still under natural circulation mode, Desalination, Vol.250, Issue 1, pp 49-55.&#xD;
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3. K.Kalidasa Murugavel, S.Sivakumar, J.Riaz Ahamed, KN K.S.K Chockalingam, Luisa F, Cabeza: Manuel Ibanez: Cristian sole: Joan Roca: Miquel&#xD;
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4. Farshad Farshchi Tabrizi,Mohammad Dashtban,Hamid Moghaddan. (2010), Experimental investigation of a weir- type cascade solar still with built-in latent heat thermal energy storage system, Desalination,vol.260,issue 1-3, pp 248-153.&#xD;
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5. Rocio Bayon A, Esther Rojas A, Loreto Valenzuela B,Eduardo Zarza B,Javier Leon B.(2010),Analysis of the experimental behavior of a 100KWTH latent heat storage system for direct steam generation in solar thermal power plants, Applied thermal Engineering, vol.30,issue 17-18,pp 2643- 2651.&#xD;
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6. AI-Hinti: A.AI-Ghandoor: A.Malalay:I.Abu Naqeera: Z.AI-Khateeb: O.AI-Sheikh. (2010), Experimental investigation on the use of water-phase change materials storing in conventional solar water heating systems.Energy conversion and management, vol.51, Issue 8, pp 1735-1740.&#xD;
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7. H.Shabgard:T.L.Bergman:N.Sharifi:A.Faghri. (2010),high temperature latent heat thermal energy storage using heat pipes, International Journal of heat and mass transfer. Vol. 53, issue 15-16, pp 2979-2988.&#xD;
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8. M.Medrano A,M.O.Yillmaz B,M.Zbgues A,I.Martorell A,Joan Roca A,Luisa F,Cabeza A.(2009),Eeperimental evaluation of commercial heat exchangers for use as PCM thermal s Mousa Abu-Arabi and Yousef Zurigat. (2005), Year-round comparative study of three types of solar desalination unit, Desalination, vol. 72, issue 2, pp 127-143.&#xD;
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9. Yibing Cai,Aufu wei,Fenglin Huang,Shiliang Lin,Fang chen,Weidong Gao.(2009),Thermal stability, latent heat and flame retardant properties of the thermal energy storage phase change materials based on paraffin/high density poly ethylene composites.,Renewable energy,vol.34,issue-10,pp 2117-2123.&#xD;
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10. Hamid EI aarnia. (2009), Numerical analysis of a coupled solar collector materials for heating the water, Energy conversion and management. Vol.50, issue-2, pp 247-254.&#xD;
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11. N.Nallusamy:R.Velraj. (2009), Numerical and Experimental investigation on a combined sensible and latent heat storage unit integrated with solar water heating system, Journal of solar energy Engineering,vol.32,issue-3,pp 1206-1227.&#xD;
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12. Frederic Kuznik: Joseph Virgone: Jean Noel. (2008),optimization of a phase change material wallboard for building use, Applied thermal engineering, vol.28,issue 11-12,pp 1291-1298.&#xD;
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14. Cemil Alkan, (2007), Enthalpy of melting and solidification of sulfonated paraffins as materials for thermal energy storage, thermochimica Acta, vol.451. Issues 1-2, pp 126-130&#xD;
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15. Rustum Mamlook and Omar Badran. (2007), Fuzzy sets implementation for the evaluation of factors affecting solar still production, Desalination, vol.33, issue 1, pp 71-80.&#xD;
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16. Hiroshi Tanaka and Yasuhito Nakatake.(2007),Improvement of the tilted wick solar still by using a flat plate reflector, Desalination, vol .216, issue 1-3,pp 139-146.&#xD;
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17. W.Saman, F.Bruno,E.Halawa. (2005), Thermal performance of PCM thermal storage unit for a roof integrated solar heating system, Solar energy, vol .78, issue 2, pp 341-349.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>A VARIANT DELTOID MUSCLE -A CASE REPORT&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>78</FirstPage><LastPage>82</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Sharadkumar Pralhad Sawant</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Shaguphta T. Shaikh</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Rakhi Milind More</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>During routine dissection for Ist MBBS students on 65 years donated embalmed male cadaver in the Department of Anatomy, K.J.Somaiya Medical College, we observed the multiple heads of the deltoid muscle in the left arm. The posterior fibers of the left deltoid muscle were enclosed in a distinct fascial sheet and the deltoid muscle was seen to arise from the middle 1/3 of the vertebral border of the scapula. However there was no variations in the blood supply and the nerve supply of the deltoid muscle. The photographs were taken for proper documentation. The existence of the multiple heads of the deltoid muscle should be kept in mind by surgeons operating on deltoid, posterior deltoid, or doing scapular flaps.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Deltoid Muscle, Multiple Heads, Variations, Vertebral Border of Scapula, Scapular Flaps, Surgeons.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION&#xD;
In human anatomy, the deltoid muscle is the muscle forming the rounded contour of the shoulder. Anatomically, it appears to be made up of three distinct sets of fibers though electromyography suggests that it consists of at least seven groups that can be independently coordinated by the central nervous system (1). It was previously called the Deltoideus and the name is still used by some anatomists. It is called so because it is in the shape of the Greek letter Delta (triangle). It is also known as the common shoulder muscle, particularly in lower animals (e.g., in domestic cats). Deltoid is also further shortened in slang as "delt". The plural forms of all three incarnations are deltoidei, deltoids and delts. A study of 30 shoulders revealed an average weight of 191.9 grams (6.77 oz) (range 84 grams (3.0 oz)&#x2013;366 grams (12.9 oz)) in humans (2). The deltoid originates in three distinct sets of fibers, often referred to as "heads" (3). The anterior or clavicular fibers arises from most of the anterior border and upper surface of the lateral third of the clavicle (4) The anterior origin lies adjacent to the lateral fibers of the pectoralis major muscle as do the end tendons of both muscles. These muscle fibers are closely related and only a small chiasmatic space, through which the cephalic vein passes, prevents the two muscles from forming a continuous muscle mass (5).The anterior deltoid are commonly called front delts for short. Lateral or acromial fibers arise from the superior surface of the acromion process (4). They are commonly called lateral deltoid. This muscle is also called middle delts, delts, side delts or outer delts for short. They are also mistakenly called medial deltoid, which is wrong, as their origin is the least medial portion of the deltoid. Posterior or spinal fibers arise from the lower lip of the posterior border of the spine of the scapula&#xA0;(4). They are commonly called posterior deltoid or rear deltoid (rear delts for short). Fick divided these three groups of fibers (6), often referred to as parts (Latin: pars) or bands, into seven functional components (7) ; the anterior part has two components (I and II); the lateral one (III); and the posterior four (IV, V, VI, and VII) components. In standard anatomical position (with the upper limb hanging alongside the body), the central components (II, III, and IV) lie lateral to the axis of abduction and therefore contribute to abduction from the start of the movement while the other components (I, V, VI, and VII) then act as adductors. During abduction most of these latter components (except VI and VII which always act as adductors) are displaced laterally and progressively start to abduct (7). From this extensive origin the fibers converge toward their insertion on the deltoid tuberosity on the middle of the lateral aspect of the shaft of the humerus; the middle fibers passing vertically, the anterior obliquely backward and laterally, and the posterior obliquely forward and laterally. Though traditionally described as a single insertion, the deltoid insertion is divided into two or three discernible areas corresponding to the muscle&amp;#39;s three areas of origin. The insertion is an arch-like structure with strong anterior and posterior fascial connections flanking an intervening tissue bridge. It additionally give off extensions to the deep brachial fascia. Furthermore, the deltoid fascia contributes to the brachial fascia and is connected to the medial and lateral intermuscular septa (8). The deltoid is innervated by the axillary nerve. The axillary nerve originates from the ventral rami of the C5 and C6 cervical nerves, via the superior trunk, posterior division of the superior trunk, and the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. The axillary nerve is sometimes damaged during operations on the axilla, such as for breast cancer. It may also be injured by anterior dislocation of the head of the humerus. The deltoid is supplied by the posterior circumflex humeral artery. When all its fibers contract simultaneously, the deltoid is the prime mover of arm abduction along the frontal plane. The arm must be medially rotated for the deltoid to have maximum effect. This makes the deltoid an antagonist muscle of the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi during arm adduction. The anterior fibers are involved in shoulder abduction when the shoulder is externally rotated. The anterior deltoid is weak in strict transverse flexion but assists the pectoralis major during shoulder transverse flexion / shoulder flexion (elbow slightly inferior to shoulders). The anterior deltoid also works in tandem with the subscapularis, pecs and lats to internally (medially) rotate the humerus. he posterior fibers are strongly involved in transverse extension particularly as the latissimus dorsi is very weak in strict transverse extension. Other transverse extensors, the infraspinatus and teres minor, also work in tandem with the posterior deltoid as external (lateral) rotators, antagonists to strong internal rotators like the pecs and lats. The posterior deltoid is also the primary shoulder hyperextensor, moreso than the long head of the triceps which also assists in this function. The lateral fibers perform basic shoulder abduction when the shoulder is internally rotated, and perform shoulder transverse abduction when the shoulder is externally rotated. They are not utilized significantly during strict transverse extension (shoulder internally rotated) such as in rowing movements, which use the posterior fibers. An important function of the deltoid in humans is preventing the dislocation of the humeral head when a person carries heavy loads. The function of abduction also means that it would help keep carried objects a safer distance away from the thighs to avoid hitting them, such as during afarmer&amp;#39;s walk. It also ensures a precise and rapid movement of the glenohumeral joint needed for hand and arm manipulation (2). The lateral fibers are in the most efficient position to perform this role, though like basic abduction movements (such as lateral raise) it is assisted by simultaneous contraction of anterior/posterior fibers. In both the&#xA0;carrying of heavy loads and in lateral raises, the deltoid often contracts in tandem with scapular elevators such as the levator scapulae, upper trapezius or serratus anterior. By pulling the clavicle and scapulae up, it reduces compression and possibly impingement on the inferior borders so it doesn&amp;#39;t press as much against the uppermost ribs. The deltoid is responsible for elevating the arm in the scapular plane and its contraction in doing this also elevates the humeral head. To stop this compressing against the under surface of the acromion the humeral head and injuring the supraspinatus tendon, there is a simultaneous contraction of some of the muscles of the rotator cuff: the infraspinatus and subscapularis primarily perform this role. In spite of this there may be still a 1&#x2013;3 mm upward movement of the head of the humerus during the first 30&#xB0; to 60&#xB0; of arm elevation (2). Large variations uncommon. More or less splitting common. Continuation into the Trapezius; fusion with the Pectoralis major; additional slips from the vertebral border of the scapula, infraspinous fascia and axillary border of scapula not uncommon. Insertion varies in extent or rarely is prolonged to origin of Brachioradialis (11). The deltoid muscle derives from the dorsal muscle mass of the limb bud which is formed by somatic mesoderm during the fifth intrauterine week (9). Variations and anomalies of the deltoid muscle are uncommon. We report a very rare variation of the multiple heads of the deltoid muscle because of its clinical and anatomical relevance. Bilateral separation of the posterior fibers with a fascia has been described in 1993 (10). Such type of unilateral separations of the multiple heads of the posterior fibers of the deltoid muscle has not been found in literature. Case Report During routine dissection for Ist MBBS students on 65 years donated embalmed male cadaver in the Department of Anatomy, K.J.Somaiya Medical College, we observed the multiple heads of the deltoid muscle in the left arm. The posterior fibers of the left deltoid muscle were enclosed in a distinct fascial sheet and the deltoid muscle was seen to arise from the middle 1/3 of the vertebral border of the scapula (Fig.1) However there was no variations in the blood supply and the nerve supply of the deltoid muscle (Fig.2). The photographs were taken for proper documentation. No other associated neuro-vascular variations were observed in the same upper limb. The right upper limb of the same cadaver was also normal.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
The deltoid muscle arises from the anterior border and upper surface of the lateral third of the clavicle, the lateral margin and upper surface of&#xA0;the acromion, and the lower edge of the posterior border of the spine of the scapula. The insertion is into the deltoid tubercle on the middle of the lateral side of the body of the humerus (11). It is innervated by the fifth and sixth cervical spinal nerves through the axillary nerve. Its vascular supply is through the acromial and deltoid branches of the thoracoacromial artery, the anterior and posterior circumflex humeral arteries, and the deltoid branch of the profunda brachii (11). The continuation of the fibers of the deltoid muscle into the trapezius; fusion with the pectoralis major; and the presence of additional slips from the vertebral border of the scapula, infraspinous fascia, and the axillary border of scapula are the commonly reported variations of the deltoid muscle (11). The myogenic cells coalesce into two muscle masses during the fifth intrauterine week (9). One is the precursor of the flexor muscles the other is the precursor of the extensor muscles. These common muscle masses then split into anatomically recognizable precursors of the definitive muscles of the limb. There is little data about the mechanism of this splitting (12). The deltoid muscle derives from the dorsal muscle mass (9). The multiple heads of the deltoid may be developed because of incorrect splitting of the dorsal muscle mass. Comparative anatomy The deltoid is found in apes other than humans. The human deltoid is of similar proportionate size as the muscles of the rotator cuff in apes like the orangutan. These apes engage inbrachiation and possess the muscle mass needed to support the body weight by the shoulders. In other apes, like the common chimpanzee, the deltoid is much larger than in humans, weighing an average of 383.3g compared to 191.9g in humans. This reflects the need to strengthen the shoulders, particularly the rotatory cuff, in knuckle walking apes for the purpose of supporting the entire body weight (2). Clinical anatomy Clinically fasciocutaneus, musculocutaneus or muscular deltoid and posterior deltoid flaps are especially used in; tetraplegia (by a transfer to triceps), radionecrotic defects situated over the glenohumeral joint, reconstruction of extremity, rotator cuff tears, and oral cavity. While elevating musculocutaneus or muscular deltoid and posterior deltoid flaps, the surgeon must be alert to the possibility of this variation&amp;#39;s presence because it may cause confusion when dissecting the borders. Similarly, while elevating fasciocutaneus deltoid and posterior deltoid flaps or a scapular flap (either transverse or parascapular), an accessory deltoid may be confused with the teres major muscle because of its location and its distinct fascia and as a result of this the dissection of the pedicle can be much more difficult.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
The existence of such variation of the deltoid muscle should be kept in mind by surgeons operating on deltoid, posterior deltoid, shoulder joint or doing scapular flaps. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interest. Authors&amp;#39; contributions: SPS wrote the case report, performed the literature review &amp; obtained the photograph for the study. RMM performed the literature search and assisted with writing the paper. STS conceived the study and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version manuscript.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books&#xA0;from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. All the authors are thankful to Dr. Arif A. Faruqui for his support. Authors are also thankful to Mr. M. Murugan typing the article .&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1659</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1659</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Brown JM, Wickham JB, McAndrew DJ, Huang XF. (2007). Muscles within muscles: Coordination of 19 muscle segments within three shoulder muscles during isometric motor tasks. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 17(1):57-73.&#xD;
&#xD;
2. Potau JM, Bardina X, Ciurana N, Camprub&#xED; D. Pastor JF, de Paz F. Barbosa M. (2009). Quantitative Analysis of the Deltoid and Rotator Cuff Muscles in Humans and Great Apes. Int J Primatol 30:697&#x2013;708.&#xD;
&#xD;
3. The Anatomy of the Shoulder Muscles: "The Deltoid is a three-headed muscle that caps the shoulder. The three heads of the Deltoid are the Anterior, Lateral, and Posterior."&#xD;
&#xD;
4. "Deltoid Muscle". Wheeless&amp;#39; Textbook of Orthopaedics. December 2011. Retrieved January 2012.&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Leijnse, J N A L; Han, S-H; Kwon, Y H (December 2008). "Morphology of deltoid origin and end tendons &#x2013; a generic model". J Anat 213 (6): 733&#x2013;742.&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Fick, R. (1911). Handbuch der Anatomie und Mekanik der Gelenke. Jena: Gustav Fischer.&#xD;
&#xD;
7. Kapandji, Ibrahim Adalbert (1982). The Physiology of the Joints: Volume One Upper Limb (5th ed.). New York: Churchill Livingstone.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Rispoli, Damian M.; Athwal, George S.; Sperling, John W.; Cofield, Robert H. (2009). "The anatomy of the deltoid insertion". J Shoulder Elbow Surg 18: 386&#x2013; 390.&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Larsen WJ. Human embryology. 3rd ed. Churchill Livingstone; 2001. p. 324.&#xD;
&#xD;
10. Kayikcioglu A, Celik HH, Yilmaz E. An anatomic variation of the deltoid muscle (case report) Bull Assoc Anat (Nancy) 1993; 77:15&#x2013;6.&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Standring S, editor. The anatomical basis of clinical practice. International 39th ed. Churchill Livingstone; 2005. Gray&amp;#39;s Anatomy; p. 836.&#xD;
&#xD;
12. Carlson BM. Human embryology and developmental biology. 3rd ed. C.V. Mosby; 2004. p. 224.&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>KNOWLEDGE ABOUT DIABETES MELLITUS AND ITS CONTROL AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>83</FirstPage><LastPage>87</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>G.V. Kulkarni</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Rekha Udgiri</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> M.M.Angadi</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> V.M.Sorganvi</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Background -Non communicable diseases like hypertension and diabetes mellitus are common due to unhealthy life style .The complications of these diseases can be prevented by early diagnosis and treatment. Indian population has an increased susceptibility to diabetes mellitus. Various modifiable and non modifiable risk factors give rise to the condition of which modifiable one are important as it can be minimized. Hence it is essential for the youth community to be aware about diabetes mellitus. Objective - To assess the knowledge on diabetes mellitus and its control. Results - A total of 264 students participated. 42% of the students knew about DM through mass media.Excessive urination was the most common symptoms reported by 34% of the students.42% of the students said that it will affect to the kidney. Majority of the students reveals that diabetes can be controlled through medication. Conclusion - The study confirms that students knowledge about signs, symptoms, causes, complications and control of diabetes is limited.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Awareness, Knowledge, Diabetes Mellitus.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Diabetes has emerged as one of the world&#x2019;s biggest health problem. Two thirds of the global diabetes population lives in developing world. The number of persons with diabetes is expected to increase in developed countries by 41%and 170% in developing countries by the year 20251 . According to International Diabetes Federation, there were 40 million persons with diabetes in India in 2001 and this number is predicted to rise to almost 70 million people by 2025 by which time every fifth diabetic subject in the world would be an Indian.2 Keeping in the view the alarming increase in the incidence and prevalence of diabetes in India, the WHO has declared India as the diabetes capital of the world.3 The disease and the complications cause a heavy economic burden for diabetic patients, their family and the society. In the low and middle income countries the impact of the diabetes is largely unrecognized. At international and national level awareness about the public health and clinical importance of diabetes remains low. In the absence of adequate public health programmes, diabetes will pose a severe burden on the national health system in the near future. Knowledge and awareness about DM, its risk factors, complications and management are important aspects for better control and better quality of life .As prevention is better than cure, awareness is always helpful to reduce the incidence of earlier onset of demand and its associated complications. This should be very helpful to reduce the additional burden of the disease to the nation. There is very little data on the levels of awareness and prevalence about diabetes in developing countries like India. The present study was under taken to assess level of&#xA0;knowledge regarding diabetes mellitus , so that measures to improve the knowledge can be suggested and an appropriate information, education and communication(IEC) campaign based on these findings need to be designed and it will also help to plan public health programme.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIAL AND METHODS &#xD;
The present cross section study was carried out in B.L.D.E.A&#x2019;S SHRI A.S PATIL College of Commerce, Bijapur. Study included 160 (61%) male and 104 (39%) female students. Majority of (82%) student belongs to Hindu religion. only 17% of the students belong to higher socioeconomic class. The study participants were in the age group of 18 to 22 years. Interview technique was used as a tool for collection of information. 264 students, who are studying in B.com I, II and III,were participated in this study. Information was collected in pre tested proforma. Chi-square test and percentages were used for analysing the data. The study participants were asked about their knowledge and control regarding diabetes mellitus. The variable includes the source of information, symptoms, causes and risk factors and its complications.&#xD;
&#xD;
OBJECTIVES &#xD;
To assessthe knowledge on diabetes mellitus and its control&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION &#xD;
Study included 160 (61%) male and 104 (39%) female students. 98(37%) students studying in BCom I, 86(33%) studying in B-Com II and 80(30%) students studying in B-Com III. Majority of the student belongs to Hindu religion(82%). only 17% of the students belongs to higher socioeconomic class. The study participants were in the age group of 18 to 22 years. Majority of the students (75%) were aware about diabetes mellitus. However they are not having complete knowledge about diabetes mellitus. 42% of the students knew about DM through mass media like TV, News paper and Radio. 14% came to know trough family members, 11% through neighbors&#x2019; and only 8% reported that they came to know about DM through doctors. Excessive urination was the most common identified symptoms reported by 89(34%) students fallowed by increasing thirst 38(14%), increased hunger 22(8%), weight loss15 (6%).Our results were similar to a study conducted by Mohammed A etal at Oman4 . Study reveals that knowledge about physical activity (9%)and obesity (5%) play a major role in contributing diabetes. Only16% perceived stress as an important factor for developing diabetes and 12% of the students reporting sedentary life as one of the risk factors for diabetes. A similar study was conducted by Deepa Mohan etal at Chennai and revealed that 11.9%and 19%reported that physical inactivity and obesity are risk factors for diabetes5 . 66 students (25%) reveals that diabetes can be controlled through regular medication. 18% reported that it can be controlled through modifying dietary habits. 22 students (9%) felt other studies conducted in Pakistan6 .that diabetes can be controlled by increasing physical exercise at the same time 62(23%) students opined that all types of preventive measures can be control the diabetes. Similar findings have been reported by&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
This study aimed to assess knowledge of college students about diabetes mellitus.Even though majority of the students aware about the diabetes disease; they are not having complete knowledge. Various presenting symptoms of diabetes were also enquired from the students.34% students opined that excessive urination was most common identified symptoms. Our results were similar to a study conducted by Mohammed A etal at Oman4 . Nearly 25% of the college students were not even aware of a condition called diabetes. Not surprisingly knowledge about complications of diabetes was even worse.Increasing public&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1660</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1660</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. King H, Albert RE, Herman W H. Global Burden of diabetes 1995-2025 prevalence, numerical estimates and projection. Diabetes care 1998;21;1414-31&#xD;
&#xD;
2. World Health Organisation World Health Report 1997&#xD;
&#xD;
3. Sicree R Shaw J, Zimmet P. Diabetes and impaired Glucose tolerance in India. Diabetes Atlas GanD.Ed International diabetes Federation Belgium 2006;15-103.&#xD;
&#xD;
4. Mohan D Deepa Raj etal. Awareness and knowledge of diabetes in Chennai- The Chennai Urban Rural epidemiology study [CURES-9] J. Association physician India 2005;53: 283-7&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Abelmarouf Hassan Mohieldein, Mohammad A etal.Awareness of diabetes mellitus among Saudinondiabetic population in Al-Qassim region, SaudiArabia .Journal of Diabetes and Endo crinology. Vol.2 (2) pp14-19.April 2011.&#xD;
&#xD;
6. RSamachandranA, Snehalata C, etal. Temporary changes in prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance associated with lifestyle transition occurring in the rural population in India. Diabetologia.2004; 47; 860-65&#xD;
&#xD;
7. Rafique G. Azam S I. WhiteF. Diabetes knowledge, beliefs and practices among people with diabetes attending a university hospital in Karachi Pakistan. EMHJ2006;12;590-8 Shadmamumtaz, TabindaAshfaq, HemnaSiddqui. Knowledge of medical students regarding diabetes mellitus at Ziauddin University Karachi. www.informer .org. in/conferences.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Nisar N Khan I A, Qudri M H, Sher S A. knowledge and risk assessment of diabetes mellitus at primary care level, A preventive approach required combating the disease in developing country. Pak J. Med. Science 2008;24;667-72R&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF THE NASAL INDEX OF THE BHEEL - MEENA TRIBE OF SOUTHERN RAJASTHAN&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>88</FirstPage><LastPage>91</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Pooja Rajendra Gangrade</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Hitesh Babel</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>The study was conducted to identify reference standards and possible aesthetic features of the nasal size and form of the adult tribal population of Southern Rajasthan. The sample comprised of 500 males and 500 females of the Bheel- Meena descent, residing in the Southern parts of Rajasthan with their ages ranging between 18-50 years. Nasal height and nasal width were obtained with the aid of a sliding vernier calliper and the nasal indices were calculated as the ratio of nasal breadth and nasal height multiplied by 100. The data was subjected to statistical analysis using descriptive statistics and &#x2018;t&#x2019; test. The observed mean values for the males for the nasal breadth, nasal length and nasal index were found to be 3.81cm, 4.59cm and 83.00, while the same values for the females were 3.50cm, 4.39cm and 79.73 respectively. The calculated means for the males population was significantly higher than that of females ( p &lt; 0.001 ). With the mean nasal index of 81.36 for the Bheel &#x2013;Meena tribe, it falls within the mesorrhine type of nasal form.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>nasal index, mesorrhine, nasal height, tribal.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Nose is a distinctive feature of human physiognomy. Its shape, form, and contour have stimulated anatomists and anthropologists1 . Physical anthropology relies mainly on external measurements and descriptions of the human body and particularly of the skeleton. Nasal index is an ethnic sensitive anthropometric index, an important parameter used to classify race and sex of an unknown individual. Calculation of nasal index is one of the measurements used by anthropologists to differentiate various living races in different cultures and also the subspecies of man2 . This evaluation of the nose, stems from the neoclassical canons of facial proportion developed by artists of 17th and 18th centuries. Analysed by dividing the greatest width of nasal aperture by height of nasal skeleton multiplied by 100, the nasal indices are best classified into three types3,4 (1) Leptorrhine or (fine nose) with N.I. &#x2264; 69.9 (2) Mesorrhine or ( medium nose ) with N.I. ranging between 70 - 84.9 (3) Platyrrhine or ( broad nose ) with N.I. &#x2265; 85.0 The shape of the nose is determined through the environmental factors, and climatic conditions5 . Narrow noses are favoured by nature in cold and dry climates, whereas broad and wider noses are seen in warm and moist areas6 . Several past studies have been reported for the Caucasians, Africans, but very few studies have been conducted on Indian population and far less on Rajasthani population and none till date on the Bheel &#x2013; Meena tribe of Mewar region. Risely2 reported the nasal indices of Indo-Aryan and Sudroids (Indian negroids). The Indo - Aryans were said to have nasal indices ranging between&#xA0;66.9-79.6, whereas Sudroids had the nasal indices of 73.1-95.1. Daniel7 also reported nasal indices of various races: Lebanese 63.3, Aalawite 62.74, Damascus 63.26, Armenians 63.8, Greeks 68.49 and Arabs 74.48. Moolchand8 reported the nasal index of Rajput race to be 71.6. Oladipo9 , analysed the nasal index of various tribes of southern Nigeria, which showed the mean nasal index &gt; 85.0. The present study was carried out to establish and compare the nasal index of male and female population belonging to the Bheel- Meena tribes of southern Rajasthan area, so as to provide a baseline data of nasal indices, which could be of vital importance in forensic medicine, anthropological studies, various clinical approaches especially in surgeries related to nose. MATERIALS AND METHOD The present study was carried out in the local communities of the Udaipur district in Rajasthan. The study was carried out on 1000 adult volunteers, who were selected at random from the local communities, comprising of 500 female and 500 males with their age ranging from 18-50 years. Subjects with deviated nasal septum, trauma or congenital abnormalities of the nose and face were excluded. Measurements were taken with aid of sliding vernier callipers (with least count of 0.001), scientific calculator and data sheet. Subjects were told to sit upright in a relaxed mood with head in the anatomical position while taking measurements. A single reading by the same investigator was taken to avoid bias. 1. Nasal Height: was the distance measured from the nasion to the pronasion. 2. Nasal breadth: was measured as the maximum breadth of the nose at right angles to the nasal height, from ala to ala. 3. 3. Nasal Index: was determined by dividing the nasal breadth by nasal height multiplied by 100. All participants declared to have to have at least three generations of Mewar ancestry RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The external nose is a feature of utmost importance to define overall facial appearance. Face is widely regarded as symbolically reflecting the person&#x2019;s inner self to the outside world, any change of the appearance of the nose is expected to have significant consequences on subjects psychological as well as social functioning10 . Aesthetic features are different from one race to another, thus where some surgeons take Caucasian nose still to be the gold standard of beauty, might not justify virtues of the patients social background11. Thus to achieve high level of patient satisfaction after surgery, surgeons must have an idea of the appropriate aesthetic norm12 . Thus the present study was undertaken to set nasal aesthetic standards for the tribal population of Southern Rajasthan. In the present study, the mean of the nasal length for the males and females were 4.59 cm and 4.39 cm respectively. The maximum and minimum values observed for the same in male were 5.73 cm and 3.51cm respectively, where the same for the females were 5.27cm and 3.36 cm respectively. The mean of the nasal breadth for the male population with their maximum and minimum readings were 3.81cm, 4.96 cm and 3.01cm respectively, the similar readings for the female tribes were 3.50 cm, 4.47 cm and 2.80 cm respectively. In all the calculated readings, there was significant difference observed ( p &lt; 0.001 ), with males having higher values than females as shown in Table 1. The nasal index calculated for our tribal population, in males was found to be 83.00, whereas in the females it was calculated to be 79.73 thus the tribes of Bheel - Meena group fall under mesorrhine type of nose. Most Caucasians have leptorrhine nose with nasal index 69.9 or less. The African tribes fall in the platyrrhine type of nose, with nasal index of 85.00&#xA0;or above, whereas the Caucasoids of the early Indo-Aryan ancestry fall within the mesorrhine type of nose as shown in Table 2. Thus our study seconds the studies conducted earlier by some authors, in classifying the nose type of our tribal population as mesorrhine.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
The Bheel - Meena tribe fall within the mesorrhine type of nose. This index differs from various studies conducted on Caucasian, Africans, Egyptians. Thus a parameter value for each ethnic group, is needed for the purpose of clinical practise. This data should therefore be of importance in the above listed areas where these tribes are residing.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cites and included in the references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to the authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1661</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1661</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Bhargava I, Sharma JC: The Nose in Relation to Head and Face. An Anthropometric Study. Indian Journal of Otolaryngology. 1959, 11(4):213-218.&#xD;
&#xD;
2. Risely HH. The People of India. 1969 2 nd Edition, Pp 395-399. Crooke W (Editions)&#xD;
&#xD;
3. Williams P, DysonM, Dussak JE, Banister LH, Berry MM, Collins P and Ferguson MWJ; Skeletal System Gray&#x2019;s Anatomy 1995 (3rd Ed) 609-612. Churchill Livingston Edinburgh.&#xD;
&#xD;
4. Poter JP, Olsen KL; Analysiss of the African American Female Nose. Plastic Reconstructive Surgery 2003, 111(2); 627- 628.&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Last RJ; Anatomy Applied and Regional 6th Ed Churchill Livingstone 1981, pp 398- 403.&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Hall RL, Hall DA, Geographic Variation of Native People along the Pacific Coast Human Biology 1995, 40(1): 407-426.&#xD;
&#xD;
7. Daniel B; Racial Anthropolpgy and Genetics of the Lebanese 2000, pp1-2. (Retrieved from; www.nasalindexoflebanese.com.)&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Mulchand C. Scythic Origin of Rajput Race. 2004 Pp 1- 2.&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Olapidogs, Gwunireama OD, Asawo OD. Anthropometric Comparison of Nasal Indices among Igbos and Yarubas in Nigeria. Global J Med Sc 2006; 5 (1) 37-40.&#xD;
&#xD;
10. Borges DP, Dinis M, Gomes A; Psychosoical Consequences of Nasal Aesthetic and Functional Surgery: A Controlled Prospective Study in an ENT Setting. Rhinology 1998, 36: 32-38.&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Nolste GJ: Consideration in ethnic rhinoplasty. Facial Plastic Surgery 2003;19:269.&#xD;
&#xD;
12. Mahamed EH, Ahmed BD, Loai B, Wael A: Cephalometric Analysis For Evaluating The Profile Nasal Morphology In Egyptian Adults. Egypt Journal of Plastic Recon Surg 2007,31(2):243-249.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>BIOLOGICAL AND PRE-CLINICAL TRIAL EVALUATION OF A LOCAL MEDICINAL PLANT BACOPA MONNIERI (L.) PENN&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>92</FirstPage><LastPage>99</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>A.K. Azad</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> M. Awang</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> M.M. Rahman</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> S.F.U. Akter</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>This study work was carried out to investigate the pharmacological prooperties of &#x2018;Bacopa monnieri&#x2019;. This study reveals that the plant has antibacterial and antimutagenic activities. Thus an attempt was made to reinvestigate aforementioned antimicrobial as well as cytotoxic properties for the bark constituents. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn., (root bark and stem bark) have been intended to be accomplished in this study. Review of the biological activities of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. The powdered plant was successively extracted with ether solvent. The antimicrobial investigation showed activity against four bacteria and one fungus.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Antibacterial, Antimutagenic, Menorrhoea, decolorized, saponins, chemotaxonomy, cytotoxic, Isolation.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION&#xD;
As the civilization progressed the early physicians were guided in great part by these observations [Hill, 1972]. The use of plants for curing various human ailments figured in ancient manuscripts such as the Bible, the Rig Veda (4500-1600 BC), the Elliad and the Odyssey and the history Herodotus [Kochhler, 1981]. The earliest use of medicinal plants in this subcontinent was evaluated by two Indian authors Charaka and Susruta [Chopra et al, 1956]. According to this superstitious doctrine all plants possessed some sign, given with heart- shaped leaves should be used for heart ailments, the sap of blood root (Sanguinaria Canaderisis) as a blood tonic, the liver leaf with its three lobed leaves for liver troubles, the walnut with numerous invaginations and convulsions for brain diseases and pomegranate seeds for dental diseases and so on [Graves, 1990] which are known to have been investigated pharmacologically, out of an estimated 250000 to 500000 species of higher plants growing on earth [Farnsworth, et al 1985]. More than 47% of all drugs, used in Russia, are obtained from botanical sources [Ampofo, 1979]. At present, thousands of plant metabolites are being successfully used in the treatment of variety of diseases [Farnsworth, et al 1985]. A few striking examples of plant metabolites include taxol from Taxus brevifolia [Kumar, et al, 1994], vincristine and vinblastine from Vinca roseus [Satoskar, 1980]. All of which are important anticancer agents being used clinically. In the current popular field of chemotherapy, cepharanthine, isolated from Stephanie cepharantha and Stephania sasaki [Jap. Journ. Exp. Med. 1949, 1:69] is being used as a prophylactic in the management of tuberculosis. Even today 30% of rural population depends on herbal medicine for&#xA0;maintaining its health and well being [Ghani, 1987]. The consumption of medicinal plants is increasing in many developed countries, where 35% of drugs contain active principles from natural origin [Irvine, 1995]. In China, 150CO factories are involved in producing herbal drugs, herbal medicines have been developed to a remarkable standard by applying modern scientific technology in many countries, such as, China, India, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Thailand and United Kingdom. In these countries, the dependence on allopathic drugs has been decreased to greater extent [Borin, 1998]. In 1960, 47% of drugs, prescribed by the physicians in the United States of America, were from natural sources [Binge et al., 1960]. In 1967, 25% of the products, which appeared in 1.05 billion prescriptions filled in the United States contained one or more ingredients derived from higher plants [Korolkovans, et al. 1966]. In the United States, in 1980, the consumers paid 8 billion dollars for prescription drugs in which the active ingredients are still derived from plants [Sofowora 1982] contained as one or more active ingredients, a drug of natural origin (Famsworth, 1966). Modern medicine still has much to learn from the collector of herbs said Dr. Halfdan Mahler, Director General of the World Health Organization. Many of the plants, familiar to the .witch doctor, really do have the healing power that tradition attaches to them. Indeed, the potential of obtaining new drugs from plant sources is so great that thousands of substances of plant origin are being studied for activity against such formidable foes as heart diseases, cancer, and aids [Kirtikar, et al. 1984 and Grover et, al 1980]. From the literature review to was also found that the plant has direct therapeutic effects on piles, dysentery, dyspepsia, diarrhea, vomiting, giddiness, worms, burning of the skin and menorrhea [Champion,R.H.et,al 1982, the Text book of Darmatology,5th edition,vol-3,p963]. The literature survey reveals that the plant has antibacterial and antimutagenic activities.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHOD &#xD;
Collection and Extraction of the plant material &#xD;
The barks (root arid stem) of the plant were collected from campus of Jahangirnagar University by taking great care. Then the barks were separated manually from the undesirable materials. The collected and cleaned barks were cut in to small pieces and then dried in the sun and finally dried in a hot air oven at 50-60&#xB0;C for 48 hours. After complete drying, the entire portion was reduced to coarse powder with the help of a mechanical grinder. Before grinding, the machine was cleaned to avoid contamination. The dried grinded powder was weighed by using a suitable rough balance. Then the powder was stored in a suitable container for extraction purpose. The cutting, drying, grinding and storage processes were performed for both the root and stem barks. The Soxhlet extractor was used for extraction process. The one hundred gram of the dried powder was taken in a porous bag and placed in the Soxhlet chamber. Before placing, the extractor was washed properly and then dried. The powder was soaked with a small portion of the 500 ml ether solvent for some times. Then the rest of the extracting ether was taken in a flask. Upon heating electrically, the vapors were rise trough side arm and condensed in the condenser. The condensed extract was dripped in to the .porous bag containing the plant powder, extracting it by contact. When the level of ether in the chamber was rise to the top of the siphon tube, the liquid contents of the chamber automatically filtered through the powdered containing bag and siphoned into flask. Thus 2000 ml of ether was used successively for four times i.e. 500 ml in each time. Similarly other two solvents ethyl acetate and alcohol were used respectively. The process was performed for the&#xA0;powders of two barks (root bark and stem bark). So there are three extracts obtained for each case, named- ether extract, ethyl acetate extract and alcohol extract.&#xD;
&#xD;
Decolonization and purification &#xD;
All the extracts were made free from pigments (decolorized) and other impurities by filtration method. This was performed by passing the extracts vyc-J3 activated charcoal on a filter paper and collected in a beaker. The charcoal, used, was made activated by heating in a hot air at 110&#xB0;C for one hour before filtration. The filter paper was wetted with solvent involved in filtration process. The decolorized and purified extracts were then completely dried by sanction with the help of water bath at a temperature of 50-60? C and their yield was determined by using the following formula&#x2026;..&#xD;
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&#xD;
BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION &#xD;
Study of in-vitro antimicrobial activity of the alcohol extracts obtained from the extraction of the bark (root and stem) powder of extracts of Bacopa monnieri (L.). Penn and rectified spirit. The susceptibility of microorganisms to antimicrobial agents could be determined in vitro. The most commonly used method of microbiological assay was the Agar diffusion. In this method, the sample solution was applied on the pail of antibiotic medium and fungus medium seeded with organisms. After proper incubation the sensitivity of the plant extract was evaluated by measuring the diameter of the&#xA0;inhibition zones produced by the samples Nutrient agar is a general culture media which may be used as an enrichment medium by incorporating 10% blood or other biological fluid (Sri vastava O.P 1984). Nutrient agar medium was used for the subculture of the test organisms in which proper growth of the organisms were ensured. From this subculture, a very small amount of sample obtained by harvesting was mixed with the antibiotic medium and fungus medium. The formula and the method of preparation of nutrient agar medium were as follows:&#xD;
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&#xD;
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To prepare required volume of this medium, an amount of each of the constituents were calculated from the composition chart given for 1 liter. Peptic digest of animal tissue, sodium chloride, beef extract, yeast extract of required calculated amount were taken in a conical flask by weighing them separately. Distilled water was added to it and the content was heated in a water bath to make a clear solution. The pH was then adjusted to 7.4&#xB1;0.2 using 10% sodium hydroxide solution. Agar was added to the solution in calculated amount and distilled water was added sufficiently to make a final volume. Again the total volume was heated in water bath to obtain a clear solution. The prepared medium was transferred to each of the required number of bottles which were previously washed. The medium was then sterilized by &amp;#39;autoclaving for 15 minutes at 121&#xB0;C under a pressure of I5lb/inch2 . Finally the prepared medium was transferred on to a water bath to reduce the temperature 40-50&#xB0;C [A.K.Azad et, al, 2012]&#xD;
&#xD;
Antibiotic Assay Medium, Seed Agar (Hi Media Laboratories&#x2019; Ltd., India) &#xD;
This medium was used for bacterial culture to determine the zone of inhibition. The formula and the method of preparation of this medium were as follows:&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Ingredients gm/liter Peptic digest of animal tissue Casein enzymic hydrolysate Yeast extract Beef extract Dextrose Agar 5.00 4.00 3.00 1.40 1.OO 13.00 The required amount of each of the constituents were calculated from the composition chart given for liter and were suspended in required amount of cold distilled water and was boiled for about 15 minutes till complete dissolution. Then the ph of the solution was adjusted to 6.6&#xB1;0.2 by adding 10% NaOH solution. This medium was then sterilized by autoclaving for 15 minutes at 121&#xB0; C under a pressure of 15 lb/inch2 . Finally the prepared medium was transferred on to a water bath to reduce the temperature to 40-50&#xB0;C. For testing the sensitivity of fungus, this medium was used. The composition and the method of preparation of this medium were as follows:&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
This medium was prepared by dissolving each of the required an amounts of constituents in distilled water. The solution was boiled for about 15 minutes tilt complete dissolution. The pH was adjusted to 7.4 by adding 10% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The medium was then sterilized by autoclaving &amp;#39;for 15 minutes at 121 &#xB0;C under a pressure of 15 Ibflnch2 . Finally the prepared medium was transferred on water bath to reduce the temperature to 45-50%. Test organisms: The bacterial and fungal strains which were used in the sensitivity test are listed in the following table-1. The microorganisms were collected from International Centre for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB), Mohakhali, Dhaka and Drug international pharmaceutical Ltd. Dhaka.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Preparation of sample solution: &#xD;
1 g each of the dried decolorized extracts (ether, ethyl acetate and alcohol extracts) was dissolved in 5 ml of distilled water to prepare stock solution. As a solubilizing agent, few drops of 1% Tween-80 were used. So the concentration of the solutions was 200 mg/ml. From these solutions, 200 &#xB5;l i.e. 2 micropipette (1 micropipette= 0.1 ml) of each sample were, taken and applied into each hole or cup on the agar plate. To make a comparative study, ampicilin and gentamicin was taken as a standard as antibiotic and nystatin as antifungal, where the concentration was 200mg/ml.&#xD;
&#xD;
Inoculation: &#xD;
Specific organisms were inoculated into 30 ml of previously sterilized nutrient agar media with the help of a sterilized inoculating loop. The inoculated medium was mixed thoroughly and immediately transferred to the sterile Petri-dish in an aseptic condition. The Petri-dish was rotated several times, first clockwise then anticlockwise. A homogenous distribution of the test organism was prepared. After the completion of preparation of medium, it was stored in an incubator for about 24 hours to allow the proper growth of microbes. After proper incubation the Petridis was harvested by sterile saline TS to prepare bacterial suspension.&#xD;
&#xD;
Preparation of the cups: &#xD;
The temperature of sterilized antibiotic medium was reduced to 45- 50&#xB0;C and 100 ml of it was transferred in a bottle. A small volume of bacterial suspension (1-2 ml) was added to the bottle containing l00 ml antibiotic medium.. After proper mixing, a suitable volume (25-30 ml) of this medium was added to a sterilized plate to a layer of uniform thickness (2-3mm.). After solidification of the seeded antibiotic medium, small holes or cups were cut in it with the help of a specific borer. Four types of cups were prepared in each plate and they were-Alcohol extract cup, Alcohol cup, Standard cup (ampicilin/nystatin cup), Standard cup (gentamicin cup). The cups were sufficiently far from each other to prevent overlapping of the zones of inhibition. Prepared sample solutions were applied to the corresponding cups or holes with the help of a micropipette. The plates were then allowed to stand to diffuse the sample solution font the antibiotic medium at room temperature for an hour so that the diffusion of the sample solutions was completed. The plates were then incubated at 37&#xB0;C for overnight.&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULT AND DISCUSSION &#xD;
Microbiological evolution: &#xD;
Antimicrobial Activities of the decolorized extracts of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. The in vitro antimicrobial activities of the root extract were tested against 3 pathogenic bacteria and 1 fungus which are responsible for various infection diseases. The sample organisms are indicate by code number as Salmonella typhi (B-1), Staphylococcus aureus (B2), Bacillus aereus (B-3) and Candida albicans (F1). Here, B=Bacteria and F= Fungus Concentration of plant extract =200, Concentration of Gentamicin = 200, Concentration of Ampicilin =200. The Sensitivity of these microbes to the plant extract and compression with a standard antibiotic Gentamicin and Ampicilin shown in flowing bar graph and figure .&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Clinical Investigation: &#xD;
The test was carried out to find out the effect of formulation Bacopa monnieri (L.). Penn extracts to the motility of the gastrointestinal tract. The statistical finding and the Tabular presentation is the effect of the Bacopa monnieri (L.). penn on gastrointestinal motility utilizing female mice. The research outcome can be summarized as follows Percentage traversed after 15 min=GI-motility greatly increased. Percentage traversed after 30 min= GI-motility slightly increased&#xD;
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</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1662</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1662</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Champion, R.H, et al (1992), A Text book of Dermatology 5th edition, Vol-3, P. 963, Blackwel Scientific Publication, Oxford.&#xD;
&#xD;
2. Faresworth, (1966), Journal of Pharmaceutical Science, 55 (3): 225.&#xD;
&#xD;
3. Hill, A.F. (1972), Text book of Economic Botany, TMH edition, P. 243, Tata Publishing Company Ltd. New Delhi.&#xD;
&#xD;
4. Graves, G. (1990), Text book of Medicinal Plants, 2nd edition, P. 6, Bracken book Publisher,&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Grover, G.S. and Rao, T.J. (1980), Analysis of Bacopa monnieri (L.) seeds Journal of&#xA0;Industrial Chemistry, Calcutta, 52(5): 176- 178&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Irvine, S. (1995), In. Pharm, ADIS International Ltd., p. 3-4.Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 55(3): 226, March, 1966.&#xD;
&#xD;
7. Kenneth, A. C. (1982), A Text book of Pharmaceutical Analysis, 3rd edition, p. 356-357, A Wiley- Inter science Publication, New York.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Kiritikar, K.R. &amp; Basu B.D. (1984), Text book of Indian Medicinal Plants-2, 1st edition p. 1568, Langle Medical Publication&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Kcchhlar.S.L. (1981), A Text book of Economic Botany in the Tropics, 1st edition, P.397-399, published by Me Millan India, Ltd.&#xD;
&#xD;
10. Sofora, A. (1982), Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa, P 6-8, published by John Willy and Sons Ltd. New York.&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Sri vastava, O.P. (1984), The Use of Pharmacological Technique for Evaluation of Natural Products, edited by Dewan, B.N. and Srimal, R.C., P. 75.&#xD;
&#xD;
12. Stahl, E. (1969), Thin Layer Chromatography: A Laboratory Hand Book, 2nd edition, Springer Verlag, New York.&#xD;
&#xD;
13. Tayler, V.E, Brady, L.R. and Robbers, J.E. (1985), A Text book of Pharmacognosy, 9th edition, p. 159,&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>EFFECT OF CONTAMINATION ON BOND STRENGTH OF ORTHODONTIC LIGHT CURE ADHESIVE SYSTEM- A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>100</FirstPage><LastPage>121</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>K. Ambika</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> S. Aravind Kumar</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> K. K. Shanta Sundari</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Aim: The aim of the systemic review is to emphasize the effect of contamination on bond strength of orthodontic light cure adhesives. Methods: The search was carried out by electronic database- Advance PubMed. The studies were selected if they met the following criteria: It should be In-Vitro study. Specimen used should be human or bovine teeth. Media used for contamination are saliva, blood or water. Orthodontic brackets or buttons bonded to the enamel surface of the teeth with orthodontic light cure adhesives by direct bonding technique. Results: Thirty articles were selected based on the inclusion criteria. Bond strength of different orthodontic primers and adhesives were recorded as variables of interest. Conclusion: It was concluded that contaminations affect the bond strength of orthodontic light cure adhesives.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Bond strength, moist contamination, orthodontics, light cure adhesives.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
The conventional method for bonding the orthodontic brackets to enamel surface necessitates three different agents: an enamel etchant, a primer solution, and an adhesive resin. It is paramount to keep the tooth surface absolutely dry during bonding to provide proper bonding between the enamel and adhesives. This is estimated as bond strength of the material. Clinically accepted bond strength for orthodontic bracket is range from 6 to 8 MPa (Reynolds 1975)1 . Michael G Buonocore (1955)2 revolutionized dentistry with his depicting finding of etching and bonding of acrylic to enamel. He embarked on his bonding research in July 1954 by etching the enamel for 30 seconds with 85% phosphoric acid and then rinsing the surface with water. Retief et al3 also illustrated the surface conditioning is essential for increasing the bond strength of bonding material to enamel. In 1962, Bowen introduced bisphenol A-glycidyl dimethacrylate (bisGMA) resin. Bis-GMA proved to be stronger and more stable than the acrylic and epoxy resins which were in use at that time4 . In 1964, there was a revolution in the orthodontic society when Newmann5 successfully bonded orthodontic brackets to the teeth, by means of the acid-etch technique and an epoxy-derived resin. Bonding procedure includes: a) Thorough prophylaxis to provide a clean bonding surface. b) 37% phosphoric acid gel or aqueous solution applied for approximately 15 seconds to etch. c) Rinsing with copious amounts of water. d) Dry the surface with moisture and oil-free air to show the frosty, chalky white demarcated etched enamel surface. e) Apply the primer and bond the bracket with composite under a dry field and cure it with light cure unit. The presence of moisture contamination during bonding of orthodontic brackets is the most common reason for bond failure. Contamination&#xA0;causes plugging of the porosities produced by acid etching and a reduction in surface energy. Eventually resin penetration is impaired, and micromechanical retention is compromised6 . The contamination may be due to either water or saliva or blood or combination of these three. To overcome the effect of contamination, lots of newer adhesives have been introduced in the market with a minimal variation in composition. The purpose of the systematic review is to emphasize the effect of contamination on bond strength of orthodontic light cure adhesives. Structured Question Does the contamination affect the bond strength of orthodontics light cure adhesive system? Search Strategy Electronic databases: Advance Pubmed&#xD;
&#xD;
SEARCH METHODOLOGY &#xD;
The search methodology applied in PUBMED was as follows: (adhesives or dental adhesives or light cure adhesives or light cure adhesive or composite or dental composite or light cure composite or light cure resin) and (saliva contamination or water contamination or blood contamination) and (bond strength or dental bond strength or shear bond strength or orthodontic debonding or bond failure or debracketing).(Fig 1)&#xD;
&#xD;
Inclusion Criteria &#xD;
Studies were selected if they met the following criteria:&#xD;
1. In-vitro studies&#xD;
2. Specimen may be human or bovine teeth&#xD;
3. Media used for contamination are saliva, blood or water.&#xD;
4. Orthodontic brackets and buttons bonded to the enamel surface of the teeth with orthodontic light cure adhesives.&#xD;
5. Direct bonding technique.&#xD;
&#xD;
Exclusion criteria &#xD;
1. Ex-vivo or in-vivo studies are excluded.&#xD;
2. Studies done using materials other than orthodontic adhesives.&#xD;
3. Studies done using chemical cured and dual cured adhesives.&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULT &#xA0;&#xD;
1.irty articles were selected based on the inclusion criteria.&#xD;
2. Bond strength of different orthodontic primers and adhesives were recorded as variables of interest. (Table 3)&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
Water Contamination Bonding the bracket directly to enamel surface is technique sensitive. It needs absolute dry environment. Contamination of etched enamel surface leads to an inappropriate sealing of the microporosites by primer. Thereby reducing the bond strength of the adhesives. Common contaminations in clinical practice are water, saliva and blood. This systemic review is concentrating on the bond strength of orthodontic light cure adhesives influenced by contamination. Hobson et al8 found that the saliva contamination is more complex than water. Saliva consists of water, polysaccharides, protein, enzymes (Eiriksson et al9 ). Saliva forms an organic smear layer on the etched surface. Blood has greater mechanical barrier compare to saliva due to its organic and inorganic substances. As per the inclusion and exclusion criteria, there are 11 articles which showed the effect of water contamination under different primers and adhesives (table 2-6). The bond strength of Transbond XT primer (TXP) and Transbond XT adhesive (TXT) are found to be reduced under water contamination expect in the study by Vicente et al10. He found that the bond strength of TXP under water contamination is low compared to dry environment but there was no significant difference between the dry and wet condition.&#xD;
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Transbond moisture insensitive primer (TMIP) is a hydrophilic primer which is found to overcome the hydrophobic nature of TXT by adding HEMA and ethanol solvent. Four articles enumerate the effect of water contamination on the bond strength of TMIP and TXT. There was reduction in the bond strength under water contamination. The controversy to it is evident with Kula et al 200311 findings. There was no statistically significant difference between the dry and wet condition. Transbond self etching primer (TSEP) has reduces two steps (etching and priming) into single step which in turn reduces the time consumption during bonding. Three articles enumerate about the effect of water after application of TSEP. There was no difference of bond strength in two articles expect Cacciafesta et al12 findings where there was significant difference in bond strength under contamination after primer application. There are four articles who evaluated the bond strength of Fuji Ortho LC, resin modified glass ionomer cement light cure adhesives. There was statistically significant difference in bond strength in both dry and wet condition as well as under etched and unetched surfaces.&#xD;
&#xD;
Salivary Contamination &#xD;
Saliva is the most common media for contaminating the etched surface. Precaution should be taken in bonding to prevent salivary contamination. Saliva will form an organic smear layer on the etched surface which prevents the penetration of primer into the microporosites thereby enhancing the bond failure rate. Twenty two articles are dealing with effect of salivary contamination on bond strength of different adhesive system (Table 7-12). The combination of Transbond XT Primer and Transbond XT adhesives are evident in eight articles. All the articles reveal that, salivary contamination affects the bond strength of the TXP irrespective of contamination either before or after primer application. Transbond Moisture Insensitive Primer can withstand the mild moist environment. TMIP and TXT show statistically significant difference in the bond strength with contamination of saliva after primer application. But contamination before primer application does not affect the bond strength. Nine studies proved it. Transbond Self Etch Primer is a single step technique where etching and priming occurs simultaneously, contamination after primer application did not affect the bond strength. There are nine articles. Vittorio Cacciafesta et al12 found that there was decrease in bond strength by contamination after primer application. Lorenz Brauchli et al13 found increase in the bond strength after primer application. It is due to denaturation and degradation of saliva protein by its etching component. Bond strength of Fuji Ortho LC under saliva contamination was evaluated in four studies. There was no statistically significant difference between dry and wet condition. Lorenz Brauchli et al13 showed increase in bond strength after contamination. This was contrary to other studies. Adhesive system other than above mentioned adhesives have reduced bond strength under saliva contamination compared to uncontaminated groups.&#xD;
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Blood Contamination &#xD;
Contamination by blood extremely affects the bond strength of the orthodontic adhesives (Table 13-17). This was proved in various studies (Brauchli et al13, Sfondrini et al14, Santos et al15 , Oztoprak et al16, Sayinsu et al17). Blood contamination affects the bond strength irrespective of material used. There was decrease in the bond strength after the application of TSEP under blood contamination. Fuji Ortho LC also was affected by blood16 . Decontamination of the contaminated tooth surface by rinsing with water can increase the bond strength and it will be approximating to the bond strength achieved without contamination.&#xD;
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Repeat etching is not needed in the decontamination procedure. It is just cleaning a contaminated surface with water and air which was sufficient to obtain adequate bonding forces (Brauchli13). Webster18 compared a control group with a contamination group (without repriming) and a decontamination group (repriming only). They found significantly reduced bonding forces in both the situations. The decontamination in the investigation by Zeppieri19 also consisted of repriming without previous rinsing with water. Only TSEP achieved successful bonding forces in the decontamination groups. In the studies by Eiriksson20, 21 all self-etching primers achieved successful bonding forces after decontamination with water, air, and repriming. The data that was outliner in all the articles is Adhesive Remnant Index (ARI). It was used to assess the amount of adhesive left on the enamel surface. ARI scores were used as a complex method of defining bond failure rate among the enamel, the adhesive and the bracket base (Caccisafesta et al 200312).&#xD;
&#xD;
INFERENCE &#xD;
Contamination by water, saliva or blood affects the bond strength of all orthodontic adhesives either before or after the application of primer. Effect of these contaminations on TSEP after its application is found to be less. Fuji Ortho LC is unaffected by these contamination irrespective of its nature. Decontamination procedure after contamination increases the bond strength of TSEP.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
Contamination affects the bond strength of the orthodontic light cure adhesives, but the extent of effect is different for different adhesive system.&#xD;
&#xD;
SUMMARY &#xD;
This systematic review is to emphasize the effect of contamination on the bond strength of orthodontic light cure adhesives. Search was done in Advance PubMed and after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, thirty articles are related to the topic of interest. The bond strength of adhesives with or without contamination is listed out. The reading is evaluated for both before or after primer application of different adhesives. It was concluded that effect of contamination affect the bond strength of the orthodontic light cure adhesives and it affects less on TSEP.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1663</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1663</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Reynolds IR. A review of direct orthodontic bonding. Br J Orthod 1975;2:171-8&#xD;
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2. Buonocore MG: A simple method of increasing the adhesion of acrylic filling material to enamel surfaces. J Dent Res 34:849-853, 1955&#xD;
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3. Retief DH, Dreyer CJ, Gavron G: The direct bonding of orthodontic attachments to teeth by means of an epoxy resin adhesive. Am J Orthod 58:21-40, 1970&#xD;
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4. William A. Brantley, Theodore Eliades: Orthodontic Materials : Chapter 10, Page 202&#xD;
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5. Newmann GV: Bonding plastic orthodontic attachments to tooth enamel: NJ State Dental Journal 1964: 36:346-59&#xD;
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6. Rajagopal R, Padmanabhan S, Gnanamani J. A comparison of shear bond strength and debonding characteristics of conventional, moisture-insensitive, and self-etching primers in vitro. Angle Orthod. 2004;74:264-8.&#xD;
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7. Miller RA. Laboratory and clinical evaluation of a self-etching primer. J Clin Orthod 2001;35:42-5.&#xD;
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8. Hobson RS, Ledvinka J, Meechan JG: The effect of moisture and blood contamination on bond strength of a new orthodontic bonding material. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2001 Jul;120(1):54-7.&#xD;
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9. Eiriksson SO, Pereira PN, Swift EJ Jr, Heymann HO, Sigurdsson A: Effects of saliva contamination on resin-resin bond strength. Dent Mater. 2004 Jan;20(1):37-44.&#xA0;&#xD;
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10. Vicente A, Toledano M, Bravo LA, Romeo A, de la Higuera B, Osorio R: Effect of water contamination on the shear bond strength of five orthodontic adhesives. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2010 Sep 1;15(5):e820-6&#xD;
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11. Kula KS, Nash TD, Purk JH: Shear-peel bond strength of orthodontic primers in wet conditions. Orthod Craniofac Res. 2003 May;6(2):96-100.&#xD;
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12. Cacciafesta V, Sfondrini MF, De Angelis M, Scribante A, Klersy C: Effect of water and saliva contamination on shear bond strength of brackets bonded with conventional, hydrophilic, and self-etching primers. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2003 Jun;123(6):633-40.&#xD;
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13. Brauchli L, Eichenberger M, Steineck M, Wichelhaus A: Influence of decontamination procedures on shear forces after contamination with blood or saliva. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2010 Oct;138(4):435-41.&#xD;
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14. Sfondrini MF, Gatti S, Scribante A: Effect of blood contamination on shear bond strength of orthodontic brackets and disinclusion buttons. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2011 Jul;49(5):404-8. Epub 2010 Jul 23.&#xD;
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15. Santos BM, Pithon MM, Ruellas AC, Sant&amp;#39;Anna EF: Shear bond strength of brackets bonded with hydrophilic and hydrophobic bond systems under contamination. Angle Orthod. 2010 Sep;80(5):963-7.&#xD;
&#xD;
16. Oztoprak MO, Isik F, Sayinsu K, Arun T, Aydemir B: Effect of blood and saliva contamination on shear bond strength of brackets bonded with 4 adhesives. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2007 Feb;131(2):238-42.&#xD;
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17. Sayinsu K, Isik F, Sezen S, Aydemir B: Light curing the primer-beneficial when working in problem areas? Angle Orthod. 2006 Mar;76(2):310-3.&#xD;
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22. Hsiang Yu Cheng, Chien Hsiu Chen, Chuan Li Li, Hung Huey Tsai, Ta Hsiung Chou and Wei Nan Wang. Bond strength of orthodontic lightcured resin-modified glass ionomer cement.European Journal of Orthodontics 33 (2011) 180&#x2013;184&#xD;
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23. Sergio Ricardo Campos Maia, Vanessa Cavalli, Priscila Christiane Suzy Liporoni, and Marcos Augusto do Regob. Influence of saliva contamination on the shear bond strength of orthodontic brackets bonded with self-etching adhesive systems. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2010;138:79-83&#xD;
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24. Luciana Borges Retamoso, Fabr&#xED;cio Mezzomo Collares, Eduardo Silveira Ferreira, Susana Maria Werner Samuel. Shear bond strength of metallic brackets: influence of saliva contamination.J Appl Oral Sci. 2009;17(3):190-4&#xD;
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25. Ascensio&#xB4;n Vicentea; Ana Menab; Antonio Jose&#xB4; Ortizc; Luis Alberto Bravoc. Water and Saliva Contamination Effect on Shear Bond Strength of Brackets Bonded with a MoistureTolerant Light Cure System.Angle Orthod. 2009; 79:127&#x2013;132.)&#xD;
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26. Ekaterini Paschosa; Jean-Oliver Westphalb; Nicoleta Iliec; Karin Christine Huthd; Reinhard Hickele; Ingrid Rudzki-Janson F. Artificial saliva contamination effects on bond&#xA0;strength of self-etching primers. Angle Orthodondontist, 2008 78(4);716-21&#xD;
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27. Tamer Turka; Selma Elekdag-Turkb; Devrim Iscic; Fethiye Cakmakc; Nurhat Ozkalaycic. Saliva Contamination Effect on Shear Bond Strength of Self-etching Primer with Different Debond Times. Angle Orthodontist, Vol 77, No 5, 2007; 901-6&#xD;
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28. Andreas Faltermeier, Michael Behr, Martin Rosentritt, Claudia Reicheneder and Dieter M&#xFC;&#xDF;ig. An in vitro comparative assessment of different enamel contaminants during bracket bonding, European Journal of Orthodontics 29 (2007) 559&#x2013;563&#xD;
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29. Ma Dolores Campoya; Ascensio&#xB4;n Vicenteb; Luis Alberto Bravoc. Effect of Saliva Contamination on the Shear Bond Strength of Orthodontic Brackets Bonded with a SelfEtching Primer. Angle Orthod 2005;75:865&#x2013; 869.&#xD;
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30. Vittorio Cacciafesta, DDS, MSc, PhD, Maria Francesca Sfondrini, MD, DDS, PhD, Andrea Scribante, DDS, Marco De Angelis, DDS, and Catherine Klersy, MD, MSc. Effect of blood contamination on shear bond strength of brackets bonded with a self-etching primer combined with a resin-modified glass ionomer. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2004;126:703-8&#xD;
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31. Rangaswamy Rajagopal, MDS; Sridevi Padmanabhan, MDS; Janakirama Gnanamani, MDS. A Comparison of Shear Bond Strength and Debonding Characteristics of Conventional, Moisture-Insensitive, and Selfetching Primers In Vitro. Angle Orthod 2004;74:264&#x2013;268.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDY OF BILATERAL VARIABILITY AND PERCENT DIRECTIONAL ASYMMETRIES OF THIGH BONES OF MARATHWADA REGION&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>122</FirstPage><LastPage>127</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Shital Sopan Maske</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Prathamesh Haridas Kamble</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Aims and objectives- Though, there is clear-cut right dominance in upper extremity; reports on lower extremity are ambiguous. Some authors observed preponderance of stronger thigh bones on right side others reported longer and heavier femurs on left side. Therefore, it was considered worthwhile to report our observations on bilateral variability of thigh bones from Marathwada region and to derive the percent directional asymmetry allowing for direct comparison of asymmetry in various dimensions.&#xD;
&#xD;
Materials and methods- Present study was carried out on 168 known sex femurs from bone bank of the Department of Anatomy, Government medical college, Aurangabad. All the femurs were dry, free of damage and deformity and are fully ossified. 11 bilateral dimensions were taken. Dimensions were converted into percent directional asymmetry. Results and Conclusion- All the dimensions were higher on left side; but for the diaphyseal dimensions difference was significant. Percent directional asymmetry reveals that males have more bilateral asymmetry than females. Antero-posterior and transverse diameters of mid-shaft showed higher percent directional asymmetry. The probable reason for bilateral variation is asymmetrical mechanical loading and different behaviour patterns.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Bilateral Variability, Percent directional asymmetry, Femur, Anthropometry.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Bone is an adaptive tissue. It responds to the changes in mechanical strength through the process of remodelling. New bone is deposited in the area where there is an increase in strain and bone is removed from areas affected by reduced activity or immobilization. This process has been demonstrated in professional tennis players in terms of hypertrophy and of disuse atrophy of forearm bones of playing arm than non playing arm.[1] Nutrition, hormones and genetics also play role in the functional adaptive process of bone. [2] The long bones are dependent on different degrees of stress and thus morphologically are bilaterally asymmetrical. The degree of asymmetry reflects the degree of force exerted on to the right or left limb, while the particular site of bone showing asymmetry indicates kind of force exerted. [3] Asymmetry is directed and more pronounced in upper extremity than the lower. To a great degree lower limbs are intended for walking, bipedal locomotion demanding the equal use of both extremities. However, some authors observed preponderance of heavier thigh bones on right side; others reported longer and heavier thigh bones on left side. Femur is the longest bone in the body. Few studies have been conducted on bilateral asymmetry of long bone from Marathwada region but none of them have considered percent directional asymmetry. Degree of percent directional asymmetry gives the information about how many units one bone differs from the other and thus gave us the direction of asymmetry. [4, 5] Thus it was&#xA0;considered worthwhile to report our observations on bilateral asymmetry of thigh bone from Marathwada region and percent directional asymmetry.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
The sample consists of 168 known sex femurs from the bone bank of department of Anatomy, Govt Medical College, Aurangabad. All the femurs were dry, free of damage and deformity and were fully ossified. To gain the metric data 11 bilateral parameters were measured. Weight, maximum length , physiological length, length of shaft, circumference of head of femur, circumference of midshaft, vertical diameter of head, transverse diameter of head, minimum antero-posterior thickness of neck of femur, and antero-posterior diameter of midshaft and transverse diameter of midshaft. All the above measurements were taken on pairs of both male and female femurs separately. Weight was measured on balance machine; lengths were measured on osteometric board. Diameters were measured with the help of sliding callipers and circumferences were measured with the help of measuring steel tape. Statistical analysis was done by using unpaired&#x2018;t&#x2019; test. Data on asymmetry were converted to percent directional asymmetry for every measurement. It gave us the direction of asymmetry. Percent directional asymmetry (% DA) calculated as&#xD;
&#xD;
&#x2013; % DA = (left- right) / average of left and right X 100. &#xD;
This method standardizes all raw asymmetric differences to percentages of directional asymmetry within elements for allowing direct comparison of asymmetries in dimensions of different sizes. [4, 5]&#xD;
&#xD;
OBSERVATIONS &#xD;
Table I, table II and table III shows comparison of various dimensions of right and left side of male, female and combined femurs respectively. The parameters like weight, maximum length, physiological length, length of shaft, circumference of head of femur, circumference of midshaft, vertical diameter of head and transverse diameter of head of femur showed the difference in male and female measurements non-significant. (Table I, table II and table III) While parameters like minimum anteroposterior thickness of neck, anteroposterior diameter of midshaft and transverse diameter of midshaft were higher on left side. . (Table I, table II and table III) Table IV depicts percent directional asymmetry (% DA) for all the dimensions. Higher % DA was found for Anteroposterior and transverse diameters of mid shaft along with circumference of mid shaft. Also % D.A. was higher in male femurs than female femurs. (Table IV)&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
Bone growth is affected by both generalised factors like genetics, hormonal factors, deficiency of vitamins, minerals etc and also by localized factors like blood supply and mechanical stress. [6] The present study indicates that the left sided femurs are stronger in midshaft or diaphyseal dimensions than long bone length or articular dimensions. Probably this increase asymmetry in diaphyseal dimensions may be due to potential for continuing subperiosteal expansion of long bones cortices throughout life, after cessation of growth in length. This expansion is consequence of physical stress and strain exerted at these sites due to more muscular insertions at this site. [3] The percent directional asymmetry (% DA) at particular bone site indicates the degree and the direction of force exerted on the bone. In the present study % DA for anteroposterior and transverse diameters of mid shaft along with circumference of mid shaft was found to be higher.&#xD;
&#xD;
The present study findings are supported by the previous studied done by Hrdlicka 1932 [7], Trotter and Gleser 1952 [8], Lowrance and Latimer 1957 [9], Chhibber and singh 1970 [10], Huggare and Houghton 1994 [11] and Plochoki 2004. [12] While two studies that demonstrated right sided femur dimensions being significantly higher than the left side were Ingalls 1924 [13] and Gajendra Singh et al [14]. These studies are summarised in the table V. Also in the present study, % D.A. was higher in male femurs than female femurs. This finding could be a result of generally greater mechanical loading of bones in males related to greater muscular development. [15] Also other probable reason could be the division of labour that is more physical work by males as compared to females. [16] But more recent populations have showed a diminishing of the directionality and magnitude of asymmetry of sexual dimorphism in asymmetry, probably reflecting changes such as division of labour. [17] The application of present study is as follows: Bilateral asymmetry in thigh bones should be kept in mind for femoral arthroplasty implant design. Present day femoral implants are manufactured for masses in standard sizes and bilateral variability is not considered. Non availability of proper sized and shaped implants may impose serious problems to patients in run. [18] Bilateral asymmetry also affects stature estimation. There is a higher possibility of obtaining erroneous results while estimating stature from those body dimensions which show statistically significant and also little in case of insignificant asymmetry, when formula developed from one side is used on the other side. [19]&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
Thus the present study concludes that, for the femora of Marathwada region, all the dimensions were higher on left side; but for the diaphyseal dimensions difference was statistically significant. Antero-posterior and transverse diameters of midshaft showed higher percent directional asymmetry. Percent directional asymmetry reveals that males have more bilateral asymmetry than females. The probable reason for bilateral variation is asymmetrical mechanical loading and different behaviour patterns.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT&#xD;
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1664</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1664</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Krahl H, Michaelis U, Pieper HG, Quack G, Montag M. Stimulation of bone growth through sports. A radiologic investigation of the upper extremities in professional tennis players. Am J Sports Med. 1994;22(6):751-7.&#xD;
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2. Lanyon L, Skerry T. Postmenopausal osteoporosis as a failure of bone&amp;#39;s adaptation to functional loading: a hypothesis. J Bone Miner Res. 2001;16(11):1937-47.&#xD;
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3. Cuk T, Leben-Seljak P, Stefancic M. Lateral asymmetry of human long bones. Variability and Evolution, 2001; 9:19-32.&#xD;
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4. Steele J, Mays S. Handedness and directional asymmetry in the long bones of the human upper limb. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 1995; 5: 39- 49.&#xD;
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5. Mays S. Asymmetry in metacarpal cortical bone in a collection of British post-mediaeval human skeletons. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2002; 29: 435-441.&#xD;
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6. Lanyon L, Skerry T. Postmenopausal osteoporosis as a failure of bone&amp;#39;s adaptation to functional loading: a hypothesis. J Bone Miner Res. 2001;16(11):1937-47.&#xD;
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7. Hrdlicka A. The principal dimensions, absolute and relative, of the humerus in the&#xA0;white race. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1932. 16; 431-450.&#xD;
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8. Trotter M, Gleser GC. Estimation of stature from long bones of American whites and Negroes. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1952; 52: 463-514.&#xD;
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9. Lowrance EW, Latimer HB. Weights and linear measurements of 105 human skeletons from Asia. Am J Anat. 1957; 101: 445-459.&#xD;
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10. Chhibber SR, Singh I. Asymmetry in muscle weight and one-sided dominance in the human lower limbs. J. Anat. 1970; 106: 553-556.&#xD;
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11. Huggare J, Houghton P. Asymmetry in the human skeleton. A study on prehistoric Polynesians and Thais. Eur. J. Morphol. 1994; 33: 3-14.&#xD;
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12. Plochocki JH. Bilateral variation in limb articular surface dimensions. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 2004; 16: 328-333.&#xD;
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13. Ingalls N W. Studies on the femur. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1924; 7: 207-255.&#xD;
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14. Singh G, Mohanty C. Asymmetry in weight and linear measurements of the bones of the lower limb. Biomedical research. 2005; 16 (2):125-7.&#xD;
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15. Parker DF, Round JM, Sacco P, Jones DA. A cross-sectional survey of upper and lower limb strength in boys and girls during childhood and adolescence. Ann Hum Biol. 1990; 17(3):199-211.&#xD;
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16. Perelle IB, Ehrman L. An international study of human handedness: the data. Behav Genet. 1994; 24(3):217-27.&#xD;
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17. Auerbach BM, Ruff CB. Limb bone bilateral asymmetry: variability and commonality among modern humans. J Hum Evol. 2006;50(2):203-18.&#xD;
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18. McGrory BJ, Morrey BF, Cahalan TD, An KN, Cabanela ME. Effect of femoral offset on range of motion and abductor muscle strength after total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1995;77(6):865-9.&#xD;
&#xD;
19. Krishan K, Kanchan T, DiMaggio JA. A study of limb asymmetry and its effect on estimation of stature in forensic case work. Forensic Sci Int. 2010;200(1-3):181.e1-5.&#xD;
&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>STUDY OF C - REACTIVE PROTEIN, MALONDIALDEHYDE AND URIC ACID LEVELS IN PREDICTING OUTCOME IN ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>128</FirstPage><LastPage>132</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Mriganka Baruah</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Chandan Nath</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Sapna Goyal</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Bobby Das</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Runi Devi</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI) is an important health problem with poor outcome despite impressive advancement in diagnosis and management. Objective: The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of C-reactive protein (CRP), Malondialdehyde (MDA) and serum Uric Acid as a predictor of outcome in Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI). Materials and Method: A study was conducted in 72 subjects; 42 patients with AMI (35 years to 81 years), of which 6 patients expired during the study (4 Males, 2 Females) and 30 age and sex matched healthy control. These subjects are divided into among 3 groups, Group I- 6 AMI patients who expired after 7th day, Group II -36 patients with AMI; and Group III- 30 control group. Serum CRP, Uric acid and MDA readings were taken on day 1, 3 and 7 from the onset of symptoms. Result: Group I and II readings are found statistically significant (p</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Death, Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI), C-reactive protein (CRP), Malondialdehyde (MDA), Uric acid, Lipid Peroxidation, Oxidative Stress.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
AMI an interruption of blood supply to a part of the heart which causes damage and potential death of heart tissue become an important health problem despite of advancement in management of this disease over the last few decades. This disease is often premature and severe, with serious complication and increase morbidity and mortality irrespective of age. CRP is labelled as a predictor of outcome in AMI and correlated with infarct size and host (immune) response factors [1,2] i.e the total circulating Creactive protein levels in the setting of acute myocardial infarction is likely represents a marker of chronic vascular inflammation as well as the inflammatory response to acute myocardial injury. Studies have shown that uric acid is an important independent risk factor for cardiovascular mortality [3]. Under ischaemic conditions, Xanthine oxidase activity [4] and uric acid synthesis [5] are increased invivo and therefore elevated serum uric acid may act as a marker of underlying tissue ischaemia. The three carbon dialdehyde Malondialdehyde (MDA) is a highly reactive marker of lipid peroxidation due to production of free radical. Any imbalance between prooxidant and antioxidant defences in which the former dominates defined as ?oxidative stress? of which lipid peroxidation is&#xA0;one important manifestation [6]. Oxidative stress in relation with ROS is involved in LDL oxidation, platelet aggregation, thrombus formation and thereby atherosclerosis and AMI [7,8].&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
The study is conducted in a group of 72 subjects; 42 patients with cases of Acute Myocardial Infarction (35 years to 81 years) of which 6 patients expired during the study (4 Males, 2 Females) and 30 age and sex matched healthy control, irrespective of age and sex taken randomly from the admitted patients of Cardiology department of Gauhati Medical College (GMC), Assam. All procedures for the study is followed and Informed consent was obtained from all patients and control subjects participating in this study. Inclusion criteria- history of Squeezing or Crushing central chest pain, characteristic electrocardiogram (ECG) changes and elevated creatine kinase isoenzyme MB (CK-MB) and troponin-t within 12 hrs of onset of pain [9]. Exclusion criteria - Renal failure, Rheumatic fever, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Inflammatory Bowel disease, Gout, Neoplastic disease and Bacterial Infection.. Antioxidant, vitamin supplements, probucol, quinidine, disopyramide, or other drugs were not given to the Patients or controls group which may affect the study. Beta blockers, oral ACE inhibitors, antiplatelet therapy (aspirin or clopidogrel), unfractionated heparin, and GP (Glycoprotein) IIb/IIIa inhibitors, were used in treating the AMI Patients. Blood samples for estimation of Serum C-Reactive Protein, Uric acid and Malondialdehyde were collected on day1 and day3 from the onset of the symptoms. 3 ml of blood is drawn from the Ante cubital vein under aseptic precautions. Biochemical estimations were done based on colorimetric principles. ? Serum C - reactive protein was estimated by using the Turbidimetric Immunoassay method [10]. ? Serum Malondialdehyde (MDA) was measured as thiobarbituric acid reactive substance by colorimetric method by modified procedure of Yagi&#x2018;s and Satoh&#x2018;s methods [11]. ? Serum uric acid is estimated by Uricase method [12] using the Crest Biosystems kits. SPSS 16.0 statistical package were used. The results obtained were presented in Mean&#xB1; SD and then compared between different groups of the study by applying students?t&#x2018; test, probability (p) less than 0.05 is considered significant.&#xD;
&#xD;
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS &#xD;
The test group comprises of 72 subjects; 42 patients with cases of Acute Myocardial Infarction (35 years to 81 years), of which 6 patients expired during the study (4 Males, 2 Females with a mean of 56.5 years) and 30 age and sex matched healthy control (25 males and 5 females, age ranging from 38 years to 77 years) with a mean of 53.4 years comprises of the control group. Serum C - reactive protein, Malondialdehyde and Uric acid readings were taken on Day 1, 3 and 7 from the onset of symptoms. Table 1 shows statistically significant value of Serum C - reactive protein, Malondialdehyde and Uric acid on days 1, 3and 7 in Death and AMI compared to Controls group. Figure I show mean CRP values in Death, AMI and Control. Figure II shows a mean MDA values in Death, AMI and Control, Figure III shows a mean Uric acid levels in Death, AMI and Control on Day 1, 3and 7. CRP, MDA and Uric acid peaks around 3rd day with subsequent decline but Group I showed an increased trend in all the parameters.&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
An inflammatory risk marker of acute phase protein is C-reactive protein. Studies have interpreted that an elevated levels of CRP to be a predictor of outcome in AMI [1, 13, 14]. Our&#xA0;results are also comparable with them. Our results showed elevated levels of C-reactive protein in Death patients (group I) on day 1,3,7 as compared to the AMI (group II) and control group (group III). Castelli P et al, 1995 has labelled elevated Uric acid as a marker of tissue ischemia. Studies also reveal that uric acid level as a risk factor for AMI [15] and also increases in cardiac failure [16]. In the present study, there is a statistically significant high level of serum uric acid concentration in death patients as compared to AMI and control subjects on day 1, 3and 7 . Lipid peroxidation marker (MDA), has significantly higher values in death patients (group I) on all days compared to Group II and III. Our study showed that MDA has a definite pattern in AMI and its level continues to rise and peaks around 3rd which matches with the result obtained by Justo aznar et al 1983 [17]. CRP, MDA and Uric acid reading remain significantly elevated in Death patients (group I) with an increasing trend without subsequent decline as compared to other AMI subjects (group II) as seen in figure I,II and III respectively. Markedly elevated levels of CRP, MDA and Uric acid in death and AMI patients should be cautiously taken and considerably importance in the serial measurement of these parameters should be given to patients admitted with AMI. Thus the increasing rise of these parameters should be taken as alarming signs in management of AMI. CONCLUSION All the 6 patients who died had very high CRP, MDA and Uric acid at presentation and remained highly elevated during the course compared to other AMI patients who had gradual elevation of all three parameters and subsequent decline in AMI. As a result of this we conclude that CRP, Uric acid and MDA at presentation may be considered as alarming and should be taken as a serious marker in predicting outcome including death of the patients, as the line of treatment and lab diagnosis can go hand in hand to increase the life expectancy of the individuals.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS &#xD;
The authors wish to express their acknowledgement to the Principal GMC and the Department of Biochemistry Department of Medicine, Department of Cardiology of GMC, Guwahati, Assam for their kind support throughout the study. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1665</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1665</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Sabatine MS, Morrow DA, De Lemos JA. Multimarker approach to risk stratification in non-ST elevation acute coronary syndromes: simultaneous assessment of troponin I, Creactive protein, and B-type natriuretic peptide. Circulation. 2002; 105:1760&#x2013;1763.&#xD;
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5. Kogure K, Ishizaki M, Nemoto M, et al. Evaluation of serum uric acid changes in different forms of hepatic vascular inflow&#xA0;occlusion in human liver surgeries. Life Sci 1999;64:305&#x2013;13.&#xD;
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6. Kappus H, Lipid peroxidation : Mechanisms, analysis , enzymalogy and biological relevance.In : Sies H, ed.Oxidative stress .London , England: Academic press, 1985;273-310.&#xD;
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7. Loeper, J., Goy, J., Rozenstajin, L., Bedu, O., and Moisson, P. ?Lipid peroxidation and protective enzymes during myocardial infarction?. Clin Chim Acta. 1991;15; 196(2- 3): 119-125.&#xD;
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8. Loscalzo J. Oxidaive stress: a key determinant of atherothrombosis. Biochem Soc Trans .2003;21:1059-61.&#xD;
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9. Alpert Js. Thygesen K, Antman E, Bassand JP. Myocardial Infarction redefined-a consensus document of The joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 36:959.&#xD;
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10. Chenillot O, Henny J, Steinmetz J. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2000;38(10):1003-1011&#xD;
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11. Satoh K. Serum lipid peroxide in cerbrovascular disorders determined by new colorimetric method. Clin Chim Acta. 1978; 90:37&#x2014;43.&#xD;
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12. Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry. 4th edition, Edited by CA Burtis, ER Ashwood, WS Bruns. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 2006;24:803-807.&#xD;
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13. Mriganka Baruah, Chandan Kr. Nath, Bikash Chaudhury, Runi Devi. A Study of Serum Uric Acid and C-Reactive Protein in Acute Myocardial Infarction. IJBMSP 2012; Vol. 2(1): 21-24.&#xD;
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14. Kushner I, Broder ML, Karp D. Control of the acute phase response. Serum C-reactive protein kinetics after acute myocardial infarction. J Clin Invest. 1998; 61:235&#x2013;242.&#xD;
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15. Michiel J. Bos, MD, MSc; Peter J. Koudstaal, MD, PhD; Albert Hofman, MD, PhD; Jacqueline C.M. Witteman, PhD Monique M.B. Breteler, MD, PhD . Uric Acid Is a Risk Factor for Myocardial Infarction and Stroke-The Rotterdam Study: Stroke. 2006; 37:1503-1507.&#xD;
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16. Zebrack JS, Anderson JL, Maycock CA, Horne BD, Bair TL, Muhlestein JB. Usefulness of highsensitivity C-reactive protein in predicting long-term risk of death or acute myocardial infarction in patients with unstable or stable angina pectoris or acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2002; 89:145&#x2013;149.&#xD;
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17. Justo Aznar,m Teresa santos,t Juana valles,t Jesus sala: J Clin Pathol 1983;36:712-715.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>A COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF METHYLPREDNISOLONE AND DEXAMETHASONE INJECTED INTO THE MASSETER MUSCLE IN SURGICAL REMOVAL OF IMPACTED LOWER THIRD MOLARS&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>133</FirstPage><LastPage>136</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Loganathan S.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Srinivasan H.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>This study is to compare the efficacy of methylprednisolone, as a single 40mg dose and Dexamethasone, as a single 4mg dose injected into masseter muscle prior to placement of incisions. A prospective randomized study comprising 10 patients undergoing elective Bilateral Impacted lower third molar surgery with similar severity index were randomly assigned into Group I who received a single dose of methylprednisolone 40 mg injected into masseter muscle through intrabuccal approach and group II who received a single dose of Dexamethasone, as a single 4mg injected into masseter muscle through intrabuccal approach after Inferior alveolar nerve and long buccal nerve block. Steroidal Injections were given prior to the surgical removal of the impacted lower third molars. The inclusion criteria were: healthy patients aged over 18 years of either sex and without contraindication for corticosteroids. Ten patients were selected for the study. The mean age was 24 years (SD 5). Males were 56% than females 48%. The evaluation of postoperative pain, trismus, swelling and swallowing is made using the parameters: Interincisal distance to measure the mouth opening, assessment of swelling by measuring - tragus-lip commissure, Gonion-lip commissure and Gonion-outer canthus of the eye, preoperatively, second and seventh day postoperatively. Pain and swallowing assessed by using VAS on a 1-10 scales for every hour for six hours after surgery and during the next three days once in morning and night. No difference between the Methylprednisolone and Dexamethasone injected into the masseter muscle in surgical removal of impacted lower third molars.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords/><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
The use of steroids in surgical removal of impacted lower third molars to reduce the post operative pain and swelling is broadly studied topic1 .Spies et al2 and Strean and Horton3 used hydrocortisone to reduce the postoperative inflammation. In oral surgery dexamethasone and methylprednisolone are more commonly used glucocorticoids1 .The effect of glucocorticoids is well known and widely used to reduce swelling associated with the surgical removal of impacted third molars4, 5,6,7. Glucocorticoids inhibit synthesis and release of inflammatory mediators8 and decrease the fluid transudation and oedema9, 10, 11 . Delayed wound healing and susceptibility to infection are not clinically significant with a shorter course of treatment. The present study involves in comparison of injection of a single 40 mg dose of methylprednisolone and a single 4mg dose of dexamethasone into masseter muscle via a intrabuccal approach prior to placing incision for the surgical removal of bilateral impacted third molars under local anesthesia.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
This study conducted from May 2010 to March 2011 comprising of 10 patients. A prospective randomized study with the inclusion criteria were Healthy patients with ASA I and no&#xA0;contraindication for corticosteroids. Bilateral impacted lower third molars with similar difficulty index. Both the sex groups with aged over 18 years were included. Orthophantomogram showed the position of the teeth to be symmetrical. All patients required tooth section to remove it. Informed consent was obtained. Group I who received a single dose of methylprednisolone 40 mg injected into masseter muscle through intrabuccal approach and group II who received a single dose of Dexamethasone, as a single 4mg injected into masseter muscle through intrabuccal approach. Both the groups&#x2019; received steroidal injections after injecting inferior alveolar nerve block and buccal nerve block and before placing the incision. After completion of the procedure the patients rated pain on a 100-mm visual analog scale, zero represent &#x2018;no pain&#x2019; and hundred represents &#x2018;worst pain&#x2019;. Assessment of pain was done every hour for the first six hours of the completion of the treatment on that day, and then twelve hour intervals for next three days. Mouth opening was measured with caprovich calipers, and postoperative swelling were evaluated by measuring the distance between tragus-lip commissure, gonion-lip commissure and gonion-external canthus of the eye using silk thread before and two days after surgery. The student&#x2019;s t-test was used to compare the means.&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS&#xD;
Of the 12 patients selected for the study two were excluded because of failure to review. The mean age was 24 years (SD 5). Males were 56% than females 48%. The preoperative data of mouth opening and facial swelling are presented in table 2. The postoperative data of mean pain intensity score, mouth opening and facial swelling are shown in table 1, 3 and 4 respectively. There was no difference between two groups in preoperative measurement. There were no statistical difference in facial swelling; mouth opening and pain score in the two groups, the group I who received a single dose of methylprednisolone 40 mg injected into masseter muscle through intrabuccal approach and the group II who received a single dose of Dexamethasone, as a single 4mg injected into masseter muscle through intrabuccal approach.&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
The corticosteroids reduces facial swelling, pain and trismus, they are generally injected before or after the surgical removal of impacted teeth or any other surgery. The half life of Methylprednisolone is 18 to 36 hours and more potent than hydrocortisone5,9,12,13,14 and has no minerlocorticoid activity15 and the Methylprednisolone has been studied in most of studies because the drug is five times more potent than hydrocortisone5, 14 . Micro-Lorenz et al16 injected 40 mg methylprednisolone into the gluteal region following the removal of impacted third molars showed good result. Esen et al used a single intravenous of 125 mg of methylprednisolone reduces the swelling, pain and trismus associated with third molar surgery. Dexamethasone injected into the masseter muscle showed decrease in pain, swelling and trismus by Messer and Keller10.Methylprednisolone injection decrease the postoperative pain was reported by Esen et al 17 similarly using dexamethasone significant decrease in pain after surgery reported by Baxendale18. Use of non-steroidal anti - inflammatory drugs were compared with methylprednisolone in relation to pain, edema and trismus as common complication following surgical removal of impacted third molars which showed non-steroidal anti - inflammatory drugs have more initial analgesic effect than methylprednisolone but the latter have more antiedema effect14 . In this study the comparison between methylprednisolone 40 mg and 4mg dose of dexamethasone was injected into masseter through intrabuccal approach after anesthetizing inferior alveolar, lingual and buccal nerve and before placing the incision in surgical removal of impacted lower third molar. The evaluations of postoperative pain, trismus, swelling and swallowing were made.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION&#xD;
This study show there is no significant difference were present between Intrabuccal approach massetric injection of a single 40 mg dose of methylprednisolone and a single 4mg dose of Dexamethasone in means of pain, swelling and trismus following surgical removal of impacted lower third molars but this study of 10 cases was quantitatively very minimal and needs to be undertaken with larger samples to substantiate the findings.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT&#xD;
We acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1666</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1666</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Bhan S. Glucocorticoids in dentistry. J Am Dent Assoc 1982: 105: 476-481.&#xD;
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2. Spies T et al. A clinical appraisal of ACTH and cortisone as therapeutic agents in dental medicine. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Path 1952: 5: 25-40.&#xD;
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3. Strean P, Horton C. Hydrocortisone in dental practice. Dent Digest 1953: 59: 8.&#xD;
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4. Holte K, Kehlet H. Perioperative single-dose glucocorticoid administration: pathophysiologic effects and clinical implication. J Am Coll Surg 2002: 195: 694- 711.&#xD;
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5. Montgomery M, Hoggs J, Robers D, Redding S. The use of glucocorticosteroids to lessen the inflammatory sequelae following third molar surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1990: 48: 179-187.&#xD;
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6. Gersema L, Baker K. Use of corticosteroids in oral surgery .J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1992: 50: 270-299.&#xD;
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7. Schaberg S, Stuller C, Edwards S. Effects of methylprednisolone on swelling after orhtognathic surgery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1984: 42: 356-361.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Ustun Y, Erdogan O, Esen E, Deniz E. Comparison of the effects of two doses of methylprednisolone on pain, swelling, and trismus after third molar surgery. J Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2003: 96: 535-539.&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Beirne O, Hollander B. The effect of methylprednisolone on pain, trismus, and swelling after removal of third molars. Oral Surg Oral Pathol 1986: 61: 134-138.&#xD;
&#xD;
10. Messer E, Keller J. The use of intraoral dexamethasone after extraction of mandibular third molars. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1975: 40: 594-598.&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Milles M, Desjardins P. Reduction of postoperative facial swelling by low-dose methylprednisolone, J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1993: 51: 987-991.&#xD;
&#xD;
12. Bystedt H, Nordenram A. Effect of methylprednisolone on complications after removal of impacted mandibular third molars. Swed Dent J 1985: 9: 65-69.&#xD;
&#xD;
13. Holland C. The influence of methylprednisolone on postoperative swelling following oral surgery. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1987: 25: 293-299.&#xD;
&#xD;
14. Sisk A, Bonnington G, Evaluation of methylprednisolone and flurbiprofen for inhibition of the postoperative inflammatory response. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1985: 60: 137-145.&#xD;
&#xD;
15. Penarrocha D, Saez C, Sanchis B. Estudio de las complicaciones postoperatiorias tras la extraccion quirurgica de 190 terceros molars mandibulares incluidos. AV Odontoestomatol 2000: 16: 435-441.&#xD;
&#xD;
16. Mico-Llorenens JM, Satorres-Nieto M, Gargallo-Albiol A, Arnabat-Domin-Guez J. Berini-Aytes L, Gay-Escoda C. Efficacy of methylprednisolone in controlling complication after impacted third molar surgical extraction. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2006: 62: 693-698.&#xD;
&#xD;
17. Esen E et al. Determination of the antiinflammatory effects of methylprednisolone on the sequelae of third molar surgery.J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1999: 57: 1201-1206.&#xD;
&#xD;
18. Baxendale B, Vater M, Lavery K. Dexamethasone reduces pain and swelling following extraction of the third molar teeth. Anesthesia 1993: 48: 961-964.&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>-0001</Year><Month>November</Month><Day>30</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>A CADAVERIC STUDY ON THE VARIATIONS IN THE ORIGIN, COURSE AND BRANCHING PATTERN OF THE PROFUNDA FEMORIS ARTERY&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>137</FirstPage><LastPage>145</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Mamatha H.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Jessica S.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Suhani S.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author>Antony Sylvan D souza</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Introduction: The profunda femoris artery which is the largest deep branch of femoral artery provides the principal supply to the extensor, adductor and flexor muscles of the thigh. This large artery arises from the posterolateral side of the femoral artery about 3.5-5cm from the mid-inguinal point and gives lateral and medial circumflex femoral branches and three perforating branches. The study of the femoral artery and its branching pattern has been a great interest among the anatomists and the surgeons because of its major implication in the clinical as well as radiological interventions. Material and Methods: This artery is easily accessible to catheterization and thereby to investigation of any arterial system in the body. In the present study, twenty (40 limbs) formaldehyde embalmed cadavers without malformations were dissected during the educational dissection in the Department of Anatomy, Kasturba Medical College. Results: We got the results like higher origin of the profunda femoris artery was seen in one specimen, the descending branch of the circumflex femoral artery arising from the femoral artery, descending branch of lateral circumflex femoral artery arising as a separate trunk from the profunda femoris. MCFA arising from the femoral artery about 3.2cm proximal to the origin of profunda femoris, the ascending circumflex femoral artery from the profunda femoris artery. Taking into consideration about the importance of the femoral artery and the profunda femoris artery primary attention has been given for the accurate anatomical knowledge about the aforementioned vessels. Hence, this present cadaveric study has been undertaken to study the prevalence of origin of the profunda femoris artery along with its circumflex branches.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Femoral artery, Profunda femoris artery, Medial circumflex artery</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Femoral artery is the continuation of the external iliac artery and enters the femoral triangle behind the inguinal ligament midway between the Anterior Superior Iliac Spine and the symphysis pubis. A cluster of four small branches &#x2013; superficial epigastric artery, superficial circumflex iliac artery, superficial external pudendal artery and the deep external pudendal artery originate from the femoral artery in the femoral artery and supply cutaneous regions of the upper thigh, lower abdomen and perineum.1The profunda femoris artery which is the largest deep branch of femoral artery provides the principal supply to the extensor, adductor and flexor muscles of the thigh. This large artery arises from the posterolateral side of the femoral artery about 3.5-5cm from the midinguinal point. The deep artery of the thigh has lateral and medial circumflex femoral branches and three perforating branches. The former artery arises from the lateral side of the profunda femoris artery and the latter arises from the posteromedial aspect of the profunda femoris artery. The head and neck of the femur are supplied by both the circumflex branches. The greater trochanter, vastus lateralis and the knee is supplies by the&#xA0;lateral circumflex femora artery whereas the medial circumflex femoral artery supplies to the fatty tissue in the acetabular fossa and to the adductor muscles.2, 3The study of the femoral artery and its branching pattern has been a great interest among the anatomists and the surgeons because of its major implication in the clinical as well as radiological interventions. This artery is easily accessible to catheterization and thereby to investigation of any arterial system in the body. The profunda femoris artery is used for arteriography, ultrasound and Doppler imaging, digital subtraction angiography and magnetic resonance imaging.4Taking into consideration about the importance of the femoral artery and the profunda femoris artery primary attention has been given for the accurate anatomical knowledge about the aforementioned vessels. Hence, this present cadaveric study has been undertaken to study the prevalence of origin of the profunda femoris artery along with its circumflex branches.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
In the present study, twenty (40 limbs) formalin fixed cadavers without malformations were dissected during the educational dissection in the Department of Anatomy, Kasturba Medical College. The femoral triangle was dissected meticulously, femoral sheath was identifies and its compartments were dissected to expose the femoral artery. The profunda femoris artery along with its medial and lateral branches was identified and its origin and course were studied. The origin of the profunda femoris artery from the midinguinal point was measured with a scale and a caliper in centimeters and noted for the study.&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS &#xD;
The higher origin of the profunda femoris artery was seen in 5% of the cases (Table.1), while deep external pudendal artery was arising at distance of 5cm from the mid-inguinal point (Fig.1and fig .2). In 2.5 % of the cases the descending branch of the circumflex femoral artery was found to origin from the femoral artery which after giving muscular branches to vastus lateralis (Fig.3) continued below to take part in genicular anastomosis. In2.5 % of the cases the descending branch of lateral circumflex femoral artery arising as a separate trunk from the profunda femoris artery. The artery gave muscular branches to the rectus femoris and ran along the nerve to vastus lateralis (Fig. 4) and descended down to give its contribution for the genicular anastomosis around knee joint. In 2.5% of the cases the medial circumflex femoral artery was arising from the femoral artery about 3.2cm proximal to the origin of profunda femoris artery( Fig. 5). After its origin the artery took its normal course of passing between the pectineus and psoas major muscle and eventually divided into its three terminal branches. The PFA also originated at about 4.5 cm from the mid-inguinal point( Fig. 6) and the ascending circumflex femoral artery was found to arise from the profunda femoris artery which coursed in front of the femoral nerve to take part in the spinous anastomosis. In 2.5 % of the cases ascending and transverse branches of the lateral circumflex femoral artery was found to emerge from the common trunk originating from the profunda femoris artery. However descending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery was found to descend as a separate branch form the profunda femoris artery (Fig. 7).&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
Normally anatomy explains the femoral artery to be a continuation of the external iliac artery giving off superficial and deep branches among which the profunda femoris is the largest from which two circumflex and four perforating braches emerges. According to Bergman et al the femoral artery may give rise to the inferior epigastric artery, deep circumflex iliac, lateral femoral circumflex, medial femoral circumflex, iliolumbar, accessory femoral circumflex (medial and lateral), descending branch of the lateral femoral circumflex and fourth or lowest perforating artery&#xA0;(general femoral nutrient or arteria femoris magna)&#x201D;5 .Anatomical variations reported at the level of the division of the femoral artery can be explained as follows. In the lower animals, the profunda femoris artery is a branch of the internal iliac artery. During course of evolution, the origin shifted distally from the femoral artery. Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. Hence, developmental arrest at different stages may lead to anatomical variations related to the division of the femoral artery.6 In the present study, there are numerous variations observed which will be hereby considered in the discussion. (Table. 2) In 430, Quain found that the distance from the inguinal ligament of the origin of the profunda was between 2.5 and 5.1 in 68%; of these it was between 2.5 and 3.8 in 42.6%. This distance was less than 2.5 cm in 24.6% and more than 5.1 cm in only 7.4%.5 In our study, there was a prevalence of higher origin of profunda femoris artery which was measured about 1.3 cm from the mid- inguinal point. Literatures say that when the origin of profunda femoris is high, it will emerge from the lateral side of the femoral artery. But in our study there was no such case for the lateral origin, however the artery had its own normal posterolateral origin .Additionally, there was a lower origin of the Profunda Femoris Artery in which Medial Circumflex Femoral artery was arising at distance of 3cm proximal to the origin of Profund Femoris. In the higher origin of the same artery, the deep external pudendal artery was arising at a distance of 5.2cm from the midinguinal point. MCFA, which shows different branching patterns is an important artery in supplying blood to the head and neck of the femur, to the adductor muscles and to fatty tissue in the acetabular fossa.7,8 Because of its close relationship with this area there is a high risk of severing the artery after trauma or during operations such as total hip arthroplasty.9,10,11,12 It also has great importance in plastic surgery operations as the vascular pedicle of grafts such as the transverse upper gracilis (TUG) flap, the superomedial thigh flap and the medial circumflex femoral (gracilis) perforator free flap.13,14,15 It is used in selective arteriography in idiopathic ischaemic necrosis of the femoral head to determine the arterial supply of the femoral head. 16 Comprehensive knowledge of the extracapsular anatomy of the MCFA would safeguard against avascular necrosis of the femoral head when the posterior approach is required n procedures such as reconstructive surgery of hip and acetabular fracture fixation. 17 Normally, the medial circumflex femoral artery is a branch of profunda femoris artery. In our study, the normal pattern of origin of medial circumflex femoral artery was seen in 87.5%. We compared this data to the various studies done till now Tanyeli et al.3 (2006) found in 79% cases, Dixit DP et al.4 (2001) in 62.5%, Siddharth et al.18(1985) in 63% , Massoud and Fletcher19 in 81%, LIpshutz 20(1916) in 59% and Clark and Colborn21 (1993) in 53%.Our results are therefore closest to those of Massoud and Fletcher. The medial circumflex femoral artery can also arise from the femoral artery. In the previous literatures, the origin of medial circumflex from femoral artery was found to be 26% in Siddharth27 ,6.4% in Massoud and Fletcher24, 21% in Tanyeli E et al.3 , 36% in LIpshutz25 and 40% in Clark and Colborn26 .Therefore our result was in consistent to Tanyeli E et al. Bergman et al have found the ascending and descending branches of the lateral circumflex artery to be arising from the femoral artery and the profunda femoris artery respectively in 2 cases (1.8%).5 Similary, our study also showed the prevalence of ascending branch of lateral circumflex femoral artery from the profunda femoris unilaterally in one out of 40 limbs i.e. in 2.5%. This ascending branch can be used as a supply for vascularized iliac transplantation.22 The descending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery also originated from the femoral artery in 2.5%. This also was not of much clinical&#xA0;importance but literatures have found that descending branch can act as collateral in obstructed superficial femoral artery and can be used in Coronary Artery bypass surgery. 24The descending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery has been used as a high flow conduit for extra cranial intracranial bypass surgery successfully.25 Another anomaly to report was the descending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral artery arising as a separate trunk from the profunda femoris artery which was not reviewed in the literatures to the date of present study. In our study, the lateral circumflex femoral arteries were all arising from the profunda femoris artery. Yasuhiko Sugawara et al have reported the successful utilization of the lateral circumflex femoral artery as a midway out flow for aortolateral circumflex femoropopliteal artery sequential bypass on a patient with total occlusion of all major arteries in the unilateral iliofemoral region.26 Lateral circumflex femoral artery is used as a perforator flap in the reconstruction of gunshot wounds. It can be used as an anterolateral thigh flap. Its branches are used for aortopopliteal bypass, coronary artery bypass surgery. Anatomical variations reported are due to the developmental arrest at different stages of the arterial network of the lower limb in the embryo27 . Very early in the developmental process the, anastomosis cab be found between the dorsal sciatic artery and ventral femoral artery. Later capillary plexus in front of the pelvis and thigh form complex vascular networks, named rete pelvicum and rete femorale. It is generally accepted that an increase of blood-flow determines the final mature arterial pattern. Thus the most appropriate channels enlarge while others contract and disappear, thereby establishing the final arterial ramification.28.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Ontogenetic interpretations of the anomalies in our study are as follows: 1) Before the MCFA appear as an independent blood vessels from the &#x2018;rete femorale&#x2019; the blood flow designed for their territory make an unusual choice of some channels and instead arising from the profunda femoris, it arises from the femoral artery. 2) We can also speculate that one possible reason for the higher origin of the profunda femoris artery could be due to increased blood flow in the rete femoral vessels.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
The existence of embryological variations of the arteries of the lower limb often results from unexpected developmental defects of the embryological arterial network. Knowledge of prevalence of the aforementioned anatomical variations is important to prevent iatrogenic injury to these vessels while undertaking clinical procedures within the femoral region. Before the catheterization of femoral vessels and operations in the femoral triangle, high-resolution ultrasonic imaging can provide anatomical and functional information about the femoral vessels and would be of assistance in planning catheterization29&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1667</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1667</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Susan Standring, Gray&#x2019;s Anatomy; The Anatomical Basis of Clinical practice, 40th edition, Elsivier Churchill Livingstone; 2005&#xD;
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2. Uzel M,Tanyeli E, Yildirim M. Anatomical study of the origin of the lateral circumflex femoral artery in the Turkish population, Folia Morphol, 2008,67(4):226-30.&#xD;
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3. Tanyeli E, Uzel M, Yildirim M, Celik HH. An anatomical study of the origins of the medial circumflex femoral artery in the Turkish population, Folia Morphol( warsz), 2006,65(3):209 -12.&#xD;
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4 . Dixit DP, Mehta LA, Kothari ML. Variation in the origin and course of profunda femoris, J Anat. Soc. India, 2001 50(1)6-7.&#xD;
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5. Compendium of human anatomic variation. Ronald A bergman, pg.86.&#xD;
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6. Prakash, Jyoti Kumari, Kumar Bharadwaj A, Betty Anna Jose, Kumar Yadav S, Sing G. Variations in the origins of the profunda femoris, medial and lateral femoral circumflex arteries: a cadaver study in the Indian population, RJME , 2010,51(1):161-170.&#xD;
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7. Moore KL (1999) Clinically oriented anatomy. 3rd ed.Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 188, 545.&#xD;
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8. Williams PL, Warwick R, Dyson M, Bannister LH Gray&#x2019;s anatomy, 37th ed. Churchill and Livingston, London, 1989,pp. 781&#x2013;783.&#xD;
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9. Aust JC, Bredenberg CE, Murray DG, Mechanisms of arterial injuries associated with total hip replacement.Arch Surg, 1981, 116: 345&#x2013;349.&#xD;
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10. Langer R, Langer M, Scholz A, Astinet F, Schwetlick G,Felix R ,Femoral head perfusion in patients with femoral neck fracture and femoral head necrosis, J Belge Rad,1993, 76: 145&#x2013;149.&#xD;
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11. Nachbur B, Meyer RP, Verkkala K, Zurcher R,The mechanisms of severe arterial injury in surgery of the hip joint. Clin Orthop Relat Res, 1979,141: 122&#x2013;133.&#xD;
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12. Pai VS, Compartment syndrome of the buttock following a total hip arthroplasty. J Artroplast, 1996, 11: 609&#x2013;610.&#xD;
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13. Arnez ZM, Pogorelec D, Planinsek F, Ahean U, Breast reconstruction by the free transverse gracilis (TUG) flap. Br J Plast Surg, 2004, 57: 20&#x2013;26.&#xD;
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14. Hallock GG , The medial circumflex femoral (gracilis) local perforator flap &#x2014; a local medial groin perforator flap. Ann Plast Surg, 2003,51: 460&#x2013;464.&#xD;
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24. Fukuda H, Ashida M, Ishii R, Abe S, Ibukuro, Anatomical variants of the lateral femoral circumflex artery: an angiographic study. Surg Radiol Anat, 2005, 27:260&#x2013;264.&#xD;
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28. Bunyamin Sahin, Ahmet Uzun, Mehmet Emirzeoglu, Rengin Kosif, Sait Bilgic. A deep femoral artery passing in front of the femoral vein, Folia Morphol, 2003,62(2):143- 146.&#xD;
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29. Sahn DJ, Goldenberg SJ, Allen HD, ValdesCruz LM, Canale JM, Lange L, Friedman MJ (1982) A new technique for noninvasive evaluation of femoral arterial and venous anatomy before and after percutaneous cardiac catheterization in children and infants. Am J Cardiol, 49: 349&#x2013;355.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>DOES RADIOGRAPHER AWARE OF HOSPITAL ACQUIRE INFECTION IN RADIOLOGY DEPARTMENT- A CASE REPORT&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>150</FirstPage><LastPage>153</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Suresh Sukumar</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> SushilYadav</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Aim: This study was carried out in order to establish whether infection control measureswe?re being undertaken sufficiently in Radiology department and to create awareness among the Radiographer and Staff Nurse working in the Department regarding spread of infectionthrough Radiology Equipment?s. Outcome of the study: From this study we concluded that Radiographer and Staff Nurse should be oriented and create awareness about the radiology equipment spreading the infection and hygiene to follow for personal protection from infection and for the patient care. Proper qualified radiographer has to employ to work in the department. Staff nurse posted in radiology department has to get specialised training to work in radiology department. Conclusion: Healthcare Associated Infections are a major public health concern.Department of radio diagnosis and Imaging and staff need to understand these important issues, and actively participate in solutions to reduce the risk to our patients as well as personal protection.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Infection control; Hospital acquired infections; Radiology Department; methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Case details of anpatient come to our Radiology Department: &#xD;
Patient came to the Radiology Department for the Imaging study prescribed by the consultant for the inpatient department. In the case history of imaging request form, patient has the previous history of hospital-acquired Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureusInfection. Based on the case record and lab report of our hospital we concluded that patient had hospital-acquired Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus(MRSA)from the previous hospital and got admitted to our hospital for the treatment. During the radiology examination none of our Junior Radiographer working in the department where not aware of hospital-acquired Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus and the infection spread by the Radiology Department. Do radiology equipment&#x2019;s spread infection?:- Hospital acquired Infection control in hospitals is concerned with prevention of microorganisms reaching a susceptible to cause to patients6 .Hospitals can become contaminated with potentially infectious organisms and a safe environment can only be achieved by decontamination in the form of disinfection, cleaning and sterilization7 . A major reason for the importance of infection control is to prevent the occurrence of Nosocomial or Hospital Acquired Infections (HAI). These are infections that occur during a patient?s stay in hospital which were not present or during the time of admission2 . In contrast to community acquired infections these infections usually occur as a result of pathogens taking advantage of patients whose normal defences against infection are contravened2We can&#xA0;remove the organism completely from the hospital , but our aim should be to reduce the number microorganism present and dispose the material that support microorganism growth7 . Pathogenic organisms which cause the infection are bacteria, viruses and fungi7 .Bacteria are the largest cause of hospital acquired infection, and pathogenic bacteria usually grow rapidly under environmental conditions found in the human body.Department of Radio diagnosis and imaging (RDI) within the hospital deals with a wide variety of patient groups including the very young, elderly and immunosuppressed. Risk of infection to the patient who are coming to the RDI is more 7 .Patients who are being examined in the RDI will come intocontact with various types of equipment?s which are used to RDI for imaging purpose.Fox 8 carried out a study based on imaging receptors in portable mobile x &#x2013; ray equipment?s over the course of 7 days. From his conclusion he found that during examinations the imaging receptor came into contact with the patient 68.8%, 25% of the time this contact was directly with the patient?s skin. Out of 40 imaging receptor he found 38 imaging receptor their study were contaminated with bacteria, the most common being Staphylococcus aureus and found that that imaging receptors were acting as reservoirs for cross infection, this is compounded by the fact that mobile radiography is commonly undertaken in areas where patients are likely to be immuno-suppressed or vulnerable to infection risks8 . Swain and Flinton9 from their study, 20 swabbed cassettes were found to have Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci present; six were contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus and one with MRSA. Smith and Lodge argued that the RDI is one of the only departments in the hospital where different patient types wait together and that this increases the potential for microorganisms to be transmitted between patients and through personnel and equipment. In this study cultures were taken of 44 potential fomites within the RDI. It was found that 50.7% of these grew no microorganisms, with 49.3% growing a range and number of organisms.&#xD;
&#xD;
OBJECTIVE &#xD;
This study is to create the awareness and knowledge of the hospital acquired infection and equipment?s which spreads infection in Radiology department.&#xD;
&#xD;
Study designed &#xD;
Case study&#xD;
&#xD;
How to create awareness? &#xD;
Awareness created based on orientation, lecturers and questioners to evaluate for radiographer and radiology staff nurse&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
This case study highlights the issue of Healthcare Associated Infections and the Medical Imaging department3, 4, 5. Hospital acquired infection is one of the major cause of patient death increased morbidity for hospital patients worldwide. Multinational point prevalence studies demonstrate a HAI rate of around 8- 10%4.Radiographer and nursing staff who are working in the radiology department are not aware of infection which spread through the radiology equipment?s. Even though there are less study in the area of radiology department infection control, based on their study,provide the vast knowledge of the equipment?s which spread the infection and method to prevent the infection to staff working in the radiology department and to the patient. 8, 9, 11, 12. Equipment?s which spread infection as follow, 1.x ray cassette, 2.Aprons, 3. Markers, 4.X ray machine, 5.X ray tables, 6.computer radiographic and 7.x ray plates8, 9, 11, 12&#xD;
&#xD;
Role of Radiographer and staff nurse in radiology department infection control:- &#xD;
1. Hand hygiene&#xD;
Improving hand hygiene among healthcare workers is currently the single most effective intervention to reduce the risk of healthcare associated infections1, 12. The Medical Imaging department is characterized by very frequent patient interactions and contact involving multiple&#xA0;staff groups. Some of these patients or patient groups seen in Medical Imaging are at high risk for HAI. There is a real potential for breakdown of hand hygiene involving such a high-density, highacuity patient population in frequent contact with health-care workers. Additionally, some imaging is performed outside of the Medical Imaging department in high-risk environments such as ICU13 .&#xD;
&#xD;
2. Policies and procedures:- &#xD;
The Medical Imaging environment is a highly relevant one in relation to these issues. Patient procedures are performed routinely and frequently, ranging from peripheral intravenous access and drug/contrast administrations, through to highly complex and invasive interventional and therapeutic interventions. Body fluids are often involved. Nuclear Medicine imaging techniques can involve in vitro laboratory blood product radio-labelling and patient reinjection of blood products, and serious adverse events have been reported in both processes14.15&#xD;
&#xD;
3. Cleaning &#xD;
Clean and decontaminate equipment and your environment appropriately. Sterilise equipmentas appropriate. Medical Imaging equipment may harbour potential pathogens, e.g. MRI scanners and ultrasound equipment16&#xD;
&#xD;
4. Consider your patients&#xD;
Consider the &#x201C;risk&#x201D; your patients pose to others in respect to infection control, and managethose patients appropriately. Also consider whether any of your patients are at risk of HAI.&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Personal protective equipment &#xD;
Wear personal protective equipment appropriately and correctly always perform hand hygiene after removing personal protective equipmentget informed and promote action Understand the issues of HAI and promote a culture of awareness, patient safety and action.&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Immunisation &#xD;
Ensure you are up to date with your immunisations and receive yearly influenza vaccinations.&#xD;
&#xD;
SUGGESTION &#xD;
Radiographer and staff nurse should be oriented and create awareness about the radiology equipment spreading the infection and hygiene to follow for personal and patient care. Proper qualified radiographer has to employ to work in the department. Staff nurse posted in radiology department has to get specialised training to work in radiology department.&#xD;
&#xD;
Consultation &#xD;
Healthcare Associated Infections are a major public health concern.Department of radio diagnosis and imaging and staff need to understand these important issues, and actively participate in solutions to reduce the risk to our patients as well as personal protection.&#xD;
&#xD;
Conflict of interest statement &#xD;
We (the authors) confirm that there are no conflicts of interest associated with the submission of this article&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. The author is highly thankful to the referees for their very constructive, valuable suggestions and useful technical comments, which led to a significant improvement of the paper&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1668</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1668</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. ACSQH National Hand Hygiene Initiative (accessed Feb 13, 2009).&#xD;
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2. Wilson J. In: Infection control in clinical practice. 3rd ed. Edinburgh: Elsevier Limited; 2006.&#xD;
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3. ACSQH Healthcare Associated Infection (HAI) (accessed Feb 13, 2009).&#xD;
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4. Tasmanian Infection Prevention and Control Unit "Healthcare Associated Infections Information for health professionals" (accessed Feb 13, 2009).&#xD;
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5. ACSQH "Reducing harm to patients from healthcare associated infection: the role ofsurveillance" (accessed Feb 13, 2009)&#xD;
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6. Horton R, Parker L. In: Informed infection control practice. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2002.&#xD;
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7. Fox M, Harvey J. An investigation of infection control for X-ray cassettes in a Diagnostic Imaging Department. Radiography 2008;14:306-11.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Swain JA, Flinton DM. X-ray cassettes: a potential crossinfection risk? Journal of Diagnostic Radiography and Imaging 2000; 3:121-5.&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Smith A, Lodge T. Can radiographic equipment be contaminated by microorganisms to become a reservoir for cross infection? Synergy 2004; Dec:12-7.&#xD;
&#xD;
10. Do lead rubber aprons pose an infection risk??? Helen Boyle a, Ruth M. Strudwick b,* Radiography (2010) 16, 297-303&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Radiographic markers e A reservoir for bacteria? Jenna Tugwell a,*, Adele Maddison bRadiography 17 (2011) 115e120.&#xD;
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12. Hand Hygiene Australia http://www.hha.org.au/ (accessed Feb 13, 2009).&#xD;
&#xD;
13. HAI and medical imaging - infection prevention is everybody&amp;#39;s business: A Case Report 1 QUDI eNews, February 2009 &#xA9; RANZCR &#x2013; 2009.&#xD;
&#xD;
14. Rojas-Burke J. &amp;#39;Health Officials Reacting to Infection Mishaps&amp;#39;. J Nucl Med 1992 33: 13N27N.&#xD;
&#xD;
15. Fowler, C, McCracken D, &amp;#39;US Probes: Risk of Cross Infection and Ways to Reduce ItComparison of Cleaning Methods&amp;#39;. Radiology 1999; 213: 299-300.&#xD;
&#xD;
16. Diagnostic Imaging &amp;#39;Irish radiologists take urgent action to eradicate superbug&amp;#39;. Nov 28, 2006. (accessed Feb 15, 2009)&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>A STUDY TO EVALUATE THE EFFECT OF VITAL CAPACITY (VC), FORCED VITAL CAPACITY (FVC) AND PEAK EXPIRATORY FLOW RATE (PEFR) IN SUBJECTS PRACTICING PRANAYAMA&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>154</FirstPage><LastPage>158</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Ambareesha Kondam</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Chandrasekhar M.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Purushothaman G. </Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Qairunnisa S. </Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Vijay Kumar A. N. </Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Sanghishetti Vijay Prasad</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Background and Objectives: In recent years, medical fraternity is attracted towards yoga. Modern man has become a victim of daily stress and stress related disorders. The stress related disorders affects cardiac and respiratory functions. The term Pranayama comes from prana- vital energy particularly the breath and ayama- to lengthen or extend. Presently yoga and Pranayama has revolutionized along with allopathic medicine in the treatment of bronchial asthma and other chronic disorders. The yogic procedure has proved to extremely useful in preventing full development of complications. The yogic technique which is followed in this study is known to have a beneficial effect in different stress related disorders. The present study tested the efficacy of regular practice of &#x2018;Pranayama&#x2019; in improving the respiratory functions. The present study was taken up as there are very few studies on the effect of yoga on specific pulmonary functions. Objectives: To assess the effect of Pranayama on various parameters of respiratory functions efficiency after six weeks of 30 min, daily yoga. Methods: A total of 35 undergraduate medical students of both the genders were taken in the study. The pulmonary function tests were assessed before the yoga training and were repeated after a period of six months of training. Pranayama practicing subjects were asked to take maximal sustained inspiration lasting for five seconds, followed by maximum sustained expiration which also lasted for five seconds during each practice. Results:&#xD;
&#xD;
Statistical analysis revealed significant improvement in the yoga group after six weeks of yoga training in few parameters of pulmonary functions (P</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Pranayama, Vital capacity, Peak expiratory flow rate, yoga, autonomic functions</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Yoga is a science practiced in India over thousands of years. Yoga practices are known to improve one&#x2019;s overall performance and capacity to do work. An ancient Hindu practice of Yoga has demonstrated an improvement in overall respiratory performance [1]. Yoga includes number of different practices, among them the most common is the Pranayama. Pranayama is an art of controlling the life force of breath, the coordinated, controlled yogic postural exercise. [2]. Pranayama is a type of yogic practice which&#xA0;produces many bodily psycho-physical besides its specific effects on the respiratory functions [3]. It also increases the capacity of lungs help to strengthen the internal organs improves mental control and deepen your ability to relax. Joshi et al. (1992) demonstrated improved pulmonary functions such as lowered respiratory rate (RR), increased forced vital capacity (FVC), and forced expiratory volume at the end of 1st second (FEV1 %) following six weeks of yoga training [4]. Joshi and Joshi (1998) suggested that the improvement in vital capacity could be attributed to increase in development and strengthening of respiratory musculature in regular yoga practitioners [5]. This study determines that a practice of Pranayama for duration of six weeks has a favorable influence and it causes an improvement in the lung functions. This study is designed to observe the effects of short- term pranayama (6 weeks) on the specific pulmonary function parameters.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
The study group consisted of 35 healthy undergraduate medical volunteers (20 males and 15 females) who were newly recruited for yoga training at Department of Physiology, Meenakshi Medical College, Enathur, Kanchipuram and Thamilnadu, Informed consent was taken from all the students who volunteered for the study. They were motivated to undergo Pranayama training for half hour daily, for 6 days a week. The first phase of the recording of the pulmonary parameters was done at the beginning of their course. The second phase of the recording was done after 6 weeks of the regular pranayama practice. The practice of pranayama was for half hour a day in the evening (4.00 am to 4.30 am), for six days per week. All the subjects were compulsorily asked to have a balanced vegetarian diet. They initially performed stretching exercises for 10 mins before starting the pranayama. The subjects sat in Padmasana. The left arm was held straight and it was placed on the left knee. The subjects were asked to take maximal sustained inspiration lasting for five seconds, followed by maximum sustained expiration which also lasted for five seconds/min during each practice. Each one was done for 10 rounds.&#xD;
&#xD;
INCLUSION CRITERIA &#xD;
Young healthy subjects who were aged between 18-25 years both sex.&#xD;
&#xD;
EXCLUSION CRITERIA &#xD;
1. The subjects with a history of allergic disorders or respiratory disorders.2. Smoking 3. Systemic disease like diabetes, hypertension and collagen disorders.4. Treatment with beta-agonists or the xanthenes group of drugs. 5. Chest deformities like kyposis and scoliosis. Systemic diseases and respiratory disorders were ruled out in the selected subjects by taking their detailed history and by their thorough clinical examination.&#xD;
&#xD;
Pulmonary function tests &#xD;
The pulmonary functions were tested by using the instrument, &#x2018;Medspiror&#x2019; (a self calibrating computerized spirometer that fulfills the criteria for standardized lung function tests), which was available in the Department of Physiology, MMC andRI. The pulmonary functions were tested at the start of the course and after 6 weeks. The parameters which were studied were, Vital capacity (VC), Forced vital capacity (FVC) and Peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR).&#xD;
&#xD;
Procedure &#xD;
The subjects were familiarized with the set up and detailed instructions and demonstrations were given. The subjects were made to breathe out forcefully, following deep inspiration, into the mouthpiece which was attached to the spirometer. The expiration was maintained for a minimum period of 3-4 seconds. All the readings were taken with the subjects in the standing position [6]. All the tests were carried out at the same time of the day, between 8.30 am to 9.30am, to avoid the possible variations [7]. The tests were done in a quiet room to avoid the emotional and psychological stresses. During the tests, a&#xA0;maximum effort from the subjects was ensured by adequately motivating them to perform their maximum. A normal PEFR value of 3-5 L/sec e nsured a maximum effort by the subject while performing the test. Statistical analysis The values obtained before and after the training period were compared using student&#x2019;s paired t - Test. Difference of the values between the two groups was compared using student&#x2019;s unpaired t &#x2013; Test. A &#x2018;P&#x2019; value of less than 0.05 was accepted as indicating significant difference between the compared values.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
After a continuous six week yoga program results showed a significant improvement in pulmonary functions of an individual. The beneficial effects of different pranayama are well reported and has sound scientific basis. In normal breathing ventilation is greater at the base of the lungs than in apex of the lungs. This decreases the diffusion capacity of lungs. During Pranayama the ventilation increases in all zones of the lungs this increases the diffusion capacity of gases. Mandanmohan et al. (2003) observed increased respiratory pressures in young adults as gauged by the maximum expiratory pressure test after a six months yoga training program [8]. Pulmonary functions are studied by recording vital capacity, forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume-1, maximum voluntary ventilation, and peak expiratory flow rate. The values are&#xA0;compared with values we obtained before practicing yoga. Vital capacity values in Group I3.3885, and Group II - 4.0692. The &#x2018;P&#x2019; values are less than 0.05 which indicates significance. Forced vital capacity Values in group I &#x2013; 3.3685, group II &#x2013; 3.9425, Peak expiratory flow rate values in group I &#x2013; 7.117, group II &#x2013; 8.0175. The absolute volume of forced vital capacity is important because it is an index of the state of elastic properties of the respiratory apparatus, whereas rate at which FEV1 is expelled form the lungs is predominantly a reflection of the flow resistive properties. The most frequent one being that expired in the first second (FEV1) predominantly reflects resistance to the air flow in airways that are greater than 2mm in diameter. Yadav and Das (2001) on 60 healthy females demonstrated a significant improvement in FVC and peak expiratory flow rate - 2 - over a period of 12 weeks [9]. The peak expiratory flow rate is generally considered as a sensitive indicator of changes in elastic recoil pressure or of the resistance of small airways. PEFR is subject of wide variability and is effort dependent. Maximum voluntary ventilation is an overall test of the respiratory apparatus measuring the status of respiratory muscles. During practice of forced breathing lungs and chest were inflated and deflated to the fullest possible extent and muscles worked to their maximum capacity. It is suggested that the practice of forced breathing without breath holding phase, also can strengthen the respiratory muscles and increase the elastic properties of lungs and chest and there by improve some of the ventilatory functions of the lungs. Breathing is the only autonomic function and is the key in bringing the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system into harmony [10]. Breath is the only function through which we can influence the involuntary nervous system, i.e. we can establish rhythms of breathing with our voluntary nerves and muscles. [11]. This result suggests that normal males on average have a larger more muscular thoracic cavity enabling them to force more air out of the lungs resulting in higher respiratory performance. Thus this study shows a significant improvement in pulmonary function in subjects practicing Pranayama.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
Present study shows a significant improvement in pulmonary function in individuals practicing Pranayama. This can be attributed to the decreased sympathetic activity and improved parasympathetic tone. Better ventilation all over the lung during slow and deep breathing also contributes to improvement in pulmonary function. Thus, pranayama can be useful in both healthy subjects and patients with respiratory diseases, to improve respiratory function. It can be used as an adjuvant to management of respiratory diseases.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS &#xD;
I sincerely thank the yoga participants for their persistence and dedication, the yoga instructor for his discipline and knowledge of the practice of yoga, the Dean and faculty, Department of Physiology, Meenakshi Medical College, Enathur, Kanchipuram, Thamilnadu for the fast program for making this research possible, and our HOD, Dr. Chandrashekar for his motivation and expertise to complete this research.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1669</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1669</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Udupa, K.N. and R.H. Singh.1972. The Scientific Basis of Yoga: Journal of the American Medical Association 220 (10): 1365.&#xD;
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2. Mishra SP. Yoga and Ayurveda: Their alliedness and scope as positive health sciences.2nd ed. Varanasi, Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan 1997&#xD;
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3. Shankarappa V., Prashanth P., Nachal Annamalai, Varunmalhotra. The Short Term Effect of Pranayama: JCDR/2012/3476:1861.1&#xA0;&#xD;
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4. Josh, L.N., V.D. Joshi and L.V. Gokhale. 1992. Effect of short term &#x2018;Pranayam&#x2019; practice on breathing rate and ventilatory functions of lung. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 36 (2): 105-108.&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Joshi, L.N. and V.D. Joshi. 1998. Effect of forced breathing on ventilatory functions of the lung. J Postgrad Med 44 (3): 67-69.&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Mauch AD. Effects of a two week yoga program on the pulmonary function. BIO 493.2008; 1-9.&#xD;
&#xD;
7. Madanmohan, Lakshmi J, Udupa K, Bhavanani AB. Effect of yoga training on handgrip, respiratory pressures and pulmonary function. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2003; 47 (4):387-92.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Mandanmohan, L. Jatiya, K. Udupa and A.B. Bhavanani. 2003. Effect of yoga training on handgrip, respiratory pressures and pulmonary function. Indian Journal of Physiology Pharmacology 47(4): 387-392.&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Yadav, R. K. and S. Das. 2001. Effect of yogic practice on pulmonary functions in young females. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 45 (4): 493-496.&#xD;
&#xD;
10. Grover P, Varma VD, Pershad D, Verma SK. Role of yoga in the treatment of psychoneuron&#x2019;s bull. PGI: 1998; 22(2): 68- 76.&#xD;
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11. Nidhi Jain, Srivastava RD, Singhal A. The effect of the right and left nostril breathing on the cardiorespiratory and the autonomic parameters: Indian J Physiol Pharmacol: 2005; 49(4): 469-74.&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>-0001</Year><Month>November</Month><Day>30</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>EVALUATION OF AWARENESS PROGRAMME ON PRACTICES OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT AT TEACHING HOSPITAL, AHMEDABAD&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>159</FirstPage><LastPage>164</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Dinesh Rathod</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Jagdeep Jadav</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Snehal Vaghela</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>In accordance with the rules of Bio Medical Waste (Management and Handling), every hospital generating BMW needs to set up requisite BMW treatment facilities. Inadequate management of biomedical waste can be associated with risks to healthcare workers, patients and communities at large..Hospital infection control committee &amp; team are responsible for monitoring of proper implementation of biomedical waste management rules. The issue is not only related to quality waste management but also to safety of health care workers i.e. universal precautions and immunization. Objectives: To evaluate Biomedical Waste Management practice at tertiary care hospital and to find out the change, if any, in practice of biomedical waste management after training. Method: Cross sectional interventional study conducted at 48 randomly selected Bio Medical Waste Management (BMW) management stations tertiary care hospital, Ahmedabad during March 2009 to November 2009. Results: There was considerable gain in availability of personal protective devices (20.84%), reduction of over flown bags (18.75%) and availability of bags (8.33%) after training. Regarding manpower there was increased in staff vaccination (68.75% -77.08%) and awareness about post exposure prophylaxis (12.50%). Not only that there was improvement in use of personal protective devices by servants (39.59%) and reduction of sharp /needle prick injury (8.33%) after training. Conclusion: Conduction of training workshops on BMW management for Hospital staff by Infection Control Committee has shown promising results in practicing BMW management. This study recommends periodic training workshop on BMW to reinforce and update knowledge of hospital staff for proper implementation of BMW Act.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>biomedical waste, practice, awareness, evaluation.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Biomedical Waste (BMW) is waste generated during diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals, or in research activities pertaining thereto, or in the production and testing of biological ,and is contaminated with human fluids.(1) World Health Organization 1999 report (2) on health care waste composition in Asian countries reported that India generates 0.33 million ton biomedical waste per year, mounting to 1-2 kg per day per bed. The BMW, if not attended properly, amounts to hazard not only to the health personnel in the hospital but also to the patients which leads to an increase in per-capita expenditure in health care system. Though 75-80% of wastes generated from hospitals are noninfectious, 20-25% is hazardous. (3) It is a potential health hazard to health workers, public, flora and fauna of the area. (4) The Government of India has enacted the Bio-medical Waste - BMW (Management and Handling) Rules 1998,in July 1998 (5) under which it is mandatory for all hospitals and health care facilities to ensure that the bio-medical waste be handled and&#xA0;managed without any harm to the human health and the environment. Thus safe and effective management of waste is not only a legal necessity but also a social responsibility. Handling, segregation, mutilation, disinfection, storage, transportation and final disposal are vital steps for safe and scientific management of biomedical waste in any establishment. Biomedical waste should be segregated into containers / bags at the point of generation in accordance with schedule II of Biomedical Waste (management and handling) Rules 1998. The present study was conducted to evaluate Biomedical Waste Management practice at the largest tertiary care hospital (with more than 2000 beds) and to find out the change, if any, in practice of biomedical waste management after training. MATERIAL AND METHOD Civil Hospital, Ahmedabad is one of Asia&#x2019;s largest tertiary care institute having bed-capacity of more than 2000. There are more than 69 BMW management stations at various sites including wards, Operation Theatres (OTs), Laboratories ( labs ) &amp; Intensive Care Units ( ICUs ). This cross sectional interventional study was carried out at 48 randomly selected stations on 26th &amp; 27th March,2009 with permission from hospital authority. An identical pre- and post-training questionnaire was designed and handed over to the volunteers of National Service Scheme (N.S.S.). The questionnaire was based on the guidelines developed by Government of Gujarat for Bio Medical Waste Management. The N.S.S volunteers were trained to conduct various aspects of the survey. These volunteers visited each ward, Operation theatre (OT), Intensive Care Unit (ICU) &amp; laboratory (lab) that was allotted to them and filled up the requisite details in the pre-training proforma. Hospital had arranged training sessions for nursing staff and servants/sweepers associated with biomedical wastes management and cleanliness work from March-April 2009 onwards. Training included knowledge about all aspects of biomedical waste with power point presentation and demonstration of waste segregation in different begs, preparation of disinfectants, personal protective devices, prophylactive vaccination etc by infection control team. A posttraining study was carried out on 13th and 14th November 2009. The collected information was compiled in Microsoft excel and analyzed with the help of Epi Info software.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Table -1 shows that out of 48 BMW station, 42 (87.5%) had color coded bins and bags placed as per guidelines before training which was 46 (95.83%) after training, means 8.33% gain. Biomedical waste was segregated as per color coding of bag at the place of origin at 40 ( 83.33% ) BMW stations before training which was 45 ( 91.67%) after training meaning 10.42% gain. The over flown bags (more than 3/4th full) were found at 18 (37.5%) BMW stations before training which was 9 (18.75%) after training means 18.75% gain. Sodium hypochlorite solution was prepared as per the guideline at 47 (97.92%) BMW stations after training means 6.25% gain. Before training at 37(77.08%) BMW stations personal protective devices were available as compared to 47(97.92%) BMW stations after training meaning 20.84% gain.&#xD;
&#xD;
Table -2 shows that out of 48 BMW stations, 26(54.17.5%) were in different wards and 22 (45.83%) were in operation theaters, Intensive Care Units and in Laboratories. Biomedical waste was segregated as per color coding of bag at the place of its origin at 23( 88.46% ) wards BMW stations and 17 (77.27%) O.T./ I.C.U./Lab. BMW Stations before training which was 24(92.31%) for ward BMW stations 21(95.46%) for O.T./I.C.U./ Lab. BMW station after training. Over flown bags was reduced from 9 (34.62%) to 6 (23.08%) BMW stations at wards and 9 (40.91%) to 3 (13.64%) BMW stations at O.T./I.C.U./Lab. after training. Availability of personal protective devices increased from 18 (69.23%) to 25 (96.15%) at ward BMW stations and 19(86.37%) to 22(100%) at O.T./ I.C.U./Lab. BMW Stations after training.&#xD;
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&#xD;
&#xD;
Table-3 shows that out of 48 BMW stations,sharp injury / needle prick within last seven days were reported in 6 (12.5%) BMW stations before training which was reported at 2 (4.17%) BMW stations after training means 8.33% gain.The utilization of personal protective devices in staff nurses and servants were 45 (93.75%) and 23 (47.91%) respectively before training which was 45 (93.75%) and 42 (87.5%) in same health professionals after training meaning 39.59% gain in servants after training. Hepatitis B vaccination in staff nurses was completed in 15 (31.25%) BMW stations before training which was rose to 48 (100%) after training means 68.75%gain.The same figure in servants were 8 (16.67%) before training and 45 (93.75%) after training mean 77.08% gain.&#xD;
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&#xD;
Table-4 shows that utilization of personal protective devices in servants has increased more at wards than at O.T./I.C.U./Lab after training, from 10(38.46%) to 23(88.46%) at ward BMW stations and from 13(59.09%) to 19(86.36%) at O.T./I.C.U./Lab BMW stations. Similarly servant vaccination was completed from 2(7.69%) to 23(88.46%) at wards BMW stations and 6(27.27%) to 22(100%) at O.T./I.C.U./Lab BMW stations.&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
Public hospitals in developing countries have sanitary inspectors and other staff for biomedical waste management, but due to lack of periodic training, waste management is not up to the mark. The results of this interventional study highlighted that the practice of BMW management was satisfactory at most of the BMW stations which is in agreement with the study of Yadavannavar et al (6). In our study segregation of waste improved from 83% to 93% at BMW stations after training. Shahida Rasheed et al (7) in her study reported that only 25% hospitals were segregating waste at source. In our study, over flown bags were reduced to 18.7% from 37.5% at BMW stations after training. This may be due to eagerness of the staff to follow what they have learnt from the training. Needle and syringe cutters were present at 95% of BMW stations. Mathew et al (8) reported 59% availability of needle and syringe cutters in his study. Rao(9) reported 70% of the healthcare facilities used a needle cutter/destroyer for sharps management. This is an issue of material management. In our study sharp / needle prick injury was reduced from 12.5% to 4.17% after training. Sharma S. (10) in her study reported that 10.00% waste handlers suffered with injury/puncture/ infection in the past six months but no one reported to higher authorities. Practices of BMW management were stricter at operation theatres, I.C.U. and laboratories in compared to wards. Saini S. et al (11) also reported similar finding and attributed it to strict instructions by authorities and fear for punitive actions. It was observed that fear coupled with awareness about the risk could be responsible for positive attitude of staff located at these places. There was considerable gain in availability of personal protective devices (20.84%),reduction of over flown bags (18.75%) and availability of bags (8.33%) after training, Ideally BMW items should be included in the essential stock items in the Hospital and provided on demand immediately without loss of time. Regarding manpower, there was increased in staff vaccination(68.75% - 77.08%) and awareness about post exposure prophylaxis (12.50%). Not only that there was improvement in use of personal protective devices by servants (39.59%) and reduction of sharp /needle prick injury (8.33%) after training. Sharma S. in her study reported that 41.43% of waste handlers/sweepers were aware of the risk involved in bio-medical waste handling, none received any special training on this topic. When health care providers are specifically protected against tetanus, hepatitis-B etc by vaccination coupled risk reduction by utilization of personal protection devices, hospitals will become good heaven for them.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCULSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS &#xD;
Most of the BMW stations were compliant to the BMW management guidelines to a satisfactory level. Conduction of training workshops on BMW management for hospital staff by Infection Control Committee has shown promising results in practicing BMW management. The level of Hepatitis B vaccination amongst the nursing staff and class IV servants has also improved drastically. This study recommends periodic training workshop on BMW to reinforce and update knowledge of hospital employees on the subject and motivate them to comply with the rules and guidelines regarding BMW management. Ideally it should be the part of induction training for each novice. For old hands, this should be&#xA0;carried out periodically before or after the completion of their shift without affecting hospital work. Regular supervision by hospital administrators and members of Infection control committee coupled feedback (positive or negative) can help in proper implementation of BMW Act.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
The authors would like to thank the Superintendent of Civil Hospital, Ahmedabad and the Dean of B. J. Medical College, Ahmadabad for providing necessary guidance and support to conduct and complete this study. Thanks are also due to the volunteers of National Services Scheme (N.S.S.) unit for their help. The authors would also like to extend gratitude towards the nursing staff, servants and other hospital staff for having been helpful in the study. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in reference of the manuscript. The authors are grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1670</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1670</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Das SK, Sushant P, Jayaram K : A TQM approach to implementation of handling and management of hospital waste in Tata Main Hospital;Issued by Hospital Waste Manamgement Committee,T.M.H.2001;11- 12(1-2): 75-78.)&#xD;
&#xD;
2. WHO factsheet No-253, waste from health care activities, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs 253/en&#xD;
&#xD;
3. Pruss A, Circouit E, Rushbrook P : Safe management of waste from health care activities; WHO 1999; pp. 2&#xD;
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4. Hem Chandra : Hospital Waste &#x2013; An environmental hazard and its management. Newsletter ISEB 1999; 5 (3)&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Notification on Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998; The Gazette of India, published by Authority, New Delhi; July 1998)&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Yadavannavar MC, Berad AS, Jagirdar PB. Biomedical waste management: A study of knowledge, attitude, and practices in a tertiary health care institution in Bijapur. Indian J Community Med 2010;35:170-1&#xD;
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7. Shahida Rasheed, Saira Iqbal, Lubna A. Baig, Kehkashan Mufti; Hospital Waste Management in theTeaching Hospitals of Karachi.JPMA 55:192;2005.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Savan Sara Mathew, A. I. Benjamin, Paramita Sengupta; Assessment of biomedical waste management practices in a tertiary care teaching hospital in Ludhiana . h e a l t h l i n e,2(2) : 28-30&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Rao P.H.: Hospital Waste Management System- A case study of a south India city.Waste Magag Res.May 26(2009) http://Pubmed .com&#xD;
&#xD;
10. Shalini Sharma; Awareness about BioMedical Waste Management among Health Care Personnel of Some Important Medical Centers in Agra. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 1(3) : 251-55&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Saini S., Nagrajan S.S.,Sharma R.K; Knowdelge,attitude and practices of biomedical waste management amongst staff of a tertiary level hospital in India. 17(2): 1-12&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>THIRD OCCIPITAL CONDYLE ON THE ANTERIOR MARGIN OF FORAMEN MAGNUM - A CASE REPORT&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>165</FirstPage><LastPage>167</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Jayanthi V. </Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Lakshmi Kantha B.M.</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Shailaja Shetty</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Amar Singh</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Our cranium and vertebral column are connected through a paired bony structure present on the inferior surface of the skull called the occipital condyles. Their anatomical variations are important to clinicians and surgeons planning interventions around craniovertebral junction. Our study report a large tubercle (third occipital condyle) at the anterior margin of foramen magnum in a adult skull which presented an articular antero-posterior facet on the inferior surface and foramen with canal extending from anterior to posterior surface. Its evolution, morphology, and development have been discussed in background of available literature.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Skull, bone, condyle, anatomy, cadaver.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Abnormalities of the craniovertebral junction are of great interest not only to anatomist but also to the clinicians, as many of these malformations can produce neurological symptoms and death.1-3 In a series of 600 skulls, some suggestions of craniovertebral malformations including third condyle were present in 14%.4 Out of 422 skulls that were examined three skulls showed a large projection at the anterior margin of foramen magnum which was directed posteriorly with a proximal broad base.5 Romanes commented that the small bony tubercle on the anterior margin of the foramen magnum indicates the position of the apical ligament of dens.6 Basmajian has also described the presence of third condyle that projects at the anterior margin of foramen magnum.7 In our study we report a case of third condyle projecting in front of the anterior margin of foramen magnum.&#xD;
&#xD;
Case Description &#xD;
During routine study of bones available in the department of Anatomy, we observed a skull presenting a huge tubercle at the anterior margin of foramen magnum (Figure -1). It showed the following measurements: antero-posterior length1.5cms, maximum transverse length-2cms and height-1cm. It presented an articular anteroposterior facet on the inferior surface and foramen with canal extending from anterior to posterior surface.INTRODUCTION Abnormalities of the craniovertebral junction are of great interest not only to anatomist but also to the clinicians, as many of these malformations can produce neurological symptoms and death.1-3 In a series of 600 skulls, some suggestions of craniovertebral malformations including third condyle were present in 14%.4 Out of 422 skulls that were examined three skulls showed a large projection at the anterior margin of foramen magnum which was directed posteriorly with a proximal broad base.5 Romanes commented that the small bony tubercle on the anterior margin of the foramen magnum indicates the position of the apical ligament of dens.6 Basmajian has also described the presence of third condyle that projects at the anterior margin of foramen magnum.7 In our study we report a case of third condyle projecting in front of the anterior margin of foramen magnum. Case Description During routine study of bones available in the department of Anatomy, we observed a skull presenting a huge tubercle at the anterior margin of foramen magnum (Figure -1). It showed the following measurements: antero-posterior length1.5cms, maximum transverse length-2cms and height-1cm. It presented an articular anteroposterior facet on the inferior surface and foramen with canal extending from anterior to posterior surface.&#xD;
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&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
Most of the time manifestations of the occipital vertebra have no clinical significance. There are rare exceptions that the third occipital condyle when well developed may limit the mobility of the head.8 The occipital vertebra is a rare manifestation which although known to anatomist is not very familiar to radiologists. Roentgen examination of the craniovertebral junction in a consecutive series of 4,000 patients has revealed manifestations of the occipital vertebra in 19 cases.The most common manifestations of these are the third condyle. Failure of the distal occipitoblast to fuse will cause abnormal bone formation on the external surface of the skull around the occipital foramen. This phenomenon is called the manifestation of the occipital vertebra.8 Brocher believes that it corresponds to the occipital vertebra.9 The primitive triple condyle of the occipital has all these limits of equal size that is the bassiocciput with a ventral median condyle nearly circular and the lateral condyle with lateral condyles situated dorsally on each side. This has been followed either by preponderance of the lateral unit as in amphibia or the gradual enlargement of the median unit combined with the recession of the lateral areas until the single condyle of the birds is reached. In mammals the large paired lateral condyles are the prominent feature and the bassioccipital has been withdrawn from the odontoid.10 Anomalous condyles tertius is not extremely rare in specimen of the genus mesolodon; as it has been found in the skulls of four different species of mesolodon.11 Enlarged median or paramedian bony masses ventral to the foramen form a pseudojoint with an apical segment of the odontoid process or anterior arch of the atlas therby affecting the kinetic anatomy and integrity of the atlantooccipital articulations.12 Assimilation of various vertebrae into the occipital segments of the skull is responsible for the variable morphology of the&#xA0;craniovertebral region among vertebrates. A partial liberation of the vertebral elements which normally enter in to the correspondence of the basiocciput results in an occipital vertebra.13 A transient mesenchymal hypochondrial bridge of the occipital vertebra along the anterior margin of foramen magnum between the occipital condyles was observed in human embryos of 12.5-21.0mm crown rump length which was completely absent by the 80mm crown rump length.13 Failure of complete disappearance of the hypochondrial bridge during development may manifest as osseous formation in this craniocervical transition region.13 There includes the third condyle.13 Precondylar tubercles are ventral rudiments of the occipital vertebra. A single midline or bilateral faceted tuberosities are documented as the presentations of this tubercles.13&#xD;
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1671</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1671</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Kotil.K, Kawasaki M. Ventral cervicomedullary junction compression secondary to candyfloss occipitalis (median occipital condyle), a rare entity. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2005; 18: 382-384.&#xD;
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2. Prasada Rao PVV. Median (third) occipital condyle: case report Clin Anat. 2002; 15: 148- 151.&#xD;
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3. Ludinghausen M, Schindler G, Kageyama I, Pomaroli A. The third occipital condyle; a constituent part of a median occipito atlanto odontoid joint; a case report. Surg Radiol Anat. 2002; 24: 71-76.&#xD;
&#xD;
4. Lang J. Clinical Anatomy of the head. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 1983.&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Lakhtakia PK, Premsagar JC, Bisaria KK, Bisaria SD. A tubercle at the anterior margin of the foramen magnum. J Anat. 1991; 177: 209-210.&#xD;
&#xD;
6. Romanes GJ. Cunningham&#x2019;s text book of anatomy.10th ed. London: Oxford journals; 1964. p.136.&#xD;
&#xD;
7. Basmahan JV. Grants method of Anatomy. 8th ed. Calcutta Scientific book agency. 1972. p 651.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. Lombardi G. The occipital Vertebra. 1961 (August), 86(2): 260-9.&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Brocher JEW. Die Occipital-Cervical Gigged. Georg. Thymes, Stuttgart, 1955.&#xD;
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10. Das S, Suri R, Kapur V. Unusual Occipital condyles of the skull; an osteological study with clinical implications. Saw Paulo med J. 2006;124:278-9&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Robson FD, van Bree PJH. On the presence of a condylus tertius in specimens of the beaked whale species mesoplodon layardii and mesoplodon grayi. Tuatara. 1972 (May); 19 (2).&#xD;
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12. Figueiredo N, Moraes LB, A Serra ,S Castelo, Gonsales D, Medeirors RR. Median (third) occipital condyle causing atlantoaxial instability and myelopathy. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2008; 66: 90-92.&#xD;
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13. Vasudeva N, Choudhary R. Precondylar tubercles on the basiocciput of adult human skulls. J Anat.1996; 188: 207-1&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>HAND GRIP STRENGTH IN PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>168</FirstPage><LastPage>173</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Almas Sirguroh</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Shakeel Ahmed</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Purpose: Skeletal muscle dysfunction is common morbidity in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with quadriceps muscle being the most severely affected and hence most research focuses on the changes occurring in the thigh muscles. Consequently not much is known about involvement of other muscles especially the ones in the arm, forearm and the hand. Hence this study aims determine whether hand grip strength is affected in patients with COPD and whether it has any correlation with patients peak expiratory flow rate(PEFR) and body mass index(BMI). Methodology: 30 patients with COPD and 30 healthy age matched controls were selected. PEFR, hand grip strength and BMI were evaluated. Results: A poor non-significant correlation was found between PEFR and hand grip strength (r =-0.153) and between BMI and hand grip strength (r = -0.179) in patients with COPD. But hand grip strength was significantly lower in patients with COPD (17.4 +/- 4.49 kg force) compared to that in controls (28.43 +/- 8.35 kg force) (p =0.00). Similarly COPD patients had significantly lesser BMI (19.08+/- 4.08 kg/m2) compared to the controls (27.67+/- 4.15 kg/m2) (p =0.00). Conclusion: Hand grip strength is reduced in patients with COPD but does not correlate with severity of obstruction as measured by PEFR or with BMI.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords/><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a major cause of health concern worldwide and one of the leading causes of death that is increasing in prevalence1. Prevalence of COPD is very high in India. In a study done across various centers where a total population of 35295 individuals was assessed, the prevalence was found to be 4.1%2. Along with impairments such as dyspnea, increased work of breathing, decreased efficiency of muscles of inspiration, COPD is also associated with various local and systemic complications including cachexia, weight loss, osteoporosis, skeletal muscle dysfunction, cardiac failure, atherosclerosis, dementia and depression3,4. A major reason for morbidities and mortality seen in patients with COPD are these extra pulmonary manifestations. Out of the above mentioned manifestations, skeletal muscle dysfunction is the most predominant complication contributing to early onset of fatigue and exercise intolerance. The consequences of exercise intolerance include increased difficulty in performing activities of daily living and difficulty participating in everyday events5 . Changes observed in the skeletal muscles include reductions in type I fibers, atrophy of type I and II fibers, reduced capillarity density, and altered metabolic enzymelevels3,4 . Various factors have been identified as contributing to skeletal muscle changes, which include hypoxia, hypercapnia, inflammation, nutrition, deconditioning, and steroid-induced myopathy5 . This systemic manifestation of muscle dysfunction is most commonly observed in large muscles,&#xA0;especially the quadriceps and the current literature suggests that quadriceps weakness is found in about 32% - 43% patients suffering from COPD7 . Most of the research focuses on changes occurring in the quadriceps and very less emphasis has been given to investigate changes occurring in other peripheral muscles especially the muscles of the upper extremity especially wrist and intrinsic muscles of the hand. Hence this study is aimed at determining whether hand grip strength is affected in patients suffering from COPD and whether the severity of airway obstruction correlates with the hand grip strength.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
This was a case control study with a sample size of 60 which included 30 patients suffering from COPD and 30 age matched controls selected. Cases of the study were patients suffering from Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) admitted in the respiratory medicine ward of Sassoon General Hospital, Pune. Ethical clearance to conduct the study was obtained and subjects were recruited using convenience sampling. The Controls were also selected by convenience sampling and matched using individual matching. Patients and controls of both genders were included. In the group of COPD Patients, patients requiring supplemental oxygen or mechanical ventilatory support, Patients in acute exacerbation of COPD, patients with history of inflammatory joint disease affecting the dominant upper limb, neurological disorders affecting the upper extremities, History of fracture of the dominant upper limb, History of pain radiating from neck to fingers of dominant upper extremity and history of diabetes mellitus were excluded. Similarly, in the control group, individuals, with known history of respiratory disease, history of diabetes mellitus, history of trauma to the dominant upper limb and individuals with a history of neurological disorders affecting the upper limb were excluded. Outcome Measures 1. Hand Grip strength in Kg force 2. Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR) in liters/min 3. Body Mass Index (BMI) in Kg/m2 Procedure Prior to evaluation, each Subject&#x2019;s written Informed Consent to participate in the study was obtained. Patient&#x2019;s weight and height were checked. The PEFR of COPD patients was measured using a Wright&#x2019;s Peak flow meter as per the guidelines prescribed by the American Thoracic Society8 . Hand grip strength was measured in all sixty subjects using a Jamar Hand held dynamometer. Prior to testing, the procedure was explained to the subjects followed by a demonstration of the technique. Grip strength of the dominant hand was evaluated. The Subjects were asked to sit on a chair with the back erect, with feet flat on the floor and were asked to look forward. The dynamometer was secured to the patient&#x2019;s hand using a wrist strap. The test position had the subjects placing their arms by their side with elbow flexed to 90 degrees, forearm in mid prone and the wrist in neutral position. The Subjects were asked to hold the dynamometer in the hand and were instructed to attempt squeezing with maximal effort following which the hand grip in Kg force was noted down. Subjects were instructed to maintain their position during testing and advised not to brace the arm against their side or recruit other muscle groups by flexing or extending the elbow beyond 90 degrees or move the arm and do any trick movements. Three trials were taken with a rest period of one minute between each trial and the best of the three values was used for data analysis.&#xD;
&#xD;
DATA ANALYSIS &#xD;
Data was analyzed using SPSS version 18. Pearson&#x2019;s correlation was used to correlate PEFR&#xA0;with hand grip strength and BMI with hand grip strength in patients with COPD. Paired T test was used to compare hand grip strength and BMI between patients with COPD and controls.&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS &#xD;
Descriptive statistics of COPD group and controls are given in table 1 and table 2.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
DISCUSSION &#xD;
In this study we found a very weak negative correlation between severity of airway obstruction as measured by PEFR and hand grip strength and between BMI and hand grip strength. The fact that muscles of the upper extremity are not subject to the effects of physical inactivity as demonstrated by earlier done research on muscles such as the deltoid, adductor pollicis which did not show biopsy changes found in quadriceps muscles3,9,10,11 supports the weak insignificant correlation between severity of the disease and outcomes like BMI and hand grip strength. Peripheral muscle dysfunction is probably the most extensively studied systemic effect of COPD with emphasis mainly on the involvement of the thigh muscles. Along with the structural changes in the muscles, physical inactivity is also found to play a role in augmenting the dysfunction. Though these changes have the most pronounced effects on the quadriceps, it has been found that even muscles of the upper extremity in patients with COPD demonstrate considerable weakness compared to the muscles of their healthy counterparts12. But muscles such as adductor pollicis, the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi which are recruited in almost every activity of daily living are not as weak as the inactive muscles, such as quadriceps &amp; vastus lateralis3,9,10,11,12 . Though hand grip evaluation is primarily an assessment of the muscles of the hand and the wrist, muscles of the shoulder girdle are recruited during the maneuver to stabilize the shoulder girdle 13,14.Hand grip was also found to be significantly reduced in patients with COPD. This is supported by the findings of Sarah Bernard et al, who found that muscles of the upper extremity in patients with COPD are weak compared to healthy individuals12 . BMI of COPD patients was significantly lesser compared to the controls. Patients with COPD often lose weight during the course of their disease. It is hypothesized that this may be due to skeletal muscle apoptosis15 .Loss of skeletal muscle mass is reflected by the reduction in fat-free mass (FFM) observed in 20&#x2013;40% of patients with COPD 15, 16, 17.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
We conclude that though hand grip strength is affected in patients with COPD, it does not correlate with severity of airway obstruction and body composition of the patients.&#xD;
&#xD;
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY&#xD;
The limitations of the study were that the controls were not selected by random sampling and outcomes assessing the strength and specific functions of the muscles of the upper extremity were not used.&#xD;
&#xD;
RECOMMENDATIONS &#xD;
Though hand grip strength did not correlate with airway obstruction in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, it was much weaker compared to that of healthy individuals. Hence on the basis of this study we recommend addition of hand grip strengthening exercises in pulmonary rehabilitation programs devised for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Authors would also like to thank the Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sassoon Hospital, Pune, for granting them permission to conduct this study in their premises and M.A Rangoonwala College of Physiotherapy and Research, Pune for providing access to their peak flow meter and hand held dynamometer.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1672</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1672</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Hurd S. The impact of COPD in lung health worldwide: Epidemiology and incidence. Chest 2000; 117: 1S-4S.&#xD;
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2. Jindal SK, Aggarwal AN, Chaudhry K, Chhabra SK,D&#x2019;Souza GA, Gupta D, et al. Asthma Epidemiology Study Group. A multi centric study on epidemiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and its relationship with tobacco smoking and environmental tobacco smoke exposure. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci 2006; 48: 23-7.&#xD;
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3. P.J. Barnesand B.R. Celli Systemic manifestations and co morbidities of COPD,Eur Respir J 2009; 33: 1165&#x2013;1185&#xD;
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4. M Jeffery Mador and Erkan Bozkanat Skeletal muscle dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Respir Res 2001, 2:216&#x2013;224&#xD;
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5. Gosselink R, Troosters T, Decramer M. Exercise training in COPD patients: the basic questions. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:2884&#x2013;2891&#xD;
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6. C. Coronel, M. Orozco-Levi, R. Mendez, A. Ramirez-Sarmiento, J.B. Galdiz,J. Gea; Relevance of assessing quadriceps endurance in patients with COPD. Eur Respir J 2004; 24: 129&#x2013;136&#xD;
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7. J.M. Seymour, M.A. Spruit, N.S. Hopkinson, S.A. Natanek. The prevalence of quadriceps weakness in COPD and the relationship with disease Severity. Eur Respir J 2010; 36: 81&#x2013; 88&#xD;
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8. M.R. Miller, J. Hankinson, V. Brusasco, F. Burgos, R. Casaburi, A. Coates,et al, Standardisation of spirometry, Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 319&#x2013;338&#xD;
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9. W D-C Man, N S Hopkinson, F Harraf, D Nikoletou, M I Polkey, J Moxham: Abdominal muscle and quadriceps strength in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2005; 60:718&#x2013;722&#xD;
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10. W D C Man, M G G Soliman, D Nikoletou, M L Harris, G F Rafferty, N Mustfa, M I Polkey,J Moxham. Non Volitional assessment of skeletal muscle strength in patients with COPD. Thorax 2003; 58:665-666&#xD;
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11. Gea JG, Pasto M, Carmona MA, Orozco-Levi M Palomeque J, Broquetas J.Metabolic characteristics of the deltoid muscle in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2001; 17: 939&#x2013;945&#xD;
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12. Sarah Bernard, Pierre le Blanc, Francois Whittom, Guy Carrier,Jean Jobin, Roger Belleau, Francois Maltais, Peripheral muscle weakness in patients with COPD, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158: 629 -634&#xD;
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13. Sporrong H Palmerud G, Herberts P. Hand grip increases shoulder muscle activity, An EMG analysis with static hand contractions in 9 subjects. Acta Orthop Scand 1996 Oct; 67(5):485-90&#xD;
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14. O.Alizadehkhaiyat, A.C. Fisher, G.J. Kemp, Karthik Vishwanathan, S.P. Frostick,Shoulder muscle activation and fatigue during a controlled forceful hand grip task Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology;21(3):478-482, June 2011&#xD;
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15. Alvar G. N. Agust&#xED;, Jaume Sauleda, Cristina Miralles, Cristina Gomez Bernat Togores, Ernest Sala, Santiago Batle,and Xavier Busquets. Skeletal Muscle Apoptosis and Weight Loss in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary DiseaseAm J Respir Crit Care Med Vol 166. pp 485&#x2013;489, 2002&#xD;
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16. Schols AMWJ, Soeters PB, Dingemans AMC, Mostert R,Frantzen PJ, Wouters EFMPrevalence and characteristic of nutritional depletion in patients with stable COPD eligible for pulmonary rehabilitation. Am Rev Respir Dis1993; 147: 1151&#x2013;1156.&#xD;
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17. P.J. Barnes and B.R. Celli Systemic manifestations and co morbidities of COPDEur Respir J 2009; 33:1165&#x2013;1168.&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>MORBIDITY PROFILE AND HEALTH SEEKING BEHAVIOUR OF THE ELDERLY IN URBAN SLUMS OF HYDERABAD, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA - A CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>174</FirstPage><LastPage>180</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Vimala Thomas</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Lavanya.K.M</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Muraleedhar</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Background: Elderly or old age consists of ages nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings. Population ageing is becoming a major concern both in the developed and developing countries. With increase in the aged population, the number of elderly with ailments is also on the rise. The objective of this study is to determine the socio-demographic characteristics of the elderly population, to identify their morbidity profile and to assess their health seeking behavior. Methodology: A community based cross sectional study of 216 subjects over 60 years old from three slums in the urban field practice area of Osmania Medical College (Amberpet, Golnaka, Zinda Tilismaath nagar) was carried out. Results: Of the total sample of 216 elderly persons, 84(38.9%) were males and 132 (61.1%) were females. Among females, 29.8 % and among males 4.7 % were illiterate. Around 43.5% of the elderly were not in any occupation and majority (75%) of them lived in joint families. The most prevalent morbidity was hypertension (46.9%) followed by Arthritis (30.2%), Diabetes (26.5%), Respiratory problem (24.3%) and Cataract (21%). Majority of the elderly went to private clinics for their treatment. Conclusions: The study has highlighted a high prevalence of morbidity among the elderly. As there is a rapid increase in the number of elderly population, there is an urgent need to develop affordable and accessible geriatric health care services.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Morbidity, Health seeking behavior, Elderly, Urban slums, India.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Ageing being a natural process affects each one of us. Discoveries in medical science and improved social conditions during past few decades have increased the lifespan of man. The expectation of life at birth in developed countries is over 70 years. The age structure of the population in the developed countries has so evolved that the number of elderly people is continually on the rise. These trends are appearing in many countries including India. In the year 2002, there were an estimated 605 million old persons in the world, of which 400 million were living in low income countries.1 By the year 2025, the number of elderly people is expected to rise to more than 1.2 billion with 840 million in low-income countries.1 In India, although the percentage of aged persons to the total population is low in comparison to the developed countries, nevertheless, the absolute number of aged population is considerable. According to the NSSO survey for 2007-08, the elderly population aged above 60 years account for 7.5 percent of the total population .2 Health status is an important factor which has a significant impact on the quality of life. Many health problems are known to increase with age. Discrimination in older age plays a vital role in the&#xA0;lowered health status among the elderly people. There are very few studies in India that provide information on the morbidity profile and also the health seeking behavior of the elderly people living in the urban slums. Hence a sincere attempt is made to reveal the same. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the socio-demographic characteristics of the elderly population in the study area. 2. To identify the morbidity profile of elderly population. 3. To assess the health seeking behavior of elderly population MATERIAL AND METHODS It is a Community based Cross-sectional study. The list of slums was obtained from the Urban Health Centre located in the field practice area of Osmania Medical College. Three slums (Amberpet, Golnaka, Zinda Tilismaath nagar) were randomly selected. The total number of households in all the three slums was 684, each having an average family size of five. Data could be collected from 646 households, the rest being locked at the time of visit. All adults above 60 years age who consented to participate in the study were included. There were 240 (7.4%) persons aged 60 years and above, of whom, 216 (84 males and 132 females) could be contacted. The remaining 24 were either non-co-operative or could not be contacted despite making sincere efforts. Each individual in the study was subjected to personal interview and clinical examination. All the participants were informed about the purpose of the study in the language they could understand and consent was taken from them. The study was carried out over a period of six months from October 2011 to March 2012. A detailed questionnaire containing the demographic profile, socioeconomic data, health status and health seeking behavior was used to collect data by face to face interview. Data was collected from 216 elderly individuals. Physical examination and anthropometric measurement was done. Blood pressure was recorded in sitting position with a mercury sphygmomanometer according to standard guidelines. Average of the three readings five minutes apart was taken. If any-one reading was abnormal, one another reading was taken after ten minutes of rest. Statistical Analysis: Data was entered into an excel spreadsheet and double checked for errors. It was analyzed using Epi-info version 3.5.3. Pearson&#x2019;s chi-square test was applied to test the relationship of categorized independent and dependent variables. A ???? value (significance) of 0.05). In our study, 29.8 % of females and only 4.7 % of males were illiterate. Among literate females, maximum (54.2%) had primary school education while among literate males; majority (48.8%) had secondary school education. With regards to occupation, 43.5% of the elderly were not in any occupation. A higher percent of females (62.4%) were unoccupied compared to males (14.3%) and this difference was statistically significant (P 0.5). (Table 2 a and 2 b) Among our elderly, 22.7% were overweight (22.6% males and 22.7% females) while 4.5% were obese (3.6% males and 5.3% females), as per BMI classification. Mean BMI of male and female elderly was 22.1 and 24.2 respectively which was statistically not significant (P&gt;0.05). (Table 3) To a question on how the elderly rate their health, majority (56.8%) perceived their health status to be moderate, but 24.1% felt that it was bad and 19.1% felt it was good. Treatment after diagnosis: While it is heartening to note that for most of the diseases more than 90% were treated for their ailments, but for depression hardly 25% were taking treatment. For cataract, still around 30% need eye surgery (Table 4) Habits: In this study, nearly three fourths of the elderly have neither smoked nor chewed tobacco. Alcohol was consumed whether present or past by 34% of the elderly. (Table 5) Majority (79%) of the elderly consumed fruits less than 3 days/week while only 6.8% consumed more than 3 days/week and 14.2 % never consumed fruits at all. Vegetables were taken more than thrice a week by 56.8 % of the elderly. Regarding physical activity, 52.5% of the elderly were sedentary, 43.8% had moderate physical activity and 3.7% were involved in heavy physical activity. Health seeking behavior: Elderly who had at least one hospital/clinic visit in the last one year were 71.6%, of whom 83.6% were accompanied by at least one family member. For out-patient care, 47.2% visited private sectors, 30.3% Government facility, 2.5% RMP and 0.6% Ayush clinics. For in-patient treatment, 19.8% went to private institutions, 16 % went to Government institutions while 64.2% did not go to either. DISCUSSION The present study was undertaken to identify the socio-demographic profile and to assess the various health problems and treatment seeking behavior among the elderly residing in the urban slums of Hyderabad. Out of the 216 elderly, majority were females (61.1%) as was also seen in a study done by Bhatia et. al3 where 57.8% of the elderly studied were females and also similar to a study done by Kishore and Garg where 55% of the elders were females.4 Any person having ability to read and write with an understanding of any language is defined as a literate in India. According to the present study, illiteracy among the elder female was 29.8% and 4.7% in elder males. The majority of female elders had completed only primary school education (54.2%) where as a majority of male elders had completed secondary school education (48.8%). Gurav and Kartikeyan in their study noted that 58.76% of males and 22.85% of female had taken education up to secondary level.5 In India, work area includes mostly the informal sector and there is no fixed age for retirement. Although 43.5% of the elders were not occupied in the present study, a slightly higher percent 45.8% were involved in sedentary work and 10.6% in moderate work. This is similar to a study done by Rajshree J Bhatt et.al, which reported 52.3%&#xD;
&#xD;
elderly were not in any occupation and 39% were working but in a sedentary way.6 In the urban slums of our study, joint family system was still prevailing since majority (75%) of the elderly lived in joint families followed by extended joint families (15.7%).This is similar to the results of K. Sreenivasa Rao and K.C.M. Eswara Prasad, in urban slums of Tirupathi, in which majority of the elderly (75%) lived in a joint family.7 Srivastava and Mishra&#x2019;s in their study revealed that the majority of elderly were found living with their spouse and other member.8 Among the major social problems faced by the elderly, the first was the high levels of economic dependence on others, especially for women. The problems faced by women are more critical compared to that of men due to low literacy level and majority of women being not in labor force during their prime age and with only a very few being in the organized sector.2 In this study, only about 37% of the elderly were financially independent and the rest depended on their family members for financial support. About 40% of them were receiving old age pension. This is also as indicated by Gupta et al, based on the 1994-95 Human Development Indicator Survey data where about 76 percent of the women and 42 percent of the males were supported by their family.9 Regarding the presence of health problems in the geriatric population, it was found in the present study that the most prevalent problems of elders were Hypertension, Arthritis, Diabetes, Respiratory problems, Cataract, Chest pain, Stroke and Depression. The morbidity profile is similar to a study conducted by HM Swami et.al, in Chandigarh, where the most common diseases in order of their magnitude were Hypertension (58%) joint pains/arthritis (50.5%), Cataract (19.1%), gastritis (17.7%), deafness (13.5%) followed by Diabetes mellitus (12.2%).10 Similar findings were noted by Rahul P et. al in their study.11 With regard to the treatment received for their health problems, more than 90% were treated for most of the diseases but only about 25% were treated for depression. For cataract, still around 30% need eye surgery. This could be because of financial dependence on other members of their family for their basic health needs. Among our elderly 22.7% were overweight and 3.24% were obese, as per BMI classification.13 Mean BMI of males and females was 22.14 and 24.25 respectively which was statistically not significant (P&gt;0.05). This was similar to the findings of MK Sharma et.al 14 (21.27% elderly were overweight) and Rajshree Bhatt et.al where 21.7% of male and 28.5% of female elderly were overweight and the mean BMI of male and female was 22.8&#xB1;3.32 and 23.03&#xB1;3.97 respectively which was statistically not significant. 6 Nearly three fourths of the elderly have neither smoked nor chewed tobacco in the present study which is different from the results of Bala et.al, which revealed that in age group of 65 years or older, 64.73% were smokers and that snuffing was more common especially in women, illiterate and in those involved in household occupation.15 Alcohol was consumed, present or past by 34% of the elderly in our study as was also seen in studies done by Harshal T Pandve and Poonam Deshmukh in Pune 16 and Khokhar and Mehra in Delhi.17 The elderly respondents were asked about how they perceived their health status, majority (56.8%) felt that their health status was moderate but 24.1% felt that it was bad and 19.1% felt it was good. As far as treatment seeking behavior is concerned about 71.6% of the subjects had visited a hospital or clinic at least once either as an outpatient, inpatient or both, hence showing a concern of the elders towards their health. For outpatient treatment nearly half of them went to a private facility and a third went to a government run facility. Even for inpatient treatment a slightly higher percent went to a private facility compared to a Government one, the reason could be location and time convenience. These findings were however different from a study conducted by Harshal T Pandve and Poonam Deshmukh in&#xA0;Pune, where they found that the Government run health centers were more commonly utilized than private clinics.16&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSIONS &#xD;
The study among elderly in Hyderabad, India has highlighted a major proportion of the elderly were females, many were not in any occupation, partially or totally financially dependent on others and have one or more health related problems. A high prevalence of morbidity and common existing medical problems like hypertension, arthritis, diabetes mellitus, cataract, cancer, deafness were identified. For treatment services, majority visited the private sectors. As there is a rapid expansion in number of elderly population, there is an urgent need to develop good quality geriatric health care services and provide training to health care providers to manage the commonly existing health problems in the country. Financial assistance and insurance schemes need to be provided for economic independence and better utilization of healthcare services.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS &#xD;
The authors wish to thank the elderly who participated willingly in this study. Authors acknowledge the help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript.The authors are also grateful to the authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1673</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1673</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Health Action (2004), Eldercare, Feb.2004, Vol. 17, No.2. 2. The Situational Analysis of the Elderly in India. Central Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India (June 2011) 3. Bhatia SPS, Swami H M, Thakur J S, Bhatia V. A study of health problem and loneliness among elderly in Chandigarh. Indian Journal of Community Medicine 2007; 32 (4): 255-58. 4. Kishore .S, Garg B S. Socio-medical problems of aged population in a rural area of Wardha District, Indian Journal of Public Health 1997; 41(2): 43-48. 5. Gurav R V, Kartikeyan S. Problem of Geriatric population in urban area, Kalwa Thane. Bombay Hospital Journals 2002 Jan; 44 (1): 47-51. 6. Rajshree Bhatt, Minal S Gadhvi, K N Sonaliya, Anand Solanki, Himanshu Nayak. An Epidemiological study of the morbidity pattern among the elderly population in Ahmedabad, Gujarat. National Journal of Community Medicine, 2011; 2(2): 233-236 7. K. Sreenivasa Rao, K.C.M. Eswara Prasad. Condition of Older Persons Living in Slum in Tirupati, Helpage India&#x2013;Research and Development Journal October 2009 Vol 15 No. 3; 20-27 8. Srivastava H C, Mishra N R. Living arrangement and morbidity pattern among elderly in rural India. International Institute for population science Mumbai 2005: 1-7. 9. Gupta, I., P. Dasgupta, and M. Sawhney. 2001. Health of the Elderly in India: Some Aspects of Vulnerability. Discussion paper series No 26. Delhi, India: Institute of Economic Growth. 10. HM Swami, Vikas Bhatia, Rekha Dutt, SPS Bhatia. A Community Based Study of the Morbidity Profile among the Elderly in Chandigarh, India - Bahrain Medical Bulletin,2002; 24(1) : 13-16 11. Rahul P, Chaudary S K, Singh V S. A study of Morbidity pattern among geriatric population in an urban area of Udiapur Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Community Medicine 2004; 29 (1): 35-40. 12. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure U.S. Department of Health and&#xA0;Human Services, National Institutes of Health. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute National High Blood Pressure Education Program, NIH Publication No. 04-5230, August 2004. 13. Joshi P. P Integrated Disease Surveillance Project Training Manual for field workers and field supervisors BMI, Waist to Hip ratio. WHO surveillance Handouts The GOI- WHO collaborative Programme : 04-05. 14. M K Sharma, H M Swami, V Bhatia, A Verma, S P S Bhatia, G Kaur. An Epidemiological study of correlates of osteoarthritis in geriatric population of UT Chandigarh. Indian Journal of Community Medicine 2007 ; 32(1): 77-78 15. Bala DV, Bodiwala I, Patel DD, Shah PM, Epidemiological determinants of Tobacco use in Gujarat state. Indian Journal of Community Medicine 2006; 31(3): 173-76. 16. Harshal T Pandve, Poonam Deshmukh. Health Survey among Elderly Population Residing in an Urban Slum of Pune City. Journal of The Indian Academy of Geriatrics, 2010 ; 6 (1): 5- 8 17. Khokhar A, Mehra M. Life style and morbidity profile of geriatric population in an urban community of Delhi. Indian J Med Sci 2001; 55: 609-615.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>BASIC FACTS OF FIRE - A FORENSIC REVIEW&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>181</FirstPage><LastPage>191</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Pragnesh Parmar</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Gunvanti B. Rathod</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Fire is a complex chemical process and one of the most common causes of loss of property and life. Forensic investigator must understand the basic chemistry and physics of fire to know the exact origin and cause of it. The diffusion flame process consists of three basic elements: fuel, oxygen and heat. The six elements of the life cycle of fire are described by Dawson Powell in The Mechanics of Fire. These elements are input heat, fuel, oxygen, proportioning, mixing, and ignition continuity. All fires produce combustion products. Combustion products fall into four categories: heat, gases, flame, and smoke. A fire in a room or defined space generally will progress through three predictable developmental stages. In order to determine the origin and cause of a fire properly, the investigator must be able to interpret the effects of these stages correctly during the examination of the fire scene. In this paper, I discussed about the life cycle of fire, effect of various fire gases, flame colour, flame types and room fire sequence to provide a scientific basis for determination of origin and cause of fire for investigator.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Life cycle of fire, Fatality of fire gases, Stages of room fire, Forensic investigator, Flame colour and temperature.</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Fire is a complex chemical process and forensic investigators must understand the basic chemical and physical facts of fire behaviour to enable them to formulate opinions based on scientific principles. Sometimes not being able to explain the technical aspects of fire behaviour may prevent an investigator from qualifying as an expert witness in the court of law. Defense lawyer can easily use questions about the chemical and physical elements of fire to effectively discredit a forensic investigator. In such circumstances, basic chemical and physical facts of fire are very useful for forensic investigators in the court of law. Fire (Diffusion Flame Process) Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition. The diffusion flame process (fire) consists of three basic elements: fuel, oxygen and heat. The diffusion flame process is defined by Richard Tuve in the Principles of Fire Protection Chemistry as "a rapid self-sustaining oxidation process, accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of varying intensities." [1] Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems across the globe. The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. Fire has been used by humans for cooking, generating heat, propulsion purposes and signalling. The negative effects of fire include atmospheric pollution, water contamination, soil erosion and hazard to human and animal life. [2]&#xD;
&#xD;
Fires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen rich compound, is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. Some fuel may require a catalyst, a substance that is not directly involved in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily. Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. For example, in case of stovetop burner, fire can be extinguished by turning off the gas supply, covering the flame completely, application of water and application of a retardant chemical such as Halon to the flame. [2] Life cycle of fire Dawson Powell in The Mechanics of Fire described 6 basic elements of life cycle of fire. These elements are input heat, fuel, oxygen, proportioning and mixing along with ignition continuity. Both the initiation and continuation of the burning process requires all of these elements. Fire triangle includes first three elements - input heat, fuel, and oxygen, which are familiar to all forensic investigators. [3] Input Heat Vapors are produced by heating of solid and liquid materials, which are actually responsible for burning process. Flashpoint of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form an ignitable mixture in air. Flame point is the temperature at which the fuel will continue to produce sufficient vapors to sustain a continuous flame which is a few degrees above the flash point. Ignition temperature is the temperature at which the vapors will ignite. [3, 4, 5, 6] Flash point and auto ignition temperature of various fuels are given in Table - 1. [7, 8] Fuel Fuel may be in the form of a gas, liquid or solid. Liquid and solid fuels must be heated sufficiently to produce vapors. In general terms, combustible means capable of burning, generally in air under normal conditions of ambient temperature and pressure, while flammable means capable of burning with a flame. Flammable liquids are those which have a flashpoint &lt; 100 &#xB0;F (37.8 ?C), such as acetone, ethyl alcohol and gasoline. Combustible liquids are those which have a flashpoint &gt; 100 &#xB0;F (37.8 &#xB0;C), such as fuel oil and kerosene. The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of the weight of the substance to that of water, which is assigned a value of 1. A substance with a specific gravity &gt; 1 will tend to sink, while one whose specific gravity is &lt; 1 will tend to float. [3, 4, 5, 6] Oxygen Oxygen for burning process is derived from the atmosphere, which contains approximately 20.8 % oxygen. Charring or smoldering (pyrolysis) can occur with as little as 8 % oxygen but continuation of flaming combustion requires at least 15 - 16 %. Transformation of a compound into other substances by heat alone is called as pyrolysis. Oxidizers are the chemicals which can be act as primary or secondary source for burning process e.g. ammonium nitrate and chlorine. [3, 4, 5, 6] Mixing and Proportioning Mixing and proportioning are continuous reactions which must be required for fire to propagate. Correct proportions of fuel vapors and oxygen are must for fire, within the explosive limits or flammable limits. Explosive or flammable limits are expressed in the concentration (percentage) of fuel vapors in air. A mixture, containing fuel vapors, in an amount less than necessary for ignition to occur is too lean, while a mixture, containing too high concentration of fuel vapors is too rich. Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) is the lowest concentration that will burn, while the Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) is the highest concentration that will burn. [9, 12] Lower&#xA0;Explosive Limit and Upper Explosive Limit of various important substances are given in Table &#x2013; 2. [10] Vapor density is the weight of a volume of a given gas to an equal volume of dry air, where air is given a value of 1.0. A vapor density of &lt; 1.0 means that the gas is lighter than air and will tend to rise in a relatively calm atmosphere, while a vapor density of &gt; 1.0 means that the gas is heavier than air and will tend to sink to ground level. [4, 5, 6] Ignition Continuity Thermal feedback from the fire to the fuel represents ignition continuity. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, radiation and direct flame contact. Conduction means transfer of heat by direct contact. Convection means transfer of heat by changes in density of liquids and gases. Radiation means the transfer of heat by infrared radiation which generally is not visible to the naked eye. Direct flame contact is a combination of two of the basic methods of heat transfer. [4, 11] The amount of heat generated is measured in British thermal units. 1 British thermal unit is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water to 1 &#xB0;F when the measurement is performed at 60 &#xB0;F (15.5 &#xB0;C). [1, 4]. Depending upon burning of material, fire can be classified into 4 basic types. Class A fires involve ordinary combustible materials, such as cloth, paper, plastics, rubber, wood etc. Class B fires involve flammable or combustible liquids, greases and gases. Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment like short circuiting machinery, overloaded electrical cables etc. Class D fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium and zirconium. [11, 13]. Combustion products (heat, gases, flame, and smoke) are produced by all type of fires. Heat is defined as a form of energy characterized by vibration of molecules and capable of initiating and supporting chemical changes and changes of state. Gases are originally shapeless and volume less substances which expand to take the shape and volume of the space they occupy. Fire gases include acrolein, ammonia, carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride etc. Flame is the luminous portion of burning gases or vapors. Smoke is the airborne particulate products of incomplete combustion, suspended in gases, vapors, or solid or liquid aerosols containing soot, black particles of carbon. [11, 12] Fatal concentration of various fire gases are given in Table &#x2013; 3. [14]. Stages of Room Fire Room fire is usually progress through 3 developmental stages. To determine the origin and cause of a fire, forensic investigator must be able to interpret these stages correctly during the examination of the fire scene. [4] First stage of fire development is incipient stage (growth). This stage begins at the moment of ignition when flames are localized and fire is fuel regulated. Fire propagation is regulated not by the available oxygen but by the configuration, mass and geometry of the fuel itself. The oxygen content is within the normal range and normal ambient temperatures still exist. Hot fire gases will begin to rise to the upper portions of the room and draw additional oxygen into the bottom of the flames. Fire gases such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide etc. will begin to accumulate in the room. [4, 9] Second stage is free burning stage (development). In this stage, more fuel is being consumed, fire is intensifying; flames are spreading upward and outward by convection, conduction and direct flame impingement. A hot, dense layer of smoke and fire gases is collecting at the upper levels of the room, radiating heat downward, containing not only soot, but also toxic gases such as acrolein, carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride etc. The temperature at the ceiling level has begun to rise rapidly while the floor temperature is still relatively cool. It is still possible to survive in the room at the cooler lower level. [4, 9, 15] When ignition of the upper layer&#xA0;results in fire, extending across the room at the ceiling level is called Rollover. This rollover causes the ceiling temperature to increase at greater rate and also increases the heat being radiated downward into the room. The fire is still fuel regulated at this time. [15] Flashover occurs when the upper layer reaches a temperature of approximately 1,100 &#xB0;F (593.3 &#xB0;C) and sufficient heat is generated to cause simultaneous ignition of all fuels in the room. Survival for more than a few seconds is impossible after flashover has occurred. Temperatures in the space will reach &gt; 2,000 &#xB0;F (1,093.3 &#xB0;C) at the ceiling level and 1,000 &#xB0;F (593.3 &#xB0;C) at the floor. At the point of flashover the fire is still fuel regulated, however, if the fire stays confined to the room of origin it quickly becomes oxygen regulated. The rapid temperature rise associated with flashover generally results in windows breaking, which then produces an unlimited supply of oxygen causing the fire to transfer back to the fuel regulated phase. [15] Flashover results in intense burning of the entire room and its contents. Fuel package, the room geometry and ventilation affect the length of time necessary for a fire to go from the incipient stage to flashover. In the typical residential accidental fire setting, this time may be as short as 2 - 3 minutes. [15] Third stage is smoldering stage (decay). In this stage, the fuel is consumed and open burning becomes increasingly less prevalent. Open flaming combustion will stop if the fire has been contained to a room or space, and the oxygen level drops &lt; 15 - 16 %, even if unburned fuel is still present. Glowing combustion will take place at this point. High temperatures and considerable quantities of soot and combustible fire gases have accumulated, and at this point the fire is oxygen regulated. The temperatures may exceed the ignition temperatures of the accumulated gases. The accumulated soot and fire gases may ignite with explosive force if a source of oxygen is introduced in the area. This smoke explosion is known as a back draft. The pressures generated by a back draft are enough to cause significant structural damage and endanger the lives of persons and bystanders. Back drafts can take place in any enclosed space; they are not limited to rooms. Attics, basements, and concealed ceiling spaces also are susceptible. [12, 13] Flame Types A flame (from Latin flamma) is the visible (light emitting), gaseous part of a fire. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. [2] Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the colour of the flame and the fire&amp;#39;s intensity will be different. Flames can be divided into 4 categories: laminar premixed, laminar diffusion, turbulent premixed and turbulent diffusion. An example of a laminar premixed flame is a Bunsen burner flame. Laminar means that the flow streamlines are smooth and do not bounce around significantly. Premixed means that the fuel and the oxidizer are mixed before the combustion zone occurs. A laminar diffusion flame is a candle. The fuel comes from the wax vapor, while the oxidizer is air; they do not mix before being introduced (by diffusion) into the flame zone. A peak temperature of around 1400 &#xB0;C is found in a candle flame. [16] Most turbulent premixed flames are from engineered combustion systems: boilers, furnaces, etc. In such systems, the air and the fuel are premixed in some burner device. Most unwanted fires fall into the category of turbulent diffusion flames. Since no burner or other mechanical device exists for mixing fuel and air, the flames are diffusion type. [17] Flame temperature of various materials is given in Table &#x2013; 4. [18] Flame Colour Flames have many different colours that range from blue to red to orange to yellow. It&amp;#39;s even possible to have green flames, although that&amp;#39;s not real common in campfires and other small fires that most folks are familiar with. [19] The hotter the temperature in a flame, the bluer the color will be. The lowest temperatures in a flame&#xA0;result in redder colors. When you look at a flame, the blue colors will occur near the combustion site, or nearest what is being burned. For example, when a candle is burned, the color nearest the wick will be blue, usually light blue. As you look at the flame farther from the wick, where the temperature is lower, you will see oranges, then yellows and possibly reds.[20] Colour tells us about the temperature of a candle flame. The inner core of the candle flame is light blue, with a temperature of around 1670 K (1400 &#xB0;C). That is the hottest part of the flame. The colour inside the flame becomes yellow, orange, and finally red. The further you reach from the centre of the flame, the lower the temperature will be. The red portion is around 1070 K (800 &#xB0;C). [21]Temperature of flames by appearance is given in Table &#x2013; 5. [2] Stages of the burning process Macroscopic staging of burning process is given in Table &#x2013; 6 and molecular staging of burning process is given in Table &#x2013; 7. [22] Fire and human body In case of direct contact with the flames, the organic matter of the body is consumed as fuel. Above 51&#xB0;C, the excess heat is no longer conducted away by convection via the capillaries of the skin. Penetrating power of moist heat is considerably higher than that of dry heat. Effects of heat on the body and related external and internal findings are given in Table &#x2013; 8. [23] Classification of the destruction by burns according to Eckert et al is given in Table &#x2013; 9. [24] Classification of the destruction by burns according to Maxeiner is given in Table -10. [25] Crow - Glassman Scale (CGS) of burn related destruction of corpses is given in Table -11. [26] Classification of the destruction by burns according to Gerling et al. is given in Table -12. [27]&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
Fire is a very complex process influenced by many factors that affect its growth, spread and development. The physical shape and state of the fuel, the available oxygen and the transmission of heat all play vital roles in fire development. While each fire is different, all fires follow certain predictable patterns which, when understood by the investigator, provide a scientific basis for determination of origin and cause.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1674</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1674</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Tuve, Richard L. Principles of Fire Protection Chemistry. Quincy: National Fire Protection Association, 1976.&#xD;
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2. Law C. K., Laminar premixed flames - Combustion physics, Cambridge University Press, 2006, Page - 300.&#xD;
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3. Powell, Dawson. The Mechanics of Fire. Rhode Island: Grinnell Company Inc., 1955.&#xD;
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4. DeHaan, JohnD, Kirk&amp;#39;s Fire Investigation, 3 rd edition, New Jersey: Brady, 1991.&#xD;
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5. Drysdale, Dougal, An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, New York: Wiley, 1986.&#xD;
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6. Fire Dynamics. Emmitsburg: National Fire Academy, 1984. http://www.maiif.org/pdf/fire_chapter1.pdf. Assessed on 10-12-2011.&#xD;
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7. Jozef Jarosinski, Bernard Veyssiere, Combustion phenomena: Selected mechanisms of flame formation, propagation and extinction, CRC Press, 2009, Page &#x2013; 172.&#xD;
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8. Christopher W. Schmidt, Steve A. Symes, The analysis of burned human remains, Academic Press, 2008, Page 2&#x2013;4.&#xD;
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9. Fang, J.B. Fire Development in Residential Basement Rooms. National Institute of Standards and Technology. http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/fire80/PDF/f 80008.pdf. Assessed on 10-12-2011.&#xD;
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10. Kirshenbaum A. D. and A. V. Grosse, The combustion of Carbon Subnitride, NC4N, and a chemical method for the production of continuous temperatures in the range of 5000&#x2013; 6000&#xB0;K, Journal of the American Chemical Society, May 1956, 78(9): 2020.&#xD;
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11. Fire Protection Handbook, 17th edition, Quincy: National Fire Protection Association, 1991.&#xD;
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12. Fung, Francis. "The NBS Program on Corridor Fires" Fire Journal, May 1973. http://fliiby.com/file/34316/goo3s3itjy.html. Assessed on 10-12-2011.&#xD;
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13. NFPA 921, Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, 1992 edition, Quincy: National Fire Protection Association.&#xD;
&#xD;
14. NFPA 325M, Manual on Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and Volatile Solids. 1991 ed. Quincy: National Fire Protection Association.&#xD;
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15. NFPA 1033, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Investigator. Quincy: National Fire Protection Association, 1993.&#xD;
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16. Gaydon A. G. and Wolfhard H. G., Flames: Their Structure, Radiation and Temperature, 3 rd edition, Chapman and Hall, London, 1970.&#xD;
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17. Dr. Vytenis Babrauskas. Temperatures in flames and fires, Fire Science and Technology Inc., 2006. 18. Thomas N., Gaydon A.G., Brewer L., et al., Cyanogen Flames and the Dissociation Energy of N2, The Journal of Chemical Physics, 1952, 20(3): 369&#x2013;374.&#xD;
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19. Jones, John Clifford, Low temperature oxidation and hydrocarbon process safety: A text for students and professionals, Tulsa, Penn Well, 2003, Page 32&#x2013;33.&#xD;
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20. Scott C., Glasspool J., The diversification of paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration, National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, July 2006, 103(29): 10861&#x2013;10865.&#xD;
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21. Bowman DM, Balch JK, Artaxo P., et al., Fire in the earth system, Science, 2009, 324(5926): 481&#x2013;484.&#xD;
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22. Lentile Leigh B., Holden Zachary A., Smith Alistair M. S., Remote sensing techniques to assess active fire characteristics and post fire effects, International Journal of Wild land Fire, 2006, 3(15): 319-345.&#xD;
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23. Michael Tsokos, Forensic Pathology Reviews, Volume 1, Humana Press, 2004, Page 3-13.&#xD;
&#xD;
24. Eckert WG, James S, Katchis S, Investigation of cremations and severely burned bodies, American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 1988, 9: 188&#x2013;200.&#xD;
&#xD;
25. Maxeiner H, Umst&#xE4;nde und Befunde bei 202 Brandtodesf&#xE4;llen, Beitrage zur Gerichtlichen Medizin, 1988, 46: 313&#x2013;325.&#xD;
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26. Glassman DN, Crow RM, Standardization model for describing the extent of burn injury to human remains, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 1996, 41: 152&#x2013;154.&#xD;
&#xD;
27. Gerling I, Meissner C, Reiter A, Oehmichen M, Death from thermal effects and burns, Forensic Science International, 2000, 115: 33&#x2013; 41.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>COVERAGE OF HEALTH ISSUES IN NEWSPAPERS AN OBSERVATIONAL STUDY&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>192</FirstPage><LastPage>196</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Veena Algur</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> M C yadavannavar</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Vijaya Sorganvi</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Research Question: What are the contents and coverage of health issues published in News paper. Objective: To analyze contents &amp; priorities given to the health issues published in news paper. Design: Observational Study period: 6 months from 1.05.2003 to 31.10.2003 Sources of Data: National Newspaper viz., Times of India &amp; Hindu.Regional Newspapers viz., Vijay Karnataka &amp; Prajavani. Statistical analysis: content analysis and percentage. Results: More focus was on reporting injuries &amp; death due the various cause (66.15%) report on recent advances (6.02%) quackery &amp; malpractice only (3.56%). Conclusions: Priority should be given widely to preventive measure. Media has to be Liaison between policy makers, Administrative staff &amp; common man to formulate need based health policy. Thus the multifaceted powerful, economically handy weapon like news paper can play a vital role in health care.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords/><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Influence of most common communication media like newspapers are nowadays inseparable part of living. The ability of the printed word to influence both the ordinary newspaper reader &amp; the attitude of the policy maker cannot be underestimated. Life without communication cannot be imagined. It is well known fact that communication medias act as back bone of human society. It is as old as man kind and also communication medias are very active catalyst of social change. News paper is one of the communication media though the newspaper is commercial publication it is also a powerful, popular, economical, handy, weapon to bring social change to achieve national development. A developing country like India&#x2019;s, hurdles of development are burning social problems like poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, conservatism, unemployment, gender bias such social, political and cultural factors have led to a number of multifaceted and complex problems of vicious nature. Among all the developmental issues health care, health promotion has to be given a special priority. A popular quote &#x201C;Health is Wealth&#x201D; and ancient 1Chinese quote which stands ever green. &#x201C;If the National plan is one year &#x2013; Grow Rice If it is for 25 years &#x2013;Grow Trees If it is for 100 years- Do Health Education&#x201D; Significance of Study: The birds view of health scenario is alarming, health needs are more demanding, the goal which aims at 2 &#x201C;Health for all&#x201D; by 2000 A.D, which was initiated during 1977 (30th May 1977) by World Health Assembly. WHA dicided to launch social, global target &#x201C;Health for all by 2000 A.D&#x201D; defined as attainment by all the people of the world, a level of health, which will enable or permit every individual to lead socially and economically a productive life&#x201D; is tough task which is striving&#xA0;very hard to achieve the goal. As the health of the Indians is in the pangs complex causes which are inter-related these factors make the task more difficult but not an impossible one. Unless we go for the scientifically effective &amp; affordable strategies, it becomes a distant dream. To have the proper strategies community participation is a must. This can be achieved by creating awareness regarding health problems ways to alleviate them &amp; chanalize the efforts. In this contest the news papers play a major role. The present study intends to observe, classify and focus on the contents of the health issues published in mass media like news papers &amp; its contribution towards creating health awareness among general public and also it can influence policy makers and Health care providers attitude to go for innovative, need based approach to tackle health care issues there by leading to national development.&#xD;
&#xD;
OBJECTIVES &#xD;
1. To find out the kind of health issues published in the news papers.&#xD;
2. To observe the priority given to type of contents of health issues in news papers.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS and METHODOLOGY &#xD;
1. Type of study &#x2013; Observational&#xD;
2. Duration of the study - Six months from: 1.5.2003 to 31.10.2003.&#xD;
3. Sample and Universe - National and Regional News-paper are our Universe of Study 184 issues of each National newspapers viz Times of India and The Hindu 184 issues of each Regional newspapers viz Vijay Karnataka &amp; Prajavani. The Criteria in the selection of daily news papers for the study were prominence as reflected in circulation and availability at Bijapur.&#xD;
4. Sources of Data - All published items in 536 issues pertaining to health where included in the study.&#xD;
5. Statistical application - Content analysis and percentage where used.&#xD;
6. Technique of Data collection- The data was analyzed in terms of frequency and Percentage of type of item published. Based on content Analysis. 3 Berelson (1948) defined content analysis as a research technique for the objective, systematic quantitative description of the manifest content of communication. Based on the pilot study the published items were categorized on the basis of contents of communications.&#xD;
&#xD;
Category &#xD;
I. Report on morbidity &amp; mortality&#xD;
II Preventive aspect&#xD;
III Recent advances&#xD;
IV Indigenous system&#xD;
V Sensational news&#xD;
VI Malpractice &amp; quackery&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION &#xD;
Table No-1 &#xD;
Category - I. Which covers general description of Morbidity (status of illness) and mortality (death) due to various diseases, out break of diseases in community description on death due to various diseases or accidents has lion share (Table No.-I) of the total 3418 items related to health issues were 2257 (66%) were belonging to category &#x2013; 1. and further Cat-1 subcategorized under the heading like Accidents, Natural calamities Suicides and Diseases. Category &#x2013; II. Deals with preventive aspects.Stitch in time saves nine stands true for ever by taking care of simple preventive aspects like drinking safe water washing hands before handling food and immunizing children etc., Though prevention is better than cure only 171 (5%) items were published on this important aspect of health information by encouraging publisher to publish more items on preventive aspect we can bring better changes in health habits of public. Category &#x2013; III. Deals with recent advances Inventions in the health care field were put under this category like newer generation of drugs, vaccines, sophisticated instrument and innovative techniques finding revels that only 206 (6.02%) items were published on recent advances. In this present era of hitech medical advances, media should focus more on disseminating information regarding recent advances. Category- IV. Revels about the coverage of indigenous system of health care. Only 90 (2.6%) of the items were on different indigenous system. As our country is known for its unique, health care system like Ayurvedic, Naturopathy Sidda, Unani and Home remedies, etc., in fact these days Indian systems are gaining popularity world wide especially in developed countries, the ancient Indian system of health care should be encouraged as it is very much safe &amp; suitable for economy, climate &amp; culture of Indians therefore media should play a major role in disseminating more information. Category &#x2013;V. Deals with sensational News about health and Diseases. Sensational news attract the readers, most of the time such news are focused with special photograph like birth of triplets or quadruplets, unusual surgeries, abnormal growth of tumors, birth or seperation of Siamese, over weight or under weight individuals, very Tall or Short persons etc., It is found 97 (2%) items were Published Category &#x2013; VI. Deals with Malpractice and quackery Due to various personal, Social, sociological, and economical causes easy money making trend is intruding in almost all professions. It is true even with the Nobel profession like health care viz., unnecessary investigations surgeries or drugs. Observation revealed 122 (3.56%) items were published on malpractice &amp; quackery media needs to give more of such news to alert public to take care while selecting health care providers &amp; also media has to initiate public to shoulder the responsibility to curb such illegal &amp; unethical medical practice as they are harmful to the health of the public. Category &#x2013; VII. Deals with the news about National health policy, Health legislation and National health programmes and their plan and implementation.It is found 472 (13.8%) items were reports on health camps proposed &amp; arranged, News about National health programmes planned and implemented, new schemes introduced time to time were also reported.&#xD;
&#xD;
OBSERVATIONS OF TABLE No-2 &#xD;
An attempt has been made to further subcatagorisation of category -1. It has maximum 2257 (66 %) of the total 3418 items related to Morbidity and Mortality. 1. Accidents- Maximum focus was on Accidents 950 (42%). It proves that accidents due to various causes are also major public health problem. It needs a special attention by policy&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
It was observed that more focus was on reporting injuries &amp; deaths due to various causes, likeAccidents, Suicides or illness due to disease, rather than the root cause of such injury or death or infection, no informative instructions on possible preventive measures to curb the rate of injuries, infections &amp; deaths. Very few Report on recent advances were Published. Indigenous system &amp; its utility value were not focused, efforts to enlight the cruel practices like quackery, &amp; malpractice is very much less. No innovative policy to tackle public health problem was reported. The news paper can be a very good platform for policy makers, general public, health care professionals and administrative personnel to sort out the hurdles related to health care services.&#xD;
&#xD;
Suggestions &#xD;
Our observations made us to suggest following recommendations to make the following as permanent &amp; regular feature of daily newspapers.&#xD;
1) First page coverage should include health information &amp; health education.&#xD;
2) Priority should be given to publish preventive measures to curb communicable &amp; non communicable diseases.&#xD;
3) Alternative and affordable new technique to tackle health problems should be initiated&#xD;
4) Media has to be liaison between policy makers &amp; public to formulate need based health policy.&#xD;
5) News Paper has to play a vital role to encourage and to adopt indigenous system of health care.&#xD;
&#xD;
Thus the multifaceted, powerful, economical handy weapon like newspapers can be utilized as a catalyst to create social action to fight the battle health for all leading to social welfare.&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEGEMENT &#xD;
We the authors acknowledge the encouragement and support of prof Dr P B Jagirdar: Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1675</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1675</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Swasth hind - March-April 1989 page No-69.&#xD;
&#xD;
2. Morely, David et al (1984) Practicing Health for all, Oxford University Press.&#xD;
&#xD;
3. Bharathi, K Banakar et al &#x2013; Front page coverage of Women&amp;#39;s issues in regional newspapers of Karnataka . Indian journal of social work. Vol-60, issue -3, July 99 page -337.&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Technology</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>ANALYSIS OF DRY ANAEROBIC DIGESTION OF COW DUNG WITH RESPECT TO WET ANAEROBIC DIGESTION ON BIOGAS PRODUCTION&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>197</FirstPage><LastPage>201</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Pradeep Kumar Uppal</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Shailendra Jain</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Rajkumar Bhatia</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Anaerobic digestion is an effective way to covert the animal manure in to profitable byproducts as well as reduce the pollution of water, air and soil caused by these wastes. Dry anaerobic digestion has been considered as suitable process for potential renewable energy, recovery with nutrient rich fertilizer and sustainable solid waste management. It saves the water and can be done in less space as compare to the wet anaerobic digestion which requires the large space for drying the effluent manure and it also requires the large amount of water during feeding. During the process of dry anaerobic digestion 150L water is required in comparison with wet anaerobic digestion where 2500 Liters water is required for the same amount of production of biogas production. Dry solid consistency is 12.5 - 15%. Dry anaerobic digestion helps in improving ground water as well as wet digestion process requires drying in pits that results in leach out soil and increase its contamination. The digested cow manure in dry stage shall contain rich nutrients and removed in mechanized way and would be ready for use in field without dewatering. While wet anaerobic process require more space, time and difficulty in handling digested cow manure in slurry form.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords/><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
The dry anaerobic digestion organic matter is an appropriate technology for recovery of energy with nutrient rich fertilizer and sustainable waste management. The green house gas produced by the other methods of decomposition such as land filling, anaerobic composting etc. produces the pollution in atmosphere. The anaerobic digestion of cow dung (organic matter) produces the biogas that contain methane and suitable to use as fuel for useful gain. In the absence of Oxygen anaerobic microbes such as, methanogenic bacteria, acetogenic bacteria, fermentative bacteria digest biodegradable material and process bio gas. The anaerobic digestion of organic material basically follows: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. The conversion process begins with bacteria hydrolyzing complex organic polymers such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and fats, into simple monomeric carbohydrates, amino acids, sugars and long chain fatty acids. The reduced compounds are then converted by fermentative bacteria into a mixture of short chain volatile fatty acids (VFA5) and other minor products such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen and alcohol. These organic acids are further breakdown during acetogenesis to acetate, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. In the final stage, methanogenesis takes place by two groups of bacteria: acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens. Acetoclastic methanogens split&#xA0;acetate into methane and carbon dioxide (of the order of nearly 40%) while hydrogenotrophic methanogens uses hydrogen as electron donor and carbon dioxide as electron acceptor to produce methane of the order of nearly 60%. Advantages of dry anaerobic treatment when compared to liquid anaerobic digestion: higher organic loading rate, lower energy requirements for heating, less process energy for stirring, reduced nutrient run off during storage and distribution of residues and limited environmental consequences. In addition, De Baere stated that, dry anaerobic processes have a more energetically&#x2022; effective performance since they require less pretreatment and added water. Mainly due to its reduced cost in digesters and slurry handling problems, the dry anaerobic digestion process has attracted increased attention all around the world recently. However, the high-solids anaerobic digestion is known to suffer from many inhibition problems and the process is also harder to control.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIAL AND METHODS &#xD;
The manure is collected from the "GOSHALA" is feeded in Continuous Stirrer Tank Reaction (CSTR) on dry basis and in KVIC biogas plant on wet basis (1 part water + 1 part manure).&#xD;
&#xD;
Characteristics of Feed Stock : &#xD;
The study was conducted by evaluate the mesophillic dry anaerobic digestion of undiluted and unscreened cow manure in CSTR and same cow manure is feeded under the same&#xA0;&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Analytical Methods: &#xD;
The parameter analyzed were pH, TS and VS. All the analytical determinations were performed according to the standard methods. The pH of the mixture was measured with the digital pH meter. The yielded biogas was determined by closing the outlet value then in a given time how much floating dome rises in dry (CSTR) as well as in wet (KVIC) anaerobic digestion. Dry solids are measured by heating the sample in over for 4 hour at 105&#xBA;C and its weight is measured and again it is kept in oven for next 4 hour at 105&#xB0;C and its weight is measured. The process is repeated till the weight for each repetition becomes same. The VS is measured by burning the dry solid in oven at 550&#xB0;C for 6 hours.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
OBSERVATION AND RESULTS &#xD;
The cow manure properties are determined in raw state and after the anaerobic digestion for CSTR (Dry anaerobic digestion) and KVIC model (wet anaerobic digestion) for one month with twice a week frequency. The following results are obtained.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Since the basic material in both digester are same, so the percentage of volatile solids are same but the dry solids are different due to addition of water in wet anaerobic digestion the water content is more and percentage of dry solids are less. In KVIC digester the loss of energy is more due to addition of water so the difference of temperature of digested manure is always nearly 2&#xB0;C less than the digested manure of CSTR (dry digestion).&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSION &#xD;
Comparison between KVIC digester and high rate methanization (CSTR) diagester.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xA0;&#xD;
&#xD;
Dry anaerobic digestion is considered superior option for Bio-gas production as compared to wet anaerobic digestion in view of environment. Dewatering and drying effluent manure is not required. Saves process water which otherwise leads to different environmental problems. This process saves the space and it is economically viable.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1676</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1676</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Adelekan BA, Bamgboye Al (2009). comparison of biogas productivity of cassava peels mixed in selected ratios with major livestock waste types. At r. J. Agric. Res., 4 (7): 571-577.&#xD;
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2. Bhattacharya TK, Mishra TN (2005). Biodegradability of dairy cattle manure under dry anaerobic fermentation process. J. Inst. Engineers (India): Agric. Eng. Div., 84:9-11.&#xD;
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3. Guendouz J, Buffi&#xE8;re P, Cacho J, Carr&#xE8;re M, Delgenes JP (2010). Dry anaerobic digestion in batch mode: Design and operation of a&#xD;
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4. laboratory-scale, completely mixed reactor. Waste Manage., 30:1768&#x2014;1 771.&#xD;
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5. Iyagba El, Mangibo IA, Mohammad YS (2009). The study of cow dung as cosubstrate with rice husk in biogas production. Sci. Res. Essays. 4(9): 861 -866.&#xD;
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6. Jha AK, He J, Li J, Zheng G (2010a). Effect of substrate concentration on methane fermentation of cattle dung. In: Proceedings of international conference on challenges in environmental science and computer engineering. Wuhan, P. R. China. March 6- 7. Part. 1: 512-515.&#xD;
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7. Jha AK, Li J, He J, Chang S (2010b) Optimization of Dry Anaerobic Fermentation of Solid Organic Wastes. Adv. Mat. Res., 113-114: 740-743.&#xD;
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8. Proceedings of 9th World Congress, Antwerpen, Belgium (Velse AFM, Verstratete WH, ed.), Part. 1: 375&#x2014;380.&#xD;
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9. Li D, Yuan Z, Sun Y (2010). Semi-dry mesophilic anaerobic digestion of water sorted organic fraction of municipal solid waste (WS-OFMSW). Biores. Technol., 101: 2722&#x2014;2728.&#xD;
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10. Li X, Li L, Zheng M, Eu G, Lar JS (2009). Anaerobic co-digestion of cattle manure with corn stover pretreated by sodium hydroxide for efficient biogas production. Energy Fuels, 23: 4635-4639.&#xD;
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11. Liu GT, Peng XY, Long TR (2006). Advance in high-solid anaerobic digestion of organic fraction of municipal solid waste. J. Cent. South Univ. Technol., 13:151&#x2014;157.&#xD;
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12. Lou XF, Nair J (2009). The Impact of Landfilling and Composting on Greenhouse Gas Emissions&#x2014;A Review. Bioresour. Technol., 100(1 6):3792-3798.&#xD;
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13. Montero B, Garcia-Morales JL, Sales D, SoleraR (2008). Evolution of microorganisms in thermophilic-dry anaerobic digestion. Biores. Technol., 99 (8): 3233&#x2014;3243.&#xD;
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14. Naomichi N, Yutaka N (2007). Recent development of anaerobic digestion processes for energy recovery from wastes. J. Biosci. Bioeng., 103(2): 105&#x2014;112.&#xD;
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15. Ofoefule AU, Uzodinma EO, Onukwuli CD (2009). Comparative study of the effect of different pretreatment methods on biogas yield from water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). nt. J. Phys. Sci., 4(8): 535 -539.&#xD;
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16. Pavlostathis SG, Giraldogomez E (1991). Kinetics of anaerobic treatment. Water Sci. Technol., 24(8): 35&#x2014;59.&#xD;
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17. Uzodinma EC, Ofoefule AU, Eze JI, Mbaeyi I, Onwuka ND (2008). Effect of some organic wastes on the biogas yield from carbonated soft drink sludge. Sci. Res. Essays. 3 (9): 401 -405.&#xD;
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18. Walker L, Charles W, Cord-Ruwisch R (2009). Comparison of static, invessel composting of MSW with thermophilic anaerobic digestion and combinations of the two processes. Biores. Technol., 100(16): 3799-3807.&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Technology</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH SESAME OIL METHYL ESTER BLENDS&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>202</FirstPage><LastPage>208</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>G.G. Srinivas</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> K. Apparao</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> G.V.N. Kumar</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Rajesh Guntur</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>The rapidly increasing petroleum prices, uncertainties concerning its availability and growing concern of the environment revived research interests on the usage of alternative fuels in internal combustion engines. Biodiesel is a methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acids made from vegetable oils and animal fat. It can be used in diesel engines with very little or no engine modifications. In this present work the experimental investigations are carried out on the test engine operated with methyl esters of sesame oil and diesel blends. Comparative measures of performance parameters, smoke opacity, unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), Oxides of nitrogen (NOx), Carbon dioxide (CO2) and unused oxygen (O2) emissions are calculated. In the initial stage the tests are conducted on the four stroke single cylinder water cooled direct injection diesel engine by using diesel and base line data is generated. In the second stage, tests are carried out using Methyl esters of sesame oil with diesel blends at various loads and compared with the base line data obtained earlier. Engine performance in terms of higher brake thermal efficiency and lower brake specific fuel consumption and lower emissions (HC, CO, NOx) has observed for 20% Sesame oil and 80% diesel.&#xA0;the burning. This causes lower temperatures inside the cylinder and low NOx emissions in the exhaust gases. Exhaust gas temperatures of the blend are lower than those of the diesel fuel due to the lower heating value of the blend. It is proved that the lower temperature causes low NOx emissions when compared with diesel fuel. The variation of NOx emissions for D100 and SME blends with B.P is shown in Figure 4. NOx content is drastically reduced for S10 and S20 blends compared with D100 which is 1236ppm to 1061ppm and 1040ppm respectively, means it is reduced by 14% and 15% for the blends S10 and S20 compared to Diesel. Smoke The variation of smoke density with brake power of the engine for D100, S10, S20 and S30 by volume of concentrations is shown in Figure 5. It was observed that the smoke density of all the blends is lower than that of diesel at maximum load. The maximum smoke density recorded using diesel was 79.6 HSU and 58.8 HSU for S10 and 60 HSU for S20 at maximum brake power. Because of the oxygen enrichment contained by S10 and S20, it improves fuel evaporation during diffusion combustion which subsequently reduces the smoke density. The decrease in smoke density by percentage compared to D100 for S10 and S20 is 26% and 24.6% respectively. But for the S30 blend Smoke density slightly increased because of increased viscosity and incomplete combustion. Carbon Monoxide CO emission depending on many parameters such as air&#x2013;fuel ratio and the engine temperature are the causes of exhaust gas emissions in the internal combustion engine. It is one of the toxic products of combustion due to the improper burning of hydrocarbon (HC). Figure 6 shows the variation of CO emissions for D100 with other blends. From the plot it is observed that the CO emissions at full load for D100, S10, S20 and S30 are 0.07%, 0.06%, 0.07% and 0.06% respectively. It is clear from the plot that CO emissions decreases with S10, S30 blends, produced significantly lower CO emissions than that of diesel fuel because of Oxygen availability from this blend for complete combustion. Unburned Hydrocarbons The variation of HC with brake power of the engine for D100 and S10, S20, S30 blends are shown in Figure 7. Because of the oxygen enrichment contained by S10 and S20 improves fuel evaporation during diffusion combustion which slightly reduced the unburned Hydrocarbons. For D100, HC content is 58ppm but for S10, S20 it is reduced to 56ppm. These reductions indicate a more complete combustion of the fuel. The presence of oxygen in the fuel was thought to promote complete combustion. Unburned hydrocarbons are reduced by 3.4% using the blends S10 and S20 as compared with diesel. Carbon Dioxide The variation of CO2 with brake power of the engine for D100 and S10, S20, S30 blends are shown in Figure 8. From the plot it is observed that the CO2 content for D100, S10, S20, S30 blends at full load conditions are 8.5%, 8.4%, 8.3% and 8.5% respectively. But there is no considerable change in CO2 only slight decrease in CO2 occurred for S20 blend compared to D100. Since enough amount of oxygen is available for complete combustion. The CO2 emissions from a diesel engine indicate how efficiently the fuel is burnt inside the combustion chamber. The esterbased fuel burns more efficiently than diesel.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSIONS &#xD;
From the above discussions it was proved that exhaust emissions of the sesame oil&#x2013;diesel mixture were lower than that of using diesel and it can be used as an alternative fuel in view of reduced environmental pollution by reduction in HC, NOx, CO emissions and also in increased performance parameters like brake thermal efficiency and decreased brake specific fuel consumption. Properties of S20 are nearer to diesel and it is.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xA0;&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &#xD;
The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Bio fuels, bsfc, emissions, Sesame methyl esters</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
In present days the utilization of diesel engines are more compared with petrol engines for domestic purposes because of their higher performance and low cost of fuel. Since the petroleum crises in 1970s, the rapidly increasing petroleum prices and uncertainties concerning its availability, growing concern of the environment and the effect of greenhouse gases (GHGs) during the last decades, has revived more and more interests in the use of vegetable oils as a substitute of fossil fuel. Vegetable oils are widely available from various sources, and the glycerides present in the oils can be considered as a viable alternative for diesel fuel. They have good heating power and provide exhaust gas with almost no sulfur and aromatic polycyclic compounds. Vegetable oils are produced from plants, their burning leads to a complete recyclable carbon dioxide (CO2). In diesel engines several alternative fuels can be used without any engine modifications to compensate the petroleum based fuel crises. Bello E.I et al [1] used castor oil and blends in a diesel engine to evaluate the load test, speed test and performance test. Castor oil had very high kinematic viscosity which was reduced by using high molar ratio during transesterification but still needed to be blended with diesel fuel to bring it to the limits for biodiesel. The torque and power output&#xA0;characteristics are about 10% less than that for diesel fuel but the load carrying capacity is about 20% higher as a result of it oxygen content which allowed for more complete combustion and operate to a lower speed. Sehmus Altun et al [6] used a blend of 50% sesame oil and 50% diesel fuel was used as an alternative fuel in a direct injection diesel engine. Engine performance and exhaust emissions were investigated and compared with the ordinary diesel fuel in a diesel engine. The experimental results show that the engine power and torque of the mixture of sesame oil&#x2013; diesel fuel are close to the values obtained from diesel fuel and the amounts of exhaust emissions are lower than those of diesel fuel. Analyzing review on various alternate fuels it is concluded that the Sesame oil [6] can be used with the diesel with higher percentages (up to 50%). The experimental results show that the engine performance parameters of the mixture of sesame oil&#x2013;diesel fuel are close to the values obtained from diesel fuel and the amounts of exhaust emissions are lower than those of diesel fuel. Preparation of sesame oil methyl esters The formation of methyl esters by transesterification of vegetable oil requires raw Sesame oil, 15% of methanol &amp; 5% of sodium hydroxide on mass basis. However, transesterification is an equilibrium reaction in which excess alcohol is required to drive the reaction very close to completion. The vegetable oil was chemically reacted with an alcohol in presence of a catalyst to produce methyl esters. Glycerol was produced as a by-product of transesterification reaction. The mixture was stirred continuously and then allowed to settle under gravity in a separating funnel. Two distinct layers form after gravity settling for 24 hours. The upper layer was of ester and lower layer was of glycerol. The lower layer was separated out. The methyl ester was then blended with diesel in various concentrations for preparing biodiesel blends to be used in CI engine for conducting various engine tests.&#xD;
&#xD;
Properties of the Bio-diesel &#xD;
The properties of sesame oil methyl ester were found in the fuels laboratory. The results obtained are shown in Table 1.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP &#xD;
The experimental set up shown in Figure (a) is a single cylinder, four-stroke, naturally aspirated, DI diesel engine. The set up is provided with necessary instruments like Rope brake dynamometer, Smoke meter (Netel&#x2019;s-NPM-DSM), Gas analyzer (Netel&#x2019;s-NPM-MGA-2) etc., for performance and emission analysis. Specifications of test engine are shown in Table 2.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION &#xD;
The performance and emission characteristics of a high speed diesel engine at various loads from no load to full load fuelled with sesame oil methyl esters compared with diesel are discussed below as per the results obtained.&#xD;
&#xD;
Specific Fuel Consumption &#xD;
The BSFC obtained from calculations was plotted against brake power and compared the results for different blends of fuels as shown in Figure 1. The plot reveals that the BSFCs obtained at full loads for D100 and S10, S20, S30 blends are 0.26 Kg/KW-hr, 0.25 Kg/KW-hr, 0.25 Kg/KW-hr and 0.27 Kg/KW-hr respectively. From the plot it is observed that BSFC is decreasing compared to D100 for S10 and S20 blends. Considerable decrease in BSFC has been observed for both S10 and S20 blends. The BSFC of the engine decreased because of better combustion due to the availability of excess oxygen in these blends. BSFC for D100 is 0.26 kg/kW-hr but for S10 and S20 it is 0.25kg/kW-hr. The percentage of decrease in BSFC for both these blends is 3.8% compared to diesel.&#xD;
&#xD;
Mechanical Efficiency &#xD;
The Mechanical efficiencies which were obtained from calculations are plotted against brake power and compared the results for all the blends when using diesel are shown in Figure 2. From the plot&#xA0;it is observed that the mechanical efficiencies obtained at full loads for D100, S10, S20, S30 are 63.11%, 65%, 60.6% and 60% respectively. The variation of Mechanical efficiency has been observed with various blends compared to Diesel. But considerable change in Mechanical efficiency has not observed since the fuel properties are not so different for diesel and other blends. Brake Thermal Efficiency The brake thermal efficiencies which were obtained from calculations was plotted against brake power and compared the results for different blends of fuels as shown in Figure 3 for S10,S20,S30 and D100. From the Plot it is observed that BTH at full load conditions for D100, S10, S20 and S30 are 32.82%, 33.8%, 34.6% and 32% respectively. The maximum BTH is observed for S20 blend. As the blend mixture strength is increasing the calorific value decreases and there will be variation in the brake thermal efficiency. From graph it is clear that BTH is more for the blends when load reaches the maximum. But only slight improvement in BTH has been observed for S20 at full load as 34.6% and for D100 it is 32.82%. The percentage of increase in BTH by using S20 is 4.6% compared to diesel. The reduction in viscosity because of increase in cylinder temperatures at maximum loads leads to better evaporation and mixing with air resulted in more complete fuel combustion caused the maximum thermal efficiency. It was also observed that the brake thermal efficiencies were closer to each other for all blends and diesel.&#xD;
&#xD;
Oxides of Nitrogen &#xD;
The most important factor for the emissions of NOx is the combustion temperature in the engine cylinder and the local stoichiometry of the mixture. The reduction of NOx emissions is possibly due to the smaller calorific value of the blends. Cetane number is also effective in NOx emissions. Cetane number of the sesame oil is smaller than that of the diesel fuel. The smaller the cetane number,the longer the ignition delay and&#xA0;the burning. This causes lower temperatures inside the cylinder and low NOx emissions in the exhaust gases. Exhaust gas temperatures of the blend are lower than those of the diesel fuel due to the lower heating value of the blend. It is proved that the lower temperature causes low NOx emissions when compared with diesel fuel. The variation of NOx emissions for D100 and SME blends with B.P is shown in Figure 4. NOx content is drastically reduced for S10 and S20 blends compared with D100 which is 1236ppm to 1061ppm and 1040ppm respectively, means it is reduced by 14% and 15% for the blends S10 and S20 compared to Diesel. Smoke The variation of smoke density with brake power of the engine for D100, S10, S20 and S30 by volume of concentrations is shown in Figure 5. It was observed that the smoke density of all the blends is lower than that of diesel at maximum load. The maximum smoke density recorded using diesel was 79.6 HSU and 58.8 HSU for S10 and 60 HSU for S20 at maximum brake power. Because of the oxygen enrichment contained by S10 and S20, it improves fuel evaporation during diffusion combustion which subsequently reduces the smoke density. The decrease in smoke density by percentage compared to D100 for S10 and S20 is 26% and 24.6% respectively. But for the S30 blend Smoke density slightly increased because of increased viscosity and incomplete combustion. Carbon Monoxide CO emission depending on many parameters such as air&#x2013;fuel ratio and the engine temperature are the causes of exhaust gas emissions in the internal combustion engine. It is one of the toxic products of combustion due to the improper burning of hydrocarbon (HC). Figure 6 shows the variation of CO emissions for D100 with other blends. From the plot it is observed that the CO emissions at full load for D100, S10, S20 and S30 are 0.07%, 0.06%, 0.07% and 0.06% respectively. It is clear from the plot that CO emissions decreases with S10, S30 blends, produced significantly lower CO emissions than that of diesel fuel because of Oxygen availability from this blend for complete combustion. Unburned Hydrocarbons The variation of HC with brake power of the engine for D100 and S10, S20, S30 blends are shown in Figure 7. Because of the oxygen enrichment contained by S10 and S20 improves fuel evaporation during diffusion combustion which slightly reduced the unburned Hydrocarbons. For D100, HC content is 58ppm but for S10, S20 it is reduced to 56ppm. These reductions indicate a more complete combustion of the fuel. The presence of oxygen in the fuel was thought to promote complete combustion. Unburned hydrocarbons are reduced by 3.4% using the blends S10 and S20 as compared with diesel. Carbon Dioxide The variation of CO2 with brake power of the engine for D100 and S10, S20, S30 blends are shown in Figure 8. From the plot it is observed that the CO2 content for D100, S10, S20, S30 blends at full load conditions are 8.5%, 8.4%, 8.3% and 8.5% respectively. But there is no considerable change in CO2 only slight decrease in CO2 occurred for S20 blend compared to D100. Since enough amount of oxygen is available for complete combustion. The CO2 emissions from a diesel engine indicate how efficiently the fuel is burnt inside the combustion chamber. The esterbased fuel burns more efficiently than diesel.&#xD;
&#xD;
CONCLUSIONS &#xD;
From the above discussions it was proved that exhaust emissions of the sesame oil&#x2013;diesel mixture were lower than that of using diesel and it can be used as an alternative fuel in view of reduced environmental pollution by reduction in HC, NOx, CO emissions and also in increased performance parameters like brake thermal efficiency and decreased brake specific fuel consumption. Properties of S20 are nearer to diesel and it is&#xA0;proved that SME can be used as alternate fuel for existing diesel engines.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT&#xD;
The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xA0;&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1677</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1677</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Bello E.I and Makanju, &#x201C;Production, Characterization&#xA0;&#xA0;and Evaluation of Castor oil Biodiesel as Alternative Fuel for Diesel Engines&#x201D;, Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences , 2011,PP 525-530.&#xD;
&#xD;
2. Athanasios Balafoutis, Spyros Fountas, Athanasios Natsis and George Papadakis &#x201C;Performance and Emissions of Sunflower, Rapeseed, and Cottonseed Oils as Fuels in an Agricultural Tractor Engine Athanasios&#x201D; International Scholarly Research Network ISRN Renewable Energy,2011, Article ID 531510, 12 pages.&#xD;
&#xD;
3. Y. V. V. Satyanarayana Murthy, &#x201C;Performance of Tobacco Oil-Based BioDiesel Fuel In A Single Cylinder Direct Injection Engine&#x201D; International Journal of the Physical Sciences Vol. 5(13), 18 October, 2010, pp. 2066-2074.&#xD;
&#xD;
4. M.Pugazhvadivu1 and G.Sankaranarayanan &#x201C;Experimental Studies on A Diesel Engine Using Mahua Oil As Fuel&#x201D;, Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 3 No. 7 (July 2010) , PP 787-791.&#xD;
&#xD;
5. Md. Nurun Nabi and S. M. Najmul Hoque &#x201C;Biodiesel Production From Linseed Oil and Performance Study of a Diesel Engine With Diesel Bio-Diesel Fuels&#x201D; Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. ME39, No.1, June 2008, pp.40-44.&#xD;
&#xD;
6. S-ehmus Altun, Hu&#xA8; samettin Bulut, Cengiz O&#xA8;ner &#x201C;The Comparison of Engine Performance and Exhaust Emission&#xA0;Characteristics of Sesame Oil&#x2013;Diesel Fuel Mixture With Diesel Fuel In a Direct Injection Diesel Engine&#x201D;, Renewable Energy 33 (2008), pp1791&#x2013;1795.&#xD;
&#xD;
7. V.R. Sivakumar, V.Gunaraj, P. Rajendran &#x201C;Statistical Analysis on The Performance of Engine With Jatropha Oil as an Alternate Fuel&#x201D; International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 2(12), 2010, pp.7740-7757.&#xD;
&#xD;
8. K. Anbumani and Ajit Pal Singh. &#x201C;Performance of Mustard and Neem Oil Blends With Diesel Fuel In C.I Engine&#x201D; APRN journal of engineering and applied sciences, vol. 5, no. 4, April 2010.,pp 14-20&#xD;
&#xD;
9. Niraj S. Topare, V.C. Renge, Satish V. Khedkar, Y.P. Chavan and S.L. Bhaga &#x201C;Biodiesel From Algae Oil as an Alternative Fuel For Diesel Engine&#x201D; International Journal of Chemical, Environmental and Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 2, No.2-3, May-December-2011,pp 116-120.&#xD;
&#xD;
10. M. Mani, C. Subash, G. Nagarajan &#x201C;Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics of A DI Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Oil&#x201D; Applied Thermal Engineering, volume 29,Issue 13, September 2009, Pages 2738-2744.&#xD;
&#xD;
11. Sagar Pramodrao Kadu, Rajendra H. Sarda &#x201C;Experimental Investigations on The Use of Preheated Neat Karanja Oil as Fuel in a Compression Ignition Engine&#x201D; World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 72, 2010, pages 540-544.&#xD;
&#xD;
12. T.K. Gogoi, D.C. Baruah &#x201C;The Use of Koroch Seed Oil Methyl Ester Blends as Fuel In a Diesel Engine&#x201D; Applied Energy Volume 88, Issue 8, August 2011, Pages 2713-2725.&#xD;
</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>15</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Technology</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>THE FAO PENMAN MONTIETH METHOD OF ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION COMPARED WITH NINE OTHER METHODS IN CAPE COAST MUNICIPALITY, GHANA&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>209</FirstPage><LastPage>216</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Joshua D. Owusu-Sekyere</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Samuel A. Manu</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>A comparison of nine methods of evapotranspiration (ETO) determination with the FAO Penman-Montieth method was conducted. The nine methods are: Original Blaney-Criddle, Soil Conservation Service modified Blaney-Criddle, FAO Blaney-Criddle, Jensen-Haise, Hargreaves 1985, Hargreaves-Samani, Hamon 1963, Hamon 1961 and Piche evaporimeter. The investigations were conducted for both 5-day and 10-day periods for a duration of six months spanning May to July 2009 (three months of wet season) and November 2009 to January 2010 (three months of dry season). ETo estimates obtained were compared with ETo estimates from FAO Penman-Montieth method using correlation coefficient. The following methods; Jensen Haise, Hargreaves and Hamon (both 1961 and 1963) had consistently high correlation coefficients for the period and could thus be used to estimate evapotranspiration in the Cape Coast Municipality. A regression analysis was carried out for the methods which had consistently high correlation coefficients and the Penman-Montieth equation was done; thus the equations to use for predicting evapotranspiration values for the Penman-Montieth equation was achieved.&#xD;
</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords/><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Irrigation is essential to provide the moisture requirement of crops in arid parts of the world. In the Cape Coast Municipality where the annual rainfall is unable to supply the moisture requirement of crops, irrigation is essential. The practice of irrigation requires that one have the ability to determine the rate at which the crop uses water in order to determine how much to apply. Crop water use is determined by first estimating the evapotranspiration (ETo) of the crop. There are a number of methods available for use in estimating ETo of the crop. Some of them are direct methods whilst others are indirect. In 1990, FAO in collaboration with the International Commission for Irrigation and Drainage and the World Meteorological Organization, recommended the FAO Penman-Monteith method as a standard method for the definition and computation of ETo (Casta&#xF1;eda and Rao, 2005). This method is however data intensive and may thus never be adopted in areas where instrumentation is unavailable or processing power is low. It then becomes necessary to seek for simpler methods which require less data but are able to accurately estimate ETo. In view of this need, a number of the common methods of ETO estimation are compared with the Penman-Monteth method to ascertain which of these is best able to predict ETO values as accurately as possible.&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS AND METHODS &#xD;
Study area: Cape Coast is the capital of the Central Region of Ghana, the town is coastal and has undulating plains with isolated hills and&#xA0;occasional cliffs characterized by sandy beaches and marsh. The land rises between 250 metres and 300 metres above sea level as one moves inland. The vegetation in Cape Coast is coastal savannah with grassland and a few trees, much of the original forest vegetation has been cleared for food crop cultivation, housing and urban development. The region lies within the dry equatorial zone and moist semi-equatorial zone. Annual rainfall averages around 1,000mm along the coast. The wettest months are May to June and September to October but December to February and a few weeks in August are dry. Mean monthly temperatures ranges from 240C in the coolest month (August) to approximately 300C in the hottest months (March to April).&#xD;
&#xD;
MATERIALS &#xD;
The following materials were used:&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
	Maximum glass thermometer&#xD;
	Minimum glass thermometer&#xD;
	Cup counter anemometer&#xD;
	Sunshine recorder&#xD;
	Piche evaporimeter&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Nine methods of ETo estimation were used, one of them a direct method and the others indirect which employ empirical equations. The methods are listed below, the indirect ones are:&#xD;
&#xD;
1. The original Blaney-Criddle formula (Blaney and Criddle, 1950)&#xD;
2. FAO Blaney-Criddle method (Doorenbus and Pruitt 1977)&#xD;
3. The SCS modified Blaney-Criddle formula (Hansen et al., 1979)&#xD;
4. Jensen-Haise method (Jensen and Haise, 1963).&#xD;
5. Hargreaves 1985 Reference Evapotranspiration equation (Hargraeves and Samani 1985).&#xD;
6. Hargreaves-Samani equation (Hargreaves and Samani, 1985)&#xD;
7. Hamon 1963 equation (Hamon, 1963)&#xD;
8. Hamon 1961 equation (Hamon, 1961)&#xD;
9. FAO Penman-Montieth method (Allen et al., 1998)&#xD;
10. The Piche evaporimeter &#x2013; direct method&#xD;
&#xD;
Meteorological data &#xD;
Metrological data covering a period of six months (May to July 2009 and November 2009 to January 2010) was obtained from University of Cape Coast meteorological station.&#xD;
&#xD;
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS &#xD;
Correlation values in addition to results obtained from regression analysis are presented and discussed.&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
&#xD;
Table 1 shows the correlation co-efficient between FAO Penman-Montieth and the tested methods. It also shows the performances of the tested methods. The Pearson&#x2019;s correlation method for statistical testing was used to compute the coefficient of the tested methods. The 0.732 correlation coefficient obtained by the HargreavesSamani method shows that it is significant in ETo estimation for a 5-day period in the wet season but it shows a weak correlation coefficient when compared to the coefficient values obtained for the various direct and indirect methods used in the 5- day period ETo estimation for the wet season. The Hargreaves (1985) method showed the highest correlation coefficient of 0.999 which implies that the method performed better than all the methods used followed by Hamon (1963), Jensen-Haise, Hamon (1961), SCS modified Blaney-Criddle, FAO Blaney-Criddle, Original Blaney-Criddle, Piche evaporimeter and Hargreaves-Samani methods in descending order of correlation coefficient values. The original Blaney-Criddle method and the FAO Blaney-Criddle method can be preferred to each other during ETo estimation for a 5-day period in the wet season because both scored the same correlation coefficient value of 0.810 to the standard method (FAO-PM). Moreover, the table shows the correlation coefficient between FAO Penman-Montieth and the tested methods for the dry season. The Hargreaves (1985) equation showed the highest correlation coefficient of 0.971 for a 5-day period estimation of ETo in the dry season followed by the JensenHaise, Hamon (1961), Hamon (1963), Piche evaporimeter, Hargreaves-Samani, FAO BlaneyCriddle, original Blaney-Criddle, and SCS modified Blaney-Criddle methods in descending order of significance in estimating ETo for a 5-day period in dry season. Table 1 also shows the correlation co-efficients between FAO Penman-Montieth and the tested methods as well as the performance of the tested methods. The Hargreaves (1985), Hamon (1963) and Jensen-Haise methods showed a perfect correlation coefficient of 1.00 in the 10-day ETo estimation analysis in the wet season followed by the Hamon (1961),Hargreaves-Samani, SCS modified Blaney-Criddle, original Blaney-Criddle, FAO Blaney-Criddle and Piche evaporimeter methods in descending order of correlation coefficient values. The Hamon (1963) and the Jensen-Haise showing a perfect correlation in the 10-day period ETo estimation analysis in the wet season other than the 5-day period implies that the two methods are excellent when used in 10-day ETo estimation analysis in the wet season than a 5-day period analysis in the wet season. In descending order of significance the methods which ranked best in estimating ETo for a 10-day period in the wet season are the Hargreaves (1985), Jensen-Haise and Hamon (1963) methods followed by the Hamon 1961, Hargreaves-Samani, SCS modified Blaney-Criddle, original Blaney-Criddle, FAO Blaney-Criddle, and Piche evaporimeter methods in descending order of correlation significance to the FAO Penman Montieth method. However, the original Blaney-Criddle and the FAO BlaneyCriddle can be preferred to each other because they have the same correlation coefficient when estimating ETo for a 10-day period in the wet season. The correlation co-efficient between FAO Penman-Montieth and the tested methods. The Hargreaves (1985) was the highest correlated method with the FAO Penman-Montieth method followed by Hamon (1961), Jensen-Haise, Hamon (1963), Piche evaporimeter; Hargreaves-Samani, original Blaney-Criddle, FAO Blaney-Criddle and SCS modified Blaney-Criddle methods. The original Blaney-Criddle and the SCS BlaneyCriddle can be preferred to each in the estimation of ETo for a 10-day period in the dry season because they have the same correlation coefficient value when compared to the standard FAO56-PM. Since Pearson square correlation only gives an indication of the rises and falls in the patterns of the two compared methods and does not tell how&#xA0;closely or accurately the tested method quantifies ETo as the yardstick method it would be prudent to conduct a statistical test which does. A critical and empirical confirmation test was carried out by performing regression analysis to examine how closely or accurately the tested methods quantifies ETo as the yardstick method and also determine the relationships between the 5-day and 10-day period ETo estimates from the nine empirical methods and ETo values calculated by FAO-PM method. The regression equation is given by Y = mX + c, where, Y = ETo computed by FAO-PM method and X is the ET estimated from each of the other nine methods, and m and c are constant representing the slope and intercept of the regression equation respectively. The end regression equations together with the coefficient of determination (R2 ) are presented in Figure 1a to 4b for both wet and dry season analysis. The decision rules for the characteristic features of the best method include a "c&#x201D; value closest to zero, an &#x201C;m&#x201D; value close to 1.0 and a high value of R2 .&#xD;
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Based on the decision rule, the results produced by the regression analysis in Figures 1a to 2b are evident that the performance details of the Hargreaves 1985 method is superior to the other eight methods for both the wet and the dry seasons in the 5-day periodic analysis. The Hargreaves 1985 matched very closely to the FAO-PM with a slope (m) of 0.505, an intercept (c) of 2.020 and a coefficient R2 of 0.997 for the 5-day periodic analysis in the wet season and a slope (m) of 0.491, an intercept (c) of 1.932 and a coefficient R 2 of 0.942 for the 5-day periodic analysis in the dry season. The Jensen-Haise method performed fairly good but better than the Hamon 1961 and 1963 methods for the 5-day periodic ETo regression analysis in both wet and the dry season.&#xD;
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Figures 3a to 4b, regression analysis from the results of the 10-day periodic intervals for both wet and dry seasons reveals that the Hargreaves 1985 method again gained superiority over the other eight (8) methods used for the comparison. The Hargreaves 1985 method produced the best dataset with a slope (m) of 0.523, an intercept (c) of 1.963 and a coefficient of R2 of 0.995 for the wet season and a slope (m) of 0.531, an intercept (c) of 1.793 and a coefficient of R2 of 0.942 for the dry season. The Jensen-Haise and Hamon 1963 methods generally gave the best next alternative desirable dataset for the slope &#x201C;m&#x201D;, intercept &#x201C;c&#x201D; and coefficient of R2 to the Hargreaves 1985 method. The Hamon 1961 method generally gave good dataset for coefficient of R2 and an intercept &#x201C;c&#x201D; but gave poor values for the slope (m) with respect to the decision rules. Comparing the regression performance analysis and correlation coefficient values for the 5-day and 10-day periodic analysis over the six months period, it is evident that conversely dataset obtained for the correlation coefficients, slope (m), intercept (c) and coefficient of determination (R2 ) by the Hargreaves-Samani, Original BlaneyCriddle, SCS Blaney-Criddle, Piche evaporimeter and FAO Blaney-Criddle methods unequivocally shows that the methods performed poorly with their original parameters after the regression analysis for both the wet and dry seasons. Generally the poor performance by the eight methods when compared to the Hargreaves 1985 method for the 5-day and 10-day regression performance analysis does not imply that they are bad methods for use but one can improve the end solutions, by recalibrating the values of their original constants parameters, for Cape Coast Municipality.&#xD;
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CONCLUSIONS &#xD;
Based on critical and empirical analysis from the Pearson square correlation and regression analysis above, the Hargreaves 1985 method proves beyond reasonable doubt to be the best method for use with it original parameters in Cape Coast Municipality for ETo determination. It is also evident from the results produced by the radiation methods used in this investigation that radiation is an indispensable parameter in ETo determination and it greatly influence ETo result. It is therefore recommended that the Hargreaves (1985) method is the accurate, less costly, applicable, easy, simple and a practical method for successfully estimating ETo specifically in Cape Coast Municipality for both the wet and dry seasons.&#xD;
</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1678</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1678</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Allen, Richard G.; Pereira, Luis S.; Raes, Dirk; Smith, Martin;. (1998). Crop evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements - FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56. Rome, Italy, United Nations.&#xD;
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</References></Article></ArticleSet><ArticleSet><Article><Journal><PublisherName>Radiance Research Academy</PublisherName><JournalTitle>International Journal of Current Research and Review</JournalTitle><PISSN>2231-2196</PISSN><EISSN>0975-5241</EISSN><Volume>4</Volume><Issue>19</Issue><IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage><SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue><PubDate><Year>2012</Year><Month>October</Month><Day>10</Day></PubDate></Journal><ArticleType>Healthcare</ArticleType><ArticleTitle>ANULOMA VILOMA PRANAYAMA MODIFIES REACTION TIMES AND AUTONOMIC ACTIVITY OF HEART: A PILOT STUDY&#xD;
</ArticleTitle><ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage><FirstPage>146</FirstPage><LastPage>149</LastPage><AuthorList><Author>Varun Malhotra</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author>Usha Dhar</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Rinku Garg</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Sameer S</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Archana S</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Jayanti</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Nivritti</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage><Author> Sushil</Author><AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage></AuthorList><Abstract>Patanjali, foremost exponent of Yoga, described pranayama as the gradual unforced cessation of breathing. Pranayama is derived from two Sanskrit words-prana (life) or yama (control). Pranayam or control of prana or life force yields heart beat pulse and mind control. Yoga combines scientific technique of right behavior (Yama-Niyama), proper posture (asana), life force control (pranayama), interiorisation of the mind (pratyahara), concentration (dhyan), developing intuition (dharna) and Samadhi (ultimate realization). Anuloma Viloma pranayama starts with closing the right nostril with the thumb of the right hand, inhaling through the left nostril, holding the breath, followed by exhalation through right nostril while closing the left nostril with the index finger of right hand and then reversing the process. This forms one round of Anuloma Viloma pranayama or Nadishuddi pranayama. Pulse rate and reaction times were recorded before and after twelve cycles of alternate nostril breathing. The pulse rate dropped from 81.5&#xB1;5.3 to 72.9&#xB1;8.7. Reaction times dropped from 0.47&#xB1; 0.15 seconds to 0.38 &#xB1; 0.09 seconds .The changes are statistically significant at p</Abstract><AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage><Keywords>Pranayam, Anuloma Viloma, Yoga, Venous blood</Keywords><Fulltext>INTRODUCTION &#xD;
Patanjali, foremost exponent of Yoga, described pranayama as the gradual unforced cessation of breathing. Pranayama is derived from two Sanskrit words-prana (life) or yama (control). Pranayam or control of prana or life force yields heart beat pulse and mind control. Yoga combines scientific technique of right behavior (Yama-Niyama), proper posture (asana), life force control (pranayama), interiorisation of the mind (pratyahara), concentration (dhyan), developing intuition (dharna) and Samadhi (ultimate realization). The ancient Indian science of Yoga makes use of voluntary regulation of the breathing to make respiration rhythmic and to calm the mind (1). This practice is called Pranayama. Nadisuddhi pranayama means "purification of subtle energy paths", inhalation and exhalation are through alternative nostrils for successive respiratory cycles. Surya Anuloma Viloma Pranayama means "heat generating breathing particle" when the&#xA0;respiratory cycle of inhalation and exhalation is completed through the right nostril exclusively. When completed through the left nostril alone the practice is called &#x201C;Chandra Anuloma Viloma Pranayama" which means a heat dissipating or cooling liberating practice. (2,3,4,5) The study is designed to study the scientific basis of effect of pranayama on the heart and mind. MATERIAL AND METHODS The Pranayama was performed before meals. The subjects were advised not to hold the breath for uncomfortably long periods, as this causes harmful pressure on the heart, lung, diaphragm and arteries. Subjects who were hyperthyroid have been excluded from the study. The subject was seated in a comfortable sitting posture with back straight (1, 15). Anuloma Viloma pranayama starts with closing the right nostril with the thumb of the right hand, inhaling through the left nostril, holding the breath, followed by exhalation through right nostril while closing the left nostril with the index finger of right hand and then reversing the process. This forms one round of Anuloma Viloma pranayama. Reaction time Reaction time test was taken online (17). It consists of a traffic light signal of red, yellow and green. The subject is instructed to click on a button to begin when ready, to wait for the stoplight to turn green, and click the button when it turns green quickly! The average of five responses in seconds is taken as a reading. Pulse rate and reaction times was recorded before and after twelve cycles of left nostril breathing. RESULTS Sixty six readings were taken for pulse and thirty subjects took the online reaction time test. The pulse rate dropped from 81.5&#xB1;5.3 to 72.9&#xB1;8.7.The change is significant at p</Fulltext><FulltextLanguage>English</FulltextLanguage><URLs><Abstract>http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1680</Abstract><Fulltext>http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1680</Fulltext></URLs><References>1. Sri Paramhansa Yogananda. God Talks With Arjuna. The Bhagavad Gita Royal Science of God-Realization. The immortal dialogue between soul and spirit. A new translation and commentary 2002, chapter IV Verse 29 p 496- 507.&#xD;
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17. The Online Reaction Time Test http://getyourwebsitehere.com/jswb/rttest01.ht ml.&#xD;
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21. Varun Malhotra et al. Surya Anuloma Viloma Pranayama modifies autonomic acticity of heart The Journal Of Yoga (JOY) Vol 8 2009 Spring p1-5(Indexed through EBSCO info services).&#xD;
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22. Varun Malhotra Physiology of Anuloma Viloma Pranayama&#x201D; J. R. Educ. Indian Med, 2008 Oct-Dec p 61-63 ISSN 0970-7700.&#xD;
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23. Varun Malhotra et al &#x201C;Alternate Nostril Breathing Exercise on Cardiorespiratory Functions Kshitiz Upadhyay Dhungel, . Nepal Med Coll J 2008;10(1):25-27.&#xD;
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24. Varun Malhotra, Raj Kumar Patil, Monica Malhotra, Kshitiz, Nagamma T, Rahul A, Anshul Singh, Shreekant, Sonam Motani, Atulya Choudhary Chandra Anuloma Viloma Pranayama modifies autonomic activity of the heart&#x201D; Bulletin of Association of Physicians of Tamilnadu 2008, 2(1) p27-28.&#xD;
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25. Varun Malhotra et al. Alternate Nostril Breathing Exercise on Cardiorespiratory Functions&#x201D; Kshitiz Upadhyay Dhungel, Nepal Med Coll J 2008;10(1):25-27.&#xD;
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