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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15General SciencesTRADITIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND RURAL ENTERPRISES IN NIGERIA: THE CASE OF OGONI LAND
English0116Ettah B. EssienEnglish Onye Kenneth UgwuEnglish DaasiEnglish Gibson L. K.EnglishThis paper examines the role of the traditional financial institutions (TFIs) in the development of micro and small scale enterprises (MSEs) in Ogoni land. The methodology adopted for the study is based on the Paired Observation Test (POT). By adopting an empirical analysis of field data, the paper sought to ascertain the role of some forms of TFIs (the Osusu scheme) in the growth and development of MSEs. The assessment is based on analysis of the involvement of MSEs operators in the Osusu scheme, their total turnover on investments and number of people employed after six years of involvement in the scheme. It also reviews the strengths and challenges of the system in Ogoni and offers some suggestions for strengthening it. Relying on the paired observation test, the results of the study indicates that TFIs generally contributes to the development of the MSEs in Ogoni. However, the Osusu system favours the development of organized MSEs than unorganized MSEs. The study identifies self-regulation as the major setback on the efficacy of TFIs in fostering the growth of MSEs in Ogoni and recommends a system of regulation that may replicate that of the Association of Micro-finance Banks of Nigeria. Increased awareness, periodic supervision and monitoring of the activities of the TFIs are also recommended.
EnglishTraditional Financial Institutions, Micro and Small Scale Enterprises, Ogoni land, Paired Observation TestINTRODUCTION
The informal or traditional financial institutions and traditional credit groups were originally the institutions or agencies to finance farmers, micro and small scale enterprises (MSEs) and business men. Today, the TFIs still exist and dominate large and greater part of rural areas of Nigeria. Traditional financial institution is a kind of cooperative which consist of people who agree to contribute a certain sum of money each and hand it over to a member of the group or share among themselves periodically. As we see in Nwikina (2000), „Financial Institution? per se simply refers to an agency that collects money from savers and lend to borrowers. According to Akpakpan (1991), finance is simply concerned with the provision of money when and where it is required. Because the term „traditional? conveys a sense of informality, this study defines traditional financial institutions (TFIs) as informal agencies or organizations that are concerned with the provision of money when and where it is required. These TFIs exist alongside with modern financial institutions and operate in both the rural and urban centers but are dominant in rural areas of Nigeria. With the expansion of the money economy, the traditional financial institutions (TFIs) have not lost their vigor. They have multiplied, both in numbers and diversity. This is due largely to poor patronage of rural dwellers to the modern or formal financial institutions. The poor patronage of the modern financial institutions is because they offer relatively low returns on savings than the informal institutions. No doubt, the role of the TFIs in fostering the growth and development of MSEs possess some economic and institutional challenges. For instance, micro and small scale enterprises have limited access to deposits, credit facilities and other financial support services provided by Formal Financial Institutions (FFIs). This is because on the one hand, the MSEs cannot provide the necessary collateral security demanded by the formal institutions and on the other hand, the banks find it difficult to recover the high cost involved in dealing with small firms. In addition, the associated risks involved in lending to MSEs make it unattractive to the banks to deal with them (Aryeetey, 1998). Thus, the frustration of assessing credit facilities from the formal or modern financial systems compels the informal enterprises to resort to different non-banking and informal arrangement, namely the TFIs, to access fund for their business operations. This has serious implications for a country like Nigeria where the economy is largely characterized by Micro and Small Scale Enterprises (MSEs). It implies that informal financing should be a matter of concern when considering the issue of rural enterprises development. This brings to the fore the importance of TFIs, particularly the Osusu scheme, in the growth and development of MSEs. The objective of this paper is to examine the role of the traditional financial institutions, namely, the Osusu scheme, in the development of MSEs in Ogoni using some selected MSEs and Osusu Operators (OOs). In doing this, the paper attempts to investigate the significance of four types of the TFIs to the development of MSEs in four Local Government Areas (L.G.As) of Ogoni land, namely: Gokana, Khana, Tai and Eleme local government areas. Thus, the paper seeks to ascertain the effects of selected types of TFIs on the development of MSEs by assessing their Total Turnover on Investment (TTI) and the number of people employed after six years of involvement in the Osusu scheme. It further tries to ascertain the strengths and challenges of the TFIs and to offer some suggestions for strengthening the system. The balance of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 provides an eclectic review of theoretical issues on MSEs financing, and the operational definitions of TFIs and MSEs. Section 3 describes the TFIs in Ogoni Land, their functions and impact on MSEs, the field data set, the study tools and explains the methodology used in the empirical tests. Section 4 contains the results of the study. The paper is concluded in Section 5 with policy-oriented suggestions. Operational Hypothesis The following null hypothesis is stated to guide the study. Ho: The change in number of employees and total turnover on investment after 6 years of involvement on any form of TFI is not significantly different from zero. Theoretical Issues in MSEs Financing In recognition of the importance of MSEs in rural development, there has been a deep interest in recent years for development of small business firms particularly since 1986 when Nigeria adoption of the structural adjustment programme. The MSEs is now seen as a key to Nigeria's growth, alleviation of poverty and unemployment. Therefore, promotion of such enterprises in developing economies like Nigeria is of paramount importance because of its great potentials for incomes redistribution, wealth creation, economic self-dependence, entrepreneurial development, employment generation and a host of other positive, economic uplifting factors (Aremu, 2004). There is a general believes that the desired employment generation in this country can be achieved through the development of micro and small scale enterprises (Awosika, 1997; Schmitz, 1995). It has been estimated that MSE?s employ 22% of the adult population in developing countries (Daniels and Ngwira, 1993; Fissaeha, 1991). Despite the potentials of MSEs in launching the country on the path of economic prosperity, recent studies have shown that most MSEs in Nigeria die within their first five years of existence (Aremu and Adeyemi, 2011). It was also revealed that smaller percentage goes into extinction between the sixth and tenth year while only about five to ten percent of young companies survive, thrive and grow to maturity. Many factors have been identified as likely contributing factors to the premature death. Key among this include insufficient capital, lack of focus, inadequate market research, overconcentration on one or two markets for finished products, lack of succession plan, lack of proper book keeping, among others. But account by Aremu and Adeyemi (2011) points to inadequate access to credit particularly on moderate terms and lack of sound management and accounting practices as the major factors that have negatively affected the growth and development of MSEs in Nigeria. It is, therefore, important that appropriate policies be formulated to encourage, support and regulate the activities of the TFIs so as to enhance their role in financing of small business firms. Operational Definitions Classification of Micro and Small Scale Enterprises (MSEs) The definition of MSEs in this study is based on the United Nations Industrial Development Organization?s (UNIDO) definition for developing countries (UNIDO, 1983) and the classification of enterprises by the Nigerian Industrial Promotion Council (NIPC). In this context, the definition for MSEs is based on the Total Turnover on Investments and number of employees (Osei et al 1993, Elaian, K 1996, Steel and Webster 1990). By this classification, Micro-Enterprise employs less than 5 people with a total (annual) turnover of up to $10,000 equivalent; Small Enterprises employ 5 to 19 people with a total turnover of between $10,000 to $100,000 equivalent and Medium Enterprises employ 20 to 100 people with an annual turnover of above $100,000. Goski et al (2007) and Ekumah and Essel (2003) have also used similar categorization. MSEs have further been classified into „Organized? and „Unorganized? enterprises. According to Mead (1987) in Goski et al (2007), the organized MSEs „are those with paid employees and a registered office and Unorganized MSEs are mainly made up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary wooden structures, or at home and employ little or in some cases no salaried workers. They rely mostly on family members or apprentices?. The operational definition for Total Turnover on Investment (TTI) is the change between the present value of total revenue an enterprise generates from its investments in assets and the total revenue at the time of joining any Osusu scheme. TTI = Where A0 is the average sales at the point of joining any form of TFI A6 is the average sales after six years joining any form of TFI T0 is total investment at the point of joining any form of TFI T6 is total investment after six years of joining any form of TFI Classification of Traditional Financial Institutions (TFIs) The classification of TFIs used for this study is adapted from the categorization by Basu, Blavy and Yulek (2004) in an IMF working paper. Thus, for the purpose of this study, the TFIs are regrouped as follows: (1) Rotatory Savings and Credit Association (ROSCA): This is a form of TFI whereby a group of people mutually agree to come together and pool their resources together in order to assist themselves in turns. They collect an agreed sum of money at periodic intervals and the total amount is given to a member of the group in succession until each member has duly received the sum. ROSCA is common among people engaged in similar type of job. (2) Fixed Saving and Credit Association (FISCA): Here, members pool the resources (money) together for banking purpose. The amount collected is given to the treasurer who holds it for safe-keeping and who returns the lump sum at the end of an agreed period. Borrowing by members and nonmembers is allowed. (3) Mobile Bankers (MBs) or „Akawo?. In this form of TFI, an individual who is a trader or artisan registers with a MB and receives a card containing the days, weeks and months of the year on which each day?s payment is indicated. The mobile banker collects the daily droppings which are kept in his custody or in the bank. At the end of the agreed period when the droppings are redistributed to the owners, the MB takes a day?s collection as his commission. Akawo is common among petty-traders. (4) Individual Money Lenders (IMLs): The individual money lender may be a retired civil servant or a local merchant. In most cases, the lender knows the potential borrower?s social background up to his family relations before giving out the loans. The borrower indicates during application, the collateral (usually landed property) and in most cases, surrenders this collateral before collecting the loan. In case of default, the lender disposes off or auctions the collateral items. Traditional Financial Institutions in Ogoni Land What Roles Do Traditional Financial Institutions Play in Ogoni? There are basically five important functions carried out by traditional financial institutions. These functions are savings, credit, discounting, development and advisory. i) Savings: The traditional financial institution like the ESUSU (Igbo translation) or TELEGBEE (Ogoni translation) engages in the savings business. In some of these institutions the amount to be saved monthly or periodically is determined by members of the association, members contribute according to their ability. The amount collected constitutes the savings for each member which is paid back to them at the expiration of an agreed period of time. ii) Credit: The traditional financial institutions in Ogoni Land provide credit to their members and MSEs, while interest is charged by some institutions, others provide interest-free credit. In some cases, they demand for collateral, while others merely rely on the integrity of members. iii) Discounting: In the traditional system, like ESUSU or TELETU; a man or woman urgently in need of funds may want to buy the right of another member whose turn is to receive the revolving funds. The seller is however held responsible in any event of default. Any member who purchases another member?s turn discounts his own turn to receive the revolving funds in the future. And the discount rate, (the amount the purchaser pays to purchase another person?s turn) is not fixed; it is usually negotiable. iv) Development: Traditional financial institutions play the role of financiers in most rural areas. They conceive projects, organize their implementation and raise the needed funds for their execution. Town Unions, social clubs and village rural development schemes also undertake basic development plans and projects for the benefits of their towns such as building of schools, provisions of infrastructure-water supply, electricity, construction of road, etc. v) Advisory: Traditional financial institutions also perform advisory function to their members in the areas of marriage, building of house, judicious manner of spending morning, moral behaviour, etc.
How do TFIs affect micro and small scale enterprises in Ogoni Land? In addition to being a financial capital, the TFIs (Osusu Scheme) also serves as a strong social capital base which is an incentive to most members. As part of the focus on customers, Osusu does not only deliver the service at the comfort zone of MSEs in Ogoni Land, it serves as a meeting place for the operators of the MSEs to socialize periodically and as at when required. The benefits derived from the networks of operators of small enterprises working together as is the case in most prominent Osusu schemes (the ROSCA FISCAs, IMLs) cannot be compensated for by the formal banking institutions. These are beneficial packages that formal financial systems cannot offer the MSEs and therefore may not be able to compete with the Osusu system over such small enterprises. Osusu in real concrete situations has gone beyond a financial product to a welfare product where individual members of the group have a sense of belonging and support. The welfare aspect of Osusu in effect is an additional product for MSEs in Ogoni Land. METHODOLOGY Method of Study The methodology adopted for the study is based on the Paired Observation Test, POT (see section 3.3). We draw mainly from Goski, Joshua and Stephen (2007). Thus, the study is based on a cross-sectional survey method with two main components. These include Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and Individual Contacts. The contacts were made through one on one discussion and/or small group discussions by visiting offices and officials of banks involved in the Osusu scheme. A self-developed questionnaire was used for the Focus Group Discussion (see appendix 11). This study classified the TFIs (Osusu scheme) into four categories. As earlier noted, this classification is adapted from the classification by Basu, Blavy and Yulek (2004) in an IMF working paper. These are the ROSCAs, FISCAs, MBs and IMLs. The sample design is based on a multi-phase sampling approach. A purposive sample of each category was drawn based on judgment sampling. The sample frame for the TFIs Operators is made up of the following: ? 5 Rotatory Savings and Credit Associations (ROSCA) ? 7 Fixed Savings and Credit Associations (FISCA) ? 10 Mobile Bankers (MB) ? 4 Individual Money Lender (IML) The lists of contributors (MSEs) that have contributed to the Osusu Scheme for at least six years were compiled from the selected operators of the TFIs. The lists were first stratified into organized and unorganized MSEs and then the systematic sampling technique used to draw the test sample from the list of contributors (MSEs). A follow-up was then made to interact with Contributors using the self-developed questionnaire. Both the organized and unorganized MSEs were sampled from the four local government areas of Ogoni land, namely: Gokana, Khana, Tai and Eleme local government areas. ? Group A: Organized MSEs. These are MSEs with paid employees and a registered office. ? Group B: Unorganized MSEs. These are MSEs that are mainly made up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary wooden structures, or at home and employ little or in some case no salaried workers. They rely mostly on family members or apprentices. STUDY TOOLS The survey tool include questions covering the number of years of involvement in any Osusu scheme, source of initial capital, total turnover on investments before and after joining any form of TFI, sources of the working capital, and number of employees before and after joining Osusu for at least six years and whether Osusu is the sole source of fund mobilization or savings. The study tool, thus, sought to ascertain how Osusu has contributed to the growth of their businesses based on number of employees and Total Turnover on Investment (See appendix 2). Assumptions of the Study The study is based on the following Assumptions ? That increases in the number of employees reflects growth of a MSEs. ? That increases in Total (annual) Turnover on Investment also reflects growth of a MSEs. ? That the growth and development of the MSEs emanate from their nvolvement and membership of the various forms of TFIs. Technique of Data Analysis The paired observation test (POT) is used to analyze the data with a view to determining the relationship between the involvement of MSEs in any form of TFI, namely, the Osusu scheme for at least six years and the development of the micro and small scale enterprises as regards changes in number of people they employed and the changes in their total turnover on investment. The paired observation test is implemented with the quantitative statistical software known as MedCalc. The program displays the summary statistics of the two samples followed by the mean of the differences between the paired observations, and the standard deviation of these differences, followed by a 95% confidence interval for the mean. (See samples of the results in appendix 1). The decision criteria are that if the calculated Pvalue is less than 0.05 (or the test-statistic falls inside the critical region when compared to the critical/table t-value), the conclusion is that the mean difference between the paired observations is statistically significantly different from zero. In this case, the H0 is rejected (Altman, 1991). DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS A total of 92 micro and small scale enterprises were interviewed. These included thirty seven (37) organized and 55 unorganized MSEs who are mainly artisans, traders, service providers and vocational business operators. The major challenge encountered in gathering and analyzing the data for this study was inadequate book keeping records and knowledge of financial accountability by MSEs. Ascertaining increase in number of employees was however easier than the total turnover on investment. RESULTS The results are categorized into three groups a) Sources of initial and working capital (table 1) b) Analysis of changes in number of employees and total turnover on investment (table 2, 3 and 4) c) Interviews of operators of the Traditional Financial Institutions (ROSCA, FISCA, MB, IML) and Medium and Small Scale Enterprises (organized and unorganized). (see table 5 and 6 in appendix 1)
From the paired observation test, the test statistic for changes in number of employees is 8.799 which fall inside the critical region when it is compared to the table or critical t-statistic of 2.33. Hence, we reject the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the changes in number of employees. In other words, we accept the alternative hypothesis, namely, that the changes in number of employees after six years of involvement in the Osusu scheme is statistically significantly different from zero. The test statistic of 2.24 for the changes in total turnover on investment shows that it is also statistically significant at 5% level of significance. Thus, there is qualified evidence which suggests that there is a relationship between involvement in the traditional financial institutions and the growth and development of MSEs in Nigeria. Further disaggregation of the results from table 2 (the organized and unorganized MSEs) is presented below.
The results from Organized MSEs indicate that the test statistic of 6.05 (for changes in number of employees) falls inside the critical region when it is compared to the critical value of 2.33. Similarly, the test statistic of 3.266 for changes in total turnover on investment falls in the region of rejection when it is compared to the table value of 2.33. These results suggest that, for the organized MSEs, there have been significant changes in the both the number of employees and total turnover on investment after at least six years of involvement in any of the forms of TFIs.
The results from the Unorganized MSEs indicate that the test statistic of 1.824 (for changes in total turnover) falls inside the region of acceptance of Ho because 1.824 < 2.33. This is a pointer to the fact that even after over six years of their involvement in the Osusu scheme, the unorganized MSEs failed to witness any significant change in total turnover on investments. This result is supportive evidence that the Osusu system favours the development of organized MSEs than unorganized MSEs as regards the changes in total turnover on investment. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The findings from the study suggest that most MSEs rely on the TFIs (the Osusu scheme) through personal savings and remittances from relatives to start their businesses (table 1). About seventy-six percent (76%) of MSEs relied on both Osusu and remittances from relatives (table 1). This comprises of 44.7% support from Osusu and 31.3% support from relatives. Bank loans constituted 4.1%, Customer advances constituted 13.54% while Suppliers? credit constituted 6.25% as source of initial capital. This makes the TFIs the largest contributor as source of initial capital. Osusu and profit injection were the main sources of working capital constituting about 68.6% of working capital though profits contributed a little more than Osusu. The Study brought to the fore the fact that though the TFIs generally contributes to the development of Micro and Small Scale Enterprises (MSEs) in Ogoni, its role in creating income stability, employment and growth is statistically questionable for unorganized SMEs given that their TTI is not statistically significant. However it seems to remain an effective means of raising initial capital and for sustaining most MSEs through periodic contributions to ROSCA, FISCA and MBs. Generally, there was a significant change in the number of employees and total turnover on investment for MSEs involved in any form of TFI for at least six years. However, the difference in turnover observed was accounted for largely by the organized MSEs. This is because while the changes in both the number of employees and total turnover on investment for the organized MSEs were statistically significant, it was not the same in the case of the unorganized MSEs. In the case of the unorganized MSEs (table 4), the result revealed that though there was a significant change in the number of employees, the corresponding change in total turnover on investment was not significant. This raises a number of questions. Are the unorganized MSEs employing beyond the optimal level or their resources being employed inefficiently? Could this factor contribute to the reasons why most SMEs normally collapse after few years? CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The implication of the findings from this study is that the Traditional Financial Institution (TFIs) has had positive impact on the growth and development of Micro and Small Scale Enterprise (MSEs). The results indicate that involvement in the informal financial system (the Osusu scheme) favours the development of organized MSEs than the unorganized ones. Generally, the TFIs contribute to fund mobilization and cash injection into the MSEs and acts as a form of insurance for most of these businesses. In addition, the study opines that Osusu is more than a financial product. It is also a social capital. It performs other useful role in fostering social and income stability, growth and employment generation. In the light of the foregoing conclusions, the following suggestions are discernable: i. Policy makers should consider regulating the informal financial sector by enacting appropriate laws, rules and regulations which would guide the Modus Oparadi of the system and ensure that it is sustained. Government as a matter of urgency, should prioritize the MSEs sector by giving it devoted practical and visible attention with a view to making it virile, vibrant, focused and productive. The era of „lip service? attention to the sector should be done away with. The employment creation cannot be developed without a vibrant SMEs subsector, and so government should do all within its arsenal to reverse the situation. ii. To mitigate the obstacles of irregular payments by contributors and loan delinquency, the operators of the Osusu scheme should be involved in appraising customers and recovering loans. In this case a short training in accounting, book keeping and basic business management principles should become a pre-requisite for accepting MSEs into the FISCA and ROSCA scheme since this is where the loan delinquency rate seems higher. Microfinance interventions in terms of access to credit must be tied with basic management training and basic accounting skills. Here the basic requirement for a micro and small scale enterprise (MSE) to access micro finance from the Osusu scheme or government should not be collateral or merely a form of guarantee but ability to groom the enterprise. Since finance is the most important and cogent key of any enterprises, MSEs must be financially supported so that they can take off, expand and be able to meet the needs of the Nigerians. There is also the need to support and strengthen their productive capacities and market competitiveness. This will provide a training ground for indigenous entrepreneur and help in reducing rural-urban drift resulting from lack of job opportunities in the rural area, especially when MSEs are sited in the rural areas. iii. Finally, to enhance the role of TFIs in the development of micro and small scale enterprises, there is need for increased awareness of their importance, proper supervision and periodic monitoring of their activities/operations so as to foster their intermediation role. In advanced economies, the MSE sector is acclaimed as the engine of economic growth and development. However, against international best practices Nigeria is rated poorly. Extensive efforts in terms of strategic programmes, policy and practice will be required to elevate Nigeria to a leading position. Though Nigeria lacks adequate census on relevant economic indices, it is estimated that Small and Medium Enterprises in Nigeria currently account for over 75% of employment in the country (SMEDAN 2006). This relatively high percentage is however a paradox as 60% of Nigerians still lives below the poverty level. When 60 percent living below the poverty line are taken into account, the share of those gainfully employed in the SME sector is more likely to be in the region of 10% as recorded by US Industry Small Business Administration (SBA)
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1579http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15791. Akpakpan, (1991). Economics Beyond Demand and supply. Port Harcourt: New Generation Publishers. 2. Altman, D. G. (1991). Practical statistics for medical research. London: Chapman and Hall. 3. Aremu, M. A. (2004). Small Scale Enterprises: Panacea to Poverty Problem in Nigeria, Journal of Enterprises Development, International Research and Development Institute, Uyo, Akwa Ibom, Nigeria, I(1): 1 – 8.
4. Aremu, M. A., and Adeyemi, S. L. (2011). Small and Medium Scale Enterprises as A Survival Strategy for Employment Generation in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development, 4(1). 5. Awosika, B. O. (1997). Evolving a National Framework for the Emergency of a Strong and Virile Small and Medium Scale Industry SubSector in Nigeria. A Seminar Paper Presented at MAN House, 5th November. 6. Ayertey, E. (1998). Informal Finance Prepared for Private Sector Development in Africa. Background paper Prepared for African Development Report. 7. Aryeetey, E., et al. (1994). Supply and Demand for Finance of Small Scale Enterprises in Ghana, World Bank Discussion Paper No. 251 Banking Law 1989 PBDCL 225. As amended by banking Act of 2004, Financial Institutions (Non-Banking Law 1993, PNDCL 328). 8. Aryeetey, E., Hettige, H., Nissanke, M., and Steel, W. (1997). Financial Market Fragmentation and Reforms in Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, and Tanzania, The World Bank Economic Review, 11(2), 195-218. 9. Bartels, K. (2003). Press Briefing, by private sector Development, conference room, ministry of information, 15th July. 10. Basil, A. N. O. (2005). Small and Medium Enterprises (SMES) in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects, Ph.D. Thesis, St. Clements University. 11. Basu , A., Blavy, R., and Yulek, M. (2004). Microfinance in Africa: Experience and Lessons from IMF - International Monetary Fund. 12. Daniels, L., and Ngwira, A. (1993). Results of a Nationwide Survey on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in Malawi, GEMINI Technical Report No 53 PACT Publications, New York. 13. Ekumah, E. K., and Essel, T. (2003). Information is Power: the Problem with Credit Accessibility in Rural Banks in Ghana. 14. Elaian, K. (1996), Employment implications of small scale industries in developing countries: Evidence from Jordan, Science, Technology and Development, 14(1). 15. Fissaeha, Y. (1991). Small Scale Enterprises in Lesotho: Summary of a Countrywide Survey, Gemini Technical Report, No 14 Washington D.C, Development Alternatives Inc. 16. Goski, A., Joshua, A., and Stephen, T. A. (2007). The Role of “Susu” A Traditional Informal Banking System in the Development of Micro and Small Scale Enterprises (MSEs) in Ghana. International Business and Economics Research Journal, 6(14). 17. Jone, H., et al. (2000). Linking Formal and Informal Financial Intermediaries In Ghana: Conditions For Success and Implications For Development, No.61, November. 18. Liedholm, C., and Mead, D. (1987). Small Scale Industries in Developing Countries: Empirical Evidence and Policy Implications, International Development, Paper No.9, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA. 19. Mbai, B., Akwasi-Kuma J. (1997). UNDP Microfinance Assessment Report Prepared as a component of the MicroStart Feasibility Mission – September. 20. Mead and Liedholm (1998). The Dynamics of Micro and Small Enterprises in Developing Countries. World Development, 26(1). 21. Miracle, P. M., Miracle, D. S., and Cohen (1980). Informal savings Mobilization in Africa. Economic development and Cultural Change, 28(4). 22. Nwikina, C. G. (2002). Fundamentals of money and banking in Nigeria, Analysis of issues and institutions. Owerri: Springfield Publishers.
23. Osei, B., Baah-Nuakoh, A., Tutu, K.A, and Sowa N.K (1993). Impact of Structural Adjustment on Small-Scale Enterprises in Ghana. In Helmsing A.H.J and Kolstee T. H(eds), Structural Adjustment, Financial Policy and Assistance Programmes in Africa. IT Publications. 24. Robson, G., and Gallagher C (1993). The Job Creation Effects of Small and Large Firm Interaction, International Small Business Journal, Vol. 12 PP 23-37. 25. Schmitz, H. (1995). Collective Efficiency: Growth Path for Small Scale Industry. The Journal of Development Studies, 31(4), 529- 566. 26. Steel and Webster (1990). Ghana?s Small Enterprise Sector: Survey of Adjustment Response and Constraints, Industry Series Paper 41. World Bank, Industry and Energy Deppartment Washington D.C. 27. Stephane, S. (2004). Informal Sector: The Credit Market Channel. Journal of Development Economics, 78(17), 299-321 28. UNIDO (1983). The Potential for Resourcebased Industrial Development in the Least Developed Countries, No.5 –Malawi. 29. World Bank (1992). Malawi: Financial Sector Study, Washington D.C
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15General SciencesAPPLICATION OF EXTRACTED PEROXIDASE ENZYME FROM TURNIP ROOTS (BRASSICA NAPUS) IN CLINICAL DIAGNOSTIC KIT
English1722Khaled E. El-GayarEnglish Mahmoud A. IbrahimEnglish Shimaa H. MohamedEnglish Zainab ZakariaEnglish Amany S. Abd AlhameedEnglishThe peroxidase enzyme was extracted by juicing the turnip roots followed by centrifugation at 12000 rpm. Partial purification of the enzyme was carried out by precipitating of crude enzyme solution with solid (NH4)2SO4 and dialyzed against phosphate buffer saline (PBS) then fractionated by gel filtration on Sephadex G-75 column. The fractionation pattern of the pre-dialyzed enzyme illustrated that two peaks of protein content (absorbance at 280 nm) were present. The 1st peak contained most of the peroxidase activity. The 2nd peak contained other proteins. The enzyme activity showed 2.5 Ku/1ml when guaicol was used as a substrate. For glucose clinical diagnostic kit, two reagents were prepared: The 1st was commercial glucose kit as control. The 2nd was completely prepared using the extracted peroxidase (100 units/100ml reagent). The stability of the prepared kits was in agreement with those of commercial kit. They were stable up to one year when tested corresponding to the reference range of glucose; Normal: 74-102 mg/dl and Pathogenic: 235-325mg/dl.
EnglishPeroxidase, Turnip, Extraction, Purification, and clinical diagnostic kitINTRODUCTION
Peroxidases represent a group of enzymes widely distributed in the plant kingdom and has been extracted from several plants including horseradish (Armoracia rusticana), peach (Prunus persica), yam (Alocasia macrorhiza), manioc (Manihot utilissima), artichoke (Cynara scolymus), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), zucchini (Cucurbita pepo) and others. In this sense, another potentially interesting source of peroxidase is turnip (Brassica napus) 1, 2, 3 . Peroxidases are a group of haem – containing enzymes that present wide substrate specificity. The reaction catalyzed is the reduction of peroxides at the expense of electron donating substrates. This characteristic makes peroxidases useful in a number of industrial and analytical applications 4. They can be used for the treatment of wastewater containing phenols and aromatic amines, in bio-bleaching processes, in lignin degradation, in fuel and chemical production from wood pulp, and in the biotransformation of organic compounds 1, 4, 5 . Peroxidase enters in the production of Glucose, Uric acid, Triglycerides and Cholesterol diagnostic kits. Immunoassay techniques as ELISA with labeling of reactants by horseradish peroxidase and applying of its catalytic properties are proposed 6 . METHODS Extraction and partial purification of peroxidase from turnip roots: Peroxidase was partial purified from 10 kg of turnip roots as mentioned before 2,3,7,8. The roots were washed, sliced, and homogenized with 1 liter of distilled H2O in a blender. Homogenates were then filtered through four thicknesses of cheesecloth then centrifuged at 12000 rpm for 20 minutes. Solid ammonium sulfate (NH4)2 SO4 was added to crude enzyme solution to reach 65% saturation through stirring slowly in an ice bath. After standing at 4?C for one hour , the precipitate was removed by centrifugation at 12000 rpm for 30 minutes at 4C. Pellets were re ? -suspended in a small volume of phosphate buffer saline (PBS), pH 7.5 containing 10 mM CaCl2, and dialyzed overnight at 4C against the same ? buffer. Samples were then taken to determine enzymatic activity. The enzyme was purified further through Sephadex G-75 gel filtration column. Sephadex G75; 5 g was suspended in excess of PBS buffer containing 10 mM CaCl2 in order to be swelled. The slurry was poured carefully into (1.5 × 30cm) column. The bed height was adjusted to 30 cm by settling the gel beads. The column was then washed and equilibrated with PBS buffer at a flow rate of 36 ml/ hr using a peristaltic pump at 4C? . The dialyzed peroxidase was applied to the Sephadex G-75 column with the aid of an adaptor. The enzyme was eluted with PBS buffer, pH 7.5 containing 10 mM CaCl2 at a flow rate of 36 ml/hour. Fractions were collected at 4?C after which the absorbance at 280 nm (an indication for protein content) and the enzyme activity were determined. Active fractions were collected and re-precipitated on ice with solid (NH4)2 SO4. Peroxidase activity and total protein determinations: Peroxidase activity was determined in triplicate by measurement of the absorbance at 470 nm of tetraguaiacol. The reaction mixture was 450 µl 0.1M Acetate buffer, 750µl 0.04M guaicol, 200 µl , 0.02M H2O2 and 100 µl sample as described 9 . Unit of enzyme is that amount of enzyme which catalyses the conversion of one micromole of hydrogen peroxide per minute at 25°C. Total protein concentration was determined in triplicate, using bovine serum albumin as standard, according to Bradford method 10 . Protein electrophoresis (SDS – PAGE): The partial purified peroxidase was used for protein electrophoresis. For SDS-PAGE; 100µg from each sample were boiled in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and 2- mercaptoethanol then separated in a 12% gel according to Laemmli method 11. The proteins were stained with coomassie brilliant blue R-250. Glucose level assay Enzymatic determination of glucose: In order to determine the glucose concentration in human serum, two reagents were prepared: The 1st was commercial clinical glucose diagnostic kit. The 2nd was completely prepared in our lab using the extracted peroxidase (100 units/100ml reagent) as described before 12 . Assay Principle Glucose is determined after enzymatic oxidation in the presence of glucose oxidase. The formed hydrogen peroxide reacts under catalysis of peroxidase with phenol and 4-aminoantipyrine to form a red violet quinoneimine dye as indicator 12 . Glucose + 2H2O + O2 GOD Gluconic acid + H2O2 2 H2O2 +Phenol +4-amino-antipyrine peroxidase 4H2O+ Quinoneimine Procedure Ten µl specimen was added to 1.0 ml Reagent mixture (Phosphate Buffer; 100 mmol/L, Phenol; 4.0 mmol/L, 4-amino-antipyrine; 1.0 mmol/L, Glucose oxidase ; > 20 KU /L, Peroxidase ; > 2.0 KU/L and Sodium Azide 8 mmol/L.) Glucose standard (St) concentration was 100 mg/dl, 5.55 mmol/L .The tubes were mixed and incubated for 10 minutes at 37oC or 20 minutes at 15 -25oC. The absorbance of specimen (A specimen) and standard (A standard) against reagent blank within 30 minutes at 550 nm was measured.
Glucose concentration (mg/dl) = Glucose standard conc. x (A) specimen (A) Standard RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Extraction and partial purification of peroxidase from turnip roots The fractionation pattern of the pre-dialyzed enzyme sample (3ml each) using Sephadex G-75 column is shown in (Figure1). The pattern illustrated that two peaks of protein content (absorbance at 280 nm) were present. The larger peak (fractions 10–25) contained most of the peroxidase activity, with a maximum activity of 2.5k units/ml. The smaller protein peak (fractions 26-40) contained proteins other than peroxidase. SDS – PAGE was carried out to check the presence and purity of the peroxidase enzyme sample. About 100 µg protein sample from enzyme after dialysis, and enzyme after Sephadex G-75 column was applied separately to 12% SDS PAGE. Sample after dialysis showed several protein bands more than that after gel filtration but still it needs more purification. Previously, it was proved that; the molecular weight of peroxidase is located between 38 – 45KDa 4, 7,13,14,15. The results showed that peroxidase is located in this region and corresponds to a molecular weight about 40 KDa (Figure 2) as compared to the molecular weight marker (200 – 19 KDa). The results showed that; 10 Kilogram turnip roots gave 5 liter juice contained about 80 K units. After purification, it gave about 50 kilo units. This quantity satisfies for manufacturing of 50 liters Glucose kit reagents (500 kits/ 100Test). Glucose level assay Oxidation of glucose present in the peripheral blood represents the major source of cellular energy in the body. Dietary glucose is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen or converted to fatty acids and stored in the adipose tissues. The accurate estimation of glucose is important in the diagnosis and management of hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. The most frequent cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes mellitus resulting from a deficiency in insulin secretion or action. Hypoglycemia may be the result of an insulinoma, insulin administration, and inborn error of carbohydrate metabolism or fasting. The concentration of glucose in the blood is controlled within narrow limits by many hormones, the most important of which are produced by the pancreas. The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 4 mM (4 mmol/L or 72 mg/dL, i.e. milligrams/deciliter); however, this level fluctuates throughout the day 16, 17,18,19,20 . In order to check the applicability of peroxidase, the enzymatic determination of a serum metabolite such as glucose was performed. In these reactions the enzyme must be present in saturating amounts in order to be sure that H2O2 produced in the test is converted into a colored substance 4 . The optimal concentration of peroxidase, which gave a linear response with time, was 100 units/100 ml reagents. The present study shows that, in spite of peroxidase have not been completely purified, it gave good stability in glucose kit for one year as demonstrated in (Table 1 and Fig.3). The stability of the prepared kits was in agreement with those of commercial kits. They were stable up to one year at 37 ?C when be tested corresponding to the reference range of glucose; Normal: 74-102 mg/dl and Pathogenic: 235-325mg/dl. CONCLUSION In general, these results will promote using the turnip roots as alternative source of peroxidase in clinical diagnostic kits in which H2O2 is generated and then determined using peroxidase as glucose, uric acid, triglycerides and cholesterol or in immunoassay reagents as Western blot, Dot Blot and ELISA 4, 21,22,23 .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors /editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Authors offer thanks to the Holding Company of Biological Products and Vaccines (Vacsera), Egypt, who’s funded this project.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1580http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15801. Conroy JM, Borzelleca DC, Mcdonell LA. Homology of Plant Peroxidases. Plant Physiol. 1982; 69: 28-31.
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4. Agostini E, Herna J, Arnao MB, Milrad SR, Tigier HR, Acosta M. A peroxidase isoenzyme secreted by turnip (Brassica napus) hairy-root cultures: inactivation by hydrogen peroxide and application in diagnostic kits. Biotechnol. Appl Biochem 2002; 35:1–7
5. Hamid, M , Ur-Rehman K. Potential applications of peroxidases. Food Chemistry. 2009; 115( 4):1177–1186
6. Rodriguez-Cabrera NA, Regalado C, GarciaAlmendarez BE. Cloning, heterologous expression and properties of a recombinant active turnip peroxidase. J Agric Food Chem. 2011; 59(13):7120-6.
7. Rudrappa T1., Lakshmanan VA., Kaunain RA., Singara MA and Neelwarne B. Purification and characterization of an intracellular peroxidase from genetically transformed roots of red beet (Beta vulgaris L.). Food Chemistry. 2007; 105(3): 1312- 1320
8. Zamorano L.S, Cuadrado N.H, Galende P.P, Roig M.G, Shnyrov V.L. Steady-state kinetics of Roystonea regia palm tree peroxidase. Journal of Biophysical Chemistry. 2012; 3(1): 16-28.
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11. Laemli, U.K. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature. 1970; 227:680- 685.
12. GLUCOSE–Liquizyme GOD-PAP (Single Reagent). Egyptian Company for Biotechnology (Spectrum) (S.A.E). 2007. www.spectrum-diagnostics.com
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14. Singh N , Singh J. A method for large scale purification of turnip peroxidase and its characterization. Prep Biochem Biotechnol. 2003; 33(2):125-35.
15. Dalal S, Gupta MN. Purification and characterization of a peroxidase isozyme from Indian turnip roots. J Agric Food Chem. 2010; 58(9):5545-52.
16. Weissman M, klien B. Evaluation, of glucose determination. In: untreated serum samples. Clin Chem. 1958; 4:420-422 17. Trinder P. Determination of Glucose in blood using Glucose Oxidase with an alternative Oxygen Acceptor. Ann Clin Biochem.1969;6:24-25
18. Howanitz PJ, Howanitz JH. Carbohydrates. In: Henry JB,ed. Clinical diagnosis and mana-Gement by laboratory methods. 17th ed Philadelphia: WB Saunders. 1984; 165-179.
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23. Cao J, Chen Q, Zhang H, Qi P, Liu C, Yang X, Wang N, Qian B, Wang J, Jiang S, Yang H, Sun S , Pan W. Novel evolved immunoglobulin (Ig)-binding molecules enhance the detection of IgM against hepatitis C virus. PLoS One. 2011; 6(4):18477.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15General SciencesDEFENCE RESPONSE TRIGGERED BY SCLEROTIUM ROLFSII IN GROUNDNUT (ARACHIS HYPOGAEA L.) PLANTS
English2330M. SaraswathiEnglish M.N.ReddyEnglishTotal phenols and ortho-dihydroxy phenols from healthy and Sclerotium rolfsii inoculated hypocotyls regions of groundnut plants were estimated at different stages of disease development after 10 days of inoculation. The contents of total phenol and ortho-dihydroxy phenols were increased throughout the sampling period of the disease compared to healthy plants. Phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and Peroxidase (PEO) activities were also increased at different stages of disease development. The results showed that the changes in the levels of phenols, ortho-dihydroxy phenols and the enzymes like PAL, PPO and PEO form an important part in the resistance mechanism of the groundnut plants against infection with S.rolfsii.
EnglishSclerotium rolfsii, phenols, defence response, phenyl ammonia lyase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, groundnutINTRODUCTION
Among the soil-borne fungal diseases of groundnut, stem rot or southern blight caused by S.rolfsii (Doidge and Bottomly, 1931) is a potential threat to groundnut production and is of considerable economic significance for groundnut grown under irrigated conditions (Tiwari et al., 2004; Ganesan et al., 2007). S.rolfsii causes severe damage during any stage of crop growth (Cilliers et al., 2000; Ganesan et al., 2007) and attacks all parts of the plant but stem infection is the most common and serious and yield losses over 25% have been reported (Mayee and Datar, 1988). Resistance in plants towards pathogens depends on various factors. Several authors have demonstrated a distinct correlation between the degree of plant resistance and phenolics present in plant tissues (Nicholson and Hammerschmidt, 1992; Bhagat and Chakraborty, 2010). The role of phenolic compounds in the host-pathogen interaction is well established (Sarma et al., 2002) and constitutive phenolics are known to confer resistance indirectly through activation of post-infection responses in the host. Several studies have shown that some phenolics are inhibitors associated with non-host resistance (Nicholson and Hammerschmidt, 1992) whereas others are formed or increased in response to the pathogen infection, and are considered to be an important component in the defence response of the host to the pathogen (Punja et al., 1985; Nicholson and Hammerschmidt, 1992) Present investigation was undertaken to study the role of phenolics during the progression of disease development.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation of pathogen: During the survey of groundnut fields around Srikalahasti and Tirupati areas of Chittoor District, and also other Rayalaseema Districts of A.P. Sclerotium rolfsii was found to be associated with the infected hypocotyls region of groundnut variety TMV-2 at early stages of growth and development. The plants showing stem rot or southern blight symptoms were brought to the laboratory for making isolation according to the tissue segment method on PDA, pure culture was obtained by transferring the sclerotia to PDA plates. The stock culture was maintained on PDA slants in a refrigerator at 10ºC and subcultured for every two months. Disease development Method of raising plants: High quality seed material (average 95% germination) of groundnut variety TMV-2 was obtained from the local Agricultural Research. Sound seeds were surface sterilized with 0.1% mercuric chloride for 2-3 min followed by repeated washings with sterile water and sown in sterilized soil contained in seed pans. The seeds germinated and emerge in 4-5 days. One week old seedlings were used for inoculation purposes. a) Inoculation: Ten days old oatmeal-sand culture of S.rolfsii was thoroughly mixed with sterilized soil at 10%. This inoculum-soil mixture was then distributed in 12" diameter earthenware pots and left undistributed for two days. After this period, one week old seedlings grown in seed pans were lifted carefully without causing much damage to the root system and transplanted into the pots. They were watered on alternate days and kept in an open atmosphere. c). Disease indexing: The plants were periodically examined for the progress of the disease. Samples were collected at random from four pots each time at ‘0’ hours, 2 days, 5 days, 9 days and 11 days after inoculation. The pots, from which samples drawn were rejected. Almost all the seedlings collapse by 11 days after transplantation. The progress of disease in the hypocotyls of the seedlings could be differentiated into the following five fairly distinct stages, on the basis of lesion development. Stage 1: (0 hours, i.e. immediately after inoculation): Healthy seedlings Stage 2: (2 days after inoculation): The early or young phase, characterized by watersoaked appearance of invaded portions of hypocotyls which remained almost colourless or were light brown in colour. Stage 3:(5 days after inoculation): The intermediate stage, in which the lesion surface become brown to dark brown in colour. Stage 4: (9 days after inoculation): Well developed, dark necrotic lesions often girdling hypocotyls. This marks the final stage in lesion maturation. The lesions also show sunken appearance. Stage 5:(11 days after inoculation): Characterized by dry appearance of the lesion surface. Downward destruction or rotting of the tap root occurs and then the seedlings wilt and die. Symptoms characteristic of each of the above stages of lesion maturation are shown in Figure 1. Collection of host tissue For extraction of phenolics, hypocotyl regions with lesions and the corresponding hypocotyl portion of healthy seedlings were collected at the five different stages of lesion development cited above. They were washed thoroughly with distilled water to remove adhering soil particles and used immediately for extraction. Extraction and estimation of phenolics: The method of extraction was similar to that described by Mahadevan et al., (1965). The plant material was chopped into small pieces and one gram of the material was transferred to about 10 ml of boiling 80% ethanol, extracted for five minutes on a boiling water bath by refluxing and cooled in tap water. The material was homogenized in a mortar with pestle and squeezed through a wet cheese cloth. The material was transferred back to a small quantity of fresh boiling 80% ethanol and reextracted for five minutes. Both the extracts were pooled and centrifuged. The supernatant was concentrated on boiling water bath to 5 ml.
Estimation of ortho-dihydric phenols: Ortho-dihydric phenols (OD) were estimated by employing Arnow’s reagent, which is specific to ortho groups (Johnson and Schaal, 1957). To one ml of the ethanol extract in a test tube, one ml of 0.5 HCl, one ml of Arnow’s reagent and 2 ml of 1N NaOH were added. The volume was raised to 12.5 ml with distilled water and the light pink colour which developed immediately was read in Spectrnic-20 colorimeter at 522 nm. A reagent blank was obtained with one ml of distilled water instead of ethanol extract. The quantity of OD phenols in the sample was calculated from a standard curve prepared for an authentic sample of catechol. Estimation of total phenols: To one ml of ethanol extract in a test tube, one ml of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and 2 ml of 20 per cent sodium carbonate were added. The mixture was heated on a boiling water bath for exactly one minute and cooled, resulting in the development of blue colour. It was diluted to 25 ml with distilled water and absorbance was determined in Spectronic-20 colorimeter at 725 nm. A blank was maintained with one ml of distilled water in the place of ethanol extract. Total phenols were calculated from the standard curve plotted for catechol. Extraction and assay of Polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase: The procedure adopted for determining the activities of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (PEO) was essentially that of Fahrmann and Dimond (1967).In a chilled glass mortar (00C) 0.5 g of freshly harvested material was ground with 20 ml of 0.1M ice cold phosphate buffer and centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant was made up to 25 ml and used for assay. The enzyme extracts were prepared in buffer of pH 6.1 for PPO and pH 7.2 for PEO. To determine the PPO activity, catechol (0.1 M) was used as the substrate. The reaction mixture consisted of, 0.5 ml of enzyme extract, 0.2 ml of 0.1 M catechol, 2.3 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer pH 6.1. Change in absorbance at 400 nm at intervals of 15 seconds from zero time of reaction, was determined using a Spectronic-20 colorimeter. For PEO activity the reaction mixture was 1ml of enzyme extract, 0.1 ml of 0.2M pyrogallol and 0.5 ml of 0.01M hydrogen peroxide. Activity was measured by the change in absorbance at 430 nm at 15 sec intervals from zero time. Specific activity of the enzyme was calculated according to the method of Fric and Fuchs (1970) and expressed as per mg protein. Extraction and assay of Phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL-ase) activity: The activity of phenylalanine ammonia – lyase (PAL-ase) was determined according to the method of Biehn et al., (1968) with slight modifications. One gram of freshly harvested material was ground in a chilled mortar with 10 ml of ice cold 0.1M borate buffer, pH 8.8, at 4-5 0C in cold room. The homogenate was filtered through several layers of muslin cloth. The extract was then centrifuged in the cold at 10,000 g for 30 min. The supernatant was made up to 15 ml and used for the assay of PAL-ase activity. The reaction mixture consisted of 2 ml of enzyme extract, 1 ml of 0.05M L-phenylalanine and 2 ml of 0.1M borate buffer pH 8.8. The reaction mixture was incubated for 1 hr in a test tube at 400C and then the reaction was stopped by adding 0.1 ml of 5 N HCl. A zero time control prepared as described above was assayed at the same time. The acidified reaction mixture was evaporated to dryness, the residue dissolved in 0.05 N NaOH and the absorbancy were measured at 268 nm in Hilger and Watts Spectrophotometer. The values, in terms of cinnamic acid formed were calculated from a standard curve prepared for known amounts of cinnamic acid. RESULTS Ortho-dihydroxy phenols of healthy and S.rolfsii inoculated hypocotyls of different stages of disease development were extracted after 10 days of inoculation. Results (Figure 2) showed that ortho-dihydroxy phenols (OD phenols) in healthy groundnut hypocotyls increased gradually throughout the sampling period. The inoculated plants contained higher concentrations of OD phenols, as compared with healthy ones, from the time of initiation of the disease. At later stages of disease development, when the rotting developed fully, the extent of increase was significant. Similarly results revealed that the total phenol content also increased slightly with age, in healthy plants. Infection with S.rolfsii was associated with more increase in total phenol content of the infected hypocotyls. Changes in enzyme activities Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) The results (Figure 3) PPO activity was increased with increasing the stages of disease development. The activity of the enzyme showed slight and gradual increase in the healthy hypocotyls. Infection had a pronounced effect on PPO activity and resulted in steep increase at various stages of disease development. Peroxidase (PEO): Infection resulted in considerable increase in the activity of peroxidase at all stages of disease development (Fig. 3) compared with the corresponding healthy controls. The activity of peroxidase showed a slight and gradual increase in the corresponding infected hypocotyls. Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity (PALase): Results (Fig.3) showed that PAL-ase activity of in healthy plants, the activity was increased gradually throughout the experimental period. In infected plants, its activity was also higher as compared with healthy controls. The increase was more pronounced from stage 3 onwards. DISCUSSION In the present study, total and ortho-dihydric phenols increased with the disease development compared to healthy seedlings. Increased synthesis of existing phenolic compounds, synthesis of new compounds and increased activity of phenolase are typical symptoms of diseased plant tissues. Perturbations in phenolic metabolism due to infection by a wide range of fungal pathogens have long been recognized and have been covered in a number of reviews (Rohringer and Samborskui, 1967; Gupta et al., 1987). The role of phenolic compounds in the hostpathogen interaction is well established and constitutive phenolics are known to confer resistance indirectly through activation of postinfection responses in the host (Sarma et al., 2002). Several studies have shown that some phenolics are inhibitors associated with non-host resistance (Nicholson and Hammerschmidt, 1992) whereas others are formed or increased in response to the pathogen infection, and are considered to be an important component in the defense response of the host to the pathogen (Hammerschmidt et al., 1982; Punja et al., 1985; Nicholson and Hammerschmidt, 1992; Bhagat and Chakraborty., 2010) Present investigation revealed marked increase in total phenol content in the infected tissues than in the healthy ones. This suggests an increased synthesis of phenols not only with aging of plants but also their further stimulation as a result of infection. Increase in total phenol content in infected plants was also observed by several workers in various hostpathogen interactions (Farkas and Kiraly, 1962; Reddy and Rao, 1974; Brahamchari and Kolte, 1983; Mahto et al., 1987; Sindhan and Jaglan, 1987; Padmanabhan et al., 1988). The content of ortho-dihydric phenols also increased predominantly with infection. Similar results were also observed by others in many host pathogen interactions (Sharma et al., 1983; Gupta et al., 1985; Sindhan and Jaglan, 1987). These phenols are resistant factors because they become highly reactive upon oxidation and may result in the formation of substances toxic to the pathogen or which inactivate enzymes including hydrolytic enzymes produced by plant pathogenic fungi (Byrde, 1963; Patil and Dimond, 1967).The increased accumulation of phenols in the infected tissues may be explained by their release from the glycosides or esters by enzymatic (β-glycosidase) activity of the pathogen and /or the host tissues (Noveroske et al., 1964 a; Pridham, 1965), enhanced synthesis by the host, through shikimic acid pathway (Neish, 1964), production of phenolic compounds by the parasite (Farkas and Ledingham, 1959) or migration from uninfected tissues (Rubin and Artsikhovskaya, 1964).
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15General SciencesURBANIZATION AND ITS IMPACTS ON THE SUB-URBS OF BANGALORE CITY
English3142Manjunatha S.English Anilkumar B. KoteEnglishThe process of urbanization has far reaching impacts throughout the world in every society, particularly in Indian society. It is evidently apparent that in India the sub-urban regions are the most affected/influenced by the process of urbanization. In this paper the major aim was to explore the possible impacts of urbanization on the sub-urban regions of Indian society justifying it with the field research. Furthermore here the understanding of urbanization has been clarified since the concept of urbanization is itself in the midst of ambiguity. In the domain of urban sociology the understanding of urbanization has changed gradually with the changing impacts of urbanization. Five major sub-urban regions in Bangalore district (Karnataka, India) were taken for the field study. Review of urban studies in this paper provides a valuable base for a research in the field of urban sociology. And a significant part of the article has been devoted in discussing the problems associated with the urban planning. At the end of the study significant suggestions were made for a better planning of urban growth in India.
EnglishUrbanization, Sub-Urbs, Urban Sociology, Urban-Rural Continuum.INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is an index of transformation from traditional rural economies to modern industrial one. Kingsley Davis has explained urbanization as process (Davis; 1962) of switch from spread out pattern of human settlements to one of concentration in urban centres. It is a finite process: a cycle through which a nation pass as they evolve from agrarian to industrial society (Davis and Golden; 1954). The process of urbanization is not same in all the regions of the world. The process of urbanization varies from society to society, culture to culture and region to region. Thus, here in Indian society the process of urbanization has its own uniqueness and exclusiveness. In Indian society process of urbanization differs from western society‘s process or urbanity due to many reasons. The process of urbanization in India is not a new phenomenon and it has a history of thousands of years. India has a long experience of urban communities through the ages of Indus Valley civilization. Studying urban communities and urbanization has been a major domain in the field of sociology since its origin as a separate discipline. But the understanding of urbanization has changed gradually with the changing impacts of urbanization around the academic setting. Furthermore, today urbanization connecting with globalization has far reaching impacts on Indian society, particularly on its sub-urban regions. India shares most characteristic features of urbanization in the developing countries. However, at the moment, India is among the countries of low level of urbanization. Number of urban agglomeration/town has grown 1821 in 1901 to 5161 in 2001. Number of total population has increased from 23.84 crores in 1901 to 122 crores in 2012 whereas number of population residing in urban areas has increased from 2.58 crores in 1901 to 37 crores in 2012. As I already stated earlier urbanization in India has been relatively slow compared to many other developing countries. The percentage of annual exponential growth rate of urban population reveals that in India it grew at faster pace from the decade 1921-31 to until 1951. Thereafter it registered a sharp drop during the decade 1951-61. The decades of 1961-71 and 1971-81 showed a significant improvement in the growth which has thereafter steadily dropped to the present level 2.7. The sharp drop in urban rate during 1951-61 was mainly due to declassification of a very large number of towns during that period. In India urban growth can be attributed to mainly three components: 1) Natural increase, 2) Net migration, 3) Areal reclassification. It is very clear that the process of urbanization is not merely ?migration lead? but a product of demographic explosion due to natural increase. People migrate to cities not due to urban pull but due to rural push. In Indian society there are some areas which are too far to conclude as village and too tough to add into the category of urban. Hence which are called as sub-urban areas? In Indian society we can see many such types of areas, where people share both cultures and represent urban and rural life styles. This new emerging phenomenon has to be dealt with a systematic research. This kind of research will be having greater significance for the better future life. For many reasons I have chosen Bangalore sub-urban region to examine the prepositions, which were stated earlier in this paper. This unique process has dual impact on society and it involves pros and cons. These problems can be tackled by a well planned urban setting. Hence, the present study on ?Urbanization and its impact on the sub-urbs of Bangalore city? is precisely looking at the process and forces that drive the phenomena of urbanization. Many scholars have recognized that cities provide exclusive opportunities for growth, development in general, entrepreneurship, creativity, and the generation of wealth, in particular. It is just a single face of the duality. Another face includes a host of intractable problems, often accompany rapid urban growth. Kasarda and Parnell note below that; ?… high rates of unemployment and underemployment as urban labour markets are unable to absorb the expanding number of job seekers, soaring urban poverty, insufficient shelter, inadequate sanitation, inadequate or contaminated water supplies, air pollution and other forms of environmental degradation, congested streets, overloaded public transportation systems, and municipal budget crises.? In the light of these complexities, this study is not per se, a mere exploration of built form as archive of the city – that is as a repository of its history – but of a notion of city-as-archive, and it is an attempt to understand the nature of contemporary cities by the process of urbanization, as the city transforms into a global city, with its fast moving generation. The present study was aimed at conducting a field research based study to explore the possible impacts of urbanization on the suburban regions in Indian society. Furthermore it was also sought to test the theoretical model in the light of empirical data. In today‘s world everything has to be planned and the same holds good in the case of urbanization. Urban planning is most needed in the country. History has taught us the worst impacts of urban growth. And some empirical studies too suggested the need for a planned urban growth. Thus, the present study has explored the processes of urban transformation – both physical and symbolic – taking place in the Indian cities today. The rapid urbanization of human society in post modernization era has certainly wide scope for the study.
Theoretical Explanation of Urbanization Many of the early sociologists had a fascination with the city and urban life. The classical sociologists Max Weber wrote a book called ?The City? in which he traced the conditions that made modern capitalism possible back to the medieval, Western city. Other early theorists were more concerned with the way in which the development of the city changed the social as well as the physical environment. The work of Georg Simmel and Ferdinand Tonnies provided two of the most important early contributions to urban sociology (Giddens, Anthony, 1993; 895). A number of writers associated with the University of Chicago from the 1920s to the 1940s, especially Robert Park, Ernest Burgess and Louis Wirth, developed ideas which were for many years the chief basis of theory and research in urban sociology. Two concepts developed by the Chicago School are worthy of special attention. One is the so-called ecological approach in urban analysis; the other is the characterization of urbanization as a way of life, developed by Wirth (Wirth 1938; Park 1952). The ecological approach has been as important for the empirical research it has helped to promote as for its value as a theoretical perspective. Many studies, both of cities and of particular neighbourhoods, have been prompted by ecological thinking, concerned, for example, with the process of ?invasion‘ and ?succession‘ mentioned above. However, various criticisms can justifiably be made. The ecological perspective tends to underemphasize the importance of conscious design and planning in city organization, regarding urban development as a ?natural‘ process. The models of spatial organization developed by Park, Burgess and their colleagues were drawn from American experience, and fit only some types of city in the United States, let alone cities in Europe, Japan or the developing world. Wirth‘s thesis of urbanism as a way of life is concerned less with the internal differentiation of cities than with what urbanism is as a form of social existence. Although for a period the urban ecology approach fell into disrepute, it was later revived and elaborated in the writings of a number of authors, particularly Amos Hawley (1950, 1968). Rather than concentrating on competition for scarce resources, as his predecessors had done, Hawley emphasized the interdependence of different city areas. Differentiation—the specialization of groups and occupational roles—is the main way in which human beings adapt to their environment. Groups on which many others depend will have a dominant role, often reflected in their central geographical position. But the zones which develop in urban areas, Haweley points out, arise from relationships not just of space, but of time. Business dominance, for example, is expressed not only in patterns of land use, but also in the rhythm of activities in daily life – an illustration being the rush hour. Claude Fischer (1984) has put forward an interpretation of why large-scale urbanism tends actually to promote diverse subcultures, rather than swamp everyone within an anonymous mass. Those who live in cities, he points out, are able to collaborate with others of similar backgrounds of interest to develop local connections; and they can join distinctive religious, ethnic, political and other sub cultural groups. A small town or village does not allow the development of such sub cultural diversity. Those who form ethnic communities in cities, for instance, might have little or no knowledge of one another in their land of origin. When they arrive, they gravitate to areas where others from a similar linguistic and cultural background are living and new sub community structures are formed. More recent theories of urbanism have stressed that it is not an autonomous process, but has to be analyzed in relation to major patterns of political and economic change. The two leading writers in urban analysis, David Harvey (1973, 1982, 1985) and Manuel Castells (1977, 1983), have both been strongly influenced by Marx. Drawing on broadly Marxist ideas, David Harvey1 has argued that urbanism is one aspect of the created environment brought about by the spread of industrial capitalism. In traditional societies, city and countryside were clearly differentiated. In the modern world, industry blurs the division between city and countryside. Agriculture becomes mechanized and is run simply according to considerations of price and profit, just like industrial work, and this process lessens the differences in modes of social life between urban and rural people. In modern urbanism, Harvey points out, space is continually restricted. The process is determined by where large firms choose to place their factories, research and developmental centres and so forth; by the controls asserted by governments over both land and industrial production; and by the activities of private investors, buying and selling houses and land. After the Second World War, for instance, there was a vast expansion of suburban development in major cities in the United States. This was partly due to ethnic discrimination and the tendency of whitest move away from inner-city areas. However, it was only made possible, Harvey argues, because of government decisions to provide tax concessions to home buyers and construction firms, and by the setting up of special credit arrangements by financial organizations. These provided the basis for the building and buying of new homes on the peripheries of cities, and at the same time promoted demand for industrial products such as the motorcar. In England, the growth in size and prosperity of towns and cities in the south in the post-war period is directly connected to the decline of older industries in the north, and the consequent movement of investment to new industrial opportunities. Like Harvey, Castells stresses that the spatial form of a society is closely linked to the overall mechanisms of its development. To understand cities, we have to grasp the processes whereby spatial forms are created and transformed. The layout and architectural features of cities and neighbourhoods express struggles and conflicts between different groups in society. In other words, urban environments represent symbolic and spatial manifestations of brooders social forces. For example, skyscrapers may be built because they are expected to provide profit, but the giant buildings also symbols the power of money over the city through technology and self confidence and are the cathedrals of the period of rising corporate capitalism (Castells; 1983). In contrast to the Chicago sociologists, Castells sees the city not only as a distinct location the urban area but as an integral part of processes of collective consumption, which in turn are an inherent aspect of industrial capitalism. The views of Harvey and Castells have been widely debated, and their work has been important in redirecting urban analysis. In contrast to the ecologists‘ approach, it puts emphasis not on natural spatial processes, but on how land and the created environment reflect social and economic systems of power. This marks a significant shift of emphasis. Yet the ideas of Harvey and Castells are often stated in a highly abstract way, and have not stimulated such a large variety of research studies compared with the work of the Chicago School. In some ways, the views set out by Harvey and Sastells and those of the Chicago School usefully complement each other, and can be combined to give a comprehensive picture of urban processes. The contrasts between city areas described in urban ecology do exist, as does the overall impersonality of city life. But these are more variable than the members of the Chicago School believed, and are primarily governed by the social and economic influences analyzed by Harvey and Castells. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Urban Sociology in India is a major contribution to urban studies. Urban studies have evoked much interest in Historical and comparative perspectives. Research in urban sociology in India is still in infancy although the nation has the best census records of any country going back to 1901 and consequently provides excellent data for planning and various programmes. In an early overview of studies of Indian urbanism, Satish Sabarwal rightly remarked that this terrain has until recently remained singularly devoid of intellectual landmark. In the early 1950‘s following a UNESCO study on migration into India cities, the topic of urbanization did gain a separate space within the Indian Sociological Association and the Indian Economic Association. Major inputs for urban studies came from the profile sponsored by this planning commission of 20 major Indian cities. Indeed well articulated demographic profile of Indian cities at National, regional and local levels among the first contributions to urban studies. Other comparative studies were conducted under the aegis of Research Programmes Committee. Hoselitz (1961) studied the cities of Calcutta, Kanpur and Jamshedpur. Pethe (1962) compared the socio-economic conditions of Hyderabad, Poona, Sholapur, Baroda, Hublic, Cuttack, and Puri to indicate the overall levels of inequalities between the different strata in the communities. Bulsara (1964) also made a comparative study of four metropolises, i.e., Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, and Madras. All these studies are very useful but are lacking in analysis. Kosambi (1994) conducted the third survey of literature on urban studies covering the period from 1979 to 1988 and reviewed 900 items including books and articles culled from about 50 journals and printed doctoral theses, which appeared during the period 1979 to 1988 in India and elsewhere. This number itself is an indication of growth of literature in the field because D‘Souza reviewed only 250 and 350 items for the first and second survey, respectively. During the eighties, there were many studies on urbanization patterns and trends, but issues pertaining to metropolitization and regional planning remained inadequately explored. Migration studies also highlighted the all-India trends as well as regional variations in terms of male and female socioeconomic differences. The spatial structure of cities has not been systematically explored and theoretical contributions in the field were relatively meagre. Among the various urban problems, there was some fresh thinking on the concept of urban poverty. As in the eighties, studies on different aspects of slums and squatter settlements received due attention (Misra and Gupta; 1981, Rao and Rao; 1984, Jha; 1986). Kosambi also found that a set of definitive theoretical statements about the urban impact on the traditional institutions or about the important relationship between the caste and class in urban areas was lacking. During the eighties, sociologists still favoured sample surveys with interview schedules and questionnaires; social anthropologists continued to prefer the study of small communities; while demographers, economists, and geographers used sophisticated quantitative techniques in analysis the data. The sociologists, by and large, shied away from the advanced statistical methods. As in the eighties, urban studies remained attractive for scholars during the nineties. The National Commission on Urbanization (NCU) report, published in five volumes, highlighted the problems of urbanization at the grassroots, substate and state levels. This decade has also seen some valuable studies on slums and squatter settlements such as: Kaldate; 1989, Dhadave; 1989, Sandhu; 1989, Rao R. N; 1990, Das; 1993, Desai; 1995, De wit; 1996, Purewal; 2000, Lobo and Das; 2001. In addition to this, many other publications appeared as conferences and seminars volumes on different aspects of urbanization such as human settlements, urban poor and sustainability of human settlements. Some of the important works are Mohanty; 1993, Didde and Rangaswamy; 1993, Roy and Das Gupta; 1995, Kundu; 2000, Sandhu et al.; 2001, Sharma and Sita; 2001. A few significant studies of the villages near a town, city or metropolis in India reveal changes in their social and economic structure, which approximate to some of the characteristics of the fringe society—A.R. Beal‘s study of Hattarahalli, a village near Bangalore, and T.S. Trent‘s study of Namhalli, a village near a sugar factory town in Mysore (see Srinivas; 1956), Chapekar‘s (1954) study of Badlapur, a village near Kalyan; Acharya‘s (1956) study of four villages around Nasik; and Kapadia‘s (1956) study of five impact villages around Navsari. Following extensive research in the most ill-famed slum of Calcutta, India - Anand Nagar, i.e. ?city of joy? – the journalist turned writer quite simply but compellingly carries us through the life stories of several slum dwellers, often through their own words. The study concerns the trials and tribulations of people who are living in Calcutta (Kolkata), India. Kovalski is trying to help and understand life in the slum called Anand Nagar (City of Joy) and the life of rickshaw puller, Hasari Pal (the sufferer). Mumford in his book 'The city in history' (1961 Harcourt, Brace and World (New York) sees cities as enlarging all dimensions of life as the scattered as the scattered activities of society are brought together so releasing the energies of mankind in a tremendous explosion of creativity. The city has augmented capabilities for participation and widened the basis of personal experience. In the writings of Neo-Marxists like Mills, Marcuse, there is a consensus that conditions of capitalist urbanization are mutilative of the personality, inhibitive of community formation, destructive of social engagement or involvement and conducive to apathy, alienation and anomie. Class consciousness is inhibited and diverted in mass movements, unreason and not reason typifies social response. Sociologists from Tonnies to Wirth developed counter-theory to Marxism for the explication of social change led to acceptance of a fundamental cleavage between rural and urban, tradition and modernism which was in sharp opposition to any variant on Marxist theories of development. The urban is accepted as a frame of reference and the urban society as a specific mode of social organization becomes the object of scientific study. Tonnies in his book Community and Society (2002) explained the impact of the market economy on traditional forms of social association; the implications of urbanization and the development of the state for the conduct of social life and the mechanisms of social solidarity in an individualized society. The distinction he draws between the two forms of human association, gemeniscaft and gesellschaft has become the basis for a succession of typologies of which the best known are the pattern variables formulated by Parsons and folk-urban typology drawn by Redfield and Wirth. George Simmel (1903) presents social interaction in terms of abstract categories. The study of society could only proceed by means of logical analysis of the forms of association. The forms are cognitive categories. Simmel belonged to the neoKantian tradition which frankly denies the possibility of the study of the natural or the social world without selection and ordering by the observer. Simmel was trying to expound on three themes; first the consequences of a money economy for social relationships. Second the significance of numbers for social life and lastly the scope for the maintenance of independence and individuality against the sovereign powers of society. ?Urbanization and Some Social Problems‘, D. Narain (1960) makes a distinction between the existence of cities and urbanization as a dynamic force in a society. He considers that the real history of urbanization begins from 1800 A. D. Europe and America underwent the most profound changes known in history and emerged as qualitatively new societies; they also influenced urbanization in Asia. Urbanization in Asian countries is an outgrowth of colonialism and the process is now subjected to central planning and governmental intervention as against its operation through the free market in Europe. Asia is less urbanized than any continent, excluding Africa. In 1950, about 13 percent of Asia‘s population lived in cities of 20,000 or more, as compared to 9 percent in Africa. Cities have been seen in the wider context of history of civilization by many scholars, such as G. Botero A.F. Weber, Spengler, Toynbee, Geddes, Mumford and Wirth. While Betero and Weber sought more specific causes and conditions for the growth of cities in different civilizations. Spengler and Toynbee generally considered world history in terms of city history. Geddes viewed the city as a mirror of civilizations. Mumford and Ghurye have elaborated this idea in different historical contexts. Wirth also maintained that the history of civilizations should be written in terms of the history of cities and that the city was the symbol of civilizations. An attempt has been made in the study to place urban sociology in India in the wider context of problems and perspectives of urban studies. It has a detailed analysis on 1) Theoretical problems, 2) Historical aspects. 3) Demographic and ecological aspects 4) Immigrant communities and Neighbourhood 5) Social stratification and mobility. 6) Marriage and family 7) Religion 8) Polity and 9) Urban influence on rural life. Slums and urbanization ed. by A R Desai and S. Devadas Pillai is another pioneer study on urbanization with the rapid pace with urbanization taking place in the developing countries, slums have become an alarming reality. From Bermuda to manila almost every city is dotted with slums. This book indeed focus attention on this desperate problem by a careful arrangement of extracts and papers representing different points of view, sometimes conflicting with each other but essentially dealing with certain crucial issues underlying the urban process. Now it is possible that the exclusive and misplaced emphasis on such factors as the growth of size and density of population in defining the situation as urban may lead one to develop a sort of demographic argument in urban sociology, and in India this seems to be in the writings of Ashis Bose (1965; 1970a; 1970); and G.S. Ghurye (1962). It is also dominant in the studies of changes in the urban population of India done by Davis (1962) as well as Bogue and Zachariah (1962). However, it must be pointed out here that in exploring the intricacies of India‘s urban ecology, rich dividends are more likely to be obtained by the analysis of patterns of residence of Indian cities by income, education, occupation, caste, and religion. Such pioneering studies were already made by D. R. Gadgil in his Poona surveys (1945; 1952) as well as the resurvey of the same city done by Sovani, Apte and Pendse (1956). The more specific socio-economic-cum-social-ecological analysis of the city of Poona is done by Surinder K. Mehta (1968; 496-508) with statistical sophistication unmatched by other studies. In the same way, I P Desai (1964) in his studies of the city of Poona as well as Mahuva a town in Saurashtra, makes similar observation regarding the continuity traditional structures. This leads us to support A. M. Shah‘s suggestion that one of the most fruitful approaches in this case would be to examine the developmental process of households, both progressive and regressive which is assumed to be operative in the villages, towns, and we believe, the cities of India. Only a few studies analyze urban neighbourhood in India, as in many cases most of one‘s neighbours may be one‘s kin, as shown by Vatuk, Gandhi, and Chatterjee. And where the non-kin are found to reside as neighbours, most of them may be members of the same caste or sub-caste. This is also noted by Lynch (1967: 143) in his study of Agra city which he found to be ?divided into well over 200 mohallas or bastis (?neighbourhoods,‘ ?wards‘). One of the first continuities with village organization…is the tendency towards residential segregation by caste and caste groups within those mohallas or bastis… The mohallas of the Jatavs tend to be either dominated or completely occupied by them. Sujatha Patel and Kushal Debe‘s Urban Studies (2009), using inter-disciplinary approach, this volume examine aspects of diverse urban life including life in the city and industrialization. It also discusses issues of urban planning, slums, health and sanitation. The Promise of the Metropolis: Bangalore‘s 20th century by Janaki Nair: (2005) Bangalore‘s recent emergence as a metropolis and its internationally acknowledged status as India‘s Silicon Valley have made it known the world over. While providing a well-researched perspective on the city, this book analyses how it has been shaped by the ideologies and principles of planning, instrumentalities of law, and by the mobilization of ?City Beautiful‘ aesthetics. It also discusses the unanticipated uses of space that fashion a city quite different from the one envisaged by planners and technocrats, revealing ways in which citizenship and democracy are being reconceptualized. This study is massively researched and lucidly written, it presents a critical history of the making and unmaking of modern Bangalore. The book explores certain historical themes, particularly the legacies of the past that have gained legibility in the contemporary city, focusing in particular on its divided history. The fifty years since Independence are disused in terms of the success with which they overcome divisions marked by the nation, the region, and the global capital. The chapter concludes on the note that Bangalore ‘has suffered from the general neglect of urban studies in social science disciplines’, even though select works have been carried out by Noel Gist, Venkatrayappa, R L Singh, Prakasa Rao, VK Tewari and James Manor. In conclusion of this critical evaluation of the urban studies in India, it must be emphasized that although the Western theories of urban society have some applicability to the India urban situation, as in the case of urban social stratification, the dichotomous tradition emphasizing rural-urban contrasts would be of little value. Since marriage, kinship, family and religion in urban India exhibit certain specific structural and cultural characteristics of their own, neither the Western theories of urban society nor the hypothesis derived from them could be valuable in understanding, interpreting and analyzing those institutions. But the social structure of urban India is continuously under the pressure of internal as well as external forces of change. The task before the urban sociologist of India is to formulate more meaningful hypothesis, based on the intimate knowledge of the Indian urban situation, concerning continuities and change of its various structural elements.
METHODOLOGY
This paper attempts to understand the impacts of urbanization on the sub-urban regions of Indian society. For the said purpose, field research was carried out in five significant area of Bangalore south district of Karnataka State, India. The primary field sites for the research are Konanakunte, Yediur, Marenahalli, Uttarahalli, Doddakallasandra, in Bangalore, because they are considered to be the most important centre recently for several reasons which provide richer comparative data. The research strategy was primarily qualitative aimed at producing in-depth knowledge about the topics investigated, although quite a reasonable survey of inhabitants of migrated population was also designed to generate some amount of quantitative data. Altogether, 300 people have been interviewed who were living in these areas. In addition to that we spent maximum number of days in observing the actual living practices, environment, work practices, meetings, social events, and the like, with various community organizations which added substantially to the archive of research material collected. Along with semi-structured interviews were framed with coolie workers and construction workers whose economic profiles were still at the marginal or subsistent level. A combination of ethnographic and sociological methods has been adopted, including a questionnaire-based survey, in-depth interviews, group discussions, participant-observation, and documentary research. Bangalore is the principal administrative, cultural, commercial, industrial and knowledge capital of the state of Karnataka. Bangalore city has been growing rapidly over the period of time. In 1946 the area of Bangalore had been limited to 69 sq. km, but soon after 1963 it has got momentum and increased till 112. At present BBMP (Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike) covers 741 sq. km. Along with its population, Bangalore city is also growing at a quicker pace. According to Bangalore Metro Population World Gazetteer, in 2011 Bangalore‘s population is 78 lakh. In 1901 it was only 1 lakh and in 1951 it was increased to 5 lakh. The above said over all data clearly explains the tremendous process of urbanization. Hence, impact of urbanization on the Bangalore city prevails existing changes. This study examines such implications of urbanization on Bangalore city in general and on the sub-urbs of south Bangalore in particular. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The present study was placed to explore the impacts of urbanization on the sub-urbs of Bangalore city. In doing so, the study has endeavoured to analyze the socio-economic composition of Bangalore city and test the existing theoretical models regarding urban growth with special reference to five sub-urbs of Bangalore city: Konanakunte, Yediur, Marenahalli, Uttharahalli and Doddakalasandra. This section briefly examines the major implications of the process of urbanization on the above stated suburban regions. There is no doubt that urbanization plays an important role in the process of ?development‘ of any country and sub-urbs are more influenced by the process of urbanization than any other region. It is evidently found in this study. Among these sub-urbs though nuclear families are increasing the existence of joint families are also common and there is a decline in agricultural occupation but animal husbandry, coolies and construction work remained as a major occupation. In these sub-urban regions the impact of urbanization is felt from last ten years. Though caste underwent certain modification, here people believe caste is very important in their daily dayto-day activities. Marriage, caste associations and political parties are being used as weaponry for the protection of caste identity by the people of these regions. Comparing with rural regions in these sub-urban regions the status of women has largely improved. However, these sub-urban people also celebrate village festivals every year just like in villages. Here with reference to migration of the respondents push and pull factors play an important role. From the above findings it is clear that both characteristics of urban and rural do exist in these sub-urban regions. Hence the concept of rural-urban continuum can be evidently found here. In these regions economic planning and state intervention have come to be accepted as the best strategies for the promotion of overall economic growth and development for raising the general levels of living. As stated earlier, from the first five year plan to the current five year plans are based on certain fundamental principles which are the basic policies setting up priorities in the development of different sectors of the economy. Therefore, instead of the crazy idea of conversion of Bangalore into Singapore, the policy makers and urban planners should respect the location- specificity and capabilities of the city of Bangalore and promote its growth and development if not as an ?ideal city‘ which means ?a city without slums, traffic congestion, house and ground congestion, air and water pollution, and with population growth matching the requirements like housing, health, education, and the people living in an attractive urban environment at a cost which a city can bear‘, but, ?as a city of profound aesthetic and environment culture with a balanced urban ecosystem in terms of land use, infrastructure and human beings belonging to various socioeconomic strata‘. As a matter of fact, the system of iron clad inequalities of wealth, income and opportunities had led the framers of the constitution to include among the directives principles of state policy, a provision which says that ?in economic sphere, the State is to direct its policy in such a manner as to secure distribution of ownership and control of material resources of community to sub serve the common good and to ensure that operation of economic system does not result in concentration of wealth and means of production to common detriment.? All the five year plans have been emphasizing this very objective and some social legislations have been enacted to reduce inequalities, disparities. But very little success seems to have been achieved, and gaps between the rich and the poor continue to grow. The public is no longer enamoured with slogans alone. India has failed to achieve the declared goals as enumerated in the constitution and the various documents of the five year plans. It has not raised the level of living for the masses; it has not reduced the vast inequalities of income; it has not prevented further concentration of wealth; and it has not liquidated widespread unemployment. By 2031, India will have the larger urban population of about 350 million in the world; and it is projected that cities of one million-plus population will increase to about 35 containing almost 40 percent of the total urban population which may reach nearly 150 million. Actually, it may be admitted that the whole India is blighted by slums, shanty towns and squatter settlements where living conditions are not merely poor but deplorable. The problem of footpath dwellers whose number has increased to several million is another dimension of the poor. Such problems in metropolitan cities are becoming more severe and acute partly because of the continuous flow or rural migration and relatively high urban fertility rates, and partly because of the existing shortages in housing and infrastructural facilities. The task of improving metropolitan cities is really the task of housing the poor and development of overall employment opportunities. This presents a great challenge which is complex and staggers human imagination. Apart from the long term national policies for the development of rural areas more intensively to stabilize rural population and urban policies to redistribute migrants to small and medium cities, short term programs and strategies are needed for the massive construction of several millions of new housing units consisting of one or two rooms with a kitchen and a bath which are in the jurisdictions of the existing metropolitan cities. Hence, the future city of Bangalore should look like, a city with a balanced vertical and horizontal growth having greenery all around interspersed with well planned self-contained residential neighbourhoods, infrastructure and services with minimum travel needs. Since, any city for that matter cannot function alone in isolation with its immediate region; Bangalore should be developed along with its region to maintain the city-region symbiosis. The functional reality of the region as an agricultural region is disrupted due to imposed demand by real estate. As a result, rural inhabitants of the region are forced to leave their traditional occupation of agriculture, and settle down as ?so called urban residents‘ with a hope that some policy interventions will provide them a decent future. In fact, Bangalore is already experiencing this problem more seriously. May be as a component of the city-region development, the government of Karnataka has also proposed to develop a few satellite towns around Bangalore probably with an intention to siphon-off the existing as well as future population pressure likely to experience by the city. However, these satellite towns should be planned as self-contained units with least dependence on the city which is restricted to specialized commercial, health and administrative services. Hence, for the planned development of the city of Bangalore and its region together, the existing planning institutions like BDA (Bangalore Development Authority) and BMRDA (Bangalore Metro Railway Development Authority) have to work together with proper coordination to achieve the sustainable city-region development. Ultimately, such a dream city with a well-balanced city-region system is possible only with the combined efforts of dedicated stake holders such as urban planners, policy makers, non-government organizations, and more significantly the citizens of Bangalore. Thus in this way the process of urbanization affects the sub-urbs and growth of cities also affects the villages near cities and absorption of villages into a city is eminent and a city like Bangalore is gradually changing itself and other areas. CONCLUSION For the better planning of urban growth governmental agencies should take steps to bring in planning, housing, financial, regulatory, institutional and legal reforms and devise macroeconomic policies to enable flow of resources to the housing and infrastructure sector by encouraging private investment in housing, one of advanced technology to build low cost houses. For doing they should evolve plans, strategies and parameters for optimal use of available resources including land for sustainable development and devise action plans for the provision and creation of adequate infrastructure facilities like water sources, connectivity and power supply. Governmental bodies should also develop and enforce appropriate ecological standards to protect the environment and provide a better quality of life in human settlements. They must continue and pursue urban reforms with a focus on revision of bye-laws, municipal laws, simplification of legal and procedural framework, initiation of partnership, reduction of municipal manpower, introduction of property title, introduction of regulators, implementation of urban street vendor policy, etc. So far there are many social scientists who do believe in clear contrast between rural and urban. But this research work has provided a different analysis from earlier studies. 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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15General SciencesEFFICIENT MICROPROPAGTION PROTOCOL FOR A VALUED ENDANGERED MEDICINAL PLANT - CHITRAK (PLUMBAGO ZEYLANICA LINN.)
English4347Bharti DohareEnglish Kirti JainEnglish Bharti JainEnglish Swati KhareEnglishAn efficient protocol for clonal propogation through embryogenesis were established for Chitrak Plumbago zeylanica Linn. (Plumbaginaceae), which is endangered medicinal plant for high commercial value. Seeds from healthy grown plants were cultured on standard Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different concentrations of Benzyl amino purine (BAP) or Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). The best shoot proliferation 22.12 shoots per explants with 93% induction, shoot length (7.43±0.53) was observed in MS medium containing 1.5 mgl-1 BAP + 0.5 mgl-1 NAA. This study provides a basis for germplasm conservation and for further investigation of medicinally active constituents of the elite medicinal plant.
EnglishPlumbago zeylanica, medicinal plants, embryogenesis, Micropropagation.INTRODUCTION
Plumbago zeylanica Linn. (Chitrak) belongs to Plumbaginaceace is an important medicinal plant grown as a perennial herb in most parts of India, but on larger scale in the plains of West Bengal and Southern India. The whole plant contain plumbagin, a natural napthaquinone, possessing various pharmacological activities such as antimalarial, antimicrobial (Didry et al. 1994), anticancer, cardiotonic, antifertility action, antibiotic and antineoplastic (Kirtikar and Basu 1975; Modi 1961, Krishnaswamy and Purushottamam 1980, Pillai et al. 1981). This active chemical has properties of vitamin K, and is antibiotic on several human pathogens (Burkill, 1985). Its roots have been used as folk medicine specially in the treatment of rheumatism, dysmenorrhea, carbuncles, contusion of the extremities, ulcers and elimination of intestinal parasites (Chiu NY et al.,) skin disease, piles, anasarca, syphilis and carcinoma. P. zeylanica has been reported that when given orally or applied to ostium uteri, causing abortion (Azad Chowdhury et al., 1982; Premakumari et al., 1977). It is also used as an appetizer. In traditional Indian medicine, P. zeylanica L. has been assigned medicinal properties and is used in formulations of a number of ayurvedic compounds (Kirtikar KR et. Al). It is widely used in the treatment of diarrhoea, leprosy and anasarca (Anonymous). Collection of its roots from wild stock to furnish the demand of different pharmaceutical companies is posing threat to this important plant species and has been categorized as threatened plant species as per IUCN criteria (Jain AK and Vairale MG.). Propagation through seed is unreliable due to poor seed quality, erratic germination and seedling mortality as under natural field conditions. Despite of all these there is a need to generate a much more reliable regeneration protocol by exploiting newer combinations of different growth hormones and adjuvants. In the present study the effect of different hormonal combinations and different growth adjuvents on in vitro regeneration of Plumbago zeylanica has been worked out.
Application of tissue culture to plant conservation in india has been largery restricted to economically important species. However, the approach could usefully be extended to conserve all threatened plants so that vital biodiversity and the ecological network is sustains can be preserved. (Jiten Chandra et al., 2011). Plumbago zeylanica is categorized as a endangered species and is on the IUCN Red list of Endangered species (2001).
METHOD AND MATERIAL
The Materials and Methods of Plant tissue culture were the standard methods as described in Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture Fundamental methods (Gamborg and Phillips, 2004). General techniques involve the preparation of nutrient media, sterilization, inoculation, maintenance of culture. The explants viz. seeds was excised from plant and were washed thoroughly in running tap water for 30 minutes were further treated with an antifungal agent (Bavistin) for 1 hour and were further with liquid detergents for 20 minutes and rinsed properly with sterile distilled water or in running tap water for 30 min and then surface sterilized with (0.1%) mercuric chloride for 2 minutes followed by washing with distilled water 5 times for surface sterilization under aseptic conditions in laminar chamber. The seed coats is carefully dissected with sterile forceps in sterile Petri dishes. The embryo were aseptically implanted vertically on the sterile culture medium in glass bottles using sterile forceps. After inoculation in the different nutrient media, bottles were sealed with and labelled. The sterilized explants were cultured on the surface of MS basal medium (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) supplemented with 3% (w/v) sucrose, 6% of agar. The pH of the media was adjusted to 5.6-5.8 with 0.1 N NaOH or 0.1 N HCl before autoclaving at 15 lb pressure at 121°C for 15-20 minutes. The cultures were incubated under 16 hours of photo period (2000 Lux) cool, white fluorescent light at 25±2°C. Media was used with various concentrations of plant growth regulators or without growth hormones for culture initiation and multiplication. After 20 days of ovservation embryos swell in initial condition and then regenerated shoots (>2 cm long), excised after 10 of culture initiation, were individually transferred to MS medium supplemented with BAP (0.1-1.5 mg/L), NAA (0.1-0.5 mg/L) KN (0.1-1.5 mg/l) for shoot multiplication, The cultures were maintained by regular subculture at 2-week intervals on fresh medium with the same composition.
MS = Murashige and Skoog salt base (Murashige and Skoog, 1962); NAA = 1-napthalene acetic acid; BAP = Benzyl aminopurine; KN =Kinetin, mg/L = milligram per litter. The data is based on 15 replicate cultures, results were recorded after 15 days and are presented as mean ±SD= Standard deviation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth of Plumbago zeylanica embryos was achieved on MS medium are shown in Table respectively. Direct regeneration of shoots from the explants were tested using MS medium without any growth hormons. When MS supplemented with different concentrations of BAP and NAA was used, the growth and shoot production of P. zeylanica embryos significantly enhanced leaf formation and elongation within two weeks of incubation. Among different concentrations of growth hormones tested, the combination of cytokinnins and auxins stimulate the in-vitro multiplication and growth of shoots of several plant species. A common feature of auxins is the property of inducing cell division. In nature the hormones of this group are involved with such activities as elon- gation of stem, internodes, tropism, apical dominance, abscission and rooting. Cytokinins are adenine deriva- tives which are mainly concerned with cell division, modification of apical dominance and shoot differentiation in the tissue culture (Razdan, 2003). To enhance shoot multiplication different concentrations of NAA was combined with the optimized BAP concentration of 1.5 mg l-1. When an auxin was used in combination with BAP, numerous shoot buds were produced after 15 days of inoculation. There was a increase in both percentage of shoot induction and average number of shoots per explants. when explants were cultured on MS media supplemented with 1.5 mg/l BAP and different concentration of NAA. Addition of 0.5 mg/l NAA to MS media containing 1.5 mg/l BAP was capable of increasing shoot induction up to 93% with an average of 22.12 shoots per explant. The maximum length of shoots (7.43±0.53) was observer on MS medium containing 1.5 mg/L BAP and 0.5 mg/L NAA. On an average within three subcultures. The highest percentage of shoot growth was also observed in the same combination. The MS medium devoid of cytokinins was used as control. Of the two cytokinins tested, BAP was superior for multiple shoot induction than KN for seedling growth and experiment, reported kinetin did not improve significantly the shoot length and the number of proliferating shoots, superiority of BA and KN in combination has been found for micropropagation of other woody perennials reported by Das et al. (1996). The standardized protocol contributes improvement for the propagation of multipurpose medicinal plant as the rates of conventional seeds germination method. Results of seed germination on different medium show in table and fig- A,B,C and D.
CONCLUSION
The present investigation describes a procedure for invitro micropropagation through embryogenesis and successful regeneration of Plumbago zeylanica in invitro condition. We have developed a simple and efficient protocol for direct regeneration from seeds of P.zeylanica. This protocol can be exploited for conservation and commercial propagation of this medicinal plant in the Indian subcontinent. Mass multiplication of Plumbago zeylanica is feasible for field plantings to produce roots as the chief source of Plumbagin (2-methyl-5-hydroxy- 1,4- naphthoquinone) for the pharmaceutical industry. P. zeylanica has been collected by the indigenous people without replanting; this study provides a rapid method of propagation to supplement natural propagation and prevent the plant from extinction due to frequent collection. These in vitro protocol would provide an effective strategy for the conservation and building up of nuclear base populations of this widely exploited plant species. Tissue culture offers means not only for rapid and mass multiplication of existing stock of germplasm but also for conservation of important, elite and endangered plants (Razdan, 2003).
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1583http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15831. Anonymous. The Wealth of India. A Dictionary of Indian Raw Materials and industrial Products. CSIR, New Delhi, Indian. (1989) 2: 163-164.
2. Azad Chowdhury AK, Sushanta KC, Azadkhan AK (1982). Antifertility activity of Plumbago zeylanica Linn. root. Indian J. Med. Res. 76: 99-101.
3. Burkill HM (1985). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa 2nd edition. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew Vol. 4
4. Chiu NY and Chang KH. The Illustrated Medicinal Plants of Taiwan, 5th edn, vol II SMC Publishing Inc, Taipei (1993) 152–153.
5. Das S. Timir BJ and Sumita J (1996) In Vitro Propagation of Cashew nut Plant Cell Rep. 15:615-619.
6. Didry N, Dubrevil L and Pinkas M (1994) Activity of anthraquinonic and naphthoquinonic compounds on oral bacteria, Die Pharmazie 49 : 681-683.
7. Gamborg OL and Phillips GC. Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture. Fundamental methods, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi. 2004.
8. Jain AK and Vairale MG. Some threatened angiospermic taxa of Chambal eco region (M.P.). Phytotaxonomy. (2007) 7: 107-110.
9. Jiten Chandra Dang, Suman Kumaria Shrawan Kumar and Pramod Tandon (2011). Micropropagation of Iiex Khasiana, a critically endangered and endamic holly of Northest India. AOB PLANTS plro012.
10. Kirtikar KR and Basu BD. Indian Medicinal Plants, Shiva Publishers, Dehradun, India, (1980) 2: 1466–1468.
11. Kiritkar KR and Basu BD (1975) Indian Medicinal Plants, Indological and Oriental Publishers, Delhi, India.
12. Krishnaswamy M and Purushottamam KK (1980) Plumbagin, a study of its anticancer, antibacterial and antifungal properties, Ind. J. Exp. Biol. 18 : 876-877.
13. Razdan MK (2003). Introduction to Plant Tissue. 2 nd Edition. Qxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 27p
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15General SciencesESTIMATION OF RELIABILITY IN MULTICOMPONENT STRESS-STRENGTH BASED ON GENERALIZED INVERTED EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION
English4856G. Srinivasa RaoEnglishIn this paper, we are mainly interested in estimating multicomponent stress- strength reliability. The system is regarded as alive only if at least s out of k (s such a system is obtained when strength, stress variates are given by generalized inverted exponential distribution with different shape parameters and common scale parameter. The research methodology adopted here is to estimate the parameters by using maximum likelihood estimation. The reliability is estimated using the maximum likelihood method of estimation when samples are drawn from strength and stress distributions. The reliability estimators are compared asymptotically. The results of small sample comparison of the reliability estimates are made through Monte-Carlo simulation. The simulation results indicates that the average bias and average MSE are decreases as sample size increases for both methods of estimation in reliability. The length of the confidence interval is also decreases as the sample size increases and coverage probability is close to the nominal value in all sets of parameters considered here. By using real data sets we well illustrate the procedure.
EnglishGeneralized inverted exponential distribution, reliability estimation, stress- strength, ML estimation, confidence intervals.INTRODUCTION
Recently the two-parameter generalized inverted exponential distribution (GIED) has been proposed and studied extensively by the Abouammoh and Alshingiti (2009). The GIED has the following density function
where 1 2 , ,... X X Xk are identically indipendently distributed (iid) with common distribution function F x( ) and subjected to the common random stress Y. The probability in (4) is called reliability in a multicomponent stress-strength model [Bhattacharyya and Johnson (1974)]. The survival probabilities of a single component stressstrength version have been considered by several authors assuming various lifetime distributions for the stress-strength random variates. Enis and Geisser (1971), Downtown (1973), Awad and Gharraf (1986), McCool (1991), Nandi and Aich (1994), Surles and Padgett (1998), Raqab and Kundu (2005), Kundu and Gupta (2005& 2006), Raqab et al (2008), Kundu and Raqab (2009). The reliability in a multicomponent stress-strength was developed by Bhattacharyya and Johnson (1974), Pandey and Borhan Uddin (1985). Recently Rao and Kantam (2010) studied estimation of reliability in multicomponent stress-strength for the log-logistic distribution and Rao (2012) developed an estimation of reliability in multicomponent stress-strength based on generalized exponential distribution. Suppose a system, with k identical components, functions if at least s s k (1 ) ? ? components simultaneously operate. In its operating environment, the system is subjected to a stress Y which is a random variable with distribution function G(.) . The strengths of the components, that is the minimum stresses to cause failure, are independently and identically distributed random variables with distribution function F(.) . Then, the system reliability, which is the probability that the system does not fail, is the function Rsk, given in (4). The estimation of survival probability in a multicomponent stress-strength system when the stress and strength variates follow GIED is not paid much attention. Therefore, an attempt is made here to study the estimation of reliability in multicomponent stress-strength model with reference to GIED. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we discussed the research methodology for expression of Rsk, and develop a procedure for estimating it. More specifically, we obtain the maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters. The MLE are employed to obtain the asymptotic distribution and confidence intervals for Rsk, . The results of small sample comparisons made through Monte Carlo simulations are in Section 3. Also, using real data, we illustrate the estimation process. Finally, the conclusion and comments are provided in Section 4.
The probability in (5) is called reliability in a multicomponent stress-strength model. If ? ? and are not known, it is necessary to estimate ? ? and to estimate Rsk, . In this paper we estimate ? ? and by ML method. The estimates are substituted in ? to get an estimate of Rsk, using equation (5). The theory of methods of estimation is explained below. It is well known that the method of maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) has invariance property. We have proposed ML estimator for the reliability of multicomponent stress-strength model by considering the estimators of the parameters of stress and strength distributions by ML method of estimation in GIED. Let X X Y 1 2 n 1 2 m ? ? ? Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1584http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15841. Abouammoh, A.M. and Alshingiti, A.M. (2009). Reliability estimation of generalized inverted exponential distribution, Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation, 79(11), 1301-1315.
2. Awad, M. and Gharraf, K. (1986). Estimation of P Y X ( ) ? in Burr case: A comparative study, Commun. Statist. - Simula. & Comp., 15, 389-403. 3. Bhattacharyya, G.K. and Johnson, R.A. (1974). Estimation of reliability in multicomponent stress-strength model, JASA, 69, 966-970. 4. Downtown, F. (1973). The estimation of P X Y ( ) ? in the normal case, Technometrics, 15, 551-558. 5. Enis, P. and Geisser, S. (1971). Estimation of the probability that Y X ? , JASA, 66, 162- 168. 6. Fuller Jr, E.R., Frieman, S.W., Quinn, J.B., Quinn, G.D. and Carter, W.C. (1994). Fracture mechanics approach to the design of glass aircraft window: a case study, SPIE Proc. 2286, 419-430. 7. Gupta, R.D. and Kundu, D. (1999). Generalized exponential distributions. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Statistics, 41, 173-188. 8. Kundu, D. and Gupta, R.D. (2005). Estimation of P Y X ( ) ? for the generalized exponential distribution, Metrika, 61 (3), 291- 308. 9. Kundu, D. and Gupta, R.D. (2006). Estimation of P Y X ( ) ? for Weibull distribution, IEEE Transactions on Reliability, 55 (2), 270-280. 10. Kundu, D. and Raqab, M.Z. (2009). Estimation of R= P Y X ( ) ? for threeparameter Weibull distribution, Statistics and Probability Letters, 79, 1839-1846. 11. Lawless J.F. (1982). Statistical Models and Methods for Lifetime Data. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 12. McCool, J. I. (1991). Inference on P Y X ( ) ? in the Weibull case, Commun. Statist. - Simula. & Comp., 20, 129-148. 13. Nadarajah, S. and Kotz, S. (2003). The exponentiated Frechet distribution, Available at: Interstat.statjournals.net, 0312001. 14. Nandi, S.B. and Aich, A.B. (1994). A note on estimation of P X Y ( ) ? for some distributions useful in life- testing, IAPQR Transactions, 19(1), 35-44. 15. Pandey, M. and Borhan Uddin, Md. (1985). Estimation of reliability in multicomponent stress-strength model following Burr distribution, Proceedings of the First Asian congress on Quality and Reliability, New Delhi, India, 307-312. 16. Rao, C. R. (1973). Linear Statistical Inference and its Applications, Wiley Eastern Limited, India. 17. Rao, G.S. (2012). Estimation of reliability in multicomponent stress-strength model based on generalized exponential distribution, Colombian Journal of Statistics, 35(1), 67-76. 18. Rao, G.S. and Kantam, R.R.L. (2010). Estimation of reliability in multicomponent stress-strength model: log-logistic distribution, Electronic Journal of Applied Statistical Analysis, 3(2), 75-84. 19. Raqab, M.Z. and Kundu, D. (2005). Comparison of different estimators of p Y X ( ) ? for a scaled Burr type X distribution, Commun. Statist. - Simula. & Comp., 34 (2), 465-483. 20. Raqab, M.Z., Madi, M.T. and Kundu, D. (2008). Estimation of P Y X ( ) ? for the 3- parameter generalized exponential distribution, Commun. Statist - Theor. Meth., 37 (18), 2854-2864. 21. Surles, J.G. and Padgett, W.J. (1998). Inference for P Y X ( ) ? in the Burr type X model, Journal of Applied Statistical Sciences, 7, 225-238.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcarePRELIMANARY STUDY OF LUNG FUNCTIONS IN ATHLETES AND NONATHLETES IN MARATHWADA REGION
English5763Meenakshi S. SableEnglish Shyamsunder S. SableEnglish U. S. ZingadeEnglish A. N. KowaleEnglishAim:-The aim of this study was to compare the effect of running training on lung functions of runners and nonrunners and whether the regular exercise and training given to the runners improve the lung functions or not. Methods:-The subjects selected for this study were 40 runners and 40 nonrunners of aged 18-21 years.The mean value of Ht and Wt of runners were 167.52+_6.449 (cm), 56.55+_6.97 (kg) and that of nonrunners were 161.87+_6.44 (cm), 57.17+_9.129 (kg). Mean value of Ht in runners was more than that of nonrunners due to regular physical activity and training. There was no difference in wt in both groups.The mean values of Forced vital capacity (FVC), Forced expiratory volume (FEV1) at one second and Maximum voluntary ventiliation (MVV) in runners were 3.73+_0.78(L) 3.39+_0.78(L) and 120.09+_25.8(L/MIN) respectively and in nonrunners were 3.16+_0.59(L),2.98+_0.53(L) and 88.74+_28.74(L/MIN). Results:-There were significant increased in FVC, FEV1and MVV in runners than nonrunners may be due to training there is improvement in the lung functions and strengthing of respiratory of muscles
EnglishAthletes Nonathletes FVC FEV1 MVVINTRODUCTION
Athletics is a great fun and people of all ages can enjoy it.Running is the most natural of athletics movements and common aerobic exercise. And have a profound effect on lung functions.Several factors like Age, Height Weight, heredity, environment, diet, training, hormone status etc also contribute to the performance of sportsman(1,2).There have been many studies documenting pulmonary change following training.Wasserman et al 1995,Twisk et al 1998 who showed that following exercise athletes tend to have an increase in pulmonary capacity when compared to nonexercising individuals especially when the exercise is strenuous.This ventilatory adaptation to exercise may differ in different populations such as Black andCaucasian subjects suggested by Cerny 1987 particularly under different climatic conditions that is it may be related to ethnic and environmental factors. Lung function test provide quantitative and qualitative evaluation of pulmonary function and are therefore of definitive value in the diagnosis and therapy of patients with cardiopulmonary disorders as well as those with obstructive and restrictive lung diseases shown by Belman andMittman 1980,Robinson and kjeldgaard 1982. The parameters used to describe lung function are the lung volumes and capacities.while the various lung volumes reflect the individuals ability to increase the depth of breathing the capacities is simply a combination of two or more lung volumes.
The aim of present study was to compare the values of lung functions in runners and nonrunners and whether the regular training in the form of running improves the lung functions in runners. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present Study was conducted on 40 Runners and40 nonrunners Aged-18-21 years .Runners selected were taking training under Sports Authority of India ,Krida prabhodini Hostel,Aurangabad for short and middle distance running event .Runners selected for this study were training themselves by running a distance of 2-3 km,two times a day for 45-60 min, 7 days a week Nonrunners selected for this study were 1st and 2nd MBBS students.They were not practicing any athletics event .Informed consent was obtained from all participants.Clinically examined to rule out any respiratory diseases .The study was conducted in Dept of Physiology, GMC, Aurangabad. The lung functions were recorded in Pulmonary function test laboratory by Body Plethysmograph (MEDGRAPHICS)USA,Elite DX-Model.Forced vital capacity(L),Forced expiratory volume at one second(L),and Maximum voluntary ventilation(L/MIN) were recorded.Statistical analysis was done for all parameters ‘p’ value was determined p> o.o5-nonsignificant,pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1585http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15851. Seidman DS, Solev E, Deuster PA et al:Androgenic response to long term physical training.Jsports Med 1990;421-424.
2. Dasgupta PK, Mukhopadhyay AK et al: A study of cardiopulmonary Efficiency in Different categories in Runners.Indian J Physiology Pharmac 2000;44(2):220-224.
3. Wassreman K,Gift A,Wekel HE:Lung function changes and exercise induced ventilator Responses to External Restive Loads in Normal subjects.Respiration 1995;62(4):177-184.
4. Twick IW, Staal BJ, Kemper HC et al: Tracking of lung function parameters and Logitudinal Relationship with Life style.Eur.Resp.J. 1998 ; 12(3):627-634.
5. Beiman MJ, Miman C.Ventilatory Muscle Training Improves Exercise capacity in COPD patients.AM Resp Dis.1980; 121:273-279.
6. Robison EP, Kjeldgard JM: Improvement in ventilator Muscle function with Running.J.Appl Physiol.1982; 52:1400-1405.
7. Cenry FJ.Breathing pattern during exercise in young black and Caucasian subjects.J.Appl physiology. 1987; 62(6):2220-2223.
8. Hagberg JM.Pulmonary function in young and older athletes and untrained men: ZJ Appl Physiol 1988;65:101-104.
9. Cordain L: Lung volumes and maximal respiratory pressures in collegiate swimmers and runners.Res Exer Sport 1990; 61: 70-77.
10. Onadeko BO, Fulase AO: Pulmonary function studies in Nigerian sportsman.Atr.J.Med.sci.1976; 5:291-295.
11. Bjourstrom R.L: Control of ventiliation in Elite synchronized swimmers.1987; 63:1091- 1095.
12. Lakhera SC, Kain TC: Comparison of pulmonary function amongst Ladakhi, Delhi, Varanasi and Siddhi boy athletes.J.Physiol.pharmac 1996; 39(3):255- 258.
13. Odunga AC, Jaja S: Some ventilator parameters in well trained Nigerial athletes.Nigerian Journal of physiological sci: 1989;5:7-16.
14. Williams C: Assessment of physical performance: ABC of sports Medicine.Br.Med.j.1994; 309: 180-186.
15. Pakkala A, Veerannan.A comparative study of cardiopulmonary efficiency in athletes and nonathletes.J.Indian Med Assoc.2005; 103(10):522-527.
16. Leith DE, Bradley M: Ventilatory muscle strength and Endurance Training.J Appl physiol.1976;41: 508-516.
17. Lakhera SC, Kain TC: Lung function in middle distance Adolescent Runners.Ind.j.physiol.pharmac.1994; 38(2):117-120.
18. Martin BJ.Slager JM: Ventilatory Endurance in Athletes and nonathletes.Med.sci.sports Exercise 1981; 13(1):21-26.
19. Das gupta PK, DE AK: Assessment of cardiopulmonary efficiency in Athletes and Nonathletes.Ind J Physiol Pharmac: 1991;35(4):245-248.
20. DE AK, Debnath pk, RoY DC et al: A comparison of physical efficiency between Indian physical education and Medical students.Brit.j .sports Med.1978; 12: 93-96.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareCOMPARITIVE STUDY OF CONVENTIONAL AND ULTRASOUND-GUIDED FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY OF THYROID IN A TERTIARY CARE CENTER OF NORTH KARNATAKA
English6469B.R AshwiniEnglish Vernekar SunitaEnglish Kulkarni Mohan HEnglish T. KiranEnglishFine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) is a minimally invasive and cost effective technique. However some of the deep seated lesions may have occult carcinomas which could be missed on conventional FNAC of a multinodular goitre or non–palpable nodules. Ultrasound guidance is helpful in directing the needle to solid portions of the cystic or mixed nodules and reduce the need for repeat FNAs but adds to cost and turn-around time of patient. Objectives: The study was conducted to compare the results of conventional FNAC with Ultrasound (USG)-guided FNAC and correlate with histopathology to evaluate the sensitivity, specificity and diagnostic accuracy of both types of FNAC. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted on 140 patients who underwent conventional FNAC in the department of Pathology and subsequently USG-guided FNAC in department of Radiology. Smears were prepared from both the FNA and were reported separately by the same pathologist. Statistical Indices used in the present study for both conventional and USG-guided FNAC with histopathology as gold standard are Sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic accuracy. Comparison of the FNAC results with histopathology showed that there were five false negative results in conventional FNAC and two false negative results in USG-guided FNAC. Results: The sensitivity and diagnostic accuracy were 77.8%, 92.9% on USG-guided FNAC and 44.4%, 82.1% on conventional FNAC. In conclusion, USG-guided FNAC improved the cytological diagnostic accuracy, sensitivity and reduced the false-negative rates in comparison to conventional FNAC especially in case of multinodular goitre.
EnglishConventional FNAC, USG-guided FNAC, Histopathological correlation, Sensitivity, Diagnostic accuracy.INTRODUCTION
Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) of thyroid is a simple, cost effective method in the management of palpable thyroid lesions1 . Some cases have more than one lesion co-existing in thyroid which could be missed on conventional FNAC. Multiple revision surgeries are not possible on thyroid due to its location. Ultrasound (USG) simulates the gross appearance of thyroid in the patient. However USG alone cannot be used as gold standard as there are over lapping features between benign and malignant lesions sonographically. An accurate diagnosis is necessary to obtain results with surgery. USGguided FNAC has advantage of both specialities but add to cost and turn around time to patients. The study was conducted in Department of Pathology at our institute with the aim of identifying whether USG-guided FNAC is significantly better in identifying the neoplasia than conventional FNAC. With this objective the diagnostic accuracy of USG-guided FNAC and conventional FNAC were compared with histopathology as the gold standard. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted from 1st October 2007 to 31st march 2009, during which 417 thyroid FNAC were done in the department of Pathology. Among them, 140 patients gave the consent for the study and underwent both conventional and USGguided FNAC. All patients included in the study were referred for FNAC with complaints of thyroid swelling. No age and sex criteria were included in the study. Conventional FNAC was done in the Department of Pathology. Subsequently USG was done with high frequency probe (5 to 12MHz transducer) in the department of Radiology, at our institution. The number of nodules, size and echogenecity patterns were noted. FNAC was then repeated on the patients under USG-guidance on a representative or suspicious area. In both the methods, FNAC was done under aseptic precautions using 22-gauze needle fitted to 5ml syringe without aspiration with patient in supine or sitting posture with neck extended. The material collected in the bore by capillary action. In some cases aspiration technique was used. The aspirate was then expressed on the clean glass slide and fixed with 95% alcohol and by air dry technique. A minimum of four slides were smeared with the aspirate. The smears were then stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E), and Wright’s stain. The slides prepared from conventional FNAC and USG-guided FNAC were reported separately by the same pathologist. Smears with atleast four clusters of follicular cells were considered adequate for reporting. Among 140 cases, twenty-eight patients underwent surgery and thus histopathological correlation was obtained in them. Histopathological results were correlated with results of conventional FNAC and USG-guided FNAC. Statistical Indices used in the present study for both conventional and USG-guided FNAC with histopathology as gold standard include Sensitivity = TP/ (TP+FN) X100, Specificity = TN/ (TN+FP) X100, PPV= TP/ (TP+FP) X100, NPV= TN/(TN+FN) X100, FPER =FP/total no of cases X 100, FNER = FN/Total no cases X 100, Diagnostic accuracy = TP+TN/TP+TN+FP+FN X100 in order to evaluate their sensitivity, specificity and diagnostic accuracy. (TP = True Positive, FP = False positive, TN = True Negative, FN = False Negative, PPV= Positive predictive value, NPV=Negative predictive value, FPER= false positive error rate, FNER= false negative error rate) RESULTS The thyroid aspirations were done on patients with an age range of two to seventy years with mean age of 33.8 yrs. Majority of them were females accounting for 124 cases (88.6%) out of 140. Male were 16 (11.4%). Aspiration was unsatisfactory in three cases (2.2%), on conventional FNAC and in one case (0.7%) on USG-guided FNAC. Nonneoplastic lesions were more common in the present study on both conventional and USGguided FNAC. The various lesions found on conventional and USG-guided FNAC were as in table 1. Differences were found in the number of nodular goitre and neoplastic lesions in both FNAC. Nodular goitre was the commonest lesion found on both conventional and USG-guided FNAC. Figure 1 showing clear correlation between cytological findings and USG features of nodular goitre. Out of 140 cases histopathology was available in 28 cases. Histopathology showed 16 cases of nodular goitre, one Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, two primary hyperplasia, five papillary carcinomas, three follicular adenomas and one Hurthle cell adenoma. The results of conventional FNAC and USGguided FNAC were correlated with histopathological diagnosis to know their sensitivity, specificity and diagnostic accuracy as histopathology forms the gold standard.
Nineteen non neoplastic lesions and nine neoplastic lesions were reported on histopathology. In comparison, out of 28 cases, conventional FNAC showed 24 non-neoplastic lesions with 21 cases of nodular goitre, two primary hyperplasia and one Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. There were four neoplastic lesions with three papillary carcinoma and one Hurthle cell neoplasm. USG-guided FNAC showed 21 nonneoplastic lesions with 18 cases of nodular goitre, two primary hyperplasia, one Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and seven neoplastic lesions with four papillary carcinomas, two follicular neoplasms, and one Hurthle cell neoplasm. Oncomparing the results of conventional and USG-guided FNAC with histopathology, differences were found in five cases as showed in table 2. There were no false positive results in our study. The correlation of conventional FNAC and USG-guided FNAC with histopathology showed four true positives, 19 true negatives and five false negatives on conventional FNAC. USG-guided FNAC showed seven true positives, 19 true negatives and two false negatives. The statistical evaluation with various parameters showed 44.4% sensitivity, 100% specificity, 100% PPV, 79.2% NPV and 82.1% diagnostic accuracy on conventional FNAC and 77.8% sensitivity, 100% specificity, 100% PPV, 90.4% NPV and 92.9% diagnostic accuracy on USG-guided FNAC. DISCUSSION It is a well-known fact that FNAC is safe, rapid, inexpensive and reliable in the diagnosis of thyroid nodules2 . It is possible to classify nonneoplastic and neoplastic lesions with the help of FNAC and subtype them. However, some of the deep seated lesions may have occult carcinomas which could be missed on conventional FNAC of a multinodular goitre or non–palpable nodules. In clinical practice, it is recommended that USGguidance should be sought after a failed conventional FNA, in small nodules, in nonpalpable nodules, in lesions that are located in difficult-to-access locations, in nodules with extensive cystic change, fibrosis or calcification. USG-guidance is also helpful in directing the needle to solid portions of the cystic or mixed nodules and reducing the need for repeat FNAC3 . The present study was undertaken to compare the results of conventional and USG-guided FNAC with histopathology as gold standard to determine their diagnostic accuracy. The inadequacy rate of 2.2% was seen in conventional FNAC and 0.7% in USG-guided FNAC. The inadequacy rate was not statistically significant in our study in comparison to other studies4,5. Majority of the cases were females with 124 cases. Among them 113 cases (80.7%) had non neoplastic lesions and eleven (7.9%) had neoplastic lesions. Both neoplastic and non neoplastic lesions were more commonly seen in females comparable with other studies6,7. There were five false negative cases on conventional FNAC and two on USG-guided FNAC. The false negative error rates of 17.9% on conventional FNAC and 7.1% on USG-guided FNAC were comparable with several other studies8,9. The cytological criteria for diagnosis of the lesions are well defined but there can be overlapping cytological features, making the diagnosis of the lesions and further more distinction between the neoplastic and non-neoplastic lesions difficult. USG show various patterns due to echogenic variations in the lesions. These patterns include cyst with avascular colloidplug, blocks ofhyperechogenicity separated by bands of hypoechogenicity,uniform hyperechogenicity, intense hypervascularity, hypoechogenicity, isoechogenicity with or without halo, or nodules with intense peripheralvascularity.The absence of features like calcification, halo, hypoechogenecity, isoechogenecity and increased peripheral vascularity favors benignity. These patterns are sensitive in predicting the neoplastic lesions with varying specificity10. However in cases with overlapping cytological features these USG patterns help in differentiating and providing more accurate cytological diagnosis of some of the lesions. There were two false negative results on conventional FNAC due to overlapping cytological features particularly between nodular goitre and follicular neoplasm as seen in other studies11. Figure 2 shows a case with features of both nodular goitre and follicular neoplasm cytologically and USG showing features of follicular adenoma supporting the diagnosis of follicular neoplasm. Histopathology confirmed a diagnosis of follicular adenoma in this case. Cellular microfollicular patterns are seen in hyperplastic microfollicular nodule of a multinodular goitre, Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, microfollicular adenomas and a well differentiated follicular carcinoma and are the most challenging ones in diagnosing cytologically12. In our study features of nodular goitre was seen on conventional FNAC in a patient in whom USG examination showed a single hypoechoic area in left lobe of thyroid. Aspiration from this area under USG-guidance showed features of papillary carcinoma as in figure 3. Histopathological diagnosis of micropapillary carcinoma was made in this case. The results obtained in our study showed that the sensitivity and the diagnostic accuracy of USG-guided FNAC was more than the conventional FNAC and was comparable with other study13 . In conclusion, thyroid is an organ where multiple revision surgeries are not possible and it is also difficult to obtain the patient’s consent for the same. The cytological criteria for identification of a lesion are well defined. But some cases show overlapping cytological features of different lesions. USG-guided FNAC as an added advantage of a multi-modality approach and aids in providing a more accurate diagnosis of the lesion or the lesions in thyroid. In our study USGguided FNACreduced the false-negative rates in the diagnosis of the neoplastic lesions, in comparison to conventional FNAC and improved the sensitivity and diagnostic accuracy especially in cases of multinodular goitre and thereby reducing the turnaround time in the accurate management of the patient.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Dr G C Patil (Professor and Head), Department of Radiodiagnosis, Karnataka Institute of medical sciences, Hubli The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1586http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15861. Klemi PJ, Joensuu H. FNAC in the diagnosis of the thyroid nodules. ActaCytol 1991;35:434-38
2. Cappel RJ, Bouvy ND, Bonjer HJ, Muiswinkel JM, Chadha S. Fine needle aspiration of thyroid nodules: How accurate it is and what are the causes of discrepant cases? Cytopathology 2001;12:399-405
3. TamasSolymosi, GyulaLukacsToth, MiklosBodo. Diagnostic accuracy of Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology of Thyroid. Impact of Ultrasound and Ultrasonographically Guided Aspiration. ActaCytol 2001;45:669-74
4. Izquierdo R, Arekat MR, Knudson PE, Kartun KF, KhuranaK,et al. Comparison of palpation versus ultrasound guided FNAB of thyroid nodules an outpatient endocrinology practice. EndocrPract 2006;12:609-14
5. Cai XJ, Valiyaparambath N, Nixon P, Waghorn A, Giles T, et al. Ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration cytology in the diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules. Cytopathology 2006;17:251-56.
6. Martinek, J.Dvorackova, M.Honka, J.Horacek, Klvana. Importance of Guided FNA for the Diagnosis of thyroid nodules-Own experiences. Biomed Pap Med FacUnivPalacky Olomouc Czech Repub 2004;148:45-50.
7. Lin JD, Hsueh C, Chao TC, Weng HF, Huang BY. Thyroid Follicular Neoplasms Diagnosed by High-Resolution Ultrasonography with Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology. ActaCytol 1997;41:687-91.
8. Suen KC, Abdul-Karim FW, Kaninsky DB, Layfield LJ, Miller TR et al. Guidelines of the Papinicoloau Society of Cytopathology for the examination of Fine Needle Aspiration Specimen from Thyroid Nodules. Mod pathol 1996;9:710-15.
9. John Boey, C.Hsu, Robert J.Collins. False negative errors in Fine needle aspiration biopsy of dominant thyroid nodules: A prospective follow up study. World J Surg 1986;10:623-30
10. John A. Bonavita, Jason Mayo, James Babb, Genevieve Bennett, ThairaOweity et al. Pattern Recognition of Benign Nodules at Ultrasound of the Thyroid: Which Nodules Can Be Left Alone? AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009;193:207-13
11. H. R Harach, Silvia B. Zusman, E. Saravia Day. Diagnostic Dilemma. Nodular goiter: A histo-cytological study with some emphasis on pitfalls of fine-needle aspiration cytology. DiagnCytopathol 1992;8:409-19
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcarePHYSICOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF ADIANTUM CAPILLUS-VENERIS LINN: AN IMPORTANT DRUG OF UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE
English7075Ajij AhmedEnglish Nasreen JahanEnglish Abdul WadudEnglish Hashmat ImamEnglish Syeda HajeraEnglish Alia BilalEnglishThe aim of the present paper is to provide information regarding the therapeutic uses and scientific studies carried out on Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. The key words used for the literature search were Adiantum capillus-veneris, Parsioshan, physico chemical, phytochemical and pharmacological study. The search was carried out through Unani classical books, ethno botanical literature and Google scholar. The drug is popularly known as “Parsiaoshan” in Unani and used to treat a number of diseases. It is traditionally used as a diuretic, resolvent, antipyretic, demulcent, emmenagogue, expectorant and deobstruent. It is also useful in the treatment of hair fall and skin diseases. Chemical analysis of Parsioshan shows that it contains triterpenoids, flavonoids and various other constituents. Research studies have shown that it possesses anti fungal, anti inflammatory, anti bacterial, hypoglycemic and lithotriptic activities. An extensive review of ancient literature of Unani medicine revealed that the drug having numerous therapeutic actions, several of which have been established scientifically which may help the researchers to set their minds for approaching the utility, efficacy and potency of Adiantum capillus-veneris.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
As folk medicine, the pteridophytes which constitute ferns and fern allies have been known to man for more than 2000 years and also have been mentioned in ancient literature. It has been observed that pteridophytes are not infected by microbial pathogens, which may be one of the important factors for the evolutionary success of pteridophytes and the fact that they survived for more than 350 million years1 . Fern and fern allies, also known as botanical snakes or plant reptiles, have always been in the center stage of attraction to botanist, horticulturists and nature lovers since ancient times. This fascinating group of pteridophytes is distributed in the Himalaya, Western Ghats, and Vindhya, hilly areas of Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh as well as in the Aravalli, particularly in Mount Abu in Rajasthan2 . Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn is a graceful delicate fern of damp places, found chiefly in the western Himalayas, ascending to an altitude of 2,400 m, and extending into Manipur. It is common in Punjab, Bihar, Maharashtra, and south India. It grows among rocks and on walls3, 4 . Theophrastus (327-287B.C.) and Dioscorides (100A.D.) have referred to medicinal attributes of certain ferns. Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn is one such fern whose medicinal values have long been mentioned by Sushrata and Charaka5 . Taxonomical Classification6 Kingdom : Plantae Division : Pteridophyta Class : Pteridopsida Order : Pteridales Family : Adiantaceae Genus : Adiantum Species : cappilus- veneris Vernaculars7 Arabic : Shairuljin, Shaar-ul-jibal, Shaar-ularz Ayurvedic : Hansaaraja, hansapadi English : Maiden hair fern, Maria’s fern, Our Lady’s hair Gujarati : Hanspadi Hindi : Hansraj, Mubaraka, Pursha Kannada : Hansraj Persian : Sirsiapeshane Tamil : Seruppadai Kashmir : Dumtuli Urdu : Persia – ushan Unani : Barsioshan, Kazbaratul Ber History As early as in 100 A.C. Dioscorides described Adiantum capillus-veneris by the name of Adiavrov for having leaves serrated at the top like coriander. The Western Arabs, however, appear to use Adiantum capillus-veneris, as they call the plant Kuzburat-el bir or “coriander of the wall”, indicating a habitat where A. venestum is not found. Other Arabic names for the genus Adiantum are shaar-el-jinn i.e. “fairies hair”, shaar-el-jibal i.e. “hair of the mountains”; shaarel-fual i.e. “hair of omens”; sak-el-aswad i.e. “black stem” and Nasif-el-aswad i.e. “black veil,” Ibn Sina and other medical writers describe the drug under the name of Barsiawashan, which is the Arabic form of its Persian name Parsiawashan. It is considered to be deobstruent and resolvent, useful for clearing the primaviae of bile, and phlegmatic humors; also, expectorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, and alexipharmic properties are also ascribed to it. Used as a plaster, it is considered to be discutient, and is applied to chronic tumours of various kinds. Theophrastus mentions two kinds of Adiantum, “white” and “black,” used in making hair oil. Greek synonyms for the plant are polytrichon, calitrichon, trichomenis, and ebinotrichon8 . Geographical Distribution A native of tropical America Adiantum capillusveneris Linn found throughout the world in moist and shady places. In India it is distributed in Tamil Nadu up to 1800 meter on the mountains, Himalaya and in north India9 . Botanical Description Adiantum capillus-veneris is a delicate graceful fern. Stipes is blackish, 10-23 cm long10. Fronds bipinnate with short terminal pinna and numerous erect patent lateral ones on each side, the lowest being slightly branched; segments cuneate, 1.5-2.5 cm broad; sori borne at the roundish sinuses of the crenations, obreniform or rounded 4,5 . Pharmacological Actions and Uses in Unani Literature It has Dafe humma (antipyretic), Mulattif (demulcent), Munaffise balgham (expectorant), Mudire baul (diuretic), Mudirre haiz (emmenagogue), Muhallil (resolvent) and Mujaffif (siccative) properties11, 12. The whole herb is used as medicine in various forms like decoction, powder, paste, oil etc. in different aliments. The whole plant is used as a hair tonic. Decoction in wine is given in cases of hard tumors of spleen, liver and other viscera. The fronds are powdered and given with honey against bad cold. It is also useful in splenic pain and jaundice. It expels the stone from the kidneys and bladder. It is therapeutically used to promote diuresis. Due to its mucilaginous, pectoral and expectorant properties, its decoction is used in breathing difficulties, bronchitis, and cough. Along with vinegar and olive oil it is useful in alopecia and with the oil of Habbul Aas it is useful in maintenance of hair colour and hair loss. It is also useful in insect and dog bite9, 11, 12, 13, 14 . Ethnomedicinal Uses It is used as demulcent, expectorant, astringent, antitussive, diuretic, and emmenagogue, febrifuge and also as a hair tonic5, 15, 16, 17. In Punjab, the fronds are given with pepper as a febrifuge; pounded with honey, they are administered in catarrhal affections. They are smoked to relive cold. The dried fronds are used as a substitute for tea. The herb is used as a pectoral, and also in catarrhal affections. It is reported to be used as a hair tonic. The fern is boiled in wine or mead, and drunk in case of hard tumors in the spleen, liver and other visceras4 . Its decoction is also used to remove dandruff. Fresh leaves are boiled in water along with sugar; one cup of this decoction is taken orally twice a day for a week to treat jaundice and hepatitis15 . The fronds are chewed for the treatment of mouth blisters. Frond extract mixed with honey is used as an eye ointment18 . Physico Chemical Studies 9 Study of the powdered drug The powder is fine and a bit fluffy in texture. It is dark brownish green in colour and has no taste. The powder after being cleaned in charcoal hydrate, when observed under microscope, showed mostly fragments of leaves and petioles mostly with no distinguishing character. A very few isolated pieces of sporangial wall with characteristic transverse thickening were also visible. Occasional triangular spore tetrads were also present. Reaction of chemicals with crude powdered drug and fluorescence analysis (Table 1) are as follows: Reaction of chemicals with crude powdered drug Chemicals Observations Powder treated with water An emulsion formed Powder shaken in a test tube with water No frothing, floats partially Powder treated with 5% NaOH Turns dark chocolate brown Powder treated with 66% H2SO4 Turns dark blakish brown Powder pressed between two filter papers No oily stain appears Identity, purity, strength and assay Foreign organic matter Nil Purity 100% Physico chemical constants (%) Loss on drying at 105ºC 7.36 Solid contents 74.48 Ash values Total ash 7.81 Acid insoluble ash 4.42 Water soluble ash 0.42 Successive extractive values (%) Pet. Ether (60-80º) 4.49 Chloroform 3.03 Acetone 4.60 Ethanol 9.27 Distilled water 14.07 Phytochemical Studies 19 Nine new compounds were identified in the twenty-two isolated triterpenoids, from the fresh fronds of Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn collected in Japan. The plant of Chinese and Egyptian origin were also identified with the two new triterpenoids each as 4a -hydroxyfilican- 3-one and fern-9 (11)- en-12b –o and oleanane triterpenoids; olean-12- en-3-one and olean-18-en-3-one19 . Four triterpenoidal compounds belonging to adiantane and filicane groups, isoadiantone; isoadiantol-B; 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyfilicane and 3,4-dihydroxyfilicane, from the hexane fraction and three flavonoids from the ethyl acetate fraction as: quercetin , quercetin-3-O-glucoside and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin) were identified in Chromatographic fractionation of the alcoholic extract of the dried fronds of Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. The identification of the isolated compounds has been established through their physical, chemical and spectroscopic methods including IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, HSQC, HMBC, NOESY and MS 23 . Scientific Reports Antifungal Activity The water extracts and extracted phenols from gametophytes and different parts of sporophytes of, Adiantum capillus-veneris L. was investigated for its antifungal activity and found to be bioactive against Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus stolonifer. Antifungal activity was found to be higher in gametophytes. Among the different parts of sporophytes, immature pinnule possesses highest fungi static property20 . Antioxidant activity Antioxidant potential of leaf extract of Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn was studied in vitro by Anil Kumar, against H2O2 induced oxidative damage in peripheral blood lymphocytes. Pre treatment with plant leave extract for 18 hours could effectively inhibited lipid peroxidation and enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes and glutathione content significantly. The results indicate that it might be due to its direct action in scavenging free radicals and thereby modulating the antioxidant defence system21 . Antibacterial activity Pradeep investigated the in vitro antibacterial activity of twelve important pteridophytes plants by disc diffusion method. The aqueous and alcoholic leaves extract of Adiantum capillusveneris Linn were found to be effective against Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella arizonae, Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus aureus strains of Bacteria. Anti inflammatory activity Alcoholic extract of A. capillus-veneris and its hexane fraction showed a significant antiinflammatory activity against formalin induced inflammation. The hexane fraction and compounds 3, 4 showed topical anti-inflammatory activity after 6 h and continued for 30 h in croton oilinduced inflammation23 . The ethyl acetate fraction of the ethanolic extract of A. capillus-veneris showed significant inhibition of hind paw oedema induced by carrageenan when evaluated for its antiinflammatory activity 24 . Analgesic activity The analgesic activity of the ethanolic extract of A. capillus-veneris and its fraction has been carried out by tail flick method and writhing test result showed significant analgesic activity with insignificant ulceration as compared to the standard drug 24 . Hypoglycemic activity The alcoholic extract of A. capillus-veneris showed a significant hypoglycaemic effect in OGTT using rabbit model. Started after 30 min and continued for 4 hours23 . Lithotriptic activity In vitro antilithiasic activity of hydro alcoholic extract of Adiantum capillus-veneris was evaluated by crystallization, aggregation and nucleation assays. The result showed significant inhibition of crystallization and aggregation which was further confirmed by in vivo study against Ethylene glycol (0.75%) and ammonium chloride (1%) induced Urolithiasis in male Sprague Dawley rats. Urine microscopy showed significant reduction in the number of crystals in test groups 25 .
DISCUSSION
The present review reveals that Adiantum capillusveneris Linn is used in treating various ailments. Recent ethno botanical, phytochemical and pharmacological studies have reported the medicinal values of Adiantum capillus and its active constituents. This review provides evidence based scientific validation to some of the therapeutic uses and actions described for Parsioshan in classical texts of Unani medicine. It is popularly used as diuretic and for the treatment of kidney stone in Unani system of medicine since long. Its pharmacological activities like anti oxidant21, anti bacterial22, anti-inflammatory24 , lithotriptic activities 25 clearly justify its therapeutic efficacy in nephrolithiasis. It is further suggested that phytochemical and pharmacological studies on some of the less known or controversial Unani drugs may be taken up on priority basis not only to scientifically validate therapeutic uses , but revive the faith and confidence of Unani practitioners in its actions to serve the large strata of the rural society.
CONCLUSION
This article briefly reviews the traditional knowledge and ethno medicinal reports on therapeutic activities of the plant Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. The physicochemical, phytochemical and pharmacological studies of this plant provide a scientific basis for its therapeutic use.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1587http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15871. Singh M, Singh N, Khare PB, Rawat AKS. Antimicrobial activity of some important Adiantum species used traditionally in indigenous systems of medicine. Pharmacognocy and Ethno pharmacology Division, Lucknow: National botanical research institute, India.
2. Sharma NK. Ethno medicinal Studies on Ferns and Fern Allies of Hadoti Plateau, South Estern Rajasthan. Zoo’s Print Journal 2002; 17(3): 732-4.
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4. Chatterjee A, Pakrashi SC. The treatise on Indian medicinal plants. Vol 1. New Delhi: National institute of Science Communication and Information Resources(CSIR); 2005.p. 8
5. Parihar P, Leena p. Some pteridophytes of medicinal importance from Rajasthan. Natural Product Radiance 2006; 5(4): 297-301
6. www.usda.gov/java/namesearch (natural resource conservation service, USA Dept. of Agriculture. (Cited on 13-4-2012)
7. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian medicinal plants with illustration. 2nd edi. Vol-11th . Dehradun: International Book Distributors; 2003. p. 3747-49
8. Dymock W, Warden CJH, Hooper D. Pharmacographia Indica vol- III. New Delhi: Srishti book Distributors; 2005. p. 624-25
9. Standardisation of single drugs of Unani medicine, part II. New Delhi: CCRUM; 1992; p.240- 47.
10. Narayan DP, Purohit S, Arun K. Sharma, Tarun K. A hand book of medicinal plants, a complete source book Jodhpur: Agrobios India; 2009. P. 17
11. Abu Sayeed BAM. Kitab al fatah fi al – tawdi (Urdu translation). Ist edi. New Delhi: Jamia Hamdard; 2007. p. 66
12. Hakim IHB. Kitabul mukhtarat fil Tib (Urdu). Published by New Delhi: CCRUM; 2005. Vol II, p.77 Vol III. p.321-25
13. Hakim MK. Ilmul Advia Nafisi. New Delhi: Aijaz Publishing House; 2007. p. 255-56.
14. Central council of research in Unani Medicine. Qarabadin Sarkari. 2nd edi. New Delhi: CCRUM; 2006. p. 30
15. Arsahd MA, Khan MA, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Khan H, Muhammad N et al., Medicinal plants used for the treatment of jaundice and hepatitis based on socio-economic documentation. African Journal of Biotechnology 2009 April 20; 8 (8): 1643-50
16. Khare CP. Indian medicinal plants an illustrated dictionary. New York: Springer Science Media; 2007. p.19-20
17. Ambasta SP. The useful plants of India. New Delhi: National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources Council of scientific and industrial research; 2006. p. 15
18. Upreti K, Jewan SJ, Tewari LM, Joshi GC, Pangtey YPS, Tewari G. Ethno medicinal uses of pteridophytes of Kumaun Himalaya, Uttrakhan, India. Journal of American Science 2009; 5(4): 167-70
19. Takahisa N, Yoshiko M, Hideharu E, Yoko A, Kazuo M, Akihito T et al., fern constituents: Triterpenoids from Adiantum capillus-veneris . Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2002; 50 (9): 1273-75
20. Piyali G, Mukhopadhyay R, Gupta K. Antifungal activity of the extracts and extracted phenols from gametophytes and sporophytes of two species of Adiantum. Taiwania, 2005; 50 (4): 272-83.
21. Pourmorad F, Hosseinimehr SJ, Shahabimajd N. Antioxidant activity, phenol and flavonoid contents of some selected Iranian medicinal plants. African Journal of Biotechnology 2006 June; 5 (11): 1142-45.
22. Pradeep P, Leena P, Bohra Achaleshwar. In vitro antibacterial activity of fronds (leaves) of some important pteridophytes. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials 2010 March; 2 (2): 19-22
23. Ibrahim ZZ, Ahmed AS, Gouda YG. Phytochemical and biological studies of Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal 2011 January 7; 1-10
24. Haider S, Nazreen S, Alam, MM, Gupta A, Hamid H, Alam MS. Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of hdroalcoholicextract and its various fractions from Adiantum capillus veneris Linn. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2011; 138: 741-747
25. Ahmed SA. Antilithiasic activity of Parsiaoshan in experimental models [dissertation]. Nationa Institute of Unani Medicine: RGUHS, Bangalore; 2012.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareDIAGNOSTIC DILEMMA DUE TO DIVERSE PRESENTATION OF TUBERCULOSIS: SERIES OF 3 CASES
English7681Shrivastava DeeptiEnglish Patil VijyaEnglish Bhute SindhuEnglish Mukherjee SatarupaEnglishTuberculosis is still a common culprit for illhealth in India, particularly in rural areas. For infertility and other gynaecological disorders we routinely rule out any possibility of it but less stress is given for its co-incidental association in obstetric patients High degree of suspicion remains the only tool in some cases .We are hereby presenting 3 cases of tuberculosis presented altogether differently, along with obstretic conditions.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
Tuberculosis is the leading infectious disease in the world. In developing countries and certain areas of industrialized countries, rates of tuberculosis are highest among women and men of childbearing age. Tuberculosis (TB) and pregnancy are two different types of stresses experienced by women. Their simultaneous presence affects them both physically and mentally. India accounts for 30% of the burden of all TB cases in the world1 .A early diagnosis of TB infection in a pregnant woman is important as Infant and maternal mortality are between 30% and 40% in untreated active TB cases. However, unfortunately the diagnosis of TB during pregnancy is usually delayed (for 2–30 weeks) because of its non-specific symptoms and protean manifestation. Up to 20% of pregnant women with TB are asymptomatic or have only atypical symptoms2 . Here we are presenting 3 cases of tuberculosis with different presentations. CASE REPORTS Case 1 A 23 year old primigravida attended the antenatal clinic with history of amenorrhea since 2 months with 4-5 episodes of vomiting per day. She was married since 3 months with her menstrual cycles being regular with scanty flow. On examination, she was thin built. Her other findings and routine antenatal investigations were within normal limits. Ultrasound showed single live intrauterine pregnancy of 7.5 weeks gestation with good cardiac activity. She was prescribed folic acid and doxylamine tablets. She returned back after 2 days with increasing episodes of vomiting, her general condition appeared poor, hence was advised admission, but as patient was not willing for admission, she was prescribed oral hydration with glucose supplements and anti-emetics, after urine ketone examination revealed negative. She returned again after 2 days with uncontrolled vomiting and severe abdominal pain. Her general condition was further poor and tenderness over the abdomen was present with mild distention. Ultrasound was repeated which suggested distended bowel loops with intrauterine pregnancy of 8 weeks with absent cardiac activity. Surgeons? opinion was obtained and on abdominal x-ray, multiple gas-fluid levels were seen. Laparotomy along with Dand E was planned. Resection anastomosis of small intestine was done due to stricture present at terminal ileum along with multiple fibrous adhesions, which later on confirmed as Koch?s abdomen on histopathology and microbiology of resected part of ileum where typical caseating granulomas were present. Her intra and post operative period was uneventful and later on she responded very well to antitubercular treatment as per advice of TB-Chest physician .She was not having any evidence of pulmonary tuberculosis and diagnosed as extrapulmonary , category1-case of TB and drugs given were 2H3R3Z3E3 + 4H3R3 as per RNTCP norms7 . Case 2 A 25 years old lady G4A3 of good socioeconomic status was admitted on 29th of may 2008, during emergency hours with amenorrhea since 8 months, with complaints of fever and cough since 20 days, with haemoptysis since 4 hours and dyspnea. She was not a booked case of our institute but admitted in some private nursing home of nearby peripheral town since 7 days for fever and cough. On general examination, she was of average built, pale, temperature of 100 degree Fahrenheit, pulse- 90 beats per minute, blood pressure was 130/80mmHg. On examination of the respiratory system, basal crepitations and rhonchi were present on the left side. Abdominal examination revealed a fundal height of 32 weeks, with cephalic presenttion, FHS was 140/min, regular and uterus was relaxed. On internal examination, cervical os was 1 cm. dilated, 50% effaced, membrane was present, station was at -2 and pelvis was adequate for baby size. Routine investigations revealed Hb of 6 gm%, TLC16,400. peripheral smear showed microcytic, hypochromic blood picture. Blood group was O+ve . Her other investigations were within normal limits. Ultrasound suggested single live intrauterine fetus of gestational age of 34 weeks, placenta was fundoposterior. Ultrasound suggested left sided pleural effusion of 40-50cc fluid. X-ray chest suggested left upper lobe consolidation and suspicious of Koch?s abdomen .Her mother gave history of receiving AKT 10 years back. Opinion of Chest physician was sought, all 3 samples of sputum AFB were negative. She was diagnosed as Category1, seriously ill, smear negative pulmonary tuberculosis7 hence Along with broad spectrum Antibiotics, Ethamsylate, 2H3R3Z3E3+4H3R3 regimen, patient was shifted to TB ward. She still had persistent haemoptysis, on and off, received 5 units of whole blood transfusion and after 20 days, she was back at labour ward and delivered a near term male baby of weight 2.7kg. Baby did not exhibit any signs/symptoms of congenital tuberculosis but prophylactic Isoniazide 5mg/kg body weight was started to him along with Vitamin K. After 7 days of delivery, she had sudden collapse of left lung[Fig-1] due to blood clots in left bronchus, which was diagnosed and removed by rigid bronchoscopy[Fig-2]. Later on after 7 days, patient was totally asymptomatic and discharged. Anti tubercular treatment was given to both mother and baby. Baby was on mixed feeds of formula and breast milk, as in between mother was not able to feed him properly due to her poor general condition. Patient was discharged in a stable condition with exclusive breast feeding and to be followed up at the local TB center for direct observation therapy. No further episode of hemoptysis was reported at follow up after 6 weeks of delivery at our OPD and baby gained adequate weight and was on total breast feeding.
Case 3 A 36 year old primigravida was referred from a peripheral centre, during emergency hours, with history of amenorrhea since 9 months with premature rupture of membrans since 2 days and non-progress of labour. Patient had a history of spontaneous conception 15 years after her marriage. Her general examination was within normal limits. On per abdomen-uterus was full term size, cephalic presentation, FHS was present, being 110 beats/min, irregular in nature. On per vaginum, cervix was 3 cm. dilated, 25% affected, caput was present with head being at station -3. She underwent Emergency LSCS in view of PROM with fetal distress. A male baby of wt. 3.2kg was delivered with mild birth asphyxia. She was started on liquid diet from 2nd post- operative day and catheter was removed on 3rd day. From day 3rd post-op she started developing high graded fever, associated with chills. TLC count was 21,000 along with features of septicemia. Toxic granules were present on peripheral smear; other investigations were within normal limits. Wound was healthy, high vaginal swab, urine for culture and sensitivity and blood culture was sent, which later on showed sterile. She was having spikes of 102-103 degree Fahrenheit temperature, intermittently, hence injection chloroquine along with broad spectrum antibiotics were continued. Her fever subsided on day 6th post-op. she was taking full oral diet and bowel/bladder habits were normal. Her sutures were removed on day 8 and she had rise of temperature the next day. On her abdomen examination, mild ascites was suspected, hence ultrasound directed fluid aspiration was done and samples were sent for routine and microscopic examination along with culture and sensitivity. Abdominal wound was absolutely normal without any discharge or induration. To our surprise report of ascitic fluid was positive for AFB staining, Her endometrial sampling was sent for histopathology and microscopy but not positive for AFB. Baby did not show any signs/symptoms of congenital TB but prophylactic Isoniazide therapy was started to him along with injectable vitamin K. Although during LSCS intestines, omentum and peritoneal fluid appeared normal but presence in peritoneal fluid made it to think as primary peritoneal disease only. She had history of primary infertility but endometrial tissue was negative for it and she had conception without any treatment. She was Categorised as CAT-1 , extra pulmonary tuberculosis and , 2H3R3Z3E3+4H3R3 regimen was prescribed. Patient was discharged without any fever or ascitis on 15th postoperative day on continued AKT with DOT centre. Here H= Isoniazide, R=Rifampicine, Z=Pyrizinamide and E=Ethambutol.All our cases were weighing between 30-60 kilogram hence dosage were H-600mg, R-450mg,Z-1500mg and E-1200mg. all these drugs are safe in pregnancy and during breast feeding .The important drug which is contraindicated is Streptomycin.7 DISCUSSION M. tuberculosis is transmitted by airborne droplet nuclei, which may contain fewer than 10 bacilli and humans are the only known reservoir for M.
tuberculosis. Individuals at high risk for M. tuberculosis infection in industrialized countries include close contact a patient with infectious TB, IV drugs abusers, migrant farm workers or homeless persons and individuals who may have occupational exposure to TB; individuals with immune-suppressing conditions like HIV or medication use, individuals with a history of inadequately treated TB, and infants. Chances that an individual acquires infection depend on the infectiousness of the index case, duration of the exposure, environment (crowding, poor ventilation), and virulence of the organism.3,4,5 Atypical presentations and slow confirmation by culture often delay the diagnosis and treatment of patients with TB. Other reasons include an under use of tuberculin skin tests, misinterpretation of unusual chest X-rays, and waiting for culture results in patients with AFB-negative smears2,5 . Pregnancy is not thought to change the course of tuberculosis, however, tuberculosis poses a risk to the pregnant woman and her fetus.1 Diagnosis during pregnancy is delayed because the disease is frequently extrapulmonary with few symptoms. Although sites reported are pulmonary as well as laryngeal, pleural, cerebral, miliary, peritoneal, ileocaecal, skeletal or dermal.1,2,3,4,5 Diagnosis is usually require high degree of suspicion because of similarities of symptoms between TB and pregnancy like tachycardia, anaemia, raised ESR and low serum albumin level, as well as dissimilar parameters (like increase in weight during pregnancy and decrease due to TB, hypertension in the former and hypotension in the latter etc.) Under RNTCP, sputum examination done as per an algorithm is the preferred method for diagnosis of pulmonary TB. A chest skiagram (performed after shielding the abdomen) is done if all the 3 sputum smears are negative and symptoms persist despite giving antibiotics for 1-2 weeks. The presence of suggestive radiographic abnormalities and a medical officer?s decision to treat with ATT labels the patient as a „smear-negative? TB case7 . A pregnant woman with extra-pulmonary TB has constitutional and organ-affection symptoms. Routine haematology and Mantoux test (not commonly advocated in programme) along with investigations specific for the site are carried out for the establishment of specific diagnosis1 . Many patients with suspected pulmonary TB do not produce sputum spontaneously or are smearnegative for AFB. We could not obtain sputum sample positive in our patient even with hemoptysis. With the use of PCR, nucleic acid sequences unique to M. tuberculosis can be detected directly in clinical specimens with better accuracy and urgency than AFB smear and culture, respectively. Probes are used for rapid identification and maximizing cost effectiveness. Used alone or in combination with other identification methods, they serve as a substitute for biochemical testing and are also more accurate. Molecular tests in combination with “classic tests” can enhance the diagnostic ability particularly in pauci-bacillary infections and in patients with atypical presentations like ours.5 If proper and adequate chemotherapy is given to pregnant women with TB, they are not a higher risk than non-pregnant women with TB. Neither the disease nor chemotherapy is threatening to mother or newborn. However, today the ominous combination of human immunodeficiency virus, due to the influence of HIV, drug resistant TB and patient compliance and pregnancy poses a new challenge to obstetrocians1,3,5,6 The incidence of TB is around 1-2% amongst hospital deliveries, especially in the under privileged sections of the society.6 . Treatment should also be initiated when the probability is moderate-to-high. Although the drugs in the initial treatment regime cross the placenta, these concentrations do not appear to have harmful effect on the fetus1,5,6. Pregnant women with TB should also be tested for HIV as there is a higher incidence of extrapulmonary TB and multidrugresistant TB (MDR TB) in this set of patients. Though none of our patients were HIV positive.
Effective methods for prevention and treatment of the disease are available and inexpensive but still are not used appropriately in most parts of the developing world. The clinician caring for pregnant women should be aware of the risk factors for tuberculosis infection and disease and should test women and families according to risk.5 Patient compliance has to be good to ensure the success of the DOTS strategy. DOTS have emerged as one of the most reassuring tool to improve the challenging situation of pregnancy with TB.6 Early diagnosis and prompt treatment of Tuberculosis during pregnancy would give better results. Drug therapy in appropriate dosage has no major adverse effects on the offspring. Breastfeeding should be actively encouraged. Early ANC registration, intensive intrapartum monitoring and post partum surveillance, adequate rest and nutrition are crucial. Breast feeding should not be discouraged in women being treated with first-line antituberculosis drugs because the concentrations in the breast milk are subtherapeutic and too low to produce toxicity in the nursing new born. The effect would likely be much lower if the mother breast feeds before taking the medication. Similarly, breast milk is also inadequate as a treatment option for TB or latent TB infection in newborns5 . Close follow up of patients is essential since current therapy for TB infection is long and suboptimal .Role of Bacillus of Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine in preventing TB in adults is debatable due to its variable efficacy (0–80%)1,5 . Its efficacy in prevention of tuberculous meningitis and miliary TB in young children has been easier to document than in adults or in the prevention of pulmonary TB in both children and adults4 . In our as well as opinion of other authors2 , the most crucial step in managing TB in pregnancy is an early diagnosis. Obstetricians should be alert to this “old disease” in their daily practice. Screening of TB should be considered for the following groups of pregnant women: (A) patients with symptoms suggestive of TB (B) patients with HIV infection (C) women who were in close contact with infectious TB patients, who visited high TB-prevalent areas recently without being screened for TB previously (D) patient having history of infertility.
CONCLUSION
A high index of suspicion and awareness of the rapid advances and innovations made in the diagnosis is required to recognize the changing face and disease spectrum of tuberculosis and initiate treatment for better outcomes. Atypical presentation may lead to misdiagnosis or a delay in diagnosis. Also the absence of systemic symptoms does not rule out TB. Radiological imaging, sputum smear, and PPD only aid in the diagnosis but a high degree of suspicion is required to ascertain an accurate diagnosis. Establishing an early diagnosis of TB infection and disease in a pregnant woman is important as it affects the health of both mother and infant.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are extremely thankful to Dr Sameer Singhal ,Associate Professor, Deptt of Chest and TB for his valuable guidance and support in management of all these cases and making this article possible.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1588http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15881. Arora V K and Gupta R :TUBERCULOSIS AND PREGNANCY : Ind J Tub, 2003, 50, 13
2. GAO Xue-lian, Gyaneshwar R. An unusual presentation of tuberculosis in pregnancyChinese Medical Journal, 2007, Vol. 120 No. 15 : 1378-1380
3. Song J Y , Park CW , Kee SY , Choi WS , Kang EY , Sohn JW. Disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in an immunocompetent pregnant woman, BMC Infectious Diseases 2006, 6:154
4. Llewelyn M, Cropley I, Wilkinson RJ, Davidson RN. Tuberculosis diagnosed during pregnancy: a prospective study from London.Thorax. 2000 Feb;55(2):129-32
5. Maddineni M and Panda M ;Pulmonary Tuberculosis in a Young Pregnant Female: Challenges in Diagnosis and treament , Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 2008; 2008: 628985
6. Rao S B, Dalal SJ, Badhwar VR, Patil M; Tuberculosis in Pregnancy and the Impact of Directly Observed Therapy - Short Course (Dots) Bombay Hospital Journal. Volume 48 No. 02, April 2006
7. Revised National Tuberlosis Control Programme; PPM Training Module for Medical Practitioners. Central TB Division, Directorate General of Health Services, October 2006 page 22.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareGRIP STRENGTH AND HAND FUNCTION CHANGES IN UNILATERAL CERVICAL RADICULOPATHY
English8290Mohamed Faisal C.K.English Nirmal MathewEnglish Lawrence MathiasEnglish Ajith S.EnglishBack Ground and Objective: This study was to know and compare the extent of ill effect of cervical radilculopathy in upper limb, by measuring the hand grip strength and hand functions comparing with the normal or unaffected side. Materials and Method: It was a retrospective covariance study, where 30 subjects were selected who satisfied the inclusion and exclusion criteria with a mean age group of 45. All the subjects were explained about the procedures and an informed written consent was obtained. The 30 patients were assessed for grip strength by hand dynamometer and hand function by Jebsen – Taylor hand function test. The assessments were taken three times with an adequate interval of five minutes and the average values were taken. Results: The grip strength and hand functions of the affected side were compared with the unaffected or normal side. Paired and independent t test was used for the analysis of data. High significance was seen in hand grip strength with P = 0.028 P< 0.05 between affected and unaffected side. Hand function data was analyzed by independent t test for the seven sub tests, in which five tests showed very high significance with P= 0.000, 0.015, 0.000,0.000, 0.043 P < 0.05. Interpretation of Results: Hand grip strength and hand functions were significantly reduced in patients with cervical radiculopathy. There was significant reduction in the hand grip strength and hand function in the patients with unilateral cervical radiculopathy when compared with the unaffected side.
EnglishCervical radiculopathy, Hand Grip Strength, Hand function, Jebsen Taylor Test, Hand dynamometerINTRODUCTION
Cervical radiculopathy is as condition caused by compression of a nerve root in the cervical spine. It is generally from a herniated disc or a bone spur that is pressing against an inflamed nerve root [1]. Nerve roots compression may lead to weakness, numbness and pain where the nerve travels. The pain may be felt as deep, dull and achy or may have sharp shooting pain along the path of the nerve. Muscles controlled by the affected nerve root may also be weakened [2]. Degenerative disc disease (DDD) is extremely common, occurring in up to 5% of women and 13% of men during the 3rd decade, more than 90% of adults over the age of 50 years and almost 10Methods of Data Collection0% by 70 years [3]. Isolated root pathology is commonly caused by protrusion of a disc, although chronic degenerative arthritic changes or abnormalities of the superior facet region may also play a role. The most commonly affected level is C5 -C6, with 86% of specimens having observable abnormalities. The C6 – C7 level is the next most frequently affected site in the cervical region. Finally, involvement of the 8th cervical nerve root by a herniated C7 –T1 disc produces a significant weakness of the intrinsic musculature of the hand. This involvement can lead to rapid atrophy of the interosseous muscles. Loss of the interrossei leads to significant loss in fine hand motion. The most common areas of the disc herniation are C6 – C7 and C5 – C6 [4]. The existing treatments for these conditions are medications, surgical management and physiotherapy [5]. The physiotherapy management for the condition includes; educating the patient, teaching the natural history of Osteoarthritis of the cervical spine, heating modalities like SWD, ultrasound, TENS, infrared lamps, hydrocollator packs, hydrotherapy, stretching of the neck muscles and range of motion exercises. Intermittent cervical spine traction, Special pillows, cervical massage, relaxation techniques to relieve the emotional stress that aggravates the symptoms and cervical manipulation and manual traction are also found to be effective [6]. Functional tests assess a broad spectrum of hand and upper extremity function including ADLs, gross and fine motor abilities, tool usage, manipulations, dexterity, grasp and release of objects and unilateral and bilateral hand use and sensibility [7]. Power is a good indicator of hand function, and its measurement must be included as the part of any hand assessment. The most commonly measured aspects of hand functions include grasp, lateral pinch and opposition pinch. The hand function tests are often timed and used to analyze patterns of grip and form a problem index. They are particularly useful in an assessment situation where the therapist has not had the opportunity to observe the patient using the hand. The hand function test may be used to analyze and evaluate treatment outcomes [8]. Measurement of handgrip strength is an important component of hand rehabilitation because it assesses the patients’ initial limitation as compared with norms. Its utility continues throughout the treatment process because it provides a quick reassessment of the patient’s progress. Without the ability to grasp, a person ceases to be functionally independent and is unlikely to be able to work or play. Measuring the strength of hand muscles with dynamometer is frequently used as a parameter to asses hand function [9, 10]. Jebsen-Taylor hand function test consist of 7 subtests. Each test is timed, and there are published standardized times against which to evaluate the performance of the patient. It has been widely used to evaluate hand functions in a number of medical and surgical conditions. It evaluates unilateral grasp and prehension patterns. Although this test cannot be purchased commercially, the therapist can assemble it inexpensively. It is fast and easy to administer too [11]. Since cervical radiculopathy can decrease the handgrip strength and the associated functions, there are chances of alternate functional impairment during unilateral cervical radiculopathy, towards the affected side. This can be assessed by using the hand dynamometer for grip strength and Jebsen-Taylor test for functional activity. So this study is to know the extent of the effect of cervical radiculopathy in grip strength and hand functions and to compare the extent of the ill effects of cervical radiculopathy by grip strength and hand functions with the normal side or unaffected side.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study included a sample of 30 subjects with age group between 30 to 60 years who were diagnosed with unilateral cervical radiculopathy of the right side, based on their clinical findings, irrespective of their sex. The diagnosed cases were recruited from the Department of Orthopaedics and Neurology of K S Hegde Hospital, Mangalore. Methods of Data Collection This study was a retrospective covariance study. The subjects were explained about the condition, experimental procedures, and outcome measures. Formal written consent was obtained from each subject and ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Ethical Committee.
Inclusion Criteria
Diagnosed cases of unilateral cervical radiculopathy of the right hand dominant side, where the patients were under control of pain.
Age group between 30 to 60.
Both males and females
Exclusion Criteria
Subjects who have any other musculo skeletal disorders
Neurovascular Impairment
Bilateral cervical radiculopathy
Cervical Myelopathy
Acute cases of cervical radiculopathy
Materials required
Jamar Hand Dynamometer
Jebsen Taylor Hand Function Kit
METHODOLOGY
The hand dynamometer measures cylinder grip strength and it is widely available to hand therapist, has a standardized method of use, has normative values established for its use, and is widely accepted by hand therapist. The normative values are particularly useful when it is necessary to compare the patient against norms. The patients were seated in a chair with shoulder adducted, neutrally rotated, elbow flexed at 90 degree, forearm neutral, wrist between 0 degree and 15 degree dorsiflexion and 0 degree and 15 degree ulnar deviation. Hold the dynamometer lightly around readout dial. Then the patient has instructed to hold the handle and “squeeze” as hard as possible and then “Relax”. Same technique was repeated with same instructions for the second and third trial. Both the right and left hand has been tested in the second handle position. The peak reading of the three trials was noted and average was taken [9]. The Jebsen-Taylor hand function test is composed of seven subtests that represent various hand activities. The seven subtests include; (1) Writing, (2) Turning over 3 by 5- in cards (which simulates page turning), (3) Picking up small common objects (4) Simulated feeding, (5) Stacking checkers, (6) Picking up and placing large empty objects, (7) Picking up and placing large heavy objects. The examiner reads the directions to the patient and records the time that the patient requires to complete each subtest with the non dominant and then the dominant hand. The results are compared with normative data available relative to gender and age. Seven subtests were chosen to provide a broad sampling of hand function. Each of the subtests was designed to be administered in precisely the same manner to each subject. The results measured objectively using a stop watch. Each subject was seated in a chair of 18-inch height at a desk of 30-inch height in a well – lighted room. Questions were answered after the instructions were given to be certain that the instructions were understood. The subtests were always presented in the same sequence and were always performed with the non dominant hand first.
SUBTEST 1: Writing Procedure:
The subject is given a black ball point pen and for 8-by-11 inch sheets of un ruled white paper fastened one on top of the other, to a clip board. The sentence to be copied has 24 letters. The sentence is typed in all capital letters and centered on a 5-by-8 inch index card. The card is presented with the typed side faced down on a book stand. After the articles are arranged to the comfort of the subjects the card is turned over by the examiner with an immediate command to begin. The item is timed from the word “go” until the pen is lifted from the page at the end of the sentence. The item is repeated with the dominant hand using a new sentence.
SUBTEST 2:
Card turning (simulated page turning) Procedure: Five 3 X 5 inch index cards ruled on one side only, are placed in a horizontal row 2 inches apart on the desk in front of the patient. Each card is oriented vertically five inches from the front edge of the desk. Timing is from the word “go” until the last card is turned over. No accuracy of placement after turning is necessary the item is repeated with the dominant hand.
SUBTEST 3-
Picking up small common objects Procedure: An empty 1 pound coffee can is placed directly in front of the subject, five inches from the front edge of the desk. Two 1 inch paper clips oriented vertically, two regular sized bottle caps each 1-inch in diameter placed with inside of the cap facing up and two coins are placed in a horizontal row to the left of the can. The paper clips are to the extreme left and the coin nearest the can. The objects are two inches apart. Timing is from the word “go” until the sound of the last object striking the inside of the can is heard. The item is repeated with the dominant hand.
SUBTEST 4-
Simulated feeding Procedure: Five kidney beans of approximately 5X 8 inch length are placed on the desk in front of the subject 5 inches from the front edge of the desk. The beans are oriented to the left of the centre 2 inches apart. An empty 1 pound coffee can is placed centrally in front of the patient. A regular teaspoon is provided. Timing is from the word “go” until the last bean is heard hitting the bottom of the can. The item is repeated with the dominant hand, the beans being placed to the right of the centre.
SUBTEST 5 –
Stacking checkers Procedure: Four standard sized red wooden checkers are placed in front of the subject, five inches from the front edge of the desk. The checkers are oriented two on each side of the centre in a 0000 configuration. Timing is from the word “go” until the fourth checker makes contact with the third checker. The fourth checker need not stay in place .The item is repeated with dominant hand.
SUBTEST 6-
Picking up large light objects Procedure: Five empty cans are placed in front of the subject five inches from the front edge of the desk. The cans are spaced two inches apart with the open end of the can facing down. Timing is from the word “go” until the fifth can has been released. The item is repeated with dominant hand.
SUBTEST 7
Picking up large heavy objects Procedure: Five full 1 pound cans are placed in front of the subject with five inches from the front edge of the desk. The cans are spaced two inches apart. Timing is from the word “go” until the fifth can has been released. The item is repeated with the dominant hand [12].
RESULTS
Thirty patients were taken with unilateral cervical radiculopathy of the dominant right side. The average ages of the patient were 45 +\- 8.75. Out of 30 patients, 18 were males and 12 were females. The analysis was done using Paired and independent t-test. The data were compared to check whether there is any significant difference in handgrip strength between the affected and the unaffected side and the statistical analysis shows in hand grip of the total 30 subjects, there was a mean difference of - 1.87 with t-value of -2.34 with P-value 0.028, where is P0.05. It shows there is a non significant difference in the card turning on the affected side when compared to the normal. The statistical analysis shows that in picking up small objects, there was a mean difference of – 1.02 with t-value of 1.23 with P-value 0.105, which is P>0.05. It shows there is a non significant difference in picking up small objects on the affected side when compared to the normal. The statistical analysis shows that in simulated feeding, there was a mean difference of 0.866 with t-value 2.49 with P- value 0.015,which is PEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1589http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15891. Tanaka.Y, Kokuban.S, Sato.T. Cervical Radiculopathy and its unsolved problems. J.Current Orthopaedics.1998; 12: pg 2.
2. Ludwing Ombert, Pierre Bischop, Ter Van H.J, Tony Van A. System of Orthopaedic Medicine. 1st Edition: WB Saunders Company; London, 1995; pg: 20-24.
3. Irvine D.H, Forster J.B, Newell D.J. Prevalence of Cervical Spondylosis in a general practice. Lancet.1965 ;( 1):1089- 1091.
4. Friendenberg ZB, Ediken J, Spenser N. Degenerative changes of the cervical spine. Journal of Bone Joint Surg Am. 1959; 41: 61.
5. Rubin D. Cervical radiculitis - Diagnosis and treatment. Archives of Physical Medicine Rehabilitation. 1960; 41 (l):175.
6. John Ebenezer. Essentials of Orthopaedics for Physiotherapists. 1st Ed. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers; New Delhi; 2003: pg: 223.
7. Apfel E. Preliminary Development of Standardized Hand function Test. Journal of Hand Therapy. 1990; 3 (4): 191.
8. Maureen Salter, Lynn Chesire. Hand Therapy Principles And Practice. 1st Ed. ButterworthHeinemann Publishers, Oxford; 2000; pg: 40,53.
9. Joseph Balogun. A, Charles Akomolafe.T, Lateef Amusa O. Grip Strength: Effects of testing posture and elbow position. Archives of Physical Medical Rehabilitation. 1991; April; 72:280-283.
10. Annemike J. Videler, Anita Beelen. Hand strength and fatigue in patients with hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy (Types 1 and 2). Archives of Physical Med Rehabilitation. 2002 Sept;83:1274-1278.
11. Barbara G. Stanely, Susan M. Tribuzi. Concepts in Hand Rehabilitation. F.A.Davis Company. Philadelphia; 1992; pg: 5, 7.
12. Robert Jebsen, Neal Taylor. An Objective and Standardized test of Hand function. Achieves of Physical Med Rehabilitation. 1969 June: 311-319.
13. Crosby CA, Wehbe MA. Hand strength: normative values. American Journal of Hand Surgery. 1994 July; 19(4): 665-70.
14. Petersen P, Petrick M. Grip strength and hand dominance: challenging the 10% rule. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 1989 July; 43(7): 444-7.
15. Ozcan A, Tulum Z. Comparison of Pressure pain threshold, grip strength, Dexterity and Touch pressure of Dominant and Non dominant hands with in right and left handed subjects. Journal of Korean Med Science. 2004 Dec;19(6): 874-8
16. Peolsson A, Hedlund R. Intra and inter-tester reliability and reference values for hand strength. Journal Rehabilitation Medicine. 2001 Jan; 33(1): 36-41.
17. Bravo G, Hebert R. Impact of elbow position on grip strength of elderly men. Journal of Hand Therapy. 1995 Jan-Mar; 8(1):27-30.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareA STUDY ON MODIFIED ALVARADO SCORING SYSTEM IN DIAGNOSING ACUTE APPENDICITIS
English9194C.P. Ganesh BabuEnglish E.M.J. KarthikeyanEnglish K. Bharaniraj KumarEnglishAim: To study the role of Modified Alvarado scoring system in diagnosing acute appendicitis in clinical practice. Materials and Methods: A prospective study was conducted on 250 patients admitted with abdominal pain suggestive of acute appendicitis and were operated, from January 2008 to December 2009 in AVMC&H and MAPIMS. Both males and females patients from 8 years to 60 years of age were included. Preoperative modified Alvarado score was used in all, and the results were compared with operative finding and biopsy. Results: 155 patients were identified to have score of 8 or more. 149 patients were confirmed by biopsy. 91 patients have score 5 -7 and 66 were confirmed by biopsy. Conclusion: This scoring system is a reliable and diagnostic modality to increase the accuracy in diagnosing appendicitis.
EnglishAlvarado. Scoring system. Acute appendicitisINTRODUCTION
Acute appendicitis is one of the most common surgical emergency. Its lifetime prevalence is 1 in 7. its incidence is 1.5 to 1.9 / 1000 in male and female population. Surgery for acute appendicitis is the most frequent operation performed in all emergency. The diagnosis of acute appendicitis is purely based on history, clinical examination and laboratory investigations. Negative appendicectomy rate is 15 to 40% as per literatures. Delay in diagnosis definitely increases the morbidity, mortality and cost of treatment. Early diagnosis is a primary goal to prevent morbidity and mortality.(1) Alvarado in 1986 introduced a criterion for the diagnosis of acute appendicitis which was later modified to accommodate additional parameters along with original Alvarado scoring system.( 2- 5). The aim of the study is to evaluate the sensitivity of modified Alvarado scoring system in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis, to reduce the rate of negative appendicectomy and to reduce the complications of acute appendicitis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A total number of 250 cases of clinically suspected acute appendicitis were studied from the period of January 2008 to December 2009 in AVMC&H in pondy and MAPIMS . Data including age , sex, symptoms, physical sighs and laboratory findings such as white blood cells total and differential count were recorded in modified Alvarado form. (Table 1). (6) In addition, urine for routine examination was done for all cases. ultra sonogram of abdomen was performed when diagnosis was doubtful, especially in female patients to exclude gynecological diseases.
The score of each patient was correlated with the clinical, operative and histopathological findings.
RESULTS
Age of the patients ranged from 7 years to 60 years with the majority of the patients in the third decade (46%) followed by second decade (25%). (Table 2). Out of 250 patients, 155(62%) were males and 95 (38%) were female. clinically males were more susceptible than females. (Table 3). All the specimen were sent to laboratory for histopathological examination. The reports showed features of acute appendicitis in 215 (86%) cases and 35 (14%) patients did not have acute appendicitis. (Table 4). In this series, patients with score of 8- 10, 5 – 7, and 1- 4, had 96%, 72.5%, and 0% sensitivity respectively. (Table 5). Patients with score 8 and above, the sensitivity is 98.04% in male and 92.45% in females.(table 6). Patients with score less than 8, the sensitivity is 79.24% in male and 57.15 % in females and overall is 68.72.%. (Table 7).
DISCUSSION
Results of this study shows acute appendicitis was most common in the 21 – 30 years(46%). Next most common group was 11 -20 (26%). All the studies have shown that appendicitis is more common in 10- 30 years of age .(7) Males more susceptible than females .(8) A negative rate of appendicectomy of 20- 40% is not unusual finding in literature (9) . Negative appendicectomy in this study is 15.75%, male (8.4%), females (23.1%). The percentage of normal appendicectomy in varies series varies from 8 to 33%. In this era many surgeons accept 15 to 20% negative appendicectomy (10) . From this study it was found that the higher the score, more of its sensitivity. Patients with the Alvarado score ranges 8 -10, 5 – 7 and 1 – 4 have accuracy of 96%, 72.5% and 0% respectively. Fengo at al reported a sensitivity of 90.2% and others reported a sensitivity of 73% with negative laparotomy rate 17.5% .(11) In this series, the sensitivity of the patients with the score 8 and above was 98,04% in males and 92.45% in females and combined sensitivity is 95.45% whereas the sensitivity with score less than 7 was 79.24% in males, 57.15% in females and combined sensitivity is 68.75%. This study also reveals that scoring system was more helpful in male patients by showing high accuracy rate as compared to female patients. Lower values in female patients were due to presence of diseases in genital system (i.e.) ovaries, salpinges (4, 12) . In females, additional investigations are required. Different literatures also support these observations (13). However there are no signs , symptoms or laboratory test that are 100% reliable in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis. In this study modified Alvarado scoring system showed that the accuracy of the diagnosis was very dependable and acceptable in higher scores but patients with lower scores should be observed. Patients with score 8 to 10 are almost certain to have appendicitis and they should undergo operation immediately. Patients with a score 5 to 7 indicate probable appendicitis. they should be observed and evaluated every 4 to 6 hrs, if the score remains the same or increases after this, reevaluation is required and patients with the score of 4 or less are very unlikely but not impossible to have appendicitis and they can be discharged from hospital after giving initial conservative treatment.
CONCLUSION
In the diagnosis of acute appendicitis, the modified Alvarado score is a fast, simple, reliable, noninvasive repeatable and safe diagnostic modality without extra expense and complication. It can be very useful for junior doctors provided it is applied purposefully and objectively in patients. The application of this scoring system improves diagnostic accuracy and consequently reduces negative appendicectomy and this reduces complication rates.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1590http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15901. Wagner JM, McKinney WP, Carpenter JL, Does this patient have appendicitis? JAMA 1996; 276; 1589-94.
2. Alvarado A. A practical score for the early diagnosis of acute appendicitis. Ann Emerg Med 1986;15: 557- 564.
3. Owen TD, William H, Stiff G, Jinkinsen LR , Rees BI, Evaluation of Alvarado score in acute appendicitis. J R Soc Med 1992; 85: 87- 8.
4. 0hnmann C, Yang O, Frank C. Diagnostic score for acute appendicitis. Abdomen pain study group. Eur J Surg 1995; 161: 273- 281.
5. Macklin CP, Radcliffe GS, Merei JM, STRINGER md. A prospective evaluation of modified Alvarado score for acute appendicitis in children. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1997; 79: 203 -205.
6. Al-Fallouji MAR, Postgraduate surgery, the candidates Guide. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann; 1998: 388- 389.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareROLE OF FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY IN SALIVARY GLAND PATHOLOGY AND ITS HISTOPATHOLOGICAL CORRELATION: A TWO YEAR PROSPECTIVE STUDY IN WESTERN INDIA
English95101Agravat Amit H.English Dhruva Gauravi A.English Pujara Krupal M.English Sanghvi Hardik K.EnglishBackground and objectives: Salivary gland lesions account for 2-6.5% of all the neoplasm of the head and neck. Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) is being increasingly used in the diagnosis of salivary gland lesions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy and the sensitivity and specificity of FNAC in various salivary gland lesions in correlation with their histopathology, which helps in the appropriate therapeutic management. Methods: A total of 120 FNACs were done on salivary gland tumors from July 2010 to June 2012 in the Department of Pathology, P.D.U. Government Medical College, Rajkot (Gujarat, India). Formalin fixed (10%), surgically resected specimens were received, they were processed and slides were prepared for histopathological diagnosis. The stained cytological and histopathological slides were studied, analyzed and correlated. Results: The cytomorphological features were studied and analyzed and the following lesions were observed: Pleomorphic adenoma (88), Warthin’s tumor (2), Cystic lesion (4), Mucoepidermoid carcinoma (6), Acinic cell carcinoma (2), Primary lymphoma (2), Carcinoma EX pleomorphic adenoma(4), metastatic malignancy deposits (2), benign parotid tumor (8) and malignant tumor (unspecified)(2). A histopathological correlation was available in 78 cases. Out of these, 71 cases were true positive, 1 was false positive, 2 were false negative and 4 were true negative. Interpretation and conclusion: The overall sensitivity, specificity and the diagnostic accuracy were 97%, 80% and 92% respectively. Hence, the appropriate therapeutic management could be planned earlier. This study documents that FNAC of the salivary gland tumors is accurate, simple, rapid, inexpensive, well tolerated and harmless for the patient.
EnglishSalivary gland tumors, FNAC, Diagnostic accuracy, Sensitivity, Specificity, Benign, Malignant.INTRODUCTION
Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) is accurate, simple, rapid, inexpensive, well tolerated and harmless for the patient (1),(2),(3),(4),(5). Although salivary gland tumors are rare and they account for 2-6.5% of all the head and neck tumors, their superficial location, easy accessibility and high diagnostic accuracy makes FNAC a popular method for evaluating them (6),(7),(8). Among the primary epithelial tumors, 64-80% occur in the parotid glands, 7-11% occur in the sub-mandibular, less than 1% occur in the sublingual and 9-23% occur in the minor salivary glands (1),(9),(10). In the files of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, about 1/3rd of the major gland and half of the minor gland tumors are malignant (10). The ratio of the malignant to the benign tumor is the greatest (>2.3:1) in the sub-lingual gland and in the minor salivary glands of the tongue, the floor of the mouth and the retromolar area (11). A review of the recent reported series found that the diagnostic sensitivity of FNAC varied from 81-100%, that the specificity varied from 94-100% and that the diagnostic accuracy varied from 61- 80% (11),(12). Hence, the appropriate therapeutic management could be planned earlier, whether it was local excision for benign neoplasm, conservative management for non-neoplastic lesions, radical surgery for malignant tumors and chemotherapy or radiotherapy for metastasis and lymphoproliferative disorders (8). Hence, the present study was done to know the diagnostic accuracy, which helps in an early diagnosis and appropriate therapeutic management.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
The present prospective study was undertaken from July 2010 to June 2012 at the P.D.U. Government Medical College, Rajkot (Gujarat, India), which comprised of 120 cases of salivary gland tumors which were diagnosed by FNAC. After taking the informed consent, the aspiration was done following a thorough clinical examination. The cytological findings were correlated with the histopathology.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The nodule of interest was palpated and fixed with the thumb and the index finger of one hand. Under aseptic precautions, a 10 cc syringe with a 22-25 gauge needle was introduced into the nodule. The material was aspirated and smeared onto clean glass slides. The air dried and ethanol fixed smears were stained with Giemsa and Haematoxylin and Eosin (HandE) respectively. In cases of fluid aspiration, slides were prepared from the centrifuged sediment. Formalin fixed (10%), surgically resected specimens were received in the Department of Pathology, processed and stained with haematoxylin and eosin for histopathological examination. Special stains like PAS was done wherever required. The stained cytological and histopathological slides were studied, analyzed and correlated. RESULTS During the study period, 343 cases of salivary gland swellings were aspirated, out of which 120 were diagnosed as salivary gland tumors by FNAC. Among these, histopathological correlations were available for 78 cases. All the cases occurred in the age group of 11-80 years and a majority of them were seen in the range of 21-30 years (25%), with a male to female ratio of 1.4:1 (Table/Fig 1). The number of cases which were seen in the parotid gland, the sub-mandibular gland and the minor salivary glands were 74(61.7%), 42(35%) and 4(3.33%) respectively. There were 102 (85%) benign and 18(15%) malignant tumors. The commonest gland which was involved was the parotid gland in both males i e., 44(59%) and females 30(41%). Out of the 120 cases, 88(73.33%) were pleomorphic adenomas (PA), 2 (1.7%) were Warthin’s tumors (WT), 6(5%) were mucoepidermoid carcinomas (MEC), 2(1.7%) were acinic cell carcinomas, 4(3.33%) were carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenomas, 2(1.7%) were primary lymphomas of the parotid gland, 2(1.7%) were metastatic deposits, 8(6.7%) were benign parotid tumors, 4(3.33%) were cystic lesions and 2(1.7%) were malignant tumors (unclassified) (Table/Fig2). PA and MEC were the commonest benign and malignant tumors respectively. There were 88 PAs, out of which only 64 cases had a histopathological correlation. Fifty two of them were concordantly diagnosed as PA histopathologically. Two cases each were of basal cell adenoma, myoepithelioma, WT and MEC, whereas 4 were diagnosed as sialadenosis by histopathology. Out of 2 cases of WT, 1 was concordantly diagnosed by histopathology, whereas the other one was not available for correlation. Among the 8 cases of benign parotid tumors, a histopathological correlation was available for 6 and all were diagnosed as PA. Among 4 cases of cystic lesions, all were histopathologically correlated. Of these, 2 were diagnosed as mucocele and the other 2 as benign lymphoepithelial cysts. Among 4 cases of carcinoma ex PA, 2 were available for histopathological correlation, which were diagnosed as MEC. Among 4 cases of MEC, 2 were concordantly diagnosed by histopathology. Two cases were reported as acinic cell carcinomas, both of which were not available for histopathological correlation. There were 2 cytologically diagnosed cases of primary lymphoma of the parotid, both of which were concordantly diagnosed by histopathologically as non-Hodgkins lymphoma- diffuse large B cell type. Two cases were cytologically diagnosed as metastatic squamous cell carcinomas, both of which were not available for histopathological correlation. In the above cyto-histopathological correlation study, the sensitivity, specificity and the diagnostic accuracy were 97%, 80% and 96%. DISCUSSION Salivary gland neoplasm are rare and they account for 2 to 6.5% of all the neoplasm of the head and neck (1). Among all the parotid gland tumors, 15- 30% was malignant, in contrast to about 40% in the submandibular gland, 50% in the minor salivary gland and 70-90% in the sublingual glands. The likelihood that a salivary gland tumor being malignant is inversely proportional to the size of the gland. Salivary gland tumors usually occur in adults, but 5% can occur in children who are younger than 16 years of age. FNAC of the salivary gland tumors is advantageous for both the patients and the clinicians because of its immediate results, accuracy, lack of complications and economy (8). Many studies have revealed the high diagnostic accuracy of FNAC when it was used for salivary gland tumors (13), (14), and (15). Pleomorphic Adenoma PA is the most common tumor which accounts for 60-70% of all the salivary gland tumors. These tumors occur in the middle age group and they can be bilateral in 5-6% of the cases. They have a striking sex difference, with 85-90% of the cases occurring in the male population. The reliability of FNAC in diagnosing PA has been reported as 90- 97% (13). Among the 120 cases of salivary gland tumors in the present study, 88 cases (73.3%) were diagnosed as PA cyto-logically. Sixty four of them were available for histopathological correlation, out of which 52 were concordantly diagnosed. The commonest changes which were observed were epithelial and mesenchymal like elements with a wide variety of patterns within the tumor. The commonest elements that were seen included fibrous, mucinous, myxochondroid and chondroid tissues. Out of the 64 cases which were histopathologically correlated, 2 were discordantly diagnosed as basal cell adenomas and 2 as myoepitheliomas. In both these cases, the FNAC slides were reviewed; both showed highly cellular smears with scanty stromal elements and were mistakenly diagnosed as PA. From the practical perspective, this confusion was of minor importance, since the surgical treatment was similar in both the cases. Two cases were discordantly diagnosed as Warthin’s tumor. The reviewed FNAC slides showed an oncocytic change, which we suspected as epithelial cells with metaplastic change. The lymphoid component was not present in the FNAC slides due to a sampling error. There were 2 cases of false negative diagnoses in our study, which were diagnosed as mucoepidermoid carcinomas histopathologically. This erroneous diagnosis was due to a sampling error. This can occur when the malignant component is small and it can be resolved with a wider sampling of the tumor, in order to obtain smears from the malignant transformation. Many studies showed similar findings [13-15]. There were 4 cases which were diagnosed as sialadenosis histopathologically. The FNAC slides were reviewed, which showed increased cellularity with epithelial components and fibrocollagenous tissue, which were mistaken as chondromyxoid stromal fragments. Warthin’s Tumor (WT) WT is the second most common benign salivary gland tumor (5-6%) and a majority of these can occur in the parotid or periparotid area. These tumors are bilateral in 5-6% of the cases, they may be multiple and may occur in the older aged groups, and with the striking sex difference that 85-90% of the cases occurs in males. A combination of oncocytes, lymphoid tissues and cystic macrophages help in the diagnosis. Among the 120 cases in the present study, 2 cases were diagnosed as WT by FNAC. Both of these were not available for histopathological correlation. Salivary Cysts Small cysts (mucoceles or mucus retention cysts) which arise from minor salivary glands are not uncommon. The favored sites are in the submucosa of the oral cavity of the lower lip, the cheeks, the dorsal surface of the tip of the tongue and the floor of the mouth. The cysts in the salivary gland can occur in some neoplasm like PA, WT, MEC, acinic cell carcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas. In the present study, out of the 120 cases, there were 4 cases of cysts, which were diagnosed by FNAC. All the 4 cases were available for histopathological correlation. Two were concordantly diagnosed as mucocele and the other 2 as benign lymphoepithelial cysts. The FNAC slides were reviewed, which showed plenty of cyst macrophages and degenerated epithelial cells against a myxoid background. There were no lymphoid components in the smear. This may be due to a sampling error where the needle might have hit only the cystic area. Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma MECs comprise 5-10% of all the salivary gland tumors and 9/10th of these tumors occur in the parotid gland (15). Zajicek et al. reported a DA of 37% when all the 3 cellular components (epidermoid cells, intermediate cells and mucous cells) were present. Cellular smears from well differentiated MECs usually pose no problem in their diagnosis. However, the high grade, poorly differentiated tumors may be difficult to recognize as MECs and they may be misdiagnosed as poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinomas. When the tumor is cystic and the aspiration yields only mucous material, a diagnosis of MEC may be missed. In our study, out of 120 cases, there were 6 cases of MEC, which were diagnosed by FNAC. The smear showed 3 types of cells, epidermoid cells, intermediate cells and mucus cells against a dirty necrotic background. Two cases were available for histopathological correlation, which were concordantly diagnosed. Acinic Cell Carcinoma (ACC) ACCs comprise 1% of the salivary gland tumors and 95% of them occur in the parotid glands, accounting for about 2.5-4% of all the parotid tumors. Among the 120 cases in the present study, 2 cases of ACCs were reported cytologically in a 60 year old male and another was reported in a 52 year old female, both presenting with hard parotid masses. The patients were not available for further follow up since they were referred to higher centers for further management. Carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma (CA ex PA) and malignant mixed tumor The incidence of CA ex PA is 1.5-6.5%. Among the 120 cases in the present study, 4 were diagnosed as CA ex PA cytologically. The smears which were studied showed epithelial cell clusters which revealed a prominent nuclear enlargement and atypia with clusters of benign epithelial cells and myxoid stroma.
One case was available for histopathological correlation, which was concordantly diagnosed as MEC. Primary lymphoma of the salivary gland: Lymphoma of the salivary gland accounts for 5% of the cases of extra nodal lymphomas and 10% of all the malignant salivary gland tumors (16). A majority of the salivary gland lymphomas (70- 80%) arise in the parotid gland and most of them are low-grade non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas. Among the 120 cases in the present study, two cases (48 and 64 year old male patients) were diagnosed as primary lymphomas cytologically, who presented with the bilateral enlargement of the parotid glands. There was no associated lymphadenopathy or organomegaly. Both the cases were concordantly diagnosed by biopsy as high grade non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas (Diffuse large B cell lymphomas) and were referred to higher centers for further management. Metastatic Deposits Metastatic carcinoma and melanoma may involve either the salivary glands or the lymph nodes which are adjacent or within the gland. The commonest primary tumor is cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Among the 120 cases in the present study, two cases of squamous cell carcinoma metastatic deposits were diagnosed cytologically in 2 60 and 75 year old male patients with a history of bilateral submandibular gland enlargement. Both presented with hoarseness of the voice and direct laryngoscopy revealed ulceroproliferative growths in their vocal cords. The smears showed pleomorphic squamous epithelial cells in clusters and singles, tadpole cells and keratin pearls against a dirty background. Both the patients were referred to higher centers for further management and hence a histopathological correlation was not possible. The malignant tumors spread by the direct and the haematogenous routes. Interestingly, 20% of the parotid glands, 34% of the submandibular glands and 14% of the minor salivary glands will have cervical lymph node metastases at presentation, especially due to high grade MEC (39%) and malignant mixed tumors (32%). In our study, benign tumors were more common than malignant tumors, which was similar to the findings in all other studies (12), (13), (14). The parotid gland was very commonly involved, whereas PA and MEC were the commonest benign and malignant tumor respectively, which was similar to that which was found in other studies (14), (15). The diagnostic accuracy (DA) was 92%, the sensitivity was 97% and the specificity 80%, which were similar to that which was seen in other studies (13), (14), and (15).
CONCLUSION
FNAC offers valuable information which is not obtained by any other means. FNAC of the salivary gland tumors is advantageous for both the patients and the clinicians because of its immediate results, accuracy, economy, and lack of complications. Although FNAC of the salivary gland tumors has a high diagnostic accuracy (92% in the present study), it can further be improved by a wider sampling and ultrasound guided aspirations. Awareness of the therapeutic implications and limitations of the cytological interpretation amongst both the clinicians and the cytopathologists should enable FNAC to its best advantage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. We are also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareVARIANT AXILLARY ARTERY - A CASE REPORT
English102108Sharadkumar Pralhad SawantEnglish Shaguphta T. ShaikhEnglish Rakhi Milind MoreEnglishDuring routine dissection for the undergraduate medical students, we observed the variations in the course and distribution of axillary artery in the right upper limb of a 80 years old donated embalmed male cadaver in the Department of Anatomy, K. J. Somaiya Medical College, Sion, Mumbai, INDIA. In the present case the axillary artery, 1cm distal to the outer border of first rib divided into superficial and deep brachial arteries. The superficial brachial artery continued as brachial artery proper and divided at the level of neck of radius into radial and ulnar arteries. The deep brachial artery performed the role of axillary artery in the axilla. It gave rise to all branches which are usually given by the axillary artery. The deep brachial artery first gave superior thoracic, thoracoacromial, lateral thoracic artery and articular branch to the shoulder joint. It then divided into anterior and posterior divisions. The anterior division gave anterior circumflex humeral, posterior circumflex humeral and profunda brachii artery. The posterior division continued as the subscapular artery and it gave rise to the circumflex scapular and thoracodorsal arteries. The deep brachial artery giving rise to all branches which are normally given by first, second and third part of axillary artery is very rare and not found in literature. The profunda brachii artery arising from anterior division of deep brachial artery is also very rare and not found in literature. The axillary vein was on medial side of superficial brachial artery in the arm. The cords of brachial plexus were around the superficial and deep brachial artery. The origin, course and distribution of axillary artery was normal on the left side of the same male cadaver. The photographs of the variations of axillary artery were taken for proper documentation and for ready reference. Conclusion: Topographical anatomy of the normal and abnormal variations of the axillary artery are clinically important for surgeons, orthopaedicians and radiologists performing angiographic studies on the upper limb. The appropriate diagnostic interpretation and therapeutic intervention can be achieved on the basis of knowledge of such variations.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
The axial artery of the upper limb is derived from the lateral branch of the seventh cervical intersegmental artery. This axial artery becomes axillary, brachial, radial and ulnar arteries on further development. At the level of the outer border of the first rib the subclavian artery continues as the axillary artery. The axillary artery ends at the level of the lower border of the teres major muscle and continues downwards as the brachial artery. The brachial artery is the main artery of the arm. During the course of the axillary artery the pectoralis minor muscle crosses it anteriorly and divides the course of artery into three parts; proximal to the pectoralis minor muscle is the first part, posterior to the muscle is second part and distal to the muscle is the third part of the axillary artery. The first part of axillary artery gives one branch i.e. superior thoracic artery which is arising at the level of the lower border of subclavius muscle. The superior thoracic artery may arise from the thoraco acromial artery. The second part of axillary artery gives two branches i.e. thoraco acromial artery and lateral thoracic artery. The thoraco acromial artery is covered by the pectoralis minor muscle. It comes out from the medial border of the pectoralis minor muscle and pierces the clavipectoral fascia. It divides into pectoral, acromial, clavicular and deltoid branches of which the pectoral branch is the largest branch. The lateral thoracic artery comes out from the lateral border of the pectoralis minor muscle. It is large in females and has lateral mammary branches which supply the breast. The third part of axillary artery gives three branches i.e. subscapular, anterior and posterior circumflex humeral arteries. The subscapular artery is the largest branch arising from the lower border of the subscapularies muscle. In the lower part it is accompanied by the thoracodorsal nerve (C6, 7,8) . The subscapular artery terminates into larger circumflex scapular and smaller thoracodorsal arteries. The circumflex scapular artery during its course interrupts the origin of teres minor muscle and appears into the upper triangular space, which is bounded above by subscapularis muscle, below by teres major muscle and laterally by long head of triceps brachii muscle. The circumflex scapular artery gives two important cutaneous branches, the upper (scapular) and the lower (parascapular). The scapular flap (upper cutaneous or scapular branch) and the parascapular flap (lower cutaneous or parascapular branch) are used for reconstructions in the areas of missing tissues. The thoracodorsal artery runs along the lateral (axillary) border of scapula and enters the deep surface of the latissimus dorsi muscle along with the nerve to latissimus dorsi. The anterior circumflex humeral artery orginates at the lower border of sub scapularis muscle from the lateral side of the third part of the axillary artery as a smaller branch. It runs around the surgical neck of the humerus anteriorly and anastomoses with the posterior circumflex humeral artery. It gives an ascending branch which supplies the head of the humerus and the shoulder joint. The posterior circumflex humeral artery is the larger branch originating at the same level of the anterior circumflex humeral artery. It runs along with axillary nerve (C5, 6) in the quadrangular space. The quadrangular space is bounded above by teres minor muscle, below by the teres major muscle, medially by the long head of triceps brachii muscle and laterally by the surgical neck of the humerus. It runs round the neck of the humerus and supplies the shoulder joint. It anastomoses with anterior circumflex humeral artery. It gives a descending branch which anastomoses with the ascending branch of the profunda branchii artery (1). The branches of subclavian and axillary arteries show extensive collateral circulation around the scapula so that the sound knowledge of neuromuscular variation is important for surgeons who remove the axillary lymph nodes, to anaesthesiologist and orthopaedic surgeons considering the frequency of procedures done in this region. Sometimes many of the branches may originate from a common stem or arise separately (2). These variation, are well documented in literature. The second part of axillary artery may give rise to a third branch i.e. alar thoracic artery. The second part of the axillary artery may give only one branch i.e. the thoraco-acromial artery and the second branch i.e. the lateral thoracic artery may be absent. Variations are common in the branching pattern of the third part of the axillary artery. A common arterial trunk may give rise to the scapular artery and the posterior circumflex humeral artery or it may give rise to subscapular, anterior and posterior circumflex humeral and profunda brachii arteries. The profunda brachii artery rarely gives the posterior circumflex humeral artery which will pass below the teres major musle and not through the quadrangular space. The axillary artery may give rise to high origin of radial and ulnar arteries and rarely the anterior interosseous artery may arise from axillary artery. Case Report: During routine dissection for the undergraduate medical students, we observed the variations in the course and distribution of axillary artery in the right upper limb of a 80 years old donated embalmed male cadaver in the Department of Anatomy, K. J. Somaiya Medical College, Sion, Mumbai, INDIA. In the present case the axillary artery, 1cm distal to the outer border of first rib divided into superficial and deep brachial arteries. The superficial brachial artery continued as brachial artery proper and divided at the level of neck of radius into radial and ulnar arteries. The deep brachial artery performed the role of axillary artery in the axilla. It gave rise to all branches which are usually given by the axillary artery. The deep brachial artery first gave superior thoracic, thoracoacromial, lateral thoracic artery and articular branch to the shoulder joint. It then divided into anterior and posterior divisions. The anterior division gave anterior circumflex humeral, posterior circumflex humeral and profunda brachii artery. The posterior division continued as the subscapular artery and it gave rise to the circumflex scapular and thoracodorsal arteries. The deep brachial artery giving rise to all branches which are normally given by first, second and third part of axillary artery is very rare and not found in literature. The profunda brachii artery arising from anterior division of deep brachial artery is also very rare and not found in literature. The axillary vein was on medial side of superficial brachial artery in the arm. The cords of brachial plexus were around the superficial and deep brachial artery. The origin, course and distribution of axillary artery was normal on the left side of the same male cadaver. The photographs of the variations of axillary artery were taken for proper documentation and for ready reference.
DISCUSSION
Variations in the arterial pattern of the upper limb are commonly found in literature. Bergman R.A. et al, Rodriguez - Baeza A. et al and Tountas C.H.P.et al have reported variations in the branching pattern of the axillary artery (3, 4, 5). According to Jurjus A. et al the variations and anomalies of the arterial system of the upper limb can be best explained on the basis of embryologic development of the vascular plexuses of the limb buds (6). Senior H. D. and Singer E. have proposed the model of development of the arteries of upper limb. According to them arterial development begins with the appearance of an axial artery followed by other branches. The axial artery forms axillary artery, brachial artery and anterior interosseous artery. The median artery branches from the anterior interosseous artery. The ulnar artery arises from the brachial artery. The axillary artery gives a superficial brachial artery which continues as the radial artery (7, 8). According to Tan C.B. et al the variations in the origin, course and distribution of the axillary artery are not common (9). Jurjus A. R. et al stated that the axillary artery is the axial artery of upper limb derived from the the lateral branch of the seventh cervical intersegmental artery (10). Hamilton W. J. et al documented that the arterial variations in the upper limb are due to the defects in the embryonic development of the vascular plexus of the upper limb bud. This may be due to arrest at any stage of development, showing regression, retention, or reappearance and may lead to variations in the arterial origins and courses of the major upper limb vessels (11). According to Cavdor et al the axillary artery is having two distinct variations one is the high origin of the superficial brachial artery which emerges from the axillary or brachial artery and continues in the forearm as the radial artery. Second is the superficial brachial artery may or may not be a brachial artery terminating in to radial and ulnar arteries. The incidence of such superficial brachial artery is around 0.1- 3.2% as available in the literature (12). De Garis C.F. has observed the division of the axillary artery into superficial and deep brachial arteries more frequent in black persons (13.4%) than in white persons (4.6%) (13). In the present case the axillary artery divides in to superficial brachial artery and deep brachial artery. The superficial brachial artery has not given any branches during its course in the arm. It terminated in to the radial and ulnar arteries and the arterial arches of the hand were normal. The deep brachial artery giving rise to all branches which are normally given by the axillary artery is very rare and no such case report is available in literature. The deep brachial artery first gave superior thoracic, thoracoacromial, lateral thoracic artery and articular branch to the shoulder joint. It then divided into anterior and posterior division. The anterior division gave rise to anterior circumflex humeral, posterior circumflex humeral and profunda brachii artery. The posterior division i.e. subscapular artery gave rise to circumflex scapular and thoracodorsal artery. According to Charles et al there are 7 types of origins for profunda brachii artery. In Type I the profunda brachii artery is the branch of brachial artery, Type Ia the profunda brachii artery originates by 2 separate branches, Type Ib the profunda brachii artery originates by 3 separate branches, In Type II the profunda brachii artery arises as a common trunk with superior ulnar collateral artery, In Type III the profunda brachii artery arises at lower border of teres major so can be considered to be arising from axillary or brachial, In Type IV profunda brachii artery is the branch of 3rd part of axillary artery. In Type V profunda brachii artery arises as a common trunk with posterior circumflex humeral. In Type VI profunda brachii artery arises as a common trunk with subscapular and both circumflex humerals from axillary artery and in Type VII profunda brachii artery is absent (14). In the present case the profunda brachii artery arises from the anterior division of the deep brachial artery along with anterior circumflex humeral and posterior circumflex humeral arteries which is rare and not found in literature. The arterial variations documented in the present case are due to the defects in the embryonic development of the vascular plexus of the upper limb bud. This may be due to arrest at any stage of development, showing regression, retention, or reappearance and may lead to variations in the arterial origins and courses of the major upper limb vessels (11). The embryological correlation of the variations of the course and distribution of axillary artery seen in present case may be by the persistence, disappearance, incomplete development fusion and absorbtion of vessels and the selection of unsual path by primitive vascular plexuses (15). According to Decker G.A. G. the knowledge of such variations are important while operating on chronic dislocation of the shoulder joint. The orthopaedicians must take precautions while taking transverse incision in order to avoid injury to the deep brachial artery and its branches (16). Yoshinaga K. et al in his study on “A rare variation in the branching pattern of the axillary artery.” concluded that an accurate knowledge of the normal and variant arterial pattern of the human upper extremities is important both for reparative surgery and for angiography (17). According to Samuel L. the presence of deep brachial artery and its branches must be kept in mind during the surgical repair of brachial plexus injury in order to prevent bleeding (18).
CONCLUSION
The arterial variations of the upper limb have been implicated in different clinical situations. The variations in the origin and course of principal arteries are clinically important for surgeons, orthopaedicians and radiologists performing angiographic studies on the upper limb. These variations are compared with the earlier data and it is concluded that variations in branching pattern of axillary artery are a rule rather than exception. Therefore both the normal and abnormal anatomy of the region should be well known for accurate diagnostic interpretation and therapeutic intervention. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interest. Authors' contributions: SPS wrote the case report, performed the literature review and obtained the photograph for the study. RMM performed the literature search and assisted with writing the paper. STS conceived the study and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version manuscript.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. All the authors are thankful to Dr. Arif A. Faruqui for his support.Authors are also thankful to Mr. M. Murugan for his help in typing the manuscript.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1592http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15921. Standring S. Gray’s Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice. 40th Ed. 2008. Churchill-Livingstone: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-443-06684-89.
2. Hollinshed W.H. Anatomy for surgeons in general surgery of upper limb. The back and limbs. A Heber Harper Book, New York, 1958. pp- 290-300.
3. Bergman RA, Thomson SA, Afifi AK, Saadeh FA (1988).Compendium of human anatomic variations. Urban and Schwarzenberg. Baltimore Munich.
4. Rodriguez - Baeza A, Nebot J and Ferreira B et al (1995).An anatomical study and ontogenic explanation of 23 cases with variations in the main pattern of the human brachio-antebrachial arteries. J Anat 187;473- 479.
5. Tountas CHP, Bergman RA (1993) Anatomic variations of the upper extremity . Churchill Livingstone, New York pp196-210.
6. Jurjus A, Sfeir R, Bezirdjian R (1986). Unusual variation of the arterial pattern of the human upper limb. Anat Rec 215;82-83.
7. Senior H. D. (1926) A note on the development of the radial artery .Anat Rec 32:220-221.
8. Singer E (1933) Embryological pattern persisting in the arteries of the arm.Anat Rec.55;403-409.
9. Tan C.B., Tan C.K. An unusual course and relations of the human axillary artery. Singapore Med J 1994; 35: 263-264.
10. Jurjus A.R., Correa-De-Aruaujo R., Bohn R.C. Bilateral double axillary artey: embryological basis and clinical implications. Clin Anat 1999; 12: 135-140.
11. Hamilton W.J., Mossman H.W. Cardiovascular system. In: Human embryology. 4th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1972: 271-290.
12. Cavdar S., Zeybek A., Bayramicli M. Rare variation of the axillary artery. Clin Anat 2000;
13: 66-68. 13. De Garis C.F., Swartley W.B. The axillary artery in white and Negro stocks. Am J Anat 1928; 41: 353.
14. Charles, C.M.; Pen, L; Holden, H.F; Miller, R.A. and Elvis, E.B. (1931): The origin of the deep brachial artery in American White and American Negro males. Anatomical Record. 50: pp 299-302.
15. Arey L. B. Development Anatomy in : Development of the arteries , 6th edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co; 1957. pg. 375-77.
16. Shoulder joint. In: Decker G.A.G., du plessis D.J. Lee Mc Gregor’s Synopsis of Surgical Anatomy. 12th ed. Mumbai: K.M. Varghese company, 1986: 451.
17. Yoshinaga K., Kodama K., Kameta K., Karasawa N., Kanenaka N., Kohno S. and Suganuma T. A rare variation in the branching pattern of the axillary artery. Indian J. Plast. Surg., 39:222-223, 2006.
18. Cervicobrachial region. In: Samuel L. Turek’s orthopaedics: Principles and their Applications: Vol 2. 4th ed. New Delhi: Jaypee brothers, 1989:913.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareDOES THERMAL STRESS ALTERS THE AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS IN MEN EXPOSED TO HEAT?
English109113Hundekari Jagdish C.English Bondade A.K.EnglishAim and objectives :-The aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between exposure to heat (stressful stimuli) and indicators of autonomic functions in workers of thermal power station. Material and method :-133 male workers were selected out of whom 65 workers were exposed to heat (400C to 450C) emitted by boiler in boiler section for 8 hrs daily and 6 days in a week for estimation of plasma catecholamines and blood pressure. The control group consists of office workers and staff who were not exposed to extreme heat. Depending on age, they were divided into four groups. Estimation of plasma adrenaline and nor-adrenaline was carried out by HPLC method with flurimetre detection and blood pressure by mercury sphygmomanometer between cases and controls to observe the effect of heat stress on autonomic functions. Results:- It was observed that there is highly significant increase in plasma level of the adrenaline and nor-adrenaline in workers. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure raised significantly in workers. Conclusion :-The general hypothesis to emerge is that automatically mediated cardiovascular reactions to stressful stimuli (heat) may initiate progression towards sustained hypertension and coronary heart disease (CHD) in susceptible individuals
Englishadrenaline, nor-adrenaline pressure, diastolic blood, systolic blood pressure, thermal stress.INTRODUCTION
Stress is the reaction of body to stimuli that disturb its normal physiological equilibrium or homeostasis. In our daily lives, some stress prepares us to meet certain challenges. The productive stress is called Eustress while the other harmful stress is called Distress1 . Stress causes mental, emotional and physical responses in humans. When stressed, an organism first experiences arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, followed by activation of the musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and endocrine systems. The outcome of this process is a series of non-specific psycho-physiologic changes such as an increase of certain neurotransmitters in the bloodstream, and results in adverse effects associated with the negative aspect of stress.2 Several kind of mental stress are associated with temporary rise in blood pressure . In animal experiments, it has been shown that repeated exposure to stressful stimuli can cause permanent rise in blood pressure. Such a relationship between repeated stressful stimuli and a permanent rise in blood pressure is obviously not so easy to establish in man, partly due to the fact that environmental stress is difficult to measure and quantitate.3 Over the past decade due to the view that stressful stimuli may influence the onset and progression of number of disorders in human beings leading to hypertension, stroke, depression etc. There is a considerable evidence that heightened autonomic nervous system activity may be present early in the aetiology of hypertension. It has become clear over recent years that autonomic regulation of the cardiovascular system is not confined to the brain stem cardiovascular centres, but it is organised longitudinally within the central nervous system with higher cortical and sub cortical regions having an important influence. The general hypothesis to emerge is that automatically mediated cardiovascular reactions to psychological challenges may initiate progression towards sustained hypertension in susceptible individuals.4 Effect of different stresses on autonomic changes has been studied widely, but occupational exposure to heat stress is least studied part of the subject.
MATERIAL AND METHOD:
The subjects were 133 workers from thermal power plant in the age group of 30-50yrs. This study group was divided into control (68) and experimental groups (65) based on their exposure to heat. selection criteria Cases - Only those workers were selected who were exposed to heat emitted by boiler in “Boiler section”. The workers were exposed for 8 hrs daily and 6 days a week and temperature to which they are exposed is in between 400 c to 450 c. Control -The control group consists of office workers and staff who were not exposed to extreme heat. In the present study, each subject were made familiar with the procedure to alleviate any fear or apphrension and before starting the procedure, they were asked to relax for five minutes. Screening of each volunteer was done with the help of proforma. After Screening, following volunteers were excluded from the study. Those having major cardiovascular illness or Diabetes mellitus in the past or present, with the H/O consumption of tobacco, alcohol, smoking, history of any systemic illness, history of drug treatment.
METHODOLOGY
Collection of blood sample :- Venous plasma adrenaline and nor-adrenaline concentration were used as a indices of adreno-medullary and sympathoneural regulation respectively. 5ml blood sample was collected in supine position (30mins) from anti-cubital vein of the non-dominant forearm for determination of plasma adrenaline and noradrenaline concentration. The blood samples were centrifuged at 4 0C and catecholamines were assayed by means of HPLC with flurimetre detection after isolation from plasma by a specific liquid/ liquid extraction method.5 Blood pressure measurement: - Because large variations in blood pressure have been shown to exist with a given subject, it is difficult to detect differences between groups may lead to misclassification of individuals. Therefore, multiple blood pressure measurements using standard procedures were implemented in this investigation. Their blood pressure was recorded in supine position using mercury sphygmomanometer. Three readings were taken 10minutes apart and mean was taken as blood pressure. Statistical analysis:- For statistical analysis we have applied t-test to compare cases with controls.
DISCUSSION
The present study was conducted to explore whether exposure to heat is altering the autonomic functions of the body. Our study shows highly significant increase in plasma catecholamine concentration when compared with age matched controls of all the four age groups. A similar statistical significant increase in plasma catecholamine concentration was reported by Dimsdale JE et al(1980)6 Fibiger W et al (1988),7 Lefur C et al (1999)8 , Shinji Y. Amamoto et al(2007),9 Milakofsky L et al(1993),10 De Turck KH et al (1980) 11 in acute and chronic cases of different types of stresses. Stress is known to induce more secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline from adrenal medulla which is due to uniform arousal of both the flight-fight sympathoadrenal systems.12,13,14 In the present study, systolic and diastolic pressure showed significant increase after exposure to stressful stimuli (heat) which matches with the studies done by Parvizpoor D et al (1976)15 Talbott et al (1985),16 Jian Cu et al (2010),17 Mathew et al (1995)18 Anders Jonsson et at (1977) 3 in their work on prolonged exposure to stressful stimuli (noise) suggested that prolonged exposure to stressful stimuli may have caused repeated rise in blood pressure leading to circulatory adaptation and a permanent rise in blood pressure. A similar hypothesis put forth by Andrew Steptoe et al (1986)4 that autonomically mediated cardiocascular reactions to psychosocial challenges may initiate progression towards sustained blood pressure in susceptible individuals. The other possible cause of increase in blood pressure during exposure to heat stress may be increased hematocrit which proportionally increases blood viscosity, which is associated with increased blood pressure18 Stress induced increase blood pressure can also be due to overactivity of hypothalamo adrenal medullary axis.12,13
CONCLUSION
From the present study it may thus be concluded that exposure to heat (stressful stimuli) causes increased sympathetic activity thereby leading to significant increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. It can also be concluded that prevalence of hypertension, CHD and its risk is higher in workers exposed to heat stress as compared to controls.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1593http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15931. R. Archana et al. The effect of acute noise stress on neutrophil functions. IJPP.1999; 43(4) : 491-495
2. Young-Hee Lee et al. The effects of heat and massage application on Autonomous Nervous System. Yonsei Med Journal .2011 ;52(6) : 982-989
3. Anders Jonsson et al. Prolonged exposure to a stress stimuli (noise) as a cause of raised blood pressure in man. Lancet.1977 ; January 8: 186(7)
4. Andrew Steptoe. Stress mechanism in hypertension. Postgraduate medical journal.1986; 62: 697-699.
5. Davies CL et al. Routine determination of plasma catecholamines using HPLC with electrochemical detection. J Chromatography. 1982; 231:41-51.
6. Dimsdale J E et al. Plasma catecholamine in stress and exercise. JAMA 1980; 243: 340- 342
7. Fibiger W et al. Relationship between catecholamines in urine and physical and mental stress. Int. journal Psychophysiology.1984; 1: 325-333
8. Lefur C et al. Urinary epinephrine increases during mental stress.1999 ;48
9. Shinji Y. Amamoto et al. Evaluation of the effect of heat exposure on the autonomous nervous system by HRV and urinary catecholamines. Journal Occupational Health. 2007;49 : 199-204
10. Milakofsky L et al. Effect of repeated stress on plasma catecholamine and taurine in young and old rats. Neurobiology aging. 1993 ; 14(4) : 359-366
11. De Turck KH et al. Factors influencing plasma catecholamines during rest and mental stress: effect of posture. Pharmaco Biochem Behaviour. 1980; 13(1) : 129-13
12. .Nagraja H.S. et al. Effect of different types of stress on selected cardiovascular parameters in rats. IJJP. 1999 ; 43(3) : 296- 304
13. Kulkarni S et al. Stress and hypertension. WMJ. 1998; 97(11) : 34-8
14. Saha S et al. Effect of noise stress on some cardiocascular parameters and audiovisual reaction time. IJPP. 1996; 40(1) : 35-40.
15. Parvizpoor D et al. Noise exposure and prevalence of high blood pressure amongs weaver in iran. J. occupational medicine. 1984; 18 : 730-1
16. Talbott et al. Occupational noise exposure, noise induced hearing loss and the epidemiology of high blood pressure. American J. of epidemiology. 1985; 120(8) : 501-514
17. Jian Cui et al. Heat stress attenuates the increase in arterial blood pressure during the cold pressor test. J. applied physiology. 2010 ; 109 : 1354-1359
18. Mathew F et. Acute cholesterol responses to mental stress and change in posture. 1995; 152 : 775-780
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareCOMPARISON REGARDING KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND PRACTICE OF BLOOD DONATION BETWEEN HEALTH PROFESSIONALS AND GENERAL POPULATION
English114120Gunvanti B. RathodEnglish Pragnesh ParmarEnglishObjectives: The objectives of this study are to assess the knowledge, attitude and practice regarding blood donation among various categories of health professionals and comparing them with that of the general population. Material and method: A cross sectional descriptive study was carried out at Pondicherry. Total 150 individuals were interviewed including doctors (n=25), nurses (n=25), technicians (n=25) and general population of Pondicherry (n=75). All were interviewed with the help of a pretested and semi-structured questionnaire. Results: There was a significant difference in knowledge pertaining to blood donation between health professionals and the general population. On the other hand there was no difference of attitude of the two groups. There was no difference in knowledge and attitudes according to gender but most of the donors were males. Conclusion: There is a need to increase the awareness and attitude among the paramedical staff and in general population. There is also need to motivate females for blood donation. There is also need to create awareness about blood safety in paramedical staff and general population.
EnglishAttitude, Blood donation, General population, Health professionals, Knowledge, Practice.INTRODUCTION
Blood is the most donated tissue in medical practice and a veritable tool in many life saving situations when used judiciously. In spite of the rapid and remarkable conquest and breakthrough of medical science today, there is still no ideal substitute. Blood is manufactured by only human beings and human donation is the only way of acquiring blood to meet emergency requirements in cases of road traffic accidents, complications of pregnancy and childbirth, various anaemic disorders and surgical emergencies. Blood donation is the act of giving one's blood, so it can be transfused into another for therapy. It is safe and advantageous to the donor, recipient, community and the blood transfusion service. Blood can save millions of life and young people are the hope and future of a safe blood supply in the world. [1] The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that donation by 1 % of a country population is the minimum blood required to meet a nation’s most basic needs for blood. [2] India needs about 6 to 7.5 million units of blood annually and every year there is gradual increase in this demand. [3] The reasons for increase in demand are because of the rise in human life expectancy and the implementation of new and aggressive surgical and therapeutic methods requiring large quantities of blood and blood products. [4] Donor blood procurement from voluntary, non-remunerated donor has been adjudged the safest source of blood. Even though Indian law forbidden collection of blood from paid donors, many times health care facilities forced to accept blood from paid donors as there are scarcity of voluntary blood donors. [5] Hence the World Health Organization has adopted a policy aimed at 100 % voluntary, non-remunerated donor blood procurement by the year 2020. [6] It is a well known fact that in developing countries more than 50 % of blood donations are made by paid and voluntary donors. [7, 8] Ignorance, fear and wrong concepts about blood donation and lack of voluntary blood donation organizations are major constraints in many developing countries to facilitate voluntary blood donation. The study was designed to determine the behaviour of the medical and paramedical persons and general population towards blood donation by their knowledge, attitude and blood donation practice along with factors influencing blood donation and their willingness to donate the blood voluntarily.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This cross sectional study was conducted among health professionals and general population of South India. Total 25 doctors, 25 nurses, 25 technicians and general population (75) of Pondicherry were included as study population. A well structured validated and self administered questionnaire was used to assess the knowledge, attitude and practice about blood donation. The questionnaire was pretested and verified for errors. Questionnaire consists of three sections: practice, knowledge and attitude. Blood donation practice was assessed through six questions addressing the nature of donation, frequency of donation, reasons for not donating blood etc. Knowledge part contains 6 questions; knowledge on blood donation was assessed through questions covering benefits, requirements and restrictions of blood donation. The attitude for blood donation was assessed through 6 questions with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ options. A scoring mechanism was used to understand overall knowledge level; a score of one has given for each correct response and zero for wrong response. Respondents with all correct response get a maximum of 18 points, higher points indicate good knowledge. Based on total score, knowledge level on blood donation was categorized into poor (≤8 points), average (9 -14 points) and good (≥15 points). The participation to survey was on voluntary basis. All participants were given a briefing about objective of the study and assured confidentiality in collection of personal data.
RESULTS
Table – I showed details of the demographics of respondents. The response was gathered from a total of 150 respondents voluntarily participated in the survey. The age of the respondents ranged between 17 to 54 years. The study sample consisted of 93 males (62 %) and 57 females (38 %). The mean age of males was 37 years and the mean age of females was 26 years. The demographics showed the mean age of the respondents to be 32 years. There was significant difference in knowledge pertaining to blood donation between health professionals and general population. More than half 42 (56 %) of the general population had poor overall score regarding knowledge, attitude and practice of blood donation as per Table – II which showed overall score comparison of the respondents. Total 68 (45.33 %) of the respondents had good knowledge about blood donation. About one quarter 43 (28.67 %) had poor knowledge on what blood donation entails. Total 62 (41.33%) respondents had poor knowledge about the health conditions that would require blood transfusion, only 46.67% could state correctly some of the health conditions like anaemia, trauma, road traffic accidents, sickle cell anaemia and surgery. Total 112 (74.67 %) said they can donate blood voluntarily as per Table – III which showed knowledge of respondents on blood donation. More than half of the respondents, total 94 (62.67 %) had never donated blood; only few of the respondents, total 61 (37.33 %) had ever donated blood. Among those that had ever donated, males (85.71 %) were more than females (14.29 %). More than half, total 30 (53.57 %) of the blood donated by the study population was for relations and total 19 (33.93 %) donated for friends. Very few, only 11 (7.33 %) of the total respondents had voluntarily donated blood. Total 17 (30.35 %) donated for emergency situations, 28 (50 %) donated to replace blood units borrowed from the blood bank as per Table – IV which showed blood donation practice among the respondents. DISCUSSION Escalating demand for safe blood and its availability in our country can be only ensured through enhancing voluntary blood donations. Role of general population in voluntary blood donation is crucial to meet the demand of safe blood and more over health professionals having a better understanding on healthcare requirements of our country should come in forefront. Therefore understanding the various factors contributing to knowledge, attitude and practice of blood donation among health professionals and general population is important. This study revealed that the respondents had good knowledge about blood donation; however, it did not find any significant relationship between age, ethnic group and literacy level with knowledge about blood donation. Even though the respondents had a good knowledge of blood donation, poor blood donation practice was observed in this study as 37.33 % had ever donated and only 7.33% had voluntarily donated blood in the past. This finding agrees with the study in Mmabatho where only 17.5 % had ever donated blood. [9] The results of this study also revealed that almost more than two third of males (85.71 %) while only 14.29 % of female had donated blood, which is comparable to the study by Olaiya where female donors compared to males were abysmally low (1%). [10] It is important to note that majority of the respondents 112 (74.67 %) participated in this study shown positive attitude towards voluntary blood donation. Hossain et al. has reported similar results, 82 % of participants showed a positive attitude towards voluntary blood donation. [11] The negative attitude towards paid blood donation reported in other studies [8, 11, 12] was also reported in this study. However in this study, only 7.33 % of the respondents had actually donated blood voluntarily. Therefore, the findings of this study would suggest that greater knowledge about blood donation does not necessarily lead to actual blood donation practice, probably because of the mythical beliefs and wrong perceptions about blood donation still held by people. In this study, large number of male and female respondents expressed their willingness to donate blood if they learn more about the importance of blood donation. Blood donations among the respondents in this study were mostly for beneficial reasons as the recipients were mostly friends (33.93 %) and relatives (53.57 %) and the majority claimed replacement from the blood bank compelled them to donate blood. The voluntarily donated blood was scarce (7.33 %) and about two thirds of those who had donated voluntarily, did so during organizations' activity. This agrees with the findings of Olaiya that voluntarily donated blood was donated during religious week and club activities. [10] Hence the need to explore the unions and departmental activities of tertiary institutions in the country as a means of voluntary blood donation drive. The reasons given by the respondents for not donating blood include lack of opportunity (26.59 %) and inaccessibility of blood bank facilities, inadequate information about the benefits of voluntary blood donation to the donor, recipient and community (9.57 %) as well as the fear (14.89 %) that the process is harmful to the health of the donor. Additionally, other inhibitory factors (18.08 %) that would deter them from blood donation were inadequate information about the blood donation process, fear of exposure to HIV/ Hepatitis infection and fear of fainting. This shows the wrong perception still held by people of the transmission of HIV infection. The same finding was seen in Mwanza, Tanzania where donors were afraid of being infected with HIV. [13] This was also a deterrent amongst the Scottish population as it adversely affected their blood donation practice. In Australia, a study conducted among the college students showed that the reluctance was mostly due to fear, contracting possible illness afterward and inconveniences of giving blood. [14] Another study in Mexico also found that non donation was mainly due to the fear of getting dizzy after blood donation. A study in Baltimore also found that the donors would be encouraged to donate if specific incentives were offered; the highest response was for future blood credits and medical testing. [15] Another study in Texas also concluded that individuals donate in order to reduce medical risks and that earning future blood credits would be a primary motivator. [16] A study amongst the adults in Mwanza Region, Tanzania, also noted a positive attitude towards voluntary blood donation but the majority of the people will do so only for an incentive. [13] In Nigeria, the National blood transfusion service is making an effort to retain its voluntary donors by giving incentives such as free blood tests (blood group, haemoglobin genotype, HIV/ hepatitis) to donors, allowing the immediate family of volunteers to use blood without replacement and giving gift items such as certificates, T-shirts, haematinics, refreshments and badges. [17] When assessing donor incentives and enablers, the study found that, in general, people are focused primarily on motivational tools, rather than rewards. This is critical in beginning to change the blood donation culture from replacement to that of volunteerism. [18, 19]
CONCLUSION
The findings of this study revealed that although the majority of respondents had good knowledge of blood donation, only a few had donated blood in the past. There is prime need to increase the awareness and attitude among the paramedical staffs & general population. Blood donor education and sensitization should begin at secondary school by blood donor organizers. It is also needed to motivate females for the blood donation and to create awareness about blood safety in paramedical staffs and general population. Healthcare institutions should take all necessary steps to create more awareness program on blood donations among entire community. Incentives and gift items such as T-shirts, wrist bands, haematinics and certificates can motivate an altruistic spirit among the people.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1594http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15941. Dhingra N., World blood donor day: New blood for the world, World Health Organization., Available on http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases /2010/blood_donor_day_20100613/en, Assessed on 15-08-2012.
2. Gillespie TW, Hillyer CD, Blood donors and factors impacting the blood donation decision, Transfusion Medicine Reviews, 2002; 16: 115–130.
3. National AIDS control Organization (NACO), India. Voluntary blood donation programme - An operational Guideline, 2007. Available from: http://www.nacoonline.org/upload/Policies and Guidelines/29, voluntary blood donation.pdf, Assessed on 15-08-2012.
4. Riley W, Schwei M, McCullough J., The United States potential blood donor pool: Estimating the prevalence of donor exclusion factors on the pool of potential donors, Transfusion 2007; 47: 1180–1188.
5. Dixit JV, Mahale AR, Kulkarni AP, et al., Impact of blood donation awareness campaign by National Service Scheme of Government Medical College, Nanded., Indian Journal of Community Medicine, Jan-Mar 2001; 26(1): 12-15.
6. Blood safety and donation: Fact sheet No. 279. Jun, 2008. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs2 79/en/. Assessed on 15-08-2012.
7. Wake D, Cutting W., Blood transfusion in developing countries: Problems, priorities and practicalities, Tropical Doctor, 1998; 28: 4-8.
8. Alam M, Masalmeh BE, Knowledge, attitude and practices regarding blood donation among the Saudi population, Saudi Medical Journal, 2004; 25(3): 318-321.
9. Mwaba K, Keikelame MJ, Blood donation behaviour and belief among a sample of high school students in Mmabatho, Curationis, 1995; 18: 2-3.
10. Olaiya MA, Alakya N, Ajala A, et al., Knowledge, attitude, belief and motivations towards blood donation among blood donors in Lagos, Nigeria, Transfusion Medicine, 2003: 13-17.
11. Hossain GM, Anisuzzaman M, Begum A., Knowledge and attitude towards voluntary blood donation among Dhaka University students in Bangladesh, East African Medical Journal, September 1997; 74(9): 549-553.
12. Wiwanitkit V., Knowledge about blood donation among a sample of Thai University students, Vox Sang, August 2002; 83(2): 97- 99.
13. Jacob B, Berege ZA., Attitudes and belief about blood donations among adults in Nwanza Region, Tanzania, East African Medical Journal, 1995; 72: 345-348.
14. Namgay S, Ranabir P, Subhabrata S., Behaviour disparities toward blood donation in Sikkim, India, Asian Journal of Transfusion Science, 2008; 2: 56-60.
15. Sanchez AM, Ameti DI, Schreiber GB, et al. The potential impact of incentives on future blood donor behaviour, Transfusion Journal, 2001; 41: 172-178.
16. Burnett JJ., Examining the profiles of the donor and non donor through a multiple discriminated approach, Transfusion Journal, 1982; 22: 138-142.
17. Federal Ministry of Health in Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Health, Policy on blood donation. Nigeria: Federal Government of Nigeria Press, Abuja, Nigeria, 2007.
18. Okpara RA., Attitudes of Nigerians towards blood donation and blood transfusion, Tropical and Geographical Medicine, 1989; 41: 89-93.
19. Ottong JG, Asuquo EE, Olaniran NS, et al. Community mobilization for blood donation in Cross-River state, Nigeria, International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 1997; 59: 119-125.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareACCESSORY SPLEEN - A CASE REPORT
English121122Pushpalatha M.English Sujana M.English Sharmada K.LEnglishAccessory spleen is a common congenital anomaly. There are currently no endoscopic ultrasound criteria for the diagnosis or differentiation of this benign splenic anomaly from pathologic disorders including neoplasms. Accessory spleen and splenic lobulation can be misinterpreted as neoplasm by endoscopic ultrasound. Although homogenous, they can be hyperechoic or hypoechoic [1]. Accessory spleen has been known to rupture [2].
EnglishEndoscopic ultrasound, neoplasms, pathologic disorders.http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1595http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1595Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareOXIDATIVE STRESS AND ANTIOXIDANT ENZYME STATUS IN PATIENTS WITH TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS WITH AND WITHOUT CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE
English123131Al- Ghonaim Mohammed I.English Ramprasad N.English Abdel-Ghaffar Mamdouh H.EnglishBackground: Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is the most common disorder characterized by metabolic abnormalities and long term complications. Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus are more prone to Coronary Artery Disease (CAD). Although oxygen free radicals are known to contribute to the development of CAD and diabetes. Oxidative stress occurs as a result of increased level of lipid peroxides and free radical intermediates, as well as the decreased in total antioxidant capacity. Aim: In the present study, our aim was to investigate the lipid peroxidation, lipid profile and antioxidant enzymes in diabetic patients with and without CAD. Materials and Methods: The study was carried out in 62 patients suffering from diabetics, 59 patients suffering from diabetes with CAD and 78 healthy controls were randomly selected. Various parameters like serum lipid profile, Malondialdehyde used as an index of oxidative stress, antioxidant enzymes like Glutathione peroxidase (GPx), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), and Paraoxonase (PON) were measured and compared. Results: Increased levels of MDA concentration, total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, while decreased levels of HDL- cholesterol, GPx, SOD and PON were significantly low (pEnglishLipid peroxidation, Lipid profile, Glutathione peroxidase, Superoxide Dismutase, Paraoxonase.http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1596http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1596Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareANTIEPILEPTICS AND PREGNANCY: A REVIEW
English132143Sanjay KumarEnglish Biswa Bhusan MohantyEnglish Divya AgrawalEnglish Pramila NayakEnglish Shantilata PatnaikEnglish Jyotsna PatnaikEnglish Susanta Kumar MahapatraEnglishEpilepsy in a pregnant woman is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition for both mother and child. Most pregnant women with epilepsy will need to take at least one antiepileptic drug. The goal for all concerned is a healthy, seizure-free mother and an undamaged child. However, epilepsy as well as antiepileptic drugs cause some serious effect on the fetus. So, for epileptic women it is important to obtain appropriate information about possibility to have children and about risks connected with their pregnancy. Every physician should be informed about risk to the fetus that is associated with seizures and drugs used for treatment during pregnancy. Drugs used in girls and young women should be chosen with the respect to the future reproduction, because the use of antiepileptic drugs (AED) in women with epilepsy is in fact a balance between seizure control and adverse effects of drugs. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on management of Women with Epilepsy (WWE) prior to and during epilepsy.
EnglishEpilepsy, antiepileptic drugs, pregnancy, women with epilepsy (WWE)http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1597http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1597Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareCOMPARISON OF POST 24 HOURS EFFECT OF COOLING AND SUSTAINED PASSIVE STRETCHING AS TREATMENT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCTION OF SPASTICITY IN HEMIPLEGICS USING H-REFLEX
English144148Shilpa KhandareEnglish Tushar J. PalekarEnglishBackground: Studies have shown that alpha motor neurons (?MN) serving skeletal muscles are hyperexcitable in presence of spasticity and can be activated by inputs that would normally evoke a response. There is activation of gamma motor neurons (gMN) for the degree of ?MN activation thus to analyze its effect on spasticity, H reflex is used. Various modalities are used to reduce spasticity, cooling and sustained passive stretching is two of them. Studies have been conducted to find out efficacy of each but a comparative study to find out post 24 hours effect of them has not been performed. Objectives: To find out Post 24 hours effects of application of cooling and sustained passive stretch on reduction of spasticity using H reflex and comparing the two techniques to find out which is more effective. Method: Thirty patients (male=21, female=09) were selected between the age group 40-70 years with spastic hemiplegia due to cerebrovascular accident. The average time since the onset of hemiplegia was 9.23?8.36 months and the patients were selected for the study from the OPD of physiotherapy department, they were divided into two groups with 15 patients in each group The affected side of the patient was considered as Study group A Cooling was given and Study group B Sustained Passive Stretching was given along with routine rehabilitation. H reflex was used as outcome measure to test spasticity in all the patients at pre and post 24hrs. Results: Our study did not find any statistically significant difference between cooling and sustained passive Stretching for reducing the hypertonicity in triceps surae muscles (pEnglishSpasticity, Cooling, Sustained Passive Stretching, H-reflex.http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1598http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1598Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15HealthcareLOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION- BACTERIOLOGICAL PROFILE AND ANTIBIOGRAM PATTERN
English149155Supriya PandaEnglish B. Prema NandiniEnglish T.V.RamaniEnglishObjective: A study was conducted to know bacteriological profile and antibiogram pattern of lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) in a rural setup. Methods: Sputum samples from 95 patients with symptoms of LRTI and endotracheal aspirates from 5 patients admitted to intensive care unit (ICU) were processed for culture and antibiotic sensitivity test was done to commonly used antibiotics. Results: Aetiological diagnosis was possible in 83 patients. Sixty five patients were culture positive for single pathogen and 18 patients were culture positive for two pathogens. Males (n=63) were found more at risk to LRTI than females (n=37).LRTI was found more prevalent in 51-60 year age group (n=24). K.pneumoniae (31.3%) was the commonest single pathogen isolated followed by Coagulase positive Staphylococci (26.5%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (15.6%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa(3.6%). Str. pneuminiae strains were sensitive to ciprofloxacin (95%) and erythromycin (89%),but resistant to ampicillin(31.5%). K.pneumoniae and Pseu.aeruginosa strains were sensitive to ofloxacin (95-100%) ;and cefotaxime and ceftriaxone(67-100%). Conclusion: The present study reveals that K.pneumoniae is the emerging pathogen of LRTI in rural setup with a low prevalence of antibiotic resistance among the pathogens.
EnglishLower respiratory tract infection, sputum culture.http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1599http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1599Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15TechnologyA COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR STROKE DIRECT INJECTION CI ENGINE OPERATING ON WASTE FRYING OIL METHYL EASTER AND WASTE FRYING OIL ETHYL EASTER
English156162Akhand Pratap SinghEnglish Nitin ShrivastavaEnglishAs the price of petroleum oil is increasing rapidly day by day. It is necessary to develop a substitute of petro-diesel fuel. An alternate fuel should be economically attractive in order to compete with currently used conventional diesel fuels. Biodiesel is a clean burning diesel alternative and has attractive many features including renewability, biodegradability, and non toxicity and comparable performance. The aim of the present study is to investigate the performance parameters of diesel engine operating on waste frying oil methyl ester (WFOME) and waste frying oil ethyl ester (WFOEE) when these are used as a fuel in diesel engine and then compared with the diesel fuel. It is investigated that the Brake Specific Energy Consumption (BSEC) of WFOME is increased by approximately 8% and Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) is decreased by around 7.6% at 50% load while the BSEC of WFOEE is increased by approximately 10.3% and BTE is decreased by around 9.3% than that of diesel fuel when the 100% (neat) WFOME & WFOEE are used in diesel engine. As the blends are increased for the same load, engine consumed the more fuel consumption as compared to diesel fuel. When the 100% WFOME & WFOEE are used in CI (Compression Ignition) engine, WFOME & WFOEE consumed higher fuel in comparison to conventional diesel. The result showed that the neat WFOME and WFOEE when used in diesel engine WFOEE consumed approximately 3% higher fuel in comparison to WFOME at 50% engine load. In general, the physical and chemical properties and performance of ethyl esters are comparable to those of the methyl esters. Methyl and ethyl esters have almost the same heat content. The viscosity of ethyl esters is slightly higher while cloud and pour points are slightly lower than those of methyl esters. The engine tests demonstrated that methyl esters produced slightly higher brake thermal efficiency than ethyl esters. The ethyl ester consumed slightly less fuel as compared to methyl ester.
EnglishDiesel (CI) engine, WFOME, WFOEE, Performancehttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1600http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1600Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15TechnologyCOMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE ROTOR BLADES- A REVIEW
English163169Prashant BhattEnglish Rajesh SatankarEnglishThis review paper presents various researches on the aerodynamic analysis of wind turbine rotor blade through CFD (computational fluid dynamics). An aerodynamic analysis CFD method is good, less expensive and gives the best results. CFD results give good agreement with the experimental data. The wind turbine blades are subjected to various aerodynamic loads, which simulated easily through CFD analysis because experimentally calculation is very complicated. In this study the researchers used various CFD codes which are based on Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEM) and got a good result through these codes.
EnglishWind Turbine blade, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1601http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1601Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15TechnologyA REVIEW OF ARTIFICIAL ROUGHNESS V SHAPE GEOMETRY FOR ENHANCEMENT OF HEAT TRANSFER OF SOLAR AIR HEATER
English170178Rajkumar AhirwarEnglish A. R. JaurkerEnglishThe low value of convective heat transfer coefficient between the air and absorber plate is a major factor for low thermal efficiency of solar air heater. It can be enhanced by application of artificial roughness in solar air heaters. A serious of experimental work has been observed in literature shows that heat transfer rate increased by application of artificial roughness in the form of straight transverse ribs, inclined ribs, V shaped ribs either in full length or discrete, and combination of various ribs of different shapes. The results show that straight transverse ribs gives higher heat transfer rate than that of the smooth case in same flow and system parameters due to breaking of viscous sub layer and formation of turbulence. This paper covers a literature review of heat transfer enhancement by applying V shaped ribs in air flowing ducts. The results of V shapes ribbed ducts were compared with the smooth as well ribbed ducts on the same parameters. It is found that the angled ribs give higher heat transfer rate than transverse ribs, because of the secondary flow induced by the rib angle, in addition to breaking the laminar sub-layer and producing local wall turbulence. The results show that the V-shaped rib performs better than the angled ribs because of the development of two vortices cells compared to only one cell in the case of inclined ribs.
EnglishSolar air heater, artificial roughness, Nusselt number, Friction factor.http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1602http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1602Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15TechnologyAN AUTHENTICATION IN CLOUD THROUGH DATA COLORING USING PROGRESSIVE APPROACH
English179182S. SandoshEnglish S. UthayashangarEnglishTrust and security have prevented businesses from fully accepting cloud platforms. To protect clouds, CSP (Cloud Service Providers) must first secure virtualized data-center resources, maintain user privacy, and preserve data integrity. Using a trust-overlay network over multiple data centers to implement a reputation system for establishing trust between service providers and data owners is becoming mandatory. Data coloring and software watermarking techniques protect shared data objects and ensures the security level in the cloud. These techniques safeguard multi-way authentications, enable single sign-on in the cloud, and strengthen the security for accessing confidential data in both public and private clouds. However the problem is, once the onetime authentication is done with Cloud Service Provider (CSPs), there is no guarantee that only the legitimate user is accessing the confidential data and maintaining privacy till the user quits the secured cloud. Hence to provide the continuous authentication the proposal has been designed.
EnglishCloud computing, Data coloring, Progressive Approach, Secure Hash Algorithm-1.http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1603http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1603Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15TechnologyEFFECT OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND STOICHIOMETRIC RATIO ON THE PERFORMANCE OF POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL
English183190Shikha BhattEnglish Bhupendra GuptaEnglish V. K. SethiEnglish MukeshPandeyEnglish Prashant BaredarEnglishThe performance of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell is greatly affected by operating parameter so it is essential to evaluate the optimum value of operating parameter to maintain the stable performance. In this Work 3D multiphase model is developed in Gambit and then the geometry is solved in the commercial CFD software Fluent to predict the effect of relative humidity and stoichiometric ratio of air on the performance of polymer Electrolyte Membrane fuel cell. The simulation results are presented in the form of polarization curves, which shows the effect of Relative Humidity and stoichiometric Ratio of air on the performance of the fuel cell. Result showed that the best performance obtain at 20% relative humidity of air when hydrogen is fully humidify and performance of PEM fuel cell increase by increasing the stoichiometric ratio of air when hydrogen and oxygen are both fully humidified but at high stoichiometric ratio increase in performance is negligible. The objective of this study is to explore the research in the field of PEM fuel cell.
EnglishPEM Fuel cell, Relative humidity, Stoichiometric ratio, Polarization curve, CFDhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1604http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1604Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15TechnologyRANDOM ZERO VECTOR DISTRIBUTION PWM ALGORITHM FOR DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE FOR NOISE REDUCTION
English191196K. SumanEnglishThe basic direct torque control algorithm gives large ripples in torque, flux and current in steady state, which results in acoustical noise and incorrect speed estimations. The conventional SVPWM algorithm gives good performance for control of induction motor drive, but it produces more acoustical noise resulting in increased total harmonics distortion. The random pulse width modulation (RPWM) techniques have become an established means for mitigation of undesirable side effects in adjustable speed ac drives in particular. Hence, to minimize these anomalies of the drive, this paper presents a random zero vector distribution (RZVDPWM) algorithm for direct torque controlled induction motor drive. The proposed random zero vector distribution PWM (RZVDPWM) algorithm distributes the zero state time between the two zero voltage vectors. To validate the proposed PWM algorithm, simulation studies have been carried out and results are presented and compared. From the results, it can be observed that the proposed RZVDPWM algorithm gives reduced acoustical noise when compared with space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) algorithm.
EnglishDTC, RZVDRPWM, RPWM, stator flux ripple, SVPWM, Harmonic Distortion, Acoustical noise.http://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1605http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1605Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241421EnglishN2012November15TechnologySTABILITY OF A THERMO-CONVECTIVE PROBLEM UNDER THE INFLUENCES OF VARIABLE GRAVITY, INTERNAL HEAT SOURCE AND ROTATION
English197202Kapil KumarEnglish Rajan SinghEnglish Mukesh ChandraEnglishObjective: The purpose of the present study is to discuss the stability of a thermo-convective problem where the gravity field varies across the layer under the influences of internal heat source and rotation when both the boundary surfaces are free. Methods: Linear stability analysis is performed to discuss the stability of the problem and the associated eigen-value problem is solved by using Newton-Raphson method. Results: The numerical approximations of the Rayleigh number are obtained for various values of the parameters and presented in tables 1 and 2. Numerical results show a destabilizing effect of the presence of heat source. Comparisons with the available published work are also presented. Conclusion: It is found that the critical Rayleigh number increases with an increase in gravity field and decrease in heat source i.e. the region of stability decreases with an increase in heat source.
EnglishThermal convection, Eigen-value problem, Variable gravity, Heat sourcehttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1606http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1606