Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24General SciencesGROUND LEVEL OZONE CONCENTRATION OF SOUTH CHENNAI BY HURST ANALYSIS
English0811Sachithananthem C.P.English Samuel Selvaraj R.EnglishAnalysis of the ground level ozone concentration is vital for the purpose of forecasting and in identifying the changes and impacts that are very crucial for an agro-based economy like the capital city of Tamil Nadu. Six months data of Ground level Ozone concentration of south Chennai is used to determine the Hurst exponent. The objective of this study is to analyse the behaviour of Ground level ozone concentration of metropolitan city of Tamil Nadu using fractal dimension. The Hurst Exponent (H) is a statistical measure used to classify time series. It is found that the behaviour of ground level ozone concentration in south Chennai is Random series, since the value of Hurst Exponent and Fractal dimension is 0.516 and 1.484.
EnglishRandom series, Hurst Exponent, Ground level ozone ConcentrationINTRODUCTION
Chennai is the fourth largest Metropolitan City in India. Major agricultural operations are normally undertaken during Northeast Monsoon season. It has been noted that the ground level ozone is highly variable during this period. Therefore, if its behaviour could be predicted in advance, it would go a long way toward helping the agricultural and industrial activities of the region (Dhar and Rakhecha, 1983). In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate ground level ozone concentration over Chennai using fractal dimension analysis. Fractal analysis provides a unique insight into a wide range of natural phenomena. Fractal objects are – those which exhibit ‘self-similarity’. This means that the general shape of the object is repeated at arbitrarily smaller and smaller scales. Coastlines have this property: a particular coastline viewed on a world map has the same character as a small piece of it seen on a local map. New details appear at each smaller scale, so that the coastline always appears rough. Although true fractals repeat the detail to a vanishingly small scale, examples in nature are self similar up to some non-zero limit. The fractal dimension measures how much complexity is being repeated at each scale. A shape with a higher fractal dimension is more complicated or ‘rough‘than one with a lower dimension, and fills more space. These dimensions are fractional. The fractal dimension successfully tells much information about the geometry of an object. Very realistic computer images of mountains, clouds and plants can be produced by simple recursions with the appropriate fractal dimension. Fractal dimensional analysis is calculated using Hurst exponent method. The Hurst exponent, proposed by H. E. Hurst for use in fractal analysis (Mandelbrot and Van Ness, 1968), has been applied to many research fields. Since it is robust with few assumptions about underlying system, it has broad applicability for time series analysis (Mandelbrot, 1982). The values of the Hurst exponent range between 0 and 1. The fractal dimension value thus obtained is used as an indicator to examine the predictability of Ground level ozone concentration metropolitan city of Tamil Nadu. The objective of this study is to analyse the behaviour of Ground level ozone concentration of metropolitan city of Tamil Nadu using fractal dimension.
Data used
We have used the Ground level Ozone concentration of Chennai, Tamil Nadu from the period August 2011 to January 2012. The 8 hrs data are measured from Aeroqual instruments.
METHODOLOGY
Fractal Dimensional Analysis
Hurst exponent method There are several methods for estimating the fractal dimension of a time series of data such as the box counting method and the correlation method (DeGrauwe, Dewachter and EmbrechtS, 1993) (peitgen and Saupe, 1988). The applications of these methods are often demanding in computing time and require expert interaction for interpreting the calculated fractal dimension. We have used Hurst exponent method. It provides a measure for long term memory and factuality of a time series. For calculating Hurst exponent, one must estimate the dependence of the rescaled range on the time span n of observation. Various techniques have been adopted for calculating Hurst exponent. The eldest and best-known method to estimate the Hurst exponent is R/S analysis. The rescaled analysis or R/S analysis is used due to its simplicity in implementation. It was proposed by Mandelbrot and Wallis (Mandelbrot and Wallis, 1969), based on the previous work of Hurst (Hurst, 1951). The R/S analysis is used merely because it has been the conventional technique used for geophysical time records (Govindan Rangarajan and Sant, 1997). A time series of full length N is divided into a number of shorter time series of length n = N, N/2, N/4 ... The average rescaled range is then calculated for each value of n. For a (partial) time series of length n, the rescaled range is calculated as follows: (Samuel Selvaraj, Umarani, Vimal Priya and Mahalakshmi, 2011)
(i) Calculate the mean;
(ii) Create a mean-adjusted series;
(iii) Calculate the cumulative deviate series Z;
(iv) Compute the range R;
(v) Compute the standard deviation S;
(vi) Calculate the rescaled range R (n)/ S (n) and he average of over all partial time series of length n.
Hurst found that (R/S) scales by power-law as time increases, which indicates (R/S) n = c*nH, here c is a constant and H is called the Hurst exponent. To estimate the Hurst exponent, we plot (R/S) versus n in log-log axes. The slope of the regression line approximates the Hurst exponent. The values of the Hurst exponent range between 0 and 1. Based on the Hurst exponent value H, the following classifications of time series can be realized: H = 0.5 indicates a random series; 0< H< 0.5 indicates an anti -persistent series, which means an up value is more likely followed by a down value, and vice versa; 0.5 < H< 1 indicates a persistent series, which means the direction of the next value is more likely the same as current value (Alina Barbulescu, Cristina Serban and Carmen Maftei, 2007). The Hurst exponent is related to the Fractal dimension D of the time series curve by the formula D=2-H (Voss, In: pynn, Skjeltorp, 1985). The parameter H is called the Hurst exponent which takes the value between 0 and 1. If the fractal dimension D for the time series is 1.5, we again get the usual random motion. In this case, there is no correlation between amplitude changes corresponding to two successive time intervals. Therefore, no trend in amplitude can be discerned from the time series and hence the process is unpredictable. However, as the fractal dimension decreases to 1, the process becomes more and more predictable as it exhibits persistence behaviour. That is the future trend is more and more likely to follow an established trend. As the fractal dimension increases from 1.5 to 2, the process exhibits anti-persistence. That is, a decrease in the amplitude of the process is more likely to lead to an increase in the future (Govindan Rangarajan and Sant, 2004).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As shown in fig. 1 a graph is plotted for log n vs log R/S and the slope is calculated for the given time series. The slope for the dataset is found to be 0.516, which is the Hurst exponent. So, the ground level Ozone of metropolitan of Tamil Nadu follows random series pattern. The fractal dimension D takes the value of 1.484 using the Hurst exponent. The fractal dimension D also exhibits random behaviour.
CONCLUSION
Since the Hurst exponent provides a measure for predictability, we can use this value to guide data selection before forecasting. We can identify time series with large Hurst exponents before we try to build a model for prediction. Furthermore, we can focus on the periods with large Hurst exponents. This can save time and effort and hence lead to a better forecasting.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1550http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15501. Alina, Barbulescu, Cristina Serban, Carmen Maftei (2007): Evaluation of Hurst exponent for precipitation time series, Latest Trends on Computers, 2: 590 -595.
2. DeGrauwe, P., Dewachter, H. and Embrechts, M., (1993): Exchange Rate Theorv Chaotic Models of Foreign Exchange Markets, (Blackwell Publishers, London).
3. Dhar, O. N. and Rakhecha P.R. (1983): Foreshadowing Northeast monsoon rainfall over Tamil Nadu, India, Monthly weather Review, 111: 109 -112
4. Govindan, Rangarajan and Dhananjay, A. Sant, (1997): A climate predictability index and its applications, Geophysical Research letters, 24: 1239-1242.
5. Govindan, Rangarajan and Dhananjay, A. Sant, (2004): Fractal dimensional analysis of Indian climatic dynamics, Chaos, Solutions and Fractal, 19: 285-291.
6. Hurst H. (1951): Long term storage capacity of reservoirs, Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 6: 770–799.
7. Mandelbrot, B., (1982): The fractal geometry of nature (New York: W. H. Freeman,).
8. Mandelbrot, B. B. and Van Ness J. (1968): Fractional Brownian motions, fractional noises and applications, SIAM Review, 10: 422-437.
9. Mandelbrot B. and Wallis J.R. (1969): Robustness of the rescaled range R/S in the measurement of noncyclic long-run statistical dependence, Water Resources Research, 5: 967– 988.
10. Peitgen, H.O. and Saupe D., ( 1988): The Science of Fractal Images, (Springer-Verlag, New York).
11. Samuel Selvaraj R., Umarani P.R., Vimal Priya, S.P. and Mahalakshmi N. (2011): Fractal dimensional analysis of geomagnetic as index, International Journal of current Research, 3: 146-147.
12. Voss RF. In: pynn R, Skjeltorp A, editors. (1985): Scaling phenomena in disorder system, (plenum, New York).
13. R. Samuel Selvaraj and Raajalakshmi Aditya(2012): A Study on Detrended Fluctuation Analysis and Lyapunov Exponent of Northeast Rainfall of Tamil Nadu, 1: 79- 82
14. Tamil Selvi .S, Samuel Selvaraj .R: Fractal Dimension Analysis of Northeast Monsoon of Tamil Nadu 2: 219-221
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24General SciencesELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE, NUCLEAR QUADRUPOLE RESONANCE, REFLECTANCE AND MAGNETIC PARAMETERS OF COBALT (II) AND NICKEL (II) COMPLEXES USING DENSITY FUNCTIONAL THEORY
English1228Harminder SinghEnglish A.K. BhardwajEnglish M.L. SehgalEnglish Susheel K. MittalEnglishDensity Functional Theory was used to calculate and correlate 14 ESR, NQR, Reflectance and Magnetic parameters of 20 Co+2 and Ni+2 complexes such as [CoX4]2- (X = F, Cl , Br ,I), [Co(OH2)4]2+, [Co(NCO)4]2-, [CoX6]4- (X = F, Cl), [NiX4]2- (X = Cl ,Br, I, NCO), [NiX6]4- (X=F, Cl ,Br, I) [Ni(H2O)6]2+, [Ni(NH3)6]2+, [Ni(CH3NH2)6]2+, [Ni(NH3)4(NCS)2]. All computations were carried out in the gas phase using ADF2010.02 by applying Single Point, LDA, Default , Spin Orbit, Unrestricted, None, Collinear commands using DZ or TPZ basis sets. The complexes were optimized to obtain two ESR (g11, g22, g33, giso, a11, a22, a33, Aten) and three NQR parameters [?, q11, q22, q33, NQCC]. Two Reflectance parameters [?complex, % covalent character] were calculated from giso. In addition, five magnetic [?soc, ?t, ?net, t2g electron delocalization and its constant k] and two more ESR [H^, ΔE hf] parameters were calculated by combining the ESR and Reflectance data. We verified the Laplace equation using the NQR data. The delocalization parameter (k) and the reflectance parameter called Nephelauxetic ratio (?35) were found to have almost the same values as both determine the covalence in complexes. The calculated values of parameters were found in agreement with their reported values.
EnglishDFT, ESR, NQR, Reflectance, Magnetism, Nephelauxetic ratio, delocalization parameterINTRODUCTION
Effective Spin Hamiltonian (H^) is a mathematical expression that determines energy of an ESR transitions when an ESR active metal ion is surrounded by ligands in a definite geometry. It depends upon a number of ESR parameters [anisotropic and isotropic splitting factors (g11,g 22, g33, g iso), hyperfine coupling constants( a11,a22 ,a33 ,Aten)], NQR parameters [electric field gradient or efg (q11,q22,q33), Nuclear Quadrupole Coupling Constant(Q)]* , total electronic spin (S), Bohr Magneton of both the electron (?e) and the nucleus (?n), nuclear spin * Q or e Q is the nuclear quadrupole moment. q Or e q is the electric field gradient and product of these quantities (e Q× e q= e2Qq) is nuclear quadrupole coupling constant (Q). quantum number (I), gn (nuclear magnetic ratio) and nature of surrounding nuclei having quadrupole moments(I?1). No doubt, ESR studies on some biologically important(1-2) Co+2 and catalytically(3) suitable Ni+2 complexes has already been reported, yet a correlation of their ESR, NQR, Reflectance and Magnetic parameters with the help of a software is rarely found in the literature. With certain commands, the software gave five ESR and NQR parameters. They were together used to calculate two more ESR parameters [effective spin Hamiltonian (H^) and hyperfine coupling energy (?Ehf)]. The giso parameter was further correlated to two Reflectance parameters [spin orbit coupling constant (?complex), % covalent character]. The ESR and the Reflectance parameters were together used to calculate and correlate five magnetic parameters [magnetic moments namely total (?t), net (?net) and that containing contributions from spin and orbital (?soc or ?ADF), t2g electron delocalization and its constant (k)]. The software also gave dipole moments and symmetry symbols of complexes. We could also verify Laplace equation for the complexes. The following points necessitated the present study to be taken up with the help of software: i) There had hardly been any attempt made to theoretically calculate and correlate ESR, NQR, Reflectance and Magnetic parameters of complexes of transition metal ions. ii) With ESR transitions falling in low energy microwave region (X band: 9000-10000 MHz), the experiments required cumbersome cryoscopic† conditions. 14 ESR, NQR, Reflectance and Magnetic parameters were correlated in 20 Co2+ and Ni2+ complexes of coordination numbers 4 and 6 by using ADF (Amsterdam Density Functional) 2010.02 software by applying of D.F.T. (Density Functional Theory) (7-9). The 5 parameters given by the software (g, a, q, NQCC,?) were used to calculate 9 other parameters [H^, ?Ehf, ?complex, % covalent character, ?t , ?net, ?soc , t2g electron delocalization and its constant (k)]. 23 relations were selectively used to calculate these parameters of complexes like [CoX4] 2- (X = F, Cl, Br, I), [Co(OH2)4] 2+, [Co(NCO)4] 2- , [CoX6] 4- (X = F, Cl), [NiX4] 2- (X = Cl , Br, I, NCO), [NiX6] 4- (X = F, Cl, Br, I) [Ni(H2O)6] 2+ , [Ni(NH3)6] 2+, [Ni(CH3NH2)6] 2+ , [Ni(NH3)4(NCS)2]. These complexes possessed both regular (Td, Oh) as well as distorted stereochemistries (C1,C2, D?h,D4h, D6h ,D2d ).
(1) Calculation of ESR parameters (10-25)
(a) Effective Spin Hamiltonian (H^):
Four factors which contributed to H^ (MHz) were: g, a, Q and interaction of nuclear magnetic moment with external magnetic field (I). Three relations were used to calculate H^ having contributions from these four factors:
[1] Was used for systems with different values of g and a. [2] Was used for axially symmetric systems while [3] was used when g and/or a parameters had the same or nearly the same values. The first and the last terms in these relations were in ergs and the other two were in MHz (6.627 ? 10-21 erg = one MHz; ?e=1.3994 MHz/Gauss; ? n= ?e/1836. gn had a specific value for each metal).
Here, ?soc was the magnetic moment given by spin orbit coupling. The (?t) was total magnetic moment while ?tip ‡ and ?tip were Zeeman Second Order molar magnetic susceptibility and Zeeman Second Order magnetic moment respectively. ?t was the total molar magnetic susceptibility and (k) was t2g electron delocalization constant. Molar
magnetic susceptibilities (?Mol s.o) of Ni2+ and Co2+ with 2 and 3 unpaired electrons respectively were 3333.33 Χ10-6 and 6250.0?10-6 cgs/mol. ?metal ion and ? complex were the spin-orbit coupling constants of the free metal ion and of the same metal ion present in the complex respectively. Free ?Co 2+ and free ? Ni 2+ had values -172.0 and -316.0 cm-1 respectively. Total value of g called gt and similar term geff were calculated by [16
METHODOLOGY
After optimization of the complexes(42-43) by ADF 2010.02, the SW was run by applying Single Point, LDA* , Default, Spin Orbit, Unrestricted, None and Collinear commands by using DZ* or TPZ* Basis sets in all the Co2+ complexes and octahedral Ni2+ complexes. In Ni+2
tetrahedral complexes, LDA was replaced by GGABP*. All the complexes have Nysom* symmetry.
Complexes of Cobalt (II)
Co2+, with three unpaired electrons and a quartet ground state, should show both the Zero Field Splitting (D) and Jahn-Teller effect. But in the four coordinate complexes like [CoX4]2± (X= H2O, F, Cl, Br, I, CNS), an almost tetrahedral symmetry was enforced. Also, the two high spin six coordinate complexes [CoX6] 4- (X= Cl, F) possessed an axial and nearly an axial symmetry respectively. Moreover, this software did not take an account of Zero Field Splitting. So, both these effects were neglected. Only a few relevant papers on Reflectance and Magnetic (44-57) and ESR studies (58-62) of Co2+ complexes were reported. Theoretically calculated parameters obtained from the results of the software agreed well with their experimental values (53-54) .
RESULTS
Each OUTPUT file of a complex gave values of two ESR (g11, g22, g33 and g iso, product of g n and a11,a22,a33,Aten)and three NQR(?, q11,q22,q33,NQCC) parameters along with its optimization parameters [geometry, dipole moment, bonding energy and total energy(Xc)].
Xc was made up from LDA and GGA components; each being further made up of Exchange and Correlation parts]. The bonding energy was computed as an energy difference between molecule and fragments. When the fragments were single atoms, they were usually computed as Spherically Symmetric and SpinRestricted. This, usually, did not represent the true atomic ground state (42-43) . Tables: 1. 1 and1.1 A give the optimization parameters of cobalt metal and all the Co2+ complexes. Tables: 1.2 -1.3 give values of all the five ESR and NQR parameters, verification of Laplace equation and (?) for four and six coordinate Co2+ complexes respectively. Table: 1 .2 A and 1.3A give g iso , A ten and Q values along with contributions from their respective factors. They also give contribution from the fourth factor called interaction of nuclear magnetic moment with external magnetic field factor (I) into H^ along with ?Eh f (≈ 0.5 A ten) values for both the four and six coordinate Co2+ complexes respectively. Tables: 1.4, 1.4 A and 1.5 contain magnetic parameters of four and six coordinate Co2+ complexes as calculated by applying the results from ESR and Reflectance techniques.
DISCUSSION
The necessity, the originality, the relevance, the objective of present work and how it moved the body of scientific knowledge forward had already been explained in our previous communication. We could successfully calculate/correlate 14 parameters of the four techniques in 36 Ti2+,3+ , V +2,3+,4+ and Cr3+ complexes(63) . The discussion was divided into two parts: [l] Calculation of ESR and NQR parameters (a) Effective Spin Hamiltonian (H^) (i) The four complexes [CoX4] 2- (X=F, Cl, Br, I) were of Td symmetry while both [Co (OH2)4] 2+ and [Co(NCO)4] 2- complexes possessed C1 symmetry. But in both these types of complexes, the software gave nearly the same values of g. Also, none of them would obey the conditions of axial symmetry. So, for all these six complexes, the H^ was calculated by [3]. (ii) [CoF6] 4- and [CoCl6] 4- with point groups D?h and D6h respectively had axial symmetry with (a) Two of the three g called g ? had the same values and third of higher value was called g?? (b) Two a parameters called a? were of the same value and third of higher value was named a11. (c) Two of the three q parameters were of the same value (d) ?=0. Relation [2] was used to calculate H^.[S_x=S_y=S_z=3/2; I_x=I_y=I_z=3.5 and g n= 1.3220000]. Individual contributions from four factors in the total value of H^ for the eight Co 2+ complexes are given in small brackets of horizontal row shown at the bottom (?) in Tables: 1.2A and 1.3A. (b) Relation [7] was used for the verification of Laplace Equation (Table: 1.2-1.3) while parameters such as ? and ? E hf (Tables: 1.2 A1. 3A) were calculated by [5, 4] respectively.
[2] Calculation of Reflectance and Magnetic parameters from ESR parameters
(a) ADF and t parameters: The discussion was divided into two parts:
(i) Four Coordinate Complexes: Table:
1.4 gave values of magnetic moments due to spin orbit coupling (?ADF) as calculated from giso values by applying [8].This moment arose from an intermixing of ground 4A2 term of Co2+ with its immediately higher in energy 4T2 term which made 4A2 to acquire some T character. Contribution of magnetic moment from Second Order Zeeman Effect (?t.i.p) was calculated by [9 and10]. The former gave ?t.i p. while the latter gave ?t i p. Finally, the sum of ?ADF and ?tip resulted in ?t which was calculated by [11].
(ii) Six Coordinate Complexes: Table:1.5 contained ?t values of two high spin six coordinate Co2+ complexes as calculated by a different relation [11c] because the ground term in octahedral Co+2 complexes was 4T1g while its tetrahedral complexes had 4A2 ground state. (b) Calculations of t 2g electron delocalization, its constant (k), ?complex, % covalent character, ?net and gt
(i) Four Coordinate Complexes: [Table: 1.4A] First we calculated total molar magnetic susceptibility (?t) by applying [12].Then (k) was calculated by [13].The term 8 N ? 2/10Dq, called the Second Order molar magnetic susceptibility, i.e. ?t.i.p had already been calculated by [9] (Table: 1.4). Knowing (k), we could calculate ?complex by [14]. It gave the weight by which ?Co 2+ (-172.0 cm-1 ) was reduced to give ?complex on the formation of Co2+ complexes. This decrease was due to delocalization of electron cloud which had brought about covalence in metal-ligand bonds (64). The % covalent character was calculated by [15].The gt values of complexes were calculated by [16] .They were found in agreement with geff . The geff values, in turn, were calculated from 10Dq values of complexes given by reflectance spectra by [17]. Similarly, t2g electron delocalization was calculated either indirectly from gt values [18] or from geff [18a] . The values obtained from both these methods would almost agree. Lastly, ?net was calculated by [11a]. It was noticed that (k) did not agree well with Nephelauxetic Ratio (?35) in tetrahedral Co2+ complexes. On the contrary, the ?complex as calculated by [14] as well as its value obtained from reflectance spectral method agreed well with each other (53-54). This difference in (k) and (?35) values was due to the fact that in tetrahedral Co2+ complexes, the lowest energy band (?1) , being so low in energy would not fall in u v.- vis. region (?300-1000 nm). In such cases, (?35) was calculated from the ratio of ?2 and ?3 bands. Both these bands had vibration character i.e. were quite broad and errors occurred in locating the exact positions of their ?max values.
(ii) Six Coordinate Complexes:
With negligible t2g electron delocalization, parameters like gt , ?complex , (k) and the % covalent character could not be calculated.
Table: 1.1. Energies (kJmole-1 ) of Co Sum of orbital energies = -78854.221 Total energy = - 134234.270 Kinetic energy = 136350.812 Nuclear attraction energy = - 346177.790 Electron repulsion energy = 57226.702 Exchange energy = - 5539.960 For Co nucleus I =3.5 and gn = 1.322000
Complexes of Nickel (II)
[A] Octahedral Complexes of Nickel (II)
Ni 2+ is a non-Kramer ion. With S=1, it had m j =0, ?1, ----- j ?1 states. Their degeneracy was completely removed even by the crystal field. So they gave only the singlet levels. There were only a few cases where ESR spectra of Ni2+ octahedral complexes could be observed at room temperature(4-6) because its ground state m j =0 was separated from the first excited state (m j =1) by an energy more than the energy of microwave region. No doubt, the detailed studies were reported on Reflectance and Magnetic data of Ni2+ complexes (66-83), yet a further study was needed to know as to how the results thus obtained could be correlated with their ESR parameters.
RESULTS
Tables: 2.1 and 2.1A give optimization parameters of nickel metal and the Ni+2 complexes. Table: 2.2 gives values of the five ESR and NQR parameters, verification of Laplace equation and another parameter (?) for the six coordinate Ni2+ complexes. Table: 2 .2 A gives g iso, Aten and Q values and contributions from their respective factors. It also gives contribution from the fourth factor called interaction of nuclear magnetic moment with external magnetic field factor (I) into H^ as well as ?Ehf (≈0.5 Aten) values.Tables:2.3-2.3A contain magnetic parameters of the six coordinate Ni2+ complexes as calculated by applying the results from ESR and reflectance techniques.
DISCUSSION
The discussion was divided into two parts: [l] Calculation of ESR and NQR parameters (a) Effective Spin Hamiltonian: All the eight Ni+2 complexes had nearly the same values of g parameters. Also, none of them obeyed all the conditions of axial symmetry. So relation [3] was applied to calculate H^ values for all. [Put S_x=S_y=S_z=1; I_x=I_y=I_z=1.5 and g n = - 0.5000133]. The individual contributions from four factors in the total value of H^ were given in small brackets of horizontal row shown at the bottom (?) of each complex [Table: 2.2A]. (b) Relation [7] was used for the verification of Laplace Equation (Table: 2.2) and parameters such as ? and ? Ehf (Tables: 2.2- 2. 2A) were calculated by [5, 4] respectively.
[2] Calculation of Reflectance and Magnetic parameters from ESR parameters
(a)Calculation of ?ADF and ?t: Table: 2.3 gave values of magnetic moments due to spin-orbit coupling (?soc or ?ADF) as calculated from giso by [8].These values were generally more than their respective ?so. values. This was due to intermixing of ground 3A2g term of Ni2+ with its immediately higher in energy 3T2g term of same multiplicity. This made its 3A2g term to acquire some T character. The contribution from Second Order Zeeman Effect (?tip) was calculated by [9and10]. The former gave ?t.i.p. and latter gave ?t i.p. Sum of ?ADF and ?tip was equal to the total magnetic moment (?t) [11]. As expected, the net magnetic moments (?net) of these complexes were somewhat more than their respective (?so) values. (b)Calculation of t2g electron delocalization constant (k), ?complex and % covalent character (Table: 2.3A): Total molar magnetic susceptibility (?t) and its constant (k) were calculated by [12, 13] respectively. The term 8 N ? 2/10 Dq representing the Second Order molar magnetic susceptibility (?t. i. p) had already been calculated [Table: 2.3]. ?complex was calculated by [14]. It gave the weight by which ? Ni 2+ [-316.0 cm-1 ] was reduced in Ni2+ complexes. This reduction was due to the delocalization of electron cloud which had brought about covalence (64) in metal-ligand bonds by intermixing of electron clouds of Ni2+ t2g orbitals with ligand orbitals as both the metal ion and ligand orbitals were of suitable symmetry and comparable energies. The % covalent character was calculated by [15]. The calculated (k) values agreed well with Nephelauxetic Ratios (?35) of Ni2+ complexes wherever reported in literature or were theoretically calculated from three reflectance spectral bands of the complexes (66, 83) . (c)Calculation of total value of g called gt , t2g electron delocalization and ?net (Table: 2.3 A): Total value of g called gt was calculated by [16] while the total magnetic moment (?t) was calculated by [11] .Theoretical gt values were well in agreement with geff values as calculated by [17] from 10Dq values obtained from reflectance data. Same was the case of t2g electron delocalization values. Whether they were calculated from gt by [18] or were calculated from g eff by [18a], their values were found to be in agreement. The ? net was calculated by [11a].
Tables: 2.1.Energies (kJ mole-1 ) of Ni
Sum of orbital energies = -85650.855 Total energy = -146522.795 Kinetic energy = 148997.799 Nuclear attraction energy = -352449.098 Electron repulsion energy = 62843.648 Exchange energy = -8809.705 For Ni nucleus I =1.5 and g n = -0.500133
[B] Tetrahedral Complexes of Ni (II)
The presence of an extensive spin–orbit coupling in 3T1 ground state of Ni2+ made spin relaxation times very small. So it became quite difficult to observe ESR spectra of four coordinate Ni2+ complexes (83-89). Of course, like octahedral Ni2+complexes, numerous papers were reported on Reflectance spectral and Magnetic properties of Ni2+ tetrahedral complexes.
RESULTS
Table: 2.4 gives values of all the five ESR and NQR parameters, verification of Laplace equation and the parameter (?) for four coordinate Ni2+ complexes. Table: 2 .4 A gives giso , Aten and Q values along with contributions from their respective factors .It also gives contribution from the fourth factor called interaction of nuclear magnetic moment with external magnetic field factor (I) into H^ as well as ?Eh f (≈ 0.5 Aten) values for the four coordinate Ni2+ complexes. Tables: 2.5 and 2.5A contain magnetic parameters of four coordinate Ni2+ complexes as calculated by applying the ESR and Reflectance spectral results.
DISCUSSION
[l] Calculation of ESR and NQR parameters
(a) Effective Spin Hamiltonian H^ The complexes like [NiX4] -2 (X= Cl, Br, I) belonged of Td point group while the complex (X=NCO) had a D2d symmetry. All these complexes had different values of parameters like g and a. So Relation [1] was applied to calculate their H^ (Table: 2.4 A). (b) Relation [7] was used for the verification of Laplace Equation (Table: 2.4) and parameters such as ? and ? E hf (Tables: 2.4- 2. 4A) were calculated by [5, 4] respectively. [
2] Calculation of Reflectance and Magnetic parameters from ESR parameters
(a) Calculation of ? ADF and ?t (Table: 2.5): ?ADF was calculated from giso by [8] while ?t was calculated by [11a] while the relation [11] was used to calculate the same parameter in Ni2+ octahedral complexes. It was due to the reason that Ni2+ had 3T1 ground state in its tetrahedral complexes while it had 3A2g state in the octahedral complexes.Net magnetic moments (?net) of these tetrahedral complexes, as expected, were found to be some what more than the six coordinate complexes because of spin–orbit coupling. [2(b)] Calculation of t2g electron delocalization, its delocalization constant (k), ?complex and % covalent character (Table:2.5 A):Total value of g called gt was calculated from the total magnetic moment by [16] .The average of the difference between gt and giso with a negative sign gave t2g electron delocalization parameter [18a]. It was, then, related to another parameter called t2g electron delocalization constant (k) by [13a]. Again, the relations [18a] and [13a] used here were different from those of [18] and [13] relations as the two latter relations were used to calculate the same parameters respectively in octahedral Ni2+complexes.This, again, was because of the difference in ground states of Ni2+ in its octahedral and tetrahedral geometries. The values of (k) as calculated by [13a] and the experimentally determined Nephelauxetic Ratios (?35) of tetrahedral Ni2+ complexes (54a, 84) were given in Table ; 2.5 A** for a comparison. Lastly, the constant (k) was related to the covalent character in these complexes by [15].This covalence was brought about by intermixing of electron clouds of Ni2+ “e” orbitals with the ligand orbitals.
**If we look into the Table: 2.5 A, we find that the theoretical (k) values differ slightly from the experimental (?35) values. It is, again, due to the fact that like Co2+ tetrahedral complexes, the lowest energy band (?1) in the tetrahedral Ni2+ complexes is also low lying in energy. So it does not fall in u v. - vis. region. The (?35) parameter in such cases is calculated from the ratio of ?2 and ?3 bands. As both these bands have vibration character ,i.e. are quite broad and errors occur, invariably, in locating the exact positions of their ?max values.
CONCLUSIONS
With certain commands, the ADF software gave five ESR and NQR parameters. These parameters were used to calculate nine other ESR, NQR, Reflectance and Magnetic parameters by the selective use of 23 relations. So these14 parameters of the four techniques were correlated in the 20 Co+2 and Ni+2 complexes without the help of any diagnostic instruments. Theoretically calculated values of these parameters were found to be fairly in agreement with their experimental values reported in the literature. The authors had already proved this fact in 36 Ti2+,3+ , V 2+,3+,4+ and Cr3+ complexes in the previous communication and hope to prove the same in forty five more complexes of 2nd and 3rd transition series metal ions in the forthcoming communication.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. They are indebted to Mr. S.R. Heer , Chief Engineer (Retd.), North Zone, Doordarshan, New Delhi (India), for his invaluable cooperation in the installation and smooth working of the ADF software.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1551http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15511. Comelis, M., Vos.Gerrit Wester and Dick Schipper, Inorg. Biochemistry, 13(1980)165- 77.
2. Masaru Tada and Ryoichi Shino, Inorg. Biochemistry, 44(1991)89-95.
3. Guido Busca, Umberto Costantino, Tania Montanari, Gianguido Ramis, Carlo Resini, Michele Sisani, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 35(2010)5356-66.
4. S.Czaniechi P.B. and Lescak J., Magn. Reson, 46(1982)185.
5. Samo W., Domiciano J.B. and Ochi J.A., Phy. Rev.,154(1994)505.
6. Kadish K.M, Sazou D, Maiya G.B, Han D.C, Sasiabi Farhat M. and Guilard R., Inorg Chem., 28(1989)2542.
7. Atanasov, M, and Daul, C.A., Comptes. Rendus, Chimie, “Modelling Magnetic and Photophysical Properties of Coordination Compounds using Density Functional Theory,’’ Special Issue: “Integrated Experimental, Spectroscopic and Theoretical Aspects in Inorganic Chemistry”, Guest Editor: Dr.C.Mealli , 8(2005)1421-33.
8. Atanasov, M., Daul, C. A. and Penka Fowe, E., Monatshefte für Chemie.,136(2005)925- 63.
9. Atanasov, M. and Daul, C.A., Chimia.,59(2005)504-10.
10. Mcgravey, B.R., “Electron Spin Resonance of Transition Metal Complexes,” in “Transition Metal Chemistry,”Vol.3, p. 89- 201(1969), R.L. Carlin, Ed. Marcel Dekker, N.Y.
11. Foner, S. and Low, W., Phys. Rev., 120(1960)1585.
12. Pedersen, E. and Toftlund, H., Inorg. Chem., 13(1974)1603.
13. Borcherts, R.H. and Kikuchi, C., J.Chem. Phys., 40(1964) 2207.
14. Kenedy, F.S. etal., Biochem.Biophys.Res Comm.,48(1972)1533.
15. Urbach ,F., J. Amer.Chem. Soc., 98(1976)5144.
16. Mcgarvey, B.R., Can. J.Chem., 53(1975)2498.
17. Malatesta, V. and Mcgravey, B.R., Can. J. Chem., 53(1975)3791.
18. Reuvani, A., Malatesta. V. and Mcgarvey, B. R., Can J.Chem.,55(1977)70 .
19. Hastey,E.,Colburn T.J. and Hendrickon, D.N., Inorg.Chem., 12(1973)2414.
20. Lewis, W.B. and Morgan, L.O., “Transition Metal Chemistry,” Vol.4, p .33(1968); R.L. Carlin, Ed.Marcel Dekker,N.Y.
21. So, H. and Belford, R.L., J.Amer.Chem Soc., 91(1969)2392.
22. Belford, R.L., Huang, D.T. and So, H., Chem. Phys. Lett.,14(1972)592.
23. Van Lanthe E., vander Aroird and Wormer, P.E.S., J.Chem.Phys., 107(1997)2488-98.
24. Van Lanthe E., vander Aroird and Wormer, P.E.S., J.Chem.Phys., 108(1998)783-96.
25. Van Lanthe E. and Baerends, J., J.Chem. Phys., 108(2000)8279- 92.
26. Silichter, C.P., “Principals of Magnetic Resonance,” Sec.6.3 (1963); Harper and Row, N.Y.
27. Bersohn, R., J. Chem. Phys., 20(1952)1505.
28. Edmonds, D.T. et al, “Advances in Quadrupole Resonance,”Vol.1, p.145(1974); Heydon, London.
29. Dean, C., Phys. Rev., 86 (1952) 607A.
30. Smith, A.S; “Advances in Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance,” Vol.1 (1974), Vol. 2 (1975), Vol.3(1977) ; Heydon and Sons, London.
31. Orgel, L. E., “An Introduction to Transition Metal Ion Chemistry, Ligand Field Theory,” 2 nd Edn. (1966) John Wiley, N.Y.
32. Orgel. L. E.,“ Transition Metal Chemistry,’’ (1966) ; Methuen, London.
33. Tanabe, Y. and Sugano, S., J.Phys.Soc.Japan, 39(1954)753, 766.
34. Figgis, B. N. and Lewis, J., “The Magnetochemistry of Complex Compounds,” in, “Modern Coordination Chemistry,” (1960); Ed. J. Lewis and R.G.Wilkins, Interscience , N.Y.
35. Figgis, B.N. and Lewis, J. ,“The Magnetic Properties of Transition Metal Complexes” in, “Progress in Inorganic Chemistry,” Vol. 6(1964); Ed. F.A.Cotton, Interscience, N.Y.
36. Figgis, B.N., Wadley, L.G.B. and Gerloch, M., J.Chem.Soc. Dalton Trans(1973)238-42.
37. Figgis, B.N.,“ Introduction to Ligand Fields,” p.265-66, 276-77(1966); U.S. Edn.
38. Ballhausen, C.J.,“Introduction to Ligand Field Theory,”(1962); McGraw-Hill, N.Y.
39. Griffiths , J.S., “Theory Of Transition Metal Ions,” (1961); Cambridge Univ. Press. 40. Cotton, F.A. et.al., J.Chem. Soc., 1873(1960).
41. Leslie K.A., Drago, R.S., Stucky, G.D., Kitko, D. J. and Breeese, J.A., Inorg. Chem.,18(1979) 1885.
42. Baerends, E. J., Branchadel, V. and Sodupe, M., Chem. Phys.Lett., 265(1997)481.
43. Lipkowitz, K. B. and Boyd, D. B., "KohnSham Density Functional Theory: Predicting and Understanding Chemistry" in Rev. Comput. Chem., p.1-86, Vol.15 (2000) Wiley-VCH, N.Y.
44. Ferguson, J., Wood, D.L and Knox, K., J. Chem. Phys., 39(1963)881.
45. PApperlardo, R., Wood, D.L and Linares, R. C., J.Chem. Phys., 35(1961)2041.
46. Lever, A.B.P., Inorg . Chem., 4(1965)1042.
47. Goodgame, M. and Cotton, F.A., J. Phys. Chem ., 65(1961)791.
48. Blake , A. B., Chem.Commun., (1966)569.
49. Goodgame, M., Goodgame, D.M.L. and Cotton, F. A., J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 83(1961)4161.
50. Cotton, F.A., Goodgame, M., Goodgame, D. M. L. and Haas,T. E., Inorg.Chem., 1(1962)565.
51. Cotton, F.A. and Dunne, T.G., J. Amer. Chem .Soc., 84(1962) 2013.
52. Bencini, A., Benelli, C., Gatteschi, D., Zanchini, C., Inorg. Chim. Acta., 40(1980)X115-X116.
53. Cotton, F.A., Goodgame, D. M.L and Goodgame, M., J.Amer.Chem. Soc., 83(1961)4690.
54. Cotton, F.A., Goodgame, D. M.L., Goodgame, M. and Sacco, A., J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 83(1961)4157. 54a. Goodgame, M., Goodgame, D. M.L. and Cotton, F.A., J. Amer.Chem. Soc., 83(1961)4161.
55. Carlin, R.L. and Walker, I.M., Chem. Commun., 139 (1965)82.
56. Reddy, Damodar, Reddy, N.S. and Chandrashekar , T.K., Inorg. Chim. Acta., 166(1989)147-49.
57. Schlafer, H.L, and Opitz, H.P., Z. Electrochem., 65(1961)372.
58. Angelov,S.,Zhecheva,E.,Stoyanova ,R.and Atanasov,M.,J.Phys.Chem.Solids, 51(1990)1157-61.
59. Angelova, O., Macicek,J., Atanasov ,M. and Petrov, G., Inorg. Chem., 30(1991)1943-49.
60. Atanasov,M., Koenig ,W., Craubner ,H. and Reinen. D., New.J.Chem., 17(1993)115-24.
61. Daul, C., Rauzy, C., Zbiri, M., Baettig ,P., Bruyndonckx, R., Baerends E.J. and Atanasov, M., Chem.Phys.Lett., 399(2004) 433-39.
62. Atanasov, M., Daul ,C.A., Rohmer M.-M. and Venkatachalam, T., Chem.Phys.Lett., 427(2006)449-54.
63. Harminder Singh, Bhardwaj, A.K., Sehgal, M.L. and Mittal, Susheel, K., 2012 (Communicated). 64. Atanasov, M., Daul, C.A. and Rauzy C., Chem. Phys. Lett., 367(2003)737-46.
65. Jorgensen, C. K.,“Absorption Spectra and Chemical Bonding in Complexes,”(1962);Paragon Press, N .Y.
66. Lever, A.B.P. “Inorganic Electronic Spectroscopy,” p. 324-336. 2nd Edn.
67. Dun T.M., McClure, D.S. and Pearson, R.G., “Some Aspects of Crystal Field Theory,” p. 82(1965) ;Harper and Row, N. Y.
68. Meak, D.W, Drago,R.S. and Piper,T.S., Inorg. Chem.,1(1962)285. 69. Hare, C.R. and Ballhausen, C.J., J. Chem.Phys., 40(1964) 788 -93.
70. J.T. Summers and J.V. Quagliano, Inorg. Chem., 3(1964) 1767.
71. Kiser, R.W. and Lapp, T.W., Inorg. Chem.,1(1962) 401.
72. Lever, A.B.P., ACS Advances in Chemistry Series No. 62(1967) 430.
73. Lever A.B.P., Advances in Electronic Spectroscopy,” p.207-11, 2nd Edn.
74. Lever, A.B.P., Nelson S.M. and Shepherd T.M., Inorg.Chem., 4(1965)810.
75. Bose, A. and Chatterjee, R., Proc. Phys. Soc., 83(1963)23.
76. Drago, R.S., Meek ,D.W,, Joestan, M.L. and Laroche, D.,.Inorg.Chem.,2(1963)124.
77. Smith, L.Holt, Jr and Carlin, R.L.,J.Amer.Chem.Soc.,6(1964)3017.
78. Drago, R.S., Meak, D.W., Longi R., Joestan M.L. and Laroch D., Inorg. Chem.,2 (1963)1056. 79. Lewis, A.B.P., Lewis, J. and Nyholm, R.S., J. Chem. Soc., (1964)1187-89.
80. Konings, A.J.A., Brentjens, W.L.J., Koningsberger, D.C., de Beer, V.H.J., Catalysis, 67(1981)145-58.
81. Imhof V. and Drago, R.S., Inorg .Chem., 4(1965)427.
82. Lever, A.B.P., J. Inorg. and Nucl. Chem., 27(1965)1491.
83. Buffagni S., Vellerino , L.M. and Quagliano, J.V.; Inorg .Chem.,3(1964)480.
84. Forster, D. and Goodgame, D.M.L.,J. Chem.Soc., (1964)2790; (1965)268. 85. Atanasov, M. and Nikolov, G. St., Inorg. Chim. Acta ., 68(1983)15-23.
86. Atanasov, M. and Nikolov, G. St., Chem.Bulg.Acad.Sci.,16(1983)329- 36.
87. Atanasov, M., PhD Thesis, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria,1983.
88. Atanasov, M. and Nikolov, G. St., J. Molec. Struct., 114(1984)65-68.
89. Atanasov M., Rauzy C., Bättig P. and Daul C., Int. J. Quantum Chem.,102(2005)119-31.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24General SciencesIN VITRO MICROPROPAGATION OF LAWSONIA INERMIS: AN IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANT
English2934Pooja SinghEnglish Kirti JainEnglish Bharti JainEnglish Swati KhareEnglishLawsonia inermis (Lythraceae) is commonly called as Heena. Lawsonia inermis L. is a medicinal as well as commercially used plant. It has been found that conventional methods of propagation of L. inermis, sexual as well as vegetative, are beset with many problems that restrict their multiplication on a large scale. Propagation through seed is unreliable because of disease and pest problems, short viability and heavy rains during the seeding season in the natural habitat. Therefore, it is necessary to use in vitro propagation for rapid plantproduction. For shoot formation both apical shoot buds and meristems were used. This was achieved on MS medium containing different concentration of BAP alone or in combination with Kinetin was tested. Best shoot initiation response was achieved on MS Medium supplemented with 0.2 mg/l BAP + 0.2 mg/l kn on both apical shoot and axillary meristem explants.
EnglishLawsonia inermis, in vitro micropropagation, germplasm, aroma etc.INTRODUCTION
Lawsonia inermis Linn (Lythraceae) is commonly called as Heena or Mehndi is an agricultural and economically important medicinal plant known for its cosmetic and traditional medicine properties, Lawsonia is monotypic genus, native of North Africa and south-west Asia widely cultivated. It is also cultivated in many tropical andwarm temperate regions as a hedge plant. The leaves that yield the dye confined to India, manly in Punjab and Gujarat and to a small extent in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Lawsonia inermis is a popular skin and hair coloring agent in many parts of the world. L. inermis is a glabrous, much branched shrub or small tree and grows wild. It needs around 5 years to mature and produce leaves with useful levels of tannins. The plant produces heavy white and yellow flowers. The flower of Lawsonia has a strong aroma with high commercial value. It is extensively used as a dye in silk and wool industry. Its root is considered a potent medicine for gonorrhea and herpes infection. In addition, it is a medicinal plant traditionally used by diverse groups of tribal/ethnic people Lawsonia inermis is used as an antirheumatic and antineuralgic agent (Marc, 2008), and also has potential as an antidiabetic drug(G.R.Rout, et.al, 2001).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The technique involves the isolation, inoculation and regeneration of plant cells, tissues, and organ under aseptic culture vials, containing synthetic nutrient medium. Both the chemical compositions of the medium and the aseptic (light, temperature, humidity, aeration etc.) effectively control the expression of any genotype or phenotype in the explants. Actively growing young stems (4-5 cm) of L. inermis were collected from Sarojini Naidu Govt. Girls P.G. College Bhopal.
Surface sterilization procedure- Meristem were thoroughly washed under running tap water for 30 min then treated with 5% tween-20 for 5 minutes with constant stirring followed by 3-4 rinses in sterile distilled water and further treated with an antifungal agent (Bavistin) for 2 hours and were further with detergent for 10 min. and rinsed 4-5 times tap water. Further sterilization procedures were carried out inside laminar air flow chamber, where Meristem were surface sterilization through single dip in 70% (v/v) for 1 minute followed by three times rinses in sterile distilled water. There after mercuric chloride (0.1%) treatment was given to explants for 8 minutes followed by four times rinsed in sterile distilled water. Thereafter meristem were carefully transferred to be placed over sterile petridish and were then inoculated into the culture establishment medium inoculated into the culture establishment medium (MS Medium; Murashige and Skoog 1962) using sterile forceps under aseptic conditions. The explant placed verticallally on the culture medium.2 (MS Medium; Murashige and Skoog 1962)3 using sterile forceps under aseptic conditions. The shoots induced from the in-vitro cultures were used as explants for further experiment (Razdhan).
Selection of explants -Apical soot tip and meristems node of 25 day old in vitro raised seedlings were selected as explants for direct shoot initiation. The apical shoot tip and meristems node segment of 5-8 mm in length were excised aseptically.
Chemicals - Apical shoot bud and meristems induced were cultured on MS basal medium supplemented with 3 % (w/v) sucrose (Sd-fine Chemicals, India) for shoot induction. The pH of the medium (supplemented with respective growth regulators) was adjusted to 5.7 with 1N NaOH or 1N HCl before gelling with 0.8 % (w/v) agar. In all the experiments, the chemicals used were of analytical grade (Merck and SD-fine Chemicals, India). The medium was dispensed into culture vessels (Borosil, Mumbai, India) and autoclaved at 105 kPa at 125°C for 15 minute. The surface sterilized explants were placed vertically on the culture medium. All the cultures were incubated at 25±2°C under 16h light/8h dark photoperiod with irradiance of 45 - 50 μ mol/ m²/s photo synthetically active radiation (PAR) provided by cool white fluorescent tubes (Philip, India) and with 60 - 65 % relative humidity. All subsequent subcultures were done at four weeks intervals. Culture media consisted of MS (Murashige and Skoog 1962) supplemented with 3% (w/v) sucrose and 0.8% (w/v) agar (Himedia, India) was evaluated for their effects on in-vitro growth and development of L. Inermis. For induction of shoots, explants were cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentration of cytokines, including BAP (0.1- 0.5mg/l), Kn (0.1-0.5 mg/l) and CW (0.1-0.5 mg/l) either individually or in combination. Application of tissue culture to plant conservation in India has been largely restricted to economically important species However, the approach could usefully be extended to conserve all threatened plants so that vital biodiversity and the ecological network is sustains can be preserved.
Shoot induction - Apical soot tip and meristems node were excised and inoculated by vertical orientation on the culture medium containing different concentration of BAP (0.1-0.5mg/l), Kn (0.1-0.5 mg/l) and CW (0.1-0.5 mg/l). Explants were assigned randomly to each treatment and culture were kept under 16 h light/day photoperiod at 25±2°C.shoot induction was assessed after process same different media composition for further experiment.
RESULTS
The explant show better response when collected and inoculated from august to march. The explants sterile for 40 sec to 2min with 0.1% HgCl2 . This solutions show 75 to 85 % sterile culture.
The meristem (apical and axillary) was placed on semi-solidbasal MS(MurashigeandSkoog (1962) medium supplemented with different concentrations and combinations of 6-benzylaminopurine (BA:0.0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.5 mg/l), kinetin (Kn: 0.0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.5 mg/l), and for shootinduction. The pH of t h e m e d i a w a s a d j u s t e d t o 5 . 8 u s i n g 0.1 N NaOH or 0.1 N HCl before autoclaving. Routinely, 25 ml of the molten medium was dispensed into culture tubes, plugged with non-absorbent cotton wrapped in one layer of cheese cloth and sterilized at 121ºC and 1.06kg/cm2 of pressure for 15 minute cultures were maintained at 25±2ºC either under a 14 hr photoperiod or continuous light from cool, white, fluorescent lamps. Theculturesweremaintainedbyregular subcultures at 4 week intervals on fresh mediumwiththesamecompositions.The induced shoot was placed on semi-solidbasalMS (Murashigeand Skoog (1962) medium supplemented with different concentrations and combinations of 6-benzy- laminopurine(BA:0.0, 0.1, 0.2,and0.5mg/l), kinetin (Kn: 0.0,0.1, 0.2, and 0.5mg/l), and (CW: 0.0, 0.1 and 0.2 mg/l) for shootproliferationandmultiplication. The explant undergoes rapid tissue or shoots multiplication (see pic 3-5). This process can be repeated several times, depending upon how many plants are ultimately desired. Further, Invitro induced shoot of Lawsonia inermis L. excised and cultured separately in fresh medium Containing NAA(0.1, 0.2 and 0.5) along or combination with IBA(0.1, 0.2 and 0.5) and activated charcoal(200mg/l) to encourage formation of long shootsbroad leaves and basal roots(pic 6-7).
DISCUSSION
The important part of present study was the preparation of contamination for explant.This was achieved by using Apical as wel as nodal meristem as explant as explants. Sterilization of Meristem required 0.1% (w/v) HgCl2 1.5- 2 min depending on the thickness of meristem. Treatment for maximum germination and minimum contamination and effect of growth hormones on shoot regeneration. Apical and nodal part can be successfully surface sterilized using 0.1 HgCl2 with an exposure time of minutes followed by dipping in 70% ethanol for 1 minutes. They can be germinated successfully invitro in Basel medium solidified with agar. Shoots excised from in-vitro grown multiplied shoots can be MS medium with 0.2 BAP mg/l, 0.2mg/l Kin and 0.2 CW to highest percentage. Future experiments should be focused on shoot in few sub cultures, rooting of shoots and hardening before commercialization of the technology. And this study describes a procedure for in-vitro micro propagation through shoot induction and successful growth of induced shoots of Lawsonia inermis in in-vitro conditions. The results of this study shown that tissue culture techniques can play an important role in clonal propagation of elite genotypes of. Lawsonia inermis which has diverse medicinal applications and eventually due to over exploitation this plant is facing local extinction. There is pressing need to conserve this medicinal herb of high commercial value Lawsonia inermis usually multiply by root secures and seeds but due to low germination capability it restricts for the regeneration. It seems likely that this protocol for shoot induction, possibly with modification, can be used for in-vitro shoot induction of other species using apical shoot bud and meristem segments.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1552http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15521. A Akter, FA Neela, M. S. I. Khan, MS Islam and MF Alam, Screening of ethanol, petroleum ether and chloroform extracts of medicinal plants, Lawsonia inermis L. and Mimosa pudica L. for antibacterial activity, Indian J Pharm Sci,72(2010).
2. Anon, Theuseful plants of India. Publications and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, India, (1986).
3. B.Upadhyay, A. K. Dhaker, K.P. Singh andA. Kumar , Phytochemical analysis and influence of Edaphic factors on L:awsonia inermis, Journal of Phytology, 2(2010).
4. G.R.Rout,G.Das, S.SamantarayandP.Das, InvitromicropropagationofLawsoniainermis(L ythraceae), International Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation, 49(2001).
5. GagandeepChaudhary, Sandeep Goyal and Priyanka Poonia, Lawsonia inermis L.:A Phytopharmacological Review, International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, 2(2010).
6. Gallo FR, Multari G, Lemmens RHMJ and Wulijarni-Spetjiptoed, Dyeandtannin producing plants: Plant Resources of SouthEast Asia. No. 3. Pudoc Wageningen. Netherlands, (1991)
7. Giambenedetti M andFederici E, Chemical fingerprinting of Lawsonia inermis L. using HPLC, HPTLC and densitometry, Phytochemical analysis, 19(2008).
8. Haddad Khodaparast, Mohammad Hosein and Dezashibi Zinab, Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Henna Leaves Extracts (Lawsonia Inermis),WorldJournal ofDairyandFoodSciences, 2(2007).
9. HaddadKhodaparast,MohammadHoseinandDez ashibi Zinab,Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Henna Leaves Extracts, World Journal of Dairy and Food Sciences, 2(2007)
10. Hikmat Ullah Jan, Zabta Khan Shinwari and Ashfaq Ali Khan, Staining Effect of Dye Extracted from Dry Leaves of lawsonia inermis on Angiospermic Stem Tissue, Pak. J. Bot, 43(2011).
11. Kathem K., Al-Rubiay, Nawres N, Jaber, AlMhaawe BH, Laith K.and Alrubaiy, Antimicrobial Efficacy of Henna Extracts,Oman Medical Journal, 23(2008).
12. Mehmet Emin, Zumrutdal,Mehmet Ozaslan,Mehmet Tuzcu, Mehmet Emin Kalender, Kenan Dagl?oglu,et.al, Effect of Lawsonia inermis treatment on micewith sarcoma,AfricanJournal ofBiotechnology, 7(2008).
13. Phirke, S. S., Saha, M. and Naresh Chandra, In vitro callus induction from leaf explants of Lawsonia inermis L. used as herbal dye, ASIAN J.EXP.BIOL.SCI.SPL(2010)
14. Razdan M.K. An introduction to plant tissue culture . Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi(1983) 15. Williams R.O and OBE, Theusefuland ornamental plantsin Zanzibarand Pemba Zanzibar Protectorate, (1949).
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24General SciencesA CHARACTERIZATION OF THERMOSOLUTAL INSTABILITY IN RIVLIN-ERICKSEN ROTATING FLUID IN A POROUS MEDIUM
English3546Ajaib S. BanyalEnglishThermosolutal instability of Veronis (1965) type in Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium is considered. The paper established the condition for characterizing the oscillatory motions which may be neutral or unstable, for any arbitrary combination of free and rigid boundaries at the top and bottom of the fluid. It is established that all non-decaying slow motions starting from rest, in a Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid of infinite horizontal extension and finite vertical depth in a porous medium, are necessarily non-oscillatory, in the regime , where s R is the Thermosolutal Rayliegh number, A T is the Taylor number, 2 p is the magnetic Prandtl number, 3 p is the hermosolutal Prandtl number, l P is the medium permeability, ? is the porosity and F is the viscoelasticity parameter. The result is important since it hold for all wave numbers and for any arbitrary combination of free and rigid boundaries at the top and bottom of the fluid. A similar characterization theorem is also proved for Stern (1960) type of configuration.
EnglishThermal convection; Rivlin-Ericksen Fluid; Rotation; Rayleigh number; Taylor number.INTRODUCTION
The thermal instability of a fluid layer with maintained adverse temperature gradient by heating the underside plays an important role in Geophysics, interiors of the Earth, Oceanography and Atmospheric Physics, and has been investigated by several authors (e.g., Bénard ?4?, Rayleigh ?13? , Jeffreys ?8? ) under different conditions. A detailed account of the theoretical and experimental study of the onset of Bénard Convection in Newtonian fluids, under varying assumptions of hydrodynamics and hydromagnetics, has been given by Chandrasekhar ?6? in his celebrated monograph. The use of Boussinesq approximation has been made throughout, which states that the density changes are disregarded in all other terms in the equation of motion except the external force term. The problem of thermohaline convection in a layer of fluid heated from below and subjected to a stable salinity gradient has been considered by Veronis ?19? . The physics is quite similar in the stellar case, in that helium acts like in raising the density and in diffusing more slowly than heat. The condition under which convective motions are important in stellar atmospheres are usually far removed from consideration of single component fluid and rigid boundaries and therefore it is desirable to consider a fluid acted upon by a solute gradient with free or rigid boundaries. The problem is of great importance because of its applications to atmospheric physics and astrophysics, especially in the case of the ionosphere and the outer layer of the atmosphere. The thermosolutal convection problems also arise in oceanography, limnology and engineering. Bhatia and Steiner ?6? have considered the effect of uniform rotation on the thermal instability of a viscoelastic (Maxwell) fluid and found that rotation has a destabilizing influence in contrast to the stabilizing effect on Newtonian fluid. Sharma ?16? has studied the thermal instability of a layer of viscoelastic (Oldroydian) fluid acted upon by a uniform rotation and found that rotation has destabilizing as well as stabilizing effects under certain conditions in contrast to that of a Maxwell fluid where it has a destabilizing effect There are many elastico-viscous fluids that cannot be characterized by Maxwell’s constitutive relations or Oldroyd’s ?11? constitutive relations. Two such classes of fluids are Rivlin-Ericksen’s and Walter’s (model B’) fluids. Rivlin-Ericksen ?14? has proposed a theoretical model for such one class of elasticoviscous fluids. Sharma and kumar ?17? have studied the effect of rotation on thermal instability in Rivlin-Ericksen elastico-viscous fluid and found that rotation has a stabilizing effect and introduces oscillatory modes in the system. Kumar et al. ?9? considered effect of rotation and magnetic field on Rivlin-Ericksen elastico-viscous fluid and found that rotation has stabilizing effect; where as magnetic field has both stabilizing and destabilizing effects. A layer of such fluid heated from below or under the action of magnetic field or rotation or both may find applications in geophysics, interior of the Earth, Oceanography, and the atmospheric physics. With the growing importance of nonNewtonian fluids in modern technology and industries, the investigations on such fluids are desirable. In all above studies, the medium has been considered to be non-porous with free boundaries only, in general. In recent years, the investigation of flow of fluids through porous media has become an important topic due to the recovery of crude oil from the pores of reservoir rocks. When a fluid permeates a porous material, the gross effect is represented by the Darcy’s law. As a result of this macroscopic law, the usual viscous term in the equation of Rivlin-Ericksen fluid motion is replaced by the resistance term ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? q t ' μ μ k 1 1 , where ? and ' ? are the viscosity and viscoelasticity of the RivlinEricksen fluid, 1 k is the medium permeability and q is the Darcian (filter) velocity of the fluid. The problem of thermosolutal convection in fluids in a porous medium is of great importance in geophysics, soil sciences, ground water hydrology and astrophysics. Generally, it is accepted that comets consist of a dusty ‘snowball’ of a mixture of frozen gases which, in the process of their journey, changes from solid to gas and vice-versa. The physical properties of the comets, meteorites and interplanetary dust strongly suggest the importance of nonNewtonian fluids in chemical technology, industry and geophysical fluid dynamics. Thermal convection in porous medium is also of interest in geophysical system, electrochemistry and metallurgy. A comprehensive review of the literature concerning thermal convection in a fluid-saturated porous medium may be found in the book by Nield and Bejan ?10?. Pellow and Southwell ?12? proved the validity of PES for the classical Rayleigh-Bénard convection problem. Banerjee et al ?2? gave a new scheme for combining the governing equations of thermohaline convection, which is shown to lead to the bounds for the complex growth rate of the arbitrary oscillatory perturbations, neutral or unstable for all combinations of dynamically igid or free boundaries and, Banerjee and Banerjee ?1? established a criterion on characterization of non-oscillatory motions in hydrodynamics which was further extended by Gupta et al ?7? . However no such result existed for non-Newtonian fluid configurations in general and in particular, for Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid configurations. Banyal ?3? have characterized the oscillatory motions in RivlinEricksen fluid in the presence of magnetic field. Keeping in mind the importance of nonNewtonian fluids, as stated above, this article attempts to study Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic of Veronis and Stern type configuration in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium, and it has been established that the onset of instability in a Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid heated from below in a porous medium Veronis type configuration, cannot manifest itself as oscillatory motions of growing amplitude if the Thermosolutal Rayliegh number Rs , the Taylor number TA , the magnetic Prandtl number p2 , the thermosolutal Prandtl number 3 p , the medium permeability Pl , the porosity ? and the viscoelasticity parameter F satisfy the inequality 1 2 4 3 ' ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? l A s l l T P R E p P F P ? ? ? , for all wave numbers and for any arbitrary combination of free and rigid boundaries at the top and bottom of the fluid. A similar characterization theorem is also proved for Stern type of configuration, for all wave numbers and for any arbitrary combination of free and rigid boundaries at the top and bottom of the fluid. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM AND PERTURBATION EQUATIONS Here we Consider an infinite, horizontal, incompressible Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid layer, of thickness d, heated from below so that, the temperature, density and solute concentrations at the bottom surface z = 0 are T0 , ? 0 and C0 at the upper surface z = d are Td , ? d and Cd respectively, and that a uniform adverse temperature gradient ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? dz dT ? and a uniform solute gradient ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? dz ' dC ? is maintained. The gravity field g? ?g? ? 0,0, and uniform vertical rotation ?? ?? ? 0,0, pervade on the system. This fluid layer is assumed to be flowing through an isotropic and homogeneous porous medium of porosity ? and medium permeability 1 k . Let p , ? , T, C ,? , ' ? , g and q?u,v,w? ? denote respectively the fluid pressure, fluid density temperature, solute concentration, thermal coefficient of expansion, an analogous solvent coefficient of expansion, gravitational acceleration and filter velocity of the fluid. Then the momentum balance, mass balance, and energy balance equation governing the flow of Rivlin-Ericksen fluid in the presence of uniform vertical vertical rotation (Rivlin and Ericksen ?14? ; Chandrasekhar ?6? and Sharma et al ?18? ) are given by
constant analogous to E but corresponding to solute rather than heat, while ? s , s c and ? 0 , i c , stands for the density and heat capacity of the solid (porous matrix) material and the fluid, respectively, ? is the medium porosity and r(x, y,z) ? . The equation of state is ?1 ? ? ( )? 0 ' ? ? ?0 ?? T ?T0 ?? C ?C , (5) Where the suffix zero refer to the values at the reference level z = 0. In writing the equation (1), we made use of the Boussinesq approximation, which states that the density variations are ignored in all terms in the equation of motion except the external force term. The kinematic viscosity ? , kinematic viscoelasticity ' ? , thermal diffusivity ? , the solute diffusivity ' ? and the coefficient of thermal expansion ? are all assumed to be constants. The steady state solution is ? ?0,0,0? ? q , (1 ) ' ' 0 ? ? ? ???z ?? ? z , T0 T ? ??z ? , 0 ' C ? ?? z ? C , (6) Here we use the linearized stability theory and the normal mode analysis method. Consider a small perturbations on the steady state solution, and let ?? ,?p , ? , ? and q?u,v,w? ? denote respectively the perturbations in density ? , pressure p, temperature T, solute concentration C and velocity (0,0,0) ? q . The change in density ?? , caused mainly by the perturbation ? and ? in temperature and concentration, is given by NORMAL MODE ANALYSIS Analyzing the disturbances into two-dimensional waves, and considering disturbances characterized by a particular wave number, we assume that the Perturbation quantities are of the form
CONCLUSIONS
Theorem 1 mathematically established that the onset of instability in a thermosolutal RivlinEricksen viscoelastic fluid configuration of Veronis (1965) type in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium, cannot manifest itself as oscillatory motions of growing amplitude if the Thermosolutal Rayliegh number Rs , the Taylor number TA , the magnetic Prandtl number p2 , the thermosolutal Prandtl number 3 p , the medium permeability Pl , the porosity ? and the viscoelasticity parameter F satisfy
any arbitrary combination of free and rigid boundaries at the top and bottom of the fluid The essential content of the theorem 1, from the point of view of linear stability theory is that for the thermosolutal configuration of Veronis (1965) type of Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid of infinite horizontal extension in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium, for any arbitrary combination of free and rigid boundaries at the top and bottom of the fluid, an arbitrary neutral or unstable modes of the system are definitely non-oscillatory in character
particular PES is valid. The similar conclusions can be drawn for the thermosolutal configuration of Stern (1960) type of Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid of infinite horizontal extension in the presence of uniform vertical rotation in a porous medium, for any arbitrary combination of free and rigid boundaries at the top and bottom of the fluid from Theorem 2.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. The author is highly thankful to the referees for their very constructive, valuable suggestions and useful technical comments, which led to a significant improvement of the paper.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1553http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15531. Banerjee, M. B., and Banerjee, B., A characterization of non-oscillatory motions in magnetohydronamics, Ind. J. Pure & Appl Maths., 1984, 15(4): 377-382
2. Banerjee, M.B., Katoch, D.C., Dube G.S. and Banerjee, K., Bounds for growth rate of perturbation in thermohaline convection. Proc. R. Soc. A, 1981,378, 301-04
3. Banyal, A.S, A characterization of RivlinEricksen viscoelastic fluid in the presence of magnetic field, Int. J. of Mathematical Archives, Vol. 3(7), 2012, pp. 2543-2550.
4. Bénard, H., Les tourbillions cellulaires dans une nappe liquid, Revue Genérale des Sciences Pures et Appliquees 11 (1900), 1261-1271, 1309-1328.
5. Bhatia, P.K. and Steiner, J.M., Convective instability in a rotating viscoelastic fluid layer, Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Mathematik and Mechanik 52 (1972), 321- 327.
6. Chandrasekhar, S. Hydrodynamic and Hydromagnetic Stability, 1981, Dover Publication, New York.
7. Gupta, J.R., Sood, S.K., and Bhardwaj, U.D., On the characterization of nonoscillatory motions in rotatory hydromagnetic thermohaline convection, Indian J. pure appl.Math. 1986,17(1), pp 100-107.
8. Jeffreys, H., The stability of a fluid layer heated from below, Philosophical Magazine 2 (1926), 833-844.
9. Kumar, P., Mohan, H. and Lal, R., Effect of magnetic field on thermal instability of a rotating Rivlin-Ericksen viscoelastic fluid, Int. J. of Maths. Math. Scs., Vol-2006 article ID 28042, pp. 1-10.
10. Nield D. A. and Bejan, A., Convection in porous medium, springer, 1992.
11. Oldroyd, J.G., Non-Newtonian effects in steady motion of some idealized elasticviscous liquids, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A245 (1958), 278-297.
12. Pellow, A., and Southwell, R.V., On the maintained convective motion in a fluid heated from below. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A, 1940, 176, 312-43
13. Rayleigh, L., On convective currents in a horizontal layer of fluid when the higher temperature is on the underside, Philosophical Magazine 32 (1916), 529-546.
14. Rivlin, R.S. and Ericksen, J. L., Stress deformation relations for isotropic materials, J. Rat. Mech. Anal. 4 (1955), 323.
15. Schultz, M.H. (1973)., Spline Analysis, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersy.
16. Sharma, R.C., Effect of rotation on thermal instability of a viscoelastic fluid, Acta Physica Hungarica 40 (1976), 11-17.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24General SciencesSTUDY OF PHYTOHORMONES EFFECT ON MICROPROPAGATION AND SHOOT INDUCTION IN ASPARAGUS RACEMOSUS
English4753Anurag JainEnglish Krishan KumarEnglish Mukesh KumarEnglishThe present investigation was undertaken to study the effect of different concentrations of BAP, Kin, Ads on shoot induction in Asparagus Racemosus. There was shoots induction after 3 weeks when Nodal explants segments were cultured on basal medium supplemented with BAP, Kin and Ads. Shoots induction on MS basal medium supplemented with BAP (1 mg/l) + kinetin (1 mg/1) were transferred to MS basal medium containing BAP (1.5mg/1) + Ads (100mg/1) and BAP (1.5mg/1), Kin (l mg/1) respectively to the Proliferation shoots. Stem segments cultured on MS basal medium supplemented with various concentrations of BAP (0.75, 1.5,1.0 mg/1), AdS (50,100 mg/l) and Kin (0.75,1.0,1.5 mg/l) induce shoot, But a combination of l mg/1 BAP + 1 mg/l Kin and 1.5 mg/1 BAP + 100.mg/1 Ads showed highest percentage of shoot proliferation after 7-14 days.
EnglishAsparagus Racemosus, shoot induction, BAP, Kin and AdsINTRODUCTION
Asparagus racemosus Wild is a multidimensional medicinal plant. Family Liliaceae English name Asparagus, Indian name shatmuli, Satavari, (Sanskrit) Satawar, satavari, (Hindi) , Its distribution Tropical and subtropical India. It is straggling or scan dent, much branched, spinous shrub. The plant is a climber growing to 1-2m in length. The leves are like pine needles, small and uniform. The inflorescence has tinny white flowers, in small spikes. The roots are finger like and clustered (Purohit and Vyas, 2004). It has thorny branches the ripen fruit is small, round and red. Seeds are black. Stem woody, whitish gray or brown armed with strong, straights or reduced spines, 5-13mm long; cladodes more or less acicular, 2-6 Nate, falcate; finely acuminate; leaves reduced to sub-erect or sub-recurred spine, fragrant, small profuse in simple or branched racemes up to 7m long; scarlet, tri-lobed, 4-6 in diameter (Dutta, 2007). Its phytoestrogen properties are extensively used in combating menopausal symptoms and increasing lactation (Sabin et al., 1968). It also has antioxidants (Kamat et al., 2000) and properties (Rage et al., 1989) and is widely used in Ayurveda for treating dyspepsia (Dalvi et al., 1990). The major active medicinal constituents are steroidal saponins shatavarins I-IV that is present in the roots of the plant (Sairam, 2003). It has been reported in the Indian and British Pharmacopoeias and in traditional systems of medicine such as Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha. The multiple uses of this species have increased its commercial demand, resulting in overexploitation. Because of destructive harvesting, the natural population of it racemosus is rapidly disappearing, and it is recognized as vulnerable (Bopana and Saxena 2001). The development of an efficient micropropagation protocol will play significant role in meeting the requirements for commercial cultivation, thereby conserving the species in its natural habitat. According to ayurveda, asparagus is much useful in case of reproductive disease. Plant is reach source of plant derived estrogens. It is good source of folic acid, potassium, dietary fiber. It is cardio tonic, hypoglycemic, antioxytocis to uterine contraction, diuretic, antioxidant, insulin secreting an improving potency, many formulation based on Asparagus are in commerce used for bleeding disorders, gout, low sperm count (Goyal et al., 2003). The methanol extracts of roots of Asparagus wild is reported to show considerable in vitro antibacterial activity against various common pathogens (Mandal et al., 2007). There is nothing to hoist in speaking that A. racemosus is a doctor. It is suggested in nervous disorders, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, neuropathy, cough, certain infectious disease (Goyal et al., 2003). Root paste which stimulates milk secretion, is used as an invigorating tonic to lactating women and live stock. It is taken to treat high fever. Root tubers are fed to get relief from milking disorder of cattle, which is regarded as appetizer. They are also useful in dysentery, tumors, inflammations, disease of blood and eyes, throat complains, tuberculosis leprosy, epilepsy and high blindness. Roots are also used in disease of Kidney and liver, scalding urine, gleets. Fruits are eaten to treat pimple (Dutta, 2007; Rajbhandari, 2001). The whole plant is used for treatment of diarrhoea, Diabetes, and Rheumatism. Seed are also used for blood purification.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of culture media: Double distilled water was used for the preparation of medium. The amounts of macro and micro nutrients, organic salts, vitamins, growth regulators and sucrose were added to the double distilled water kept in distilled water. The final volume was made in a graduated cylinder/breaker by adding double distilled water. The pH of the solution was adjusted to 5.7-5.8 using either 0.1N HCl or 0.1N NaOH. For solidification of the medium, agar powder (Tissue culture grade, agar-agar type) @ 0.8% w/v was added to warm solution and then, boiled for proper dissolving and melting of agar powder. Then the medium was poured in glass vessel (i.e. culture tube or culture bottle). After that the vessel was covered by lid or with aluminium foil. Basal nutrient media used during this investigation are given in table was BM1- BM7 modification of Murashige and Skoog medium (1962) was used in present project.
Procedure
The medium was prepared in sterile flasks. Required quantities of stock solutions 50 ml of stock 1, 5ml of stock 2, 10ml of stock 3, , 10ml of stock 4, 10ml of stock 5 was added. The pH of the solution was adjusted 5.8 by adding NaOH and HCl drop by drop. Final volume of medium was made to 1 litter by adding distilled water. Adding of 8% agar, which was dissolved in warm water followed by constant stirring. The medium thus prepared was dispensed into different culture tubes or culture bottles each having 20 to 30 ml of the media. The medium was autoclaved at 15 lbs pressure and 121°C temperature for 20 minutes. The medium was finally allowed to cool and solidify. The tissue culture technique involves the isolation, sterilization, inoculation and cultivation of plant cells, tissues and organs under aseptic conditions in culture vials, containing nutrient medium. In tissue culture, the organized structures like shoot tips, root tip etc are culture in-vitro to obtain their development as organized structure under controlled environmental conditions (temperature, light, humidity, aeration) which effectively controls the expansion of any genotype or phenotypic potential in explants. Isolation of Explant Source of explants: The explant parts such as nodal segments shoot tip, and In vivo germinated seeds were taken from plants of Asparagus racemosus Wild in herbal garden of SINGHANIA UNIVERSITY. Pacheri Bari, Jhunjhunu.(Rajasthan) during February - March seasons and from in vitro germinated seeds. The specific differences in the regeneration potential of different organs and explants have various explanations. The significant factors include differences in the stage of the cells in the cell cycle, the availability of or ability to transport endogenous growth regulators, and the metabolic capabilities of the cells. The most commonly used tissue explants are the meristematic ends of the plants like the stem tip, auxiliary bud tip and root tip. These tissues have high rates of cell division and either concentrate or produce required growth regulating substances including auxins and cytokinins.
METHOD
Sterilization of explants: Young stem segments, young shoot tip and seeds were surface sterilized, by first washing them in Extran detergent in running tap water for 10- 15 min to remove soil particles and debris, after that were wash with Bavestin (100mg/ml) 2-3 drop in 100 ml water then wash were with distilled water, dipping in absolute alcohol for 2 min and also dipping in 20% (v/v) commercial sodium hypochlorite solution for 5- 6 min. wash with sterilized distilled water for one times , followed immediately, immersing them in 0.1% (w/v) HgC12 solution for 5 min treatment under Laminar Air Flow Unit, they were thoroughly washed 5-6 times in sterile double distilled water. This entire treatment was carried out at low temperature to prevent damage to the shoots. Inoculation Before inoculation, inside the laminar air flow chamber the ultraviolet lamp was put on carefully to avoid contamination for at least 20 minutes, the working table of laminar air flow chamber was wiped thoroughly with 70% ethanol before use. The material required for inoculation was steam sterilized. The hands were .cleaned with 70% ethanol. Then, the individual explants were inoculated in individual culture tubes or culture bottles having solidified culture medium. Forceps and scalpels were flame sterilized before each inoculation. The explants were then, cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentration of BAP, Kn, AdS and NAA.
Incubation of Culture
After inoculation cultures were kept in the incubation room where the temperature and light period was maintained at 25 ± 20C and 16 hr. photoperiod with approximate 1500 lux intensity of light respectively. Source of the light was from the four florescent tube lights each of four feet and 40 W (Philips make) a total of 22 culture bottles for each treatment has been kept on the culture racks. After three week period callus developed in the medium or shoots/roots develop from explants.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Shoot Initiation: Nodal explants were cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of BAP, Kin and Ads. The nodal segments get swollen after 3 days and the small originating shoot segment were observed as shown in table 2.When the hormone concentration is given as1.5ml BAP(fig.4) ,1.5ml Kn(fig.1) and 1.5mlBAP and 100mg Ads in 1l MS medium then 60% response was observed. When the hormone concentration is given as 1ml BAP and 1ml Kn in 1l MS medium then 80% (maximum) response was observed (fig.3). When the hormone concentration is given as respectively 0.75ml BAP (fig.2) and 0.75ml Kn(fig.5) in 1l MS medium then 40% response was observed. When the hormone concentration is given as respectively 0.5ml BAP and 0.5ml Kn in 1l MS medium then 20% response was observed (fig.6).Good response was observed in fig.7 and fig.8 when transferred to same medium. The explants showed shoot initiation after three weeks.
DISCUSSION
Culture Establishment (Stage-1): Asparagus racemosus has a variety of usages. The first step on initiating in vitro culture is to successfully control the fungal as well as bacterial contaminations. The general surface sterilization procedure i.e. mercuric chloride for 5 min. failed to control the microbial infection in the explants. Hence, two procedures of surface sterilization were tried in the present study. The treatment of nodal explants with mercuric chloride for 5 min followed by sodium hypo chloride for 5 min. (T2) was found to be the best in respect of explants survival (90%) and reduced explants contamination over the other treatments. Sodium hypochloride has bactericidal action and is generally used for surface sterilization and also helps in the controlling the microbial infection in the case of shoot proliferation. Shoots Proliferation (Stage-2): When the nodal explants inoculated on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of BAP, Ads and Kinetin in different combinations. The best shoot induction was achieved when the cultures were transferred to MS medium supplemented with BAP (1 ml/lit.) + kinetin (1 ml/lit.) and BAP (1.5ml/lit.) + AdS (100 mg/lit.). In other experiment study reported in Asparagus racemosus in vitro shoot proliferation was obtained by culturing single node segments in Murashige and Skoog's (MS) medium supplemented with 3.69 μM 2- isopentyl adenine and 3% sucrose with a multiplication rate of 3.5 (Bopana and Saxena., 2008). Shoot proliferation (Stage-3): The shoot proliferation medium comprises of different concentration of BAP and Ads in different combinations. The best proliferation with well differentiated micro-shoots was achieved when the small nodal segments were transferred to MS medium supplemented with BAP (1.5 ml/L) and Ads (100mg/lit.).The treatments recorded 15-20 % proliferation after 1 week of first sub-culture. The shoot proliferation in tissue culture is largely due to the action of BAP. Optimum dose of BAP enhances the multiple shoot proliferation as well as length. In other experiment study reported high rate of multiple shoots was obtained from nodal explants of Asparagus racemosus Roxb. On MS supplemented with 0.27 µM NAA, 0.46 µM Kn and 0.6 agar (Mehta and Subramanian, 2005).
CONCLUSION
Study was conducted on Micropropagation of Medicinal Plant Asparagus racemosus Wild. The following conclusions are: Nodal segments and apical buds of 20-30 days old Asparagus racemosus wild Plants were inoculated on MS medium supplemented with BAP (1ppm/L) + Kinetin (1ppm/L) and BAP (1.5ppm/L) + Ads (100mg/L) and then transferred to same medium was found best shoot induction. Proliferated shoots were separated and transferred to NAA (0.5mg/l) + BAP (1mg/l) + kin(1mg/l) medium was found to best roots formation.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1554http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15541. Bopana, N. and Saxena, S. (2008). In vitro propagation of a high value medicinal plant In Vitro Cell, Dev, Biol.-Plant 44:525-532.
2. Dalvi, J., Hayes, P. Y. and Johidin, A. H. (2007). The biology of Australian weeds Asparagus asparagoides (L.) AustraliaPlant Protection Quarterly 21(2): 33-36.
3. Dutta, N. K., Roy, R. N. and Chavan, S.R. (2007). Steroid saponins from the roots of Asparagus racemosus Willd. N. 0. Liliaceae, JRIM. 6(2):I32-138.
4. Goyal, R. K., Singh, J. and Lai, H. (2003). immunomodulatory activity of Asparagus racemosus on systemic Th1/Th2 immunity: Implications for immunoadjuvant potential Indian jurnal Med Sci, 57(9): 408- 14.
5. Kamat, J. P., Boloor, K. K., Devasangaram, T. P. A. and Venkatachalain, S. R. (2000). Antioxidant properties of Asparagus racemosus against damage induced by gamma radiation in rat liver, mitochondria 71(3):425-435.
6. Mandal, S. C., Kumar, A., Lakshami, S.M., Sinha, S., Saha, B. P. and Pal, M. (2002) Antitumor effect of Asparagus racemosus root against sulfur dioxide induced cough in mice Fitoterpia j, science 71(6):686-689.
7. Mehta, S.R. and Subramanian, R.B. (2005). Direct In vitro Propagation of Asparagus adscendens Roxb, Plant Tissue Cult. 15(1): 25-32.
8. Purohit, S.S. and Vyas, S.P. (2004). A scientific approach including processing and tiniancial guidelines of Asparagus racemosus Jhodhpur Agrbios, 62 4p., tables, ISBN 81 7754-214 -1.
9. Rege, N. N., Thatte, U. M., Dahanukar, S. A. (1999). Adaptogenic properties of six. rasayana herb used in Ayurvedic medicine Phytother Res. 13(4):275-9L
10. Sabins, P.B., Gaitonde, B. B., Jatmalani, M. (1968). effect of alcoholic extract of Asparagus racemosus on mammary gland of rats. Indian]. Exp. Bid.6:55-7
11. Sairam, K., Priyambada, S., Aryya, N.C. and Goel, R.K. (2003). Gastroduodenal ulcer protective activity of Asparagus racemosus: an experimental, biochemical and histological study J Ethanopharmacol, 86: 1-10.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24General SciencesSTATISTICAL RELATION OF SOLAR FEATURES AND SOLAR WIND PLASMA PARAMETERS WITH INTERPLANETARY SHOCK RELATED GEOMAGNETIC STORMS
English0107P.L.VermaEnglish Preetam SinghEnglish Monika MishraEnglish Manoj Kumar MishraEnglish Arun KumarEnglishWe have studied geomagnetic storm ?-80 nT, associated with interplanetary shocks, observed during the period of 2000- 2010 with coronal mass ejections and solar wind plasma parameters. We have found that most of the shock related geomagnetic storms are intense are severe. The association rates of moderate, intense and severe shock related geomagnetic storms have been found 21.88%, 59.38% and 18.75% respectively. Further it is observed that maximum of them (81.25%) are associated with coronal mass ejections. The association rates of halo and partial halo coronal mass ejections have been found 82.69% and 17.31% respectively. It is also concluded that majority of them are associated with radio bursts (71.88%). The association rates of type IV and type II radio bursts have been found 58.70% and 41.30% respectively. From the further analysis, positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of interplanetary shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma temperature ,velocity, pressure and peak value of interplanetary magnetic fields, southward component of interplanetary magnetic fields with correlation coefficient 0.33 between magnitude of interplanetary shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma temperature,0.40 between magnitude of interplanetary shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma velocity, 0.26 between magnitude of geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma pressure,0.71 between magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms and maximum (peak) value of average interplanetary magnetic field (JIMF),0.78 between magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of maximum (peak) value of southward component of interplanetary magnetic field..
EnglishGeomagnetic storms, interplanetary shocks, coronal mass ejections, solar wind plasma parametersINTRODUCTION
Geomagnetic storms are generally defined by periods of intense solar wind–magnetosphere (SW?M) coupling usually associated with extreme conditions in the solar wind (SW), such as coronal mass ejections (CMEs) or co?rotating interaction regions (CIRs). Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are the energetic solar events in which huge amount of solar plasma materials are ejected into the heliosphere from the sun and generate large disturbances in solar wind plasma parameters and geomagnetic storms in geomagnetic field [Correiaa, 2005: Cane, 2000:Michalek, 2006: St. Cyr, 2000: Webb, 2000: Gopalswamy, 2006: Manoharan, 2006: Verma et al, 2009: Verma, 2012]. It is believed that the main cause of intense geomagnetic storms is the large IMF structure which has an intense and long duration southward magnetic field component, Bz [Tsurutani,et al, 1988 : Echer,et al, 2004]. They interact with the earth's magnetic field and facilitate the transport of energy into the earth's atmosphere through the reconnection process. .Correiaa and De Souza [2005] have presented the identification of solar coronal mass ejection (CME) sources for selected major geomagnetic storms in the geomagnetic field of geomagnetosphere. They have inferred that full halo CMEs originating from active regions associated with X-ray solar flares and propagating in the western hemisphere, cause strong geomagnetic storms. Michalek, G. et al [2006] have concluded that halo coronal mass ejections (HCMEs) originating from regions close to the center of the sun are likely to be geoeffective. They have showed that only fast halo CMEs (with space velocities higher than ~1000 km/s) and originating from the western hemisphere close to the solar center could cause intense geomagnetic storms. Gopalswamy [2009] have studied geoeffectiviness of halo and partial halo coronal mass ejections and concluded that the geoeffectiveness of partial halo CMEs is lower because they are of low speed and likely to make a glancing impact on earth rather than halo coronal mass ejections. Chao Yuea and Qiugang Zong [2011] have investigated interplanetary shocks associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs) with geomagnetic storms and concluded that interplanetary shocks associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs) have very profound effects on geomagnetic storms. They have investigated the role of the interplanetary shock properties and pre-conditions and presented a statistical study of 280 interplanetary shocks and their associated geomagnetic activities during 1998–2007. They have determined that perpendicular shocks can cause more intense geomagnetic activities compared with parallel ones under the same IMF pre-condition. Veronica et al [2010] have performed an event?by?event study of 47 geomagnetic storms (GSs) that occurred during the ascending phase of solar cycle 23 and found all geomagnetic storms are associated with the passage of a shock and an interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME). They have concluded on average, the most intense geomagnetic storms are caused by sheaths followed by sheath?ICME combinations and by ICMEs. They have obtained the correlation coefficients between the intensity of each geomagnetic storm (minimum Dst) and several solar wind parameters. They found that the well?known correlation between the geomagnetic storms intensity and the solar wind convicted electric field, Ey , stands for the geomagnetic storms caused by ICMEs (CC = −0.88) and sheath?ICME combinations (CC = −0.95) .They have found a very good correlation between the geomagnetic storms caused by sheaths and the total convicted electric field (SEy ) (CC = −0.89). Hutchinson [2011] presented results of a superposed epoch analysis of geomagnetic storms over the last solar cycle. Geomagnetic storms, identified by means of their characteristic SYM?H evolution, are separated by size into weak (−150 < SYM?H ≤ −80) nT, moderate (−300 < SYM?H ≤ −150) nT, and intense (SYM?H ≤ −300) nT categories and determined that intense storms were observed to be driven solely by coronal mass ejections (CMEs); moderate storms were dominated by CME onset, while only weak storms were driven by both CMEs and corotating interaction regions (CIRs) at a ratio of ∼2:1, respectively. Gonzalez, et al [2011] have presented a review on the interplanetary causes of intense geomagnetic storms ( Dst≤-100 nT), that occurred during solar cycle 23 (1997-2005).
They have reported that the most common interplanetary structures leading to the development of intense storm were magnetic clouds, sheath fields, sheath fields followed by a magnetic cloud and corotating interaction regions at the leading fronts of high speed streams. However, the relative importance of each of those driving structures has been shown to vary with the solar cycle phase. They have also studied super intense geomagnetic storm ( Dst≤-250 nT) in more detail for solar cycle 23, and found that these storms are associated with magnetic clouds and sheath fields following interplanetary shocks. Eun-Young et al [2010] have investigated the interplanetary conditions of 82 intense geomagnetic storms from 1998 to 2006, and compared many different criteria of interplanetary conditions for the occurrence of the intense geomagnetic storms (Dst ≤ −100 nT). For this study, they have considered three types of interplanetary conditions as Bz conditions, Eyconditions, and their combination. They have suggested that three conditions are promising candidates to trigger an intense storm: Bz ≤ −10 nT for >3 h, Ey ≥ 5 mV/m for >2 h, and Bz ≤ −15 nT or Ey ≥ 5 mV/m for >2 h.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
In this investigation hourly Dst indices of geomagnetic field have been used over the period 2000 through 2010 to determine onset time, maximum depression time, magnitude of geomagnetic storms. This data has been taken from the NSSDC Omni web data system which been created in late 1994 for enhanced access to the near earth solar wind, magnetic field and plasma data of Omni data set, which consists of one hour resolution near earth, solar wind magnetic field and plasma data, energetic proton fluxes and geomagnetic and solar activity indices. The data of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) have been taken from SOHO – large angle spectrometric, coronagraph (SOHO / LASCO) and extreme ultraviolet imaging telescope (SOHO/EIT) data. To determine disturbances in interplanetary magnetic, hourly data of average interplanetary magnetic field have been used, these data has also been taken from Omni web data (http;//omniweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/form/dxi.html)). The data of X ray solar flares radio bursts, and other solar data, solar geophysical data report U.S. Department of commerce, NOAA monthly issue and solar STP data (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/solar/solardataser vices.html.) have been used. The data of interplanetary shocks have been taken from list of shocks observed wind satellites and list of transient and disturbances.
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
From the data analysis of shock related geomagnetic storms ,it is observed that most of the shock related geomagnetic storms are intense or severe geomagnetic storms .We have identified 64 shock related geomagnetic storms during the period of 2000-2010, out of which 50 shock related geomagnetic storms have been found either intense (59.38%) or severe (18.75%) geomagnetic storms .From the further analysis it is also observed that majority of the shock related geomagnetic storms 46 (71.88%) have been found to be associated with radio bursts. Out of 46 associated geomagnetic storms 19 (41.30%) are type II and 27(58.70%) geomagnetic storms are found to be associated with type IV radio bursts. From the analysis of shock related geomagnetic storms and coronal mass ejections it is observed that majority of the shock related geomagnetic storms are associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs). We have 64 shock related geomagnetic storms in our list out which 52 (81.25%) are associated with coronal mass ejections. Out of 52 associated geomagnetic storms 09 (17.31%) geomagnetic storms have been found to be associated partial halo coronal mass ejections and 43(82.69%) with halo coronal mass ejections. Further it is observed that more than 50% (28) are associated with CMEs of higher speed having speed more than 1000km/s.
Geomagnetic storms with disturbances in interplanetary magnetic Field
From the data analysis of shock related geomagnetic and associated disturbances in interplanetary magnetic field, we have observed that all the shock related geomagnetic storms are associated with jump in interplanetary magnetic field (JIMF) events. To see how the magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms are correlated with the magnitude of JIMF events, we have plotted a scatter diagram between the magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms and JIMF events in Fig.1. From the Fig It is clear that maximum shock related geomagnetic storms which have large magnitude are associated with such JIMF events which have relatively large magnitude. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of geomagnetic storms and maximum peak value of average interplanetary magnetic field of associated JIMF events. Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.71 between these two events.
Geomagnetic storms with disturbances in southward component of interplanetary magnetic field
From the data analysis of shock related geomagnetic storms and associated jump in southward component of interplanetary magnetic field (JIMFBz), it is observed that all the shock related geomagnetic storms are associated with JIMFBz events. Further to see how the magnitude of geomagnetic storms are correlated with peak value of JIMFBz events, a scatter diagram have been plotted between the magnitude of geomagnetic storms and maximum peak value of JIMFBz events in Fig.2 .From the Fig it is clear that maximum geomagnetic storms which have large magnitude are associated with such JIMFz events which have relatively large peak value. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of geomagnetic storms and magnitude of maximum peak value of southward component of interplanetary magnetic field of associated JIMFBz events. Statistically calculated corelation co-efficient is 0.78 between these two events.
Geomagnetic storms with disturbances in solar wind plasma velocity
From the data analysis of shock related geomagnetic storms and associated jump in solar wind plasma velocity (JSWV), it is observed that 63 out of 64 geomagnetic storms are associated with JSWV events. Further to see how the magnitude of geomagnetic storms are correlated with magnitude of JSWV events, a scatter diagram have been plotted between the magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of JSWV events in Fig. 3. From the Fig it is clear that maximum shock related geomagnetic storms which have large magnitude are associated with such JSWV events which have relatively large magnitude. Positive corelation has been found between magnitude of geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind velocity. Statistically calculated corelation co-efficient is 0.40 between these two events.
Geomagnetic storms with disturbances in solar wind plasma temperature
From the data analysis of shock related geomagnetic storms and associated jump in solar wind plasma temperature (JSWT), it is observed that 62 out of 64 geomagnetic storms are associated with JSWT events. Further to see how the magnitude of geomagnetic storms are correlated with magnitude of JSWT events, a scatter diagram have been plotted between the magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of JSWT events in Fig. 4 .From the Fig it is clear that maximum shock related geomagnetic storms which have large magnitude are associated with such JSWT events which have relatively large magnitude. Positive corelation has been found between magnitude of geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind temperature .Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.33 between these two events.
Geomagnetic Storms with Disturbances in solar wind plasma pressure
From the data analysis of shock related geomagnetic storms and associated jump in solar wind plasma pressure (JSWP), it is observed that 62 out of 64 geomagnetic storms are associated with JSWP events. Further to see how the magnitude of geomagnetic storms are correlated with magnitude of JSWP events, a scatter diagram have been plotted between the magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of JSWP events in Fig. 5 .From the Fig it is clear that maximum shock related geomagnetic storms which have large magnitude are associated with such JSWP events which have relatively large magnitude. Positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma pressure. Statistically calculated co-relation co-efficient is 0.26 between these two events.
CONCLUSION
From our study we have identified 64 shock related geomagnetic storms found that most of the shock related geomagnetic storms are intense are severe. The association rates of moderate, intense and severe shock related geomagnetic storms are 21.88%, 59.38% and 18.75% respectively. Further it is found that majority of the (81.25%) interplanetary shock related geomagnetic storms are associated with coronal mass ejections. The association rates halo and partial halo coronal mass ejections have been found 82.69% and 17.31% respectively. Further it concluded that interplanetary shocks shock related geomagnetic storms are associated with radio bursts (71.88%). The association rates of type IV and type II radio bursts are 58.70% and 41.30% respectively. From the further analysis, positive co-relation has been found between magnitude of interplanetary shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma temperature ,velocity, pressure and peak value of interplanetary magnetic fields, with correlation coefficient 0.33 between magnitude of interplanetary shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma temperature,0.40 between magnitude of interplanetary shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma velocity, 0.26 between magnitude of interplanetary shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of jump in solar wind plasma pressure,0.71 between magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms and maximum (peak) value of average interplanetary magnetic field (JIMF),0.78 between magnitude of shock related geomagnetic storms and magnitude of maximum (peak) value of southward component of interplanetary magnetic field. From the above results it is concluded that shock related geomagnetic storms are closely related to coronal mass ejections, radio bursts and disturbances in solar wind plasma parameters and these solar and interplanetary parameters play crucial role to generate intense and severe geomagnetic storms.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1555http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15551. Correiaa, E. R.V. de Souzaa Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 67, 1705, 2005.
2. Cane, H. V., Richardson, I. G., andSt. Cyr, O. C., Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3591, 2000.
3. Chao Yue and Qiugang Zong J, Geophys .Res.116, A12201,2011.
4. Echer, E M V Alves and W D Gonzalez, Solar Phys. 221, 361,2004.
5. Eun-Young Ji Y.-J. Moon K.-H. Kim D.-H. Lee,,J, Geophys .Res 115, A10232,2010.
6. Gopalswamy, N, J. Astrophys. Astronomy 27, 243, 2006.
7. Gopalswamy N. Letter Earth Planets Space, 61, 1, 2009.
8. Gonzalez, Walter D.; Echer, Ezequiel; Tsurutan i, Bruce T.; Clúa de Gonzalez, Alicia L.;Dal La go, Alisson Space Science Reviews, 158, 1,.69,2011.
9. Hutchinson, J. A. Wright, D. M. and S. E. Milan, ,J,Geophys .Res.116, A09211,2011
10. Manohar,an, P K, Solar Phys. 235, 345 2006.
11. Michalek,Gopalswamy.G.,Lara.N.Yashiro.S.sp ace weather Volume 4,Issue 10,2006.
12. St. Cyr, O.C. 2000; St. Cyr, O.C. et al. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 18,169,185, 2000.
13. Tsurutani, B T Gonzalez, W D F Tang, S I Akasofu and E J Smith, J. Geophys. Res. 93, 8519, 1988.
14. Veronica Ontiveros1and J. Americo Gonzalez? Esparza ,J,Geophys .Res.115, A10244,2010.
15. Verma P.L. Tripathi A.K. andSharma ,Sushil J. Plasma Fusion Res. SERIES, Vol. 8 Page 221- 225, 2009.
16. Verma P. L., International Journal of the Physical Sciences Vol. 7(17), pp. 2629 - 2638, 23 April, 2012.
17. Webb, D. F., Cliver, E. W., Crooker, N. U., St. Cyr, O. C., andThompson, B. J., J. Geophys. Res., 105, 7491, 2000.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareATTITUDE OF MEDICAL STUDENTS TO CADAVER DISSECTION IN AHMEDABAD CITY
English5458Bhaskar PatelEnglish Jagdeep JadavEnglish Ajay ParmarEnglish Bharat TrivediEnglishThe objective of the present study was to determine the attitude of 1st Year medical students to dissection where they are being taught anatomy as a part of medical curricula. A questionnaire was administered to a class of 150 students of 1st year medical students at Smt. NHL Municipal Medical College, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India in 2012. For each question, the students were directed to opt for one of the three possible responses: “yes”, “no” or “undecided”. Out of 150 students participated in the study 70 were female and 80 were male. In present study 84.67% of the students considered cadaver dissection is still considered important and indispensable in anatomy learning. Majority student (91.33%) agreed that actual hands on training on cadaver dissection gives better results than demonstration of prosected specimen. 80% of the students were view of that dissection gives the best method for learning. 86% of the student found their first visit to dissection room exciting.77.33% of the students agreed that dissection enhanced their skill of thinking in a logical manner. The present study indicates that cadaver dissection is still considered important and absolutely necessary in the study of human anatomy.
Englishattitudes, medical students, cadaver dissection, anatomy learning.INTRODUCTION
Anatomy education is not only an essential part of the medical curriculum, but also helps to further the development of medical professionalism1.Anatomy is an integral part of the medical curriculum; a sound understanding of human anatomy helps the medical undergraduate for his future training in the clinical disciplines. Cadaveric dissection has been a regular feature in anatomy teaching since the Renaissance. The benefits of meticulous dissection mostly fall into three domains: knowledge acquisition and integration, skills, and attitudes.2 Dissection has been labelled as the “royal road” 3 and the cadaver as the “first patient4 . The initial exposure to a dead body causes emotional shock to the students 5,6 though gradually they adopt a professional attitude and accept dissection as an aid to study the body structure7 , Variety of emotional reactions and mixed feelings experienced by first year medical students when they encounter human cadavers for the first time in the dissection room 8 Some studies have indicated that students learn anatomy as well by studying prosections as they do by traditional dissecting 9,10,11,12. The use of cadavers for dissection has been identified by some as expensive, time consuming and potentially hazardous.13 It is for these reasons that dissection as a learning modality has been marginalised from medical curricula to the despair of some academics.14, 15, 16 .The objective of the present study was to determine the attitude of first year medical students to dissection where they are being taught anatomy as a part of medical curricula.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This is a quantitative, study where a questionnaire was administered to a class of 150 students of first year medical students at Smt.NHL Municipal Medical College, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India in 2012.Each student was explained the objective of the study and a questionnaire which consisted about visit to dissection room, mental and physical symptoms, causes of fear , previous encounters with death, reactions to dissecting room activity, respect for the cadaver; prior experience with a dead body before dissection , the possible alternatives for replacing cadaver dissection by plastic models, computer assisted training programme and its importance and indispensability. There was complete anonymity as no names or numbers were mentioned. The data collected was then analyzed results discussed in the light of available literatures.
RESULT
Total 150 students participated in the study out of this 70 were female and 80 were male with means age 19 years.
DISCUSSION
In present study majority of students considered cadaver dissection is still considered important and in dispensable in Anatomy learning. Cadaver dissection has been considered as an essential requirement in learning gross anatomy particularly the three-dimensional aspect of human anatomy17 and has remained the universally recognizable step in becoming a doctor 18which puts undergraduates at the sharp end of medical education 19. 80% of the students agreed that dissection gives the best method for learning anatomy. Handling of the human structures and organs creates a photographic memory while dissecting.20 . Majority student (91.33%) agreed that actual hands on training on cadaver dissection gave better results than demonstration of prosected specimen. This finding is consistent with the findings from previous studies conducted by Jones21,Johnson22 , Rajkumari and Singh 23,Rajkumari 8 Parker 24 and Mclachian .18 . Prakash25 et al describes dissection as “a precious experience” not to be missed as cadaveric dissection has other learning outcomes besides anatomical learning, such as fostering teamwork and respect for the human body. The studentcadaver-patient encounter is paramount in medical education. 80% of the students were view of that dissection gives the best method for learning anatomy. This finding is consistent with previous study by Rajkumari 8 and. Izunya A.M..26 86% of the student found their first visit to dissection room excited which is favoured by the study of Mc Garvey et al 27& Rajkumari.8 77.33% of the students agreed that dissection enhanced their skill of thinking in a logical manner. This finding is consistent with other studies.28,29,8 .The present study indicates that most of the students were not upset thereby supporting an earlier finding by Rajkumari8 et al. but contradicts the finding by Nnodim12 whose study reported that over threequarters of the students were upset at the beginning of dissection.
CONCLUSION
Cadaveric dissection is related with varied reactions. The students should have preparatory session which addresses various issues related to cadaveric dissection. Emotional issues during human dissection should not be neglected, but addressed repeatedly 30 .The students should be advised to prepare mentally and emotionally before entering the dissection room so that they are emotionally involved and stimulated31 .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishes of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1556http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15561. Rizzolo LJ, Stewart WB. Should we continue teaching anatomy by dissection when…? Anat Rec B New Anat 2006; 289:215-8.
2. McLachlan JC, Patten D. Anatomy teaching: ghosts of the past, present and future. Med Educ 2006; 40:243-53. .
3. Newell RLM. Follow the royal road: the case for dissection. Clin Anat 1995; 8:124-7. Comment in: Clin Anat 1995; 8:128-33.
4. Coulehan JL, Williams PC, Landis DD, Naser C. The first patient, reflections and stories about the anatomy cadaver. Teach LearnMed 1995; 7:61-6
5. Evans, E.J. and G.H. Fitzgibbon,. The dissecting room: Reactions of first year medical students. Clin.Anat., 1992 ;5: 311- 320.
6. Finkelstein, P. and L. Matters,. Post traumatic stress among medical students in the anatomy dissectionlaboratory. Clin. Anat., 1990 ;3: 219-226.
7. Yeager, V.L.,. Peer teaching in gross anatomy. J.Med. Educ., 1981 ;56: 922.
8. Rajkumari, A.B., K. Das, G.T.N. Sangma andY.I. Singh,. Attitudes and views of first year medical students towards cadaver dissection inanatomy learning. Calicut Med. J., 2008;6(4): e2.
9. Jones, L.S., M.G. Welsh and L. Terracio,. First yearmedical students? views on computer programs: Give us our teaching assistants. FASEB J., 1998; 12: 5635
10. Bernard, G.R.,. Prosection demonstrations as substitutes for the conventional human gross anatomy laboratory. J. M ed. Educ., 1972; 47: 724-728.
11. Peppler, R.D., T.E. Kwasigroch and D.W. Hougland,. Evaluation of simultaneous teaching of extremities in a gross anatomy program. Acad. Med., 1985 ;60(8): 635-639.
12. Nnodim, J.O., E.C. Ohnaka and C.U. Osuji,. Afollowup comparative study of two modes of learning human anatomy: By dissection and from prosections.Clin. A nat., 1996; 9: 258-262
13. Azis, M.A., J.C. Mckenzie, J.S. Wilson, R.J. Cowie,S.A. Ayeni and B.K. Dunn,. The human cadaver in the age of biomedical informatics. Anat.Rec., 2002; 269(1): 20-32.
14. Dinsmore, C.E., S. Daugherty and H.J. Zeitz, 2001.Teaching and learning gross anatomy: Dissection,prosection, or „both of the above? Clin. Anat., 12:110-114. Educ., 60: 635-639.
15. Jones, D.G.,. Reassessing the importance of dissection: A critique and elaboration. Clin. A nat., 1997;10: 123-127.
16. Cahill, D.R. and R.J. Leonard,. The role of computers and dissection in teaching anatomy: A comment (Editorial). Clin. Anat., 1997; 10: 140-141.
17. Older, J.,. Anatomy: A must for teaching the next generation. Surg. J. R. Coll. Surg. Edinb. Irel., 2004:79-90.
18. Mclachian, J., P. Bradley, J. Searle and J. Bligh,. Teaching anatomy without cadavers. Med. Edu., 2004;38:418-424.
19. Maguire, P., Barriers to psychological care of the dying. Br. M ed. J., 1985; 291: 1711- 1713.
20. Rath G, Garg K. Inception of cadaver dissection and its relevance in present day scenario of medical education. J Indian Med Assoc2006; 104:331-3.
21. Jones, L.S., L.E. Paulman, R. Thadani and L. Terracio,. Medical student dissection of cadavers improves performance on practical exams but not on nbme anatomy subject exam. Med. Educ. Online, 2001;6(2).
22. Johnson, J.H.,. Importance of dissection in learning anatomy: Personal versus peer teaching. Clin. A nat., 2002;15: 38-44.
23. Rajkumari, A.B. and Y.I. Singh,. Body donation and its relevance in anatomy learning - A review. J.Anat. Soc. India, 2007; 56(1): 1-6.
24. Parker, L.M.,.What?s wrong with the dead body? Use of the human cadaver in medical education. Med. J. A ust., 2002; 176(2): 74- 76.
25. Prakash, P.L.V ,R. Rai, S. D?Costa, P.J. Jiji and G. Singh,. Cadaver as teachers in medical education: knowledge is the ultimate gift of body donors. Singap. Med. J., 2007; 48(3): 186-190.
26. A.M. Izunya,G.A. Oaikhena and A.O. Nwaopara; Attitudes to Cadaver Dissection in a Nigerian Medical School; Asian Journal of Medical Sciences 2010;2(3): 89-94
27. McGarvey, M.A., T. Farrell, R.M. Conroy, S. Kandiah and W.S. Monkhouse,. Dissection: a positive experience. Clin. Anat., 2001; 14(3): 227-230.
28. Weeks SE, Harris EE, Kinzey WG.Human gross anatomy: a crucial time to encourage respect and compassion in students. Clinical Anatomy 1995; 8(1):69-79.
29. Mutyala S, Cahill DR. Catching up.Clinical Anatomy 1996; 9: 53-56.
30. Tschernig T, Schlaud M, Pabst R. Emotional reactions of medical students to dissecting room bodies: A conceptual approach and its evaluation. Anatomical Record Part B: New Anatomist 2000; 261: 11-13.
31. Javadnia F, Hashemitabar M, Kalantarmahdavi SR, Khajehmougahi N. How to decrease the emotional impact of cadaver dissection in medical students. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences April - June 2006; 22 (2): 200 – 203
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareA COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RESTING HEART RATE IN SMOKERS AND NONSMOKERS
English5962Motilal C. TayadeEnglish Nandkumar .B.KulkarniEnglishIntroduction: Smoking affects cardiovascularsystem by several mechanisms.Nicotine increases cardiac output byincreasing both heart rate and myocardialcontractility.The present study was planned to compare and assess resting heart rate in smokers as compared to non smokers. Aim and objectives: Our aim was to assess and compare resting heart rate in smokers and nonsmokers. Our objectives were to study the effects of smoking on resting heart rate. Material and methods:200 male subjects in the age group 25 to 40 years comprising of 100 smokers and 100 nonsmokers as control group were considered for present study .Participant subjects were from staff members, residents and patients from routine OPD. Immediately after waking up and before subject get out of bed asked him to count his own Pulse rate by palpating radial artey for full one minute.( As per ACSM ) Observation and Result: Data was tabulated and analyzed. Standard error of difference between two means was taken. Z test was appliedand by using the test P Value was found < 0.05 (significant) Conclusion: Resting heart rate is a simple measurement with prognostic implications. High resting heart rate was noted in smokers as compared to nonsmokers.
EnglishResting heart rate , Smoking , ACSM criteria , Radial pulse.INTRODUCTION
Cigarette smoking is a major single cause of preventable cancer deaths in the world today.1 Smoking related diseases are some of the biggest killers in the world today and are cited as one of the biggest causes of premature death in industrialized countries. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that tobacco caused 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century .2 Smoking affects cardiovascular system by several mechanisms. Nicotine increases cardiac output byincreasing both heart rate and myocardialcontractility.3 Autonomic alterations may contribute to the increased cardiovascular risk present in smokers.4 The pressor and tachycardial effects ofCigarette smoking are associated with increase in plasma catecholamines.4 Resting heart rate is considered as one of ideal parameter for assessment of cardiovascular functions. The present study was planned to compare and assess resting heart rate in smokers as compared to non smokers.
Aim and Objectives
Our aim was to assess and compare resting heart rate in Smokers and Nonsmokers. Our objectives were to study the effects of smoking on resting heart rate.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
200 male subjects in the age group 25 to 40 Years comprising of 100 smokers and 100 nonsmokers as control group were considered for present study .Participant subjects were from staff members, residents and patients from routine OPD. The informed written consent was obtained Case Group was selected the Smokers with history of smoking for more than 5 years with no history of major illness like Hypertension, Diabetes Mellitus, Peripheral Neuropathy in past or present. While Control Group was selected subjects who have never smoked in life and not having any other addiction related to tobacco and with no history of major illness like Hypertension, Diabetes Mellitus, Peripheral Neuropathy in past and present.The both groups were selected after proper counseling and written consent. The study was approved by Institutional Ethical Committee, Pravra Institute of Medical Sciences, Loni from our university. Immediately after waking up and before subject get out of bed asked him to count his own Pulse rate by palpating radial artery for full one minute. The necessary training was provided to them as per ACSM guidelines.5 Asked him to take readings only on those days when he wake up after good sound sleep with he do not have any form of stressand his bladder was not excessively distended during reading.Asked him to take such 5 readings and fill in the chart. This method of counting resting heart rate was as per ACSM guidelines.
Smoking Index:
6 It is criteria considered for present study to classify the smokers according to their severity. Here smoking index is calculated by multiplying numbers of cigarette smoked per day and duration of smoking in years. According to this index smokers were classified in three groups. (Table no.2)
RESULTS
In this present study we noted higher resting heart rate in smokers as compare to nonsmokers. (Table no.1) High resting heart rate was noted in subjects with higher smoking index. This clears there is direct relationship with resting heart rate and smoking severity. (Table no. 2) Data was analyzed. Standard error of difference between two means was taken. Z test was applied and by using test P Value was found < 0.05 (significant)
DISCUSSION
There are different forms of smoking in India like Biddis, Cigarrete, Hukkas, Cigar, Chilim etc. However in urban area filtered cigattre smoking is the major form of smoking while in rural India Biddis are the major form .Tobacco smoking in India kills 9,00,000 people a year, a figure that is expected to rise to one million by 2010.7 In present study we selected the subjects who smoke filtered cigarettes only. Smoke contains several carcinogenic pyrolytic products that bind to DNA and cause many genetic mutations. There are over 19 known chemical carcinogensin cigarette smoke. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbonsare tarcomponents produced by pyrolysisin smoking.
Many of them are highly carcinogenic and mutagenic. 8 Acrolein is a pyrolysis product that is abundant in cigarette smoke. It gives smoke an acrid smell and an irritating, lachromatory effect and is a major contributor to its carcinogenity.Nicotineis a highly addictive psychoactive chemical.9 Resting heart rate is an easy counting measurable parameter with high prognostic implications. Heart rate is measured by finding the pulse of body. Jean-Claude Tardif noted Resting heart rate is indeed a strong predictor of mortality in patients with coronary artery disease. 10 Experimental data have demonstrated that a reduction in heart rate can delay the progression of atherosclerosis in animal models.11 A study done by KA Perkins et.al.regarding the acute effects of nicotine on resting metabolic rate (RMR), these results confirm that intake of nicotine, isolated from tobacco smoke, significantly increases RMR in humans.12
CONCLUSION
Smoking is by far the hardest on the heart, increasing persons resting heart rate. Resting heart rate is easy measurable parameter with prognostic implications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The government should make strict laws related to smoking and cigarette industries. Make awareness among society about hazards of smoking.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are very thankful to the participants including staff members, nonteaching staff from our college as well patients visiting to routine OPD, who voluntarily participated in present study.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1557http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15571. Satyavan Sharma. New approaches in smoking Cessation. Indian Heart Journal , March- April 2008, Volume- 60, No.2, B34-372.
2. Rajeev Gupta, Anoop Misra, Prem Pais, Priyanka Rastogi, V.P. Gupta. Correlation of regional cardiovascular disease mortality in India with lifestyle and nutritional factors. International Journal of Cardiology Volume 108, Issue 3, Pages 291-300, 14 April 2006.
3. Vendhan Gajalakshmi, Richard Peto, Thanjavur Santhanakrishna Kanaka, Prabhat Jha. Smoking and mortality from tuberculosis and other diseases in India: retrospective study of 43 000 adult male deaths and 35000 controls. THE LANCET Vol 362 August 16, 2003.(507-515)
4. G. Grassi, G Seravalle,DA Calhoun,G Mancia.Mechanisms responsible for sympathetic activation by cigarette smoking in humans. Cattedra Medicina Interna: 1999, vol. 2, 32-37.
5. Ambrose JA, Barua RS. The pathophysiology of cigarette smoking and cardiovascular disease: an update. Journal of American college of cardiology, 2003. PIMD:15145091.
6. ACSM guidelines references .cardioguidelines. http://www.straightforwardfitness.com/acsmcardio-guidelines.html
7. S.K.Gupta. Respiratory disorders among workers in a railway workshop. Ind.Journal of Tuberculosis.1995,42,161.
8. India smoking: BBC Report. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3758707.stm
9. Dr. C. Everett Koop. "Smoking and smokeless tobacco". http://www.drkoop.com/ency/93/002032.htm l. Retrieved July 15, 2006.
10. Philip J. Hilts. Relative addictiveness of drugs. New York Times.Aug.2, 1994.
11. Health effects of Tobacco. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/effects of tobacco.
12. Ariel Diaz, Martial G. Bourassa1, MarieClaude Guertin andJean-Claude Tardif1 Long-term prognostic value of resting heart rate in patients with suspected or proven coronary artery disease. European heart journal: Volume -26, Issue -10,967-974. (2005)
13. Jian-Feng Huang, Xiangfeng Lu, Xigui Wu, Jichun Chen, Jie Cao,Jianxin Li and Dongfeng Gu. Heart rate influence on incidence of cardiovascular disease among adults in China. International journal of Epidemiology:Volume -39,Issue-6,1638- 1646(2010 )
14. Jean-claudeTardif. The pivotal role of heart rate in clinical practice. European heart journal.(2008) Volume-10,issue –F,Page -11- 16.
15. Philip Greenland ,Martha L.D. ,Cheng, Jeffrey,Jeremian stamler.Cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality.American journal of epidemiology.Issue-9, Vol.149: 853-862(1999)
16. S.G. Sarvotham, J.N.Berry, Prevalence of coronary heart disease in an urban population in northern india.circulation.1968;37;939.
17. Fox K., Ford I., Steg PG et. al. Heart rate as a prognostic risk factor in patients with coronary artery disease and left ventricular systolic dysfunction : An analysis of RCT. The Lancet.Volume -372, Number-9641,779- 780 (1. Sep. 2008).
Abbreviations:
WHO : World health organization
ACSM : American college of sports medicine
CAD : coronary artery disease
RHR : Resting heart rate
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareFACIO-LINGUAL TRUNK - A CASE REPORT
English6365Pushpalatha M.English Sujana M.English Sharmada K.L.EnglishThe external carotid arterial system is a complex vascular system. It supplies the head, face and neck tissues. Variations in its course, branching and distribution are commonly encountered. Study of these variations are important as the anatomy of the external carotid artery and its surrounding nerves are studied for safe and accurate administration of super selective intra arterial chemotherapy via superficial temporal artery [1] as it is extremely important avoiding complications. As the branching variations are observed in individuals and sides. Preoperative angiography is a must [1].
EnglishExternal carotid artery, superficial temporal artery, Angiography, Intra arterial chemotherapy.INTRODUCTION
External carotid artery is one of the terminal branches of common carotid artery at the level of superior border of thyroid cartilage in carotid triangle [2]. The facial artery normally arises from the external carotid artery, just above the lingual artery, at the level of greater cornu of hyoid bone in the carotid triangle. It then passes upwards and forwards medial to the ramus of the mandible [3]. The lingual artery is typically the second branch taking origin anteriorly from the external carotid artery and may arise either below or under cover of posterior belly of digastric [4]. It is important for surgeons and radiologists to be aware of the normal anatomy of branches of common carotid artery since variations among these arteries are quite common; surgeons should be able to differentiate between the facial and the lingual artery to ensure accurate arterial ligation during Oral and Maxillo-Facial surgery and Radical Neck dissection. This knowledge can also help radiologists to understand and interpret Carotid system Imagings [5].
CASE REPORT
During routine dissection for 1st year medical undergraduate students in Anatomy Department in BMCRI, variation in the origin of facial and lingual artery from external carotid on left side was observed in a male cadaver. The lingual artery and facial artery were originating on left side as the common facio-lingual trunk from the anterior side of external carotid artery, 12mm from carotid bifurcation 10mm above the origin of superior thyroid artery. The facio-lingual arterial trunk was running medially and upwards which was crossed by hypoglossal nerve. The facial and lingual arteries were separated from the common trunk at a distance of 6mm from the origin of the common trunk. The facial and lingual artery was normal on right side. The venous drainage system of the neck was normal on both sides.
DISCUSSION
Variations in branching pattern of carotid system are well known; common variations being lingual and facial arteries arising from the common carotid artery and posterior auricular, maxillary and superficial temporal arteries originating from the common carotid artery by a common trunk. In some cases no specific external carotid artery was observed [6]. The bifurcation level of the common carotid artery and origin variations of the branches of the external carotid artery was studied in 20 human fetuses. Results showed linguofacial trunk present in 20% of cases and a thyrolinguofacial trunk in 2.5% [7]
Vascular tortuosity in the preauricular region of the catheter insertion site was observed in 42.9% of the sides; the main trunk of the external carotid artery was excessively tortuous in 25% of the sides, primarily in the preparotid region. Faciolingual and superior thyrolingual trunks were observed in 28.6% and 1.8% of the sides respectively [1]. A common trunk from external carotid artery giving rise to lingual and facial arteries has been reported [8]. A study to improve the treatment for locally advanced tongue cancer needed a combination of radiotherapy with continuous intra arterial therapy CBDCA. For this procedure a catheter was inserted through lingual artery in 26 patients out of 40 and in 2 through facio-lingual trunk and in 12 through external carotid artery [9].
CONCLUSION
Thus the variations in the branching pattern of external carotid artery are rare findings providing knowledge useful for surgeons operating on face and neck regions, for radiologists in the interpretation of imaging. The present case thus would provide useful information for clinical applications since most of the cosmetic surgeries take place in head and neck regions.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1558http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15581. Yonenaga K, Tohnai I, Mitsudo K, Mori Y, Saijo H, Jwai T, Yonehara Y, Ota Y, Torigoe K, Takato T. Department of Oral and Maxillofacial surgery, Tokyo university Graduate school of Medicine, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan. Yonenaga-_tky@umin.ac.jp
2. Standring S.ed Gray’s Anatomy, 40th edition, New York, Churchill Livingstone. 2008;444- 45.
3. Nayak S. Abnormal intraparotid origin of the facial artery, Saudi Med J, 2006; 27(10):1602
4. Hollinshed WH Anatomy for surgeons vol.1. 3 rd ed., Phelidelphia, Harper and Row. 1982; 374-375
5. Thwin S S, Soe MM, Myint M, Than M, Lwin S. Variations of the origin and branches of the external carotid artery in a human cadaver. Singapore Med Case Report J 2010; 51(2) : e40.
6. Kaneko K, Akita M, Murata E, Imai M, Sowa K, Unilateral anomalous left common carotid artery; a case report. Ann Anat. 1996;178:477-480.
7. Zumre O, Saiback A, Cicekcibasi AE, Tuncer I, Seker M. Investigation of the bifurcation level of the common carotid artery and variations of the branches of the external carotid artery in human fetuses. Ann Anat. 2005 sep;187(4):361-9
8. Troupis TG, Dimitroulis D, Paraschos A, Michalinos A, Protogerou V, Valsis K, Troupis G, Skandalakis P. Department of Anatomy, Medical school, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece. ttroupis@med.uoa.gr
9. Department of Radiation Oncology, Aichi cancer center Hospital, Nagoya, Japan. nfuwa@aichi-cc.jp
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareA CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY ON MAGNITUDE OF RISK FACTORS OF CARDIO-VASCULAR DISEASES AMONG AUTO RICKSHAW DRIVERS OF DAVANGERE CITY. KARNATAKA, INDIA
English6673Raghavendraswamy KoppadEnglish Santosh Kumar A.English Naveen KoturEnglish Umakanth A.G.EnglishAs we slowly advance into the 21st Century, we find that the challenges posed by non- communicable diseases (NCDs) present an imminent threat to people worldwide. Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are leading cause of death in developing countries including India. The huge burden of CVD in Indian subcontinent is the consequence of the large population and high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors. Objectives: To know the magnitude of and risk factors of Cardio vascular diseases (CVDs) among auto rickshaw drivers. Methodology: Study Design: Questionnaire based cross-sectional study. Duration of study: (3months) July 1st to November 30th 2011. Participants: 200 auto rikshaw drivers of Davangere city. Statistical test: Chi square test. Materials and methods: A pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaire was used to collect the data and anthropometric measurements were done for the study population.. Results: The total study population included 200 male subjects. Age range was 16-55yrs years. Proportion of major cardiovascular risk factors was: current smokers 59 (29.5%), alcohol intake 60 (34.5%), obesity and overweight (BMI ? 23 kg/m2) 96 (48%), central obesity 73 (36.5%), hypertension 34 (17%). Conclusion and recommendation: The study results indicated high proportion of behavioral risk factors, central obesity and hypertension in rick-shaw drivers. Because of this high level of risk factors they are at increased risk of getting cardio vascular diseases. We recommend health education for health promotion and periodic examination to identify and manage risk factors
EnglishCardio Vascular Disease s, Risk Factors, WHO STEPS.INTRODUCTION
As we slowly advance into the 21st Century, we find that the challenges posed by noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) present an imminent threat to people worldwide. Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are leading cause of death in developing countries including India. (1) In India, CVDs account for 31.7% of the total deaths. (2) Nearly 50% of the cardiovascular deaths in India occur in people below 70years of age, compared with just 22% in the western countries. (3) Currently Indians experience CVDs deaths at least a decade earlier than their counterparts in countries with established market economies (EME). The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study estimates that 52% of CVDs deaths occur in young and middle aged people in India as compared to 23% in EME, resulting in a profound adverse impact on the economy. (4)
At the same time it is the 3rd most common morbidity after infectious diseases and injuries. The incidence of Cardio vascular diseases (CVDs) and other NCDs are greater in urban areas when compare to rural areas in India. (5) The huge burden of CVDs in Indian subcontinent is the consequence of the large population and high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors. (2) There is not enough data available on risk factors of CVDs among focused groups like auto rickshaw drivers (work force). Now-a- days World Health Organization (WHO), is promoting more researches on work forces. Auto rickshaw drivers are at more risk for CVDs because of their common life style like irregular eating habits, addictions, extravagance when the money is available and work related sedentariness. With this back ground descriptive, observational study with cross sectional design was conducted to assess the magnitude of CVDs risk factors among auto rickshaw drivers of Davangere city.
OBJECTIVE: ? To know the magnitude of risk factors of Cardio vascular diseases (CVDs) among autorickshaw drivers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Davangere, Karnataka is the city situated in the middle of the Karnataka with population of 5 lakhs. Even though it has such a huge population, city transport service is still not established according to the need. So, more than a half of the people here are depending on auto rickshaws for their day today works in the city. So the auto rickshaw union is well established and it is one of the main occupation for the part of population here. There are 600 auto rickshaws in the city. We conducted an observational, descriptivecross sectional study on 200 auto rickshaw drivers (30% of total), between July 1st to November 30th 2010 (5months). Simple random sample method was used to collect the information from subjects, there are 40 registered (registered in auto rickshaw union of Davangere) auto rickshaw stands in Davangere, 20 stands were selected by simple random sampling. Every day we visited 3 stands and collected required information from the subjects till required sample size was met. We took all the measures to avoid the duplication. Only those working as full time drivers from last 2 years were included in the study and individual who did not give consent and part time, occasional drivers were not included. The World Health Organization (WHO) step-wise approach was used (adopted after modified to suit the local requirement) to determine the magnitude of cardiovascular risk factors in the study population. The two components of the study were (1) questionnaire based survey for behavioral risk factors and (2) anthropometric measurements. Institutional ethical committee of the S S Institute of Medical sciences, Davangere was approved the study. Free and informed consent was obtained for the questionnaire based interview and anthropometric measurements. We referred newly detected patients with hypertension, obesity to our hospital medicine department (physician) for further management. Data on socio-economic status, tobacco consumption, alcohol consumption, physical activity, anthropometric measurements and blood pressure was collected from all the study subjects. Standard instruments and procedures were used for anthropometric measurements. STEP 1: Information on socio-demographic variables and behavioral NCD risk factors including smoking tobacco, smokeless tobacco, alcohol consumption, physical activity (Job, Leisure time and Travel related physical activities). STEP 2: Physical measurements - Height, weight, waist circumference, and blood pressure were measured using standardized instruments and protocols.
Parameters Used: Height: Height was measured with a standard tape to the nearest 0.1 cm. Subjects were requested to stand without shoes and stand upright with the back against the wall, heels together and eyes directed forward.(6) Weight: Weight was measured using a standard balance to the nearest 0.5 kg. The subjects were asked to wear light clothing. (7) Waist circumference: WC was measured using a non-stretchable fiber measure tape. This measure was taken at the level of the midpoint between the inferior margin of the last rib and the crest of the ileum in the mid-axillary plane. The landmarks were located by palpation, marked and the midpoint found using a tape measure. The measurement was taken at the end of a normal expiration with the arms relaxed at the sides. (7) Blood Pressure: The BP was measured by using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer (appropriately calibrated and maintained). Blood pressure was measured in a quiet room, on the right arm in sitting position. Measurement was done three times over a period of minutes interval, lowest among the readings was recorded. (8) Body Mass Index (BMI):(9) BMI was calculated using the formula: BMI = weight in kgs / (height in meters) 2 . BMI: 18.5 to 22.9 kg / m2 - Normal 23 to 24.9 kg / m2 - Overweight ≥ 25 kg / m2 - Obese Definitions Used In The Study: (10) The definitions used for various parameters were as per the WHO STEPS guidelines. Current Smokers/ Smokeless Tobacco user: Current daily smokers / Smokeless tobacco users were defined as those who were currently smoking daily or using smokeless tobacco daily. Current alcoholic: are those who were taken alcohol within last 12 months. Raised Blood Pressure: Raised blood pressure was defined as systolic blood pressure > 140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure > 90 mmHg or under medication. Body mass index (BMI): BMI was calculated, and overweight was defined as BMI > 23 Kg/m2; abdominal obesity was diagnosed when waist circumference (WC) was [90 cm in men] and [80 cm in women] in accordance with the recommendations of World Health Organization for Asian adults. Physical Inactivity: A person was labeled as inactive if he/ she was inactive in all the three domains of work, transport, and leisure. Statistical analysis After completion of the study, information gathered was analyzed and presented in suitable tabular and graphical forms. Statistical tests: Data was analyzed by using Percentage proportions, Pearson’s Chisquare(X2) tests. For all the tests a ‘p’ value of 0.05 or less was considered for the statistical significance Analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 17.
All participants were between the ages of 15 to 55 years, most of the participants were belong to the age group of 25 – 34 years. More than 3/4th of the drivers were of < 45years.
Overall the prevalence of smoking among auto drivers was 29.5%, the prevalence was more in the age group of 25-34years
Overall the prevalence of smokeless tobacco was 36.5%, indicates more 1/3rd of the auto drivers were having the habit of using smokeless tobacco. The prevalence was near 50% (46.5%) in the age group of 45-55 years. The prevalence was more in higher age group compared to lower.
More than 1/3rd (34.5%) of the auto drivers were currently alcoholics. The prevalence was more in the age group of 25-34years. Difference in alcohol prevalence in different age groups is statistically significant.
Near one third (31%) of the auto-rickshaw drivers were sedentary (includes work related and leisure time related). Sedentariness was more (435%) among the older age group (35-44years) among the subjects, compared to younger. The difference is statistically significant.
Overall the prevalence of general obesity/ overweight was more (48%) among auto drivers compared to abdominal obesity (36.5%). Both the types of obesity increased with age. Prevalence of general obesity was more among younger age groups compared to older (45-55years)
The prevalence of hypertension and prehypertension among auto rickshaw drivers were 17% and 37% respectively. Indicate more than 1/3rd (37%- Pre HTN) of this group is at risk of developing hypertension in the future if not done any intervention, more concerning is among younger age group (15-34 years) near 50% are pre hypertensive and require urgent intervention. Prevalence of hypertension was more among older age group (35.7%; 45-55years).
DISCUSSION
The risk factors of today are the diseases of tomorrow. Identifying these risk factors in populations occupies a central place in the surveillance system because of the importance of lag time between exposure and disease. This study documents the high prevalence of risk factors for CVDs in the study population. Prevalence of smoking is 29.5% in our study is more compared to community based studies conducted in urban settings in other parts of India.(11) Prevalence of smokeless tobacco in our study is 36.5%, this is also more compared study conducted by Joshi et al in general urban community.(12) The prevalence of alcohol use was 34.5% in our study. A multi centric study conducted by Bela shah et al reported that prevalence of alcohol use was 40 – 50% in urban men, is slightly more than our study finding. (13) Our study shows that near one third (31%) of the auto-rickshaw drivers were sedentary (includes work related and leisure time related). This was due to the type of work profile of the auto rick shaw drivers, where the study was carried out. All drivers were full time drivers and driving is sedentary in nature require less physical effort. Prevalence of BMI (48%) and central obesity (36.5%) in our population was higher as compared to other community based studies conducted in urban areas of other parts of India. (14, 1 5) This could be due to more sedentary during working hours and lack of awareness of obesity and its hazards, as most of the drivers studied up to PUC or high school. High prevalence of hypertension in our study was consistent with the recent Indian studies. (16, 17, 18). Prabhakar et al observed the high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in industrial settings (Work group) in northern India and expressed it as cause of concern as well as an opportunity for carrying out work place prevention programs. Our results reinforce the need for low-cost workplace (auto – rickshaw association) intervention programs.
CONCLUSION
The study results indicated high proportion behavioral and anthropometric risk factors of cardiovascular diseases in auto rickshaw drivers. It is clear that around 1/3rd of the auto rickshaw drivers are having behavioral risk factors like smoking tobacco, smokeless tobacco, alcohol use and overall sedentary activities. When we come to obesity it is clear that near 50% of the study subjects are having generalized obesity and more than 1/3rd having central obesity this may be because of more sedentariness during there working hours, less of physical activities during leisure time and lack of awareness about hazards of obesity. One of the most concerning observations of this study is more than 50% of the young auto rickshaw drivers (15-35years) are in the pre-hypertensive stage and they are more potential enter the hypertensive stage if proper preventive and promotive care is not taken. This high magnitude of CVD risk factors can put this working group at the risk of increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality at relatively younger age.
RECOMMENDATION
Health education programmes for auto drivers to increase awareness about healthy lifestyle.
Effective implementation of COTPA act [Cigarette and other Tobacco Products Act]
Strict implementation of anti-alcohol laws.
Periodic examination of the drivers to identify Risk factors and their management.
Limitations
The results of the study cannot be generalized to the general urban population as the study was done in a focused group (auto rickshaw drivers) that had lower socio-economic status and unique work profile. In addition, study population essentially consisted of males.
Strength
The strength of our study was comprehensive survey of risk factors using WHO stepwise approach ( Step 1, and 2 approach was used after modifying to suit the local requirements) and physical measurements was done using standardized tools.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1559http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15591. World Health Organization. Preventing Chronic Diseases. A vital investment [Online]. 2005 [cited 2008 Aug 21]; Available from: URL:http://www.paho.org/english/ad/dpc/nc/c mn-po-concept.pdf
2. Kaur P, Rao TV, Sankarasubbaiyan S, Narayana NN, Ezhil R et al. Prevalence and Distribution of Cardiovascular Risk Factors in An Urban Industrial Population in South India: A CrossSectional Study. JAPI 2007 ; VOL 55: 771-776.
3. Soumya Deb, Aparijita DasGupta. A Study on Risk Factors of Cardio Vascular Diseases in an urban Health Centre of Kolkatha. Indian Journal of Community Medicine 2008; 33 (4): 271-275.
4. National Cardiovascular Disease Database. Supported by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Government of India and World Health Organization [Online]. [cited 2008 Oct 6]; Available from: URL:http://www.whoindia.org/LinkFiles/NMH _Resources_National_CVD_databaseFinal_Report.pdf
5. Srinath Reddy K. Prevention And Control of Non-Communicable Diseases: Status And Strategies. Working paper no.104. Indian Council For Research On International Economic Relations [Online]. July 2003 [cited 2008 Aug 21]; Available from: URL:http:www.icrier.org/pdf/WP104.pdf
6. Deepa R, Shanthirani CS, Premaltha G, Sastry NG, Mohan V. Prevalence of insulin resistance in a selected south Indian population – The Chennai urban population study – 7 (CUPS-7). Indian J Med Res. 2002; 115: 118-27.
7. Integrated Disease Surveillance Project. NCD risk factor surveillance Training manual for field workers and field supervisors. Field manual. [Online]. 2003-04 [cited 2010 July 29] Available from: URL:http://www.whoindia.org/LinkFiles/NCD _Surveillance_ TM02Field_ Manual_ IDSP_NCD_RF.pdf
8. Park K. Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine. 20thed. Jabalpur: Banarsidas Banot; 2009. p 315-349
9. World Health Organization. The Asia pacific perspective: Redefining obesity and its treatment [Online]. February 2000 [cited 2010 Aug 24]; Available from URL:http://www.wpro.who.int/internet/resourc es.ashx/NUT/Redefining+obesity.pdf
10. Maimoona Aboobakur, Ali Latheef, Ahmed JM, Sheena Moosa, Ravindra MP, Anand Krishnan, Dorairaj Prabhakaran. Surveillance for non-communicable disease risk factors in Maldives: results from the first STEPS survey in Male. Int J Public Health January 2009; 55 (5): 489-496.
11. Thakur JS. Chand?garh: The first smoke-free city in India. Indian Journal of Community Medicine July 2007; 32 (3): 169-170.
12. Yuvaraj BY, Nagendragouda MR, Umakanth AG. Prevalence Awareness and Treatmrnt and control of Hypertension in rural area of davangere City. Indian Journal of Community Medicine January 2010; 35 (1): 138-141.
13. Bela Shah, Prashant amthur. Risk factor Surveillance for Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs): The Multi-site ICMR-WHO Collaborative Initiative. Presentation made at Forum 9; 2005 12-16 September; Mumbai, India
14. Meenakshi Bakshi Mehan, Somila Surabhi, Gautami J. Solanki. Risk factors profile of Noncommunicable diseases among middle –income (18-65 years) free living urban population of India. Int J Diab Der Crres 2006 Dec; 26:169- 76.
15. Mohan V, Shantirani CS, Deepa R. Glucose Intolerance (Diabetes and IGT) in a selected South Indian population with special reference to family history, obesity and lifestyle factorsThe Chennai Urban Population Study (CUPS 14). J Assoc Physicians India 2003; 51:771-7
16. Reddy KS, Prabhakaran D, Chaturvedi V, Jeemon P, Thankappan KR, Ramkrishnan L, et al. Methods for establishing a surveillance system for cardiovascular diseases in Indian industrial populations. Bull World Health Organ 2006;84:460-469.
17. Prabhakaran D, Shah P, Chaturvedi V, Ramakrishnan L, Manhapra A, Reddy KS. Cardiovascular risk factor prevalence among men in a large industry of northern India. The Natl Med J India 2005;8(2):59-65.
18. Gupta R, Gupta VP, Sarna M, Bhatnagar S, Thanvi J, Sharma V et al. Prevalence of coronary heart disease and risk factors in an urban Indian population Jaipur Heart Watch-2. Indian Heart J 2002;54(1):59- 66.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareFINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY (FNAC) OF PALPABLE LESIONS OF HEAD AND NECK REGION
English7484Richa SharmaEnglish D.R. MathurEnglishObjective: This study is done to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of FNA in palpable lesions of head and neck region and find out false positive / negative data to analyze the value and limitations of fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) in lesions of head and neck region with Cyto-histopathological correlations. Materials and Methods: From 125 cases, fine needle aspiration smears were taken and stained with Giemsa and PAP. Fine needle aspiration cytology results were examined according to the anatomical location and all the lesions were classified into inflammatory and euplastic pathology. The cytological findings were correlated with those of histopathology whenever sent by surgeon. Results: Among 125 cases, histopathological correlations were available only in 71 cases. The sensitivity, specificity, predictive value of the positive test, predictive value of the negative test and were 89.28%, 90.69%, 86.20% and 92.86% respectively. The investigative accuracy of the lymph node, salivary gland, Thyroid gland and soft tissue lesions were 90.14%. Conclusion: It can be concluded from the present study that fine needle aspiration cytology offers a simple method of diagnosis of neoplastic and nonneoplastic lesions of head and neck region. Fine needle aspiration cytology is a simple, quick, economical and non traumatic procedure can easily be carried out in outpatient department or bed sides.
EnglishFNAC, histopathology, thyroid gland, lymph nodes, salivary glands, soft tissue.INTRODUCTION
“Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy (FNAB) is diagnostic procedure in which needle tip functions as a cutting instrument and a negative pressure is created in a syringe and as a result of pressure difference, cellular material is drawn into the needle. It is a harmless, simple, cost effective and precise technique for tissue sampling. The purpose of fine needle aspiration is to obtain diagnostic material for cytological studies from organs that do not shed cells spontaneously. The modern method of fine needle aspiration cytology was originally described and was advocated by Martin and Ellis in 1930 (1), fine needle aspiration cytology has become an important diagnostic technique which has to some extent replaced tissue biopsy in many situations, Stewart (1933) for the first time studied smear obtained by aspiration with the help of 18G needle and diagnosed various tumors arising from prostate, parotid, lymph node, breast, thyroid, testis, soft tissue, bone and abdominal viscera. On the basis of his experience in about 2500 tumors, he observed no untoward complication, encouraging results and established diagnosis. The method is applicable to lesions that are easily palpable; for example superficial growth of the skin, subcutis and soft tissues and organs such as the thyroid, breast, salivary glands and superficial lymph nodes. Modern imaging techniques, mainly ultra-sonography (US) and computed tomography (CT), applied to organ and lesions in site not easily accessible to surgical biopsy offer vast opportunities for per-cutaneous, trans thoracic and trans peritoneal fine needle biopsy of deeper structure. In the practice of fine needle aspiration, there are clear advantage to patient and doctors. The technique is relatively painless, produces a speedy result and is inexpensive (2). Its accuracy when applied by experienced and well trained practitioners can approach unequivocal diagnosis. Although FNAB can be applied to practically every organ and tissue of the body, certain limitation does exist. The four fundamental requirements on which the success of FNAB depends are representativeness, adequacy of the sample and high quality of preparation with relevant and correct clinical / radiological information. These four prerequisites will always remain sine qua non, no matter how sophisticated the supplementary technique (3). The proximity of tissues of various types and the wide range of primary and metastatic neoplasms are responsible for head and neck region being among the most interesting and challenging in FNAC diagnosis. Where incisional biopsies may lead troubles in some sensitive sites, in such circumstances FNAC is a suitable choice, being a minimally invasive technique. A preoperative cytological, diagnosis of a primary neoplasm may permit more appropriate surgery. The majority of head and neck mass are usually superficial and easily accessible to needle biopsy. There is no doubt that as Koss 1980(4) has said “Thin needle aspiration biopsy is a procedure whose time has come” and the pathologists not already versed in the technique will come under increasing and compelling pressure to provide it.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present study was carried out in the Department of Pathology, Dr. Sampurananad Medical College and Associate groups of Hospitals, Jodhpur. The material consists of 125 cases of palpable lesions of head and neck region- including lesions of thyroid, salivary gland, lymph nodes and few miscellaneous lesions. The FNA diagnosis was correlated with available subsequent histopathological diagnosis. The patients were selected without any consideration of age, sex.
Following cases were excluded from the study:
Cases presenting with uncorrectable coagulopathies.
Where there is lack of safe biopsy route.
Uncooperative patient
A careful thorough history and clinical examination was done in each case. Routine and specific biochemical investigations were carried out as per individual requirements. FNAC was done without any aids of C.T. or ultrasonic guidance.
Procedure of aspiration
The FNAC was done under full aseptic precautions. Proper preparation and draping of the part was done. Aspiration needle was mounted on syringe and all air from the syringe was expelled. The swelling was identified and fixed by left hand in between thumb and the finger so that skin was stretched and mounted needle was inserted in the central part of swelling by sharp and quick jerk. Its entry into the tumor was felt by change in the resistance to the needle. The negative pressure was created by withdrawing the piston. Usually 2-3 ml of air will create an adequate vacuum.
Statistical analysis
A true positive (TP) FNA is defined as malignant cytological diagnosis from a lesion determined to be malignant after surgical biopsy A false positive (FP) is defined as a malignant FNA diagnosis found to be benign after surgery. A true negative (TN) FNA is defined as benign cytological results from a lesion proved to be benign after surgery. A false negative (FN) FNA is defined as defined as benign cytological diagnosis turned out to be malignant on histology. The following parameters were analyzed according to standard criteria:- Sensitivity: It is defined as the proportion of patient having malignant lesions and positive cytological diagnosis and calculated by TP/ (TP+FN). Specificity: It is the proportion of the patients with nonmalignant lesion and negative cytological finding and calculated by TN / (TN+FP). Positive predictive value: It is the probability of having malignant lesion with positive cytological finding and calculated by TP/ (TP+FP). Negative predictive value: It is the probability that a patient did not have malignant lesion with negative cytological finding and calculated by TN/ (TN+FN). Accuracy: It is the proportion of correct results (true positive and true negative) in relation to all cases studied and calculated by (TP+TN)/ (TP+FP+TN+FN).
RESULTS
The present study was conducted at Pathology Department of Dr. S.N. Medical College, Jodhpur, a total 125 cases of palpable lesion of head and neck region were studied. These patients were assessed clinically and FNAC was performed. The accuracy of FNAC was verified by histological examination in 71 cases. Majority of cases of Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy performed in the age group of 21-30 yrs. (29.6%) followed by 11-20 yrs. (18.4%) and least number of cases were seen in age group of > 70 (4.8%)Out of 125 cases 76 (60.8) % cases were females and 49 (39.2) % cases were males.
The FNA results of 125 cases were distributed according to site of lesion – thyroid gland 30 case (24%), lymph node 76 cases (60.8%), salivary gland 14 cases (11.2%) and other case of neck (excluding lymph nodes and thyroid) 5 cases (4.0%). Lesions of all site were categorized into group of benign (inflammatory and benign neoplasm) and malignant (primary and secondary) and nondiagnostic (unsatisfactory), on the basis of known criteria. In the lymph node cytologically diagnosed benign lesions were (Granulomatous lymph adenitis 26 cases (34.2%), chronic non specific lymphadenitis 22 cases (28.3%) and acute lymphadenitis 10 cases (13.1%). In Malignant group cytological diagnosis were metastatic carcinoma in 10 cases (13.1%) and lymphoma in 5 cases (6.57%). Histopathological study of 39 cases, confirmed the diagnosis in 36 cases with two false positive and one false negative case. In the salivary gland cytologically diagnosed benign lesions were chronic non specific sialadenitis 6 cases (42.8%), benign neoplasm – plemorphic adenoma 3 cases (21.4%). In Malignant group 1 case was adenoid cystic carcinoma (7.14%) and 1 Mucoepidermoid carcinoma (7.14%). Histopathological study of 7 cases, confirmed the diagnosis in 6 cases with one false positive case, which was cytologically diagnosed as, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, turned out to be pleomorphic adenoma with squamous metaplasia. FNAC of thyroid gland reveled non-neoplastic 16 cases (53.32%), follicular neoplasm 11 cases (36.33%), malignant 2 cases (6.66%), unsatisfactory 1 case (3.33%).
Histopathological correlation in 22 cases, reveled consistent result in 18 cases while one case was found false negative which was cytologically diagnosed as follicular neoplasm turned out to be follicular variant of papillary carcinoma on histology. FNAC of neck site (excluding lymph node and thyroid) benign diagnosis was offered in 4 cases and malignant diagnosis in 1 case. Histological correlation was available in 3 cases and found consistent 100%. The overall accuracy in the 71 cases evaluated was 90.14% with sensitivity of 89.28% and specificity of 90.69%. Positive predictive value and negative predictive value found 86.20% and 92.86% respectively.
DISCUSSION
The present study was conducted in the Department of Pathology, Dr. Sampurnanad Medical College and Associate groups of Hospitals, Jodhpur. The results of 125 cases of aspirates were weighing against with surgically excised specimens obtained in 71 cases which were characteristically processed and stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin stain. In present study, most of the cases on which FNAC was performed were in the age group of 21-30 yrs. There were 37 cases in this age group (29.6%) followed by 11-20 yrs. – 23 cases (18.4%), 0-10 yrs. – 17 cases (13.6%) and minimum number of cases were in age group of >70 years (4.8%) Among the 125 patients, 49 (39.2%) were males and 76 (60.8%) were females and ratio was found to be M: F: 1: 1.5. Tilak et al (2002) performed FNAC in 154 cases of head and neck region and 55 cases were available for surgical biopsy among 55, 16 were male and 39 were female. Ratio was found M: F = 16: 39 = 1: 2.4. (5) In present study, maximum number of fine needle aspiration biopsies were performed from lymph nodes (60.8%) followed by thyroid gland (24%), salivary glands (11.2%) and other sites (neck excluding lymph node and thyroid) 4%.Agarwal et al (2004) performed FNAC in 400 cases of the palpable lesions of head and neck region and incidence was found in lymph nodes (40.5%) thyroid gland (43.5%), salivary gland 7.5% miscellaneous lesion (8%).(6) Peter et al (1989) analyzed 253 cases of FNAC of the palpable lesions of head and neck region. They found incidence in cervical lymph node (61%), thyroid nodules (21%), salivary gland (16%) and miscellaneous (3.2%). (7) In present study incidence was found similar to the Peter et al. In this study, FNAC of the lymph nodes had shown that commonest lesions encountered was granulomatous lymphadenitis (tubercular lymphadenitis) 26 cases (34.2%), 22 cases (28.3%) were of chronic non specific lymphadenitis, 10 cases (13.1%) were diagnosed as acute lymphadenitis.Cytological malignant diagnosis were offered in 15 cases, 10 cases (13.1%) were diagnosed as metastatic carcinoma, and 5 cases (6.57%) were as lymphoma. (Table No. 1) Tilak et al (2002) (5) studied 154 cases of FNAC in the head and neck region and among 18 cases of lymphadenopathy 7 cases (38.8%) were reported as tubercular lymphadenitis. In present study the also most common lesion encountered was tubercular lymphadenitis and our findings are also comparable to study of Tilak et al (2002) (5). FNAC findings of lymph nodes were correlated with histopathological diagnosis in 39 cases (Table No. 1). Histological findings are found to be consistent in 36 cases and in tubercular lymphadenitis correlation was found 100%. Shyamala bhaskaran et al (1990) (8) also reported 100% correlation of cytological diagnosis of tubercular lymphadenitis with histological diagnosis.
It was concluded that FNAC having high diagnostic accuracy rate for the tubercular lesion on the basis of present study and other workers. In this study, one case was turned out to be Non Hodgkin lymphoma which was cytologically diagnosed as chronic non specific lymphadenitis (i.e. false negative) and one case was turned out to be reactive follicular hyperplasia which were cytologically diagnosed as Non Hodgkin lymphoma (i.e. false positive cases) one case which was cytologically diagnosed as Hodgkin lymphoma very well correlated histolgically. Such false negative/ false positive results are also present in review. According to Frable et al (1988) (9) and, Hehn et al (2004) (10) FNAC is used primarily for documentation of residual recurrent lymphoma or to assess the stage of the disease. (9, 10) The use of FNA to render a primary diagnosis of lymphoma remains controversial. The differential diagnosis between prominent follicular hyperplasia and follicular lymphoma grade 1-2 (Centroblastic / Centracytic) can be very difficult in FNAB smears. The difficulty in distinguishing the two conditions is largely due to the fact that dendritic reticulum cells associated with centroblasts and centrocytes are seen in both conditions, and that interfollicular areas in follicular lymphoma may contain large number of lymphocyte. Borges et al (1991) study and present study revealed that primary diagnosis of lymphoma and its classification must be made on an adequate tissue biopsy. (11) In this study, one case was turned out to be inflamed branchial cyst which was cytologically diagnosed as Metastatic carcinoma (i.e. False positive). The distinction between an inflamed branchial cyst and a node metastasis of well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma with liquifactive necrosis is a particular problem (12). Both false negative and false positive diagnosis have been reported. Given the prevalence of both these conditions, this is one of the most important causes of misdiagnosis in the head and neck. Tilak et al (2002) was also showed one false positive case in their study. They stated that it was due to poorly fixed smear. So this highlights the necessity of making a cytological diagnosis in a known clinical context and the importance of adequate fixation of smears.(5) In present study total 30 cases (24%) were aspirated from thyroid gland cytological diagnosis was classified in five groups, based on standard criteria reported in the literature Mcnicol et al (2004)(13). Maximum cases (13 cases 43.33%) were cytologically diagnosed as colloid goiter followed by follicular neoplasm 11 cases (36.66%). Cytological suspicion of papillary carcinoma was offered in one case and definite diagnosis of malignancy (typing papillary carcinoma) was given in one case. Cytological material was found inadequate for giving definite opinion in one case (Table No. 3). 22 cases were correlated with histological diagnosis. (Table No. 9). Histological findings were found to be consistent in 18 cases. Two cytologically diagnosed case of adenomatous goiter were turned out to be follicular adenoma in histology. The cytological appearances in colloid goiter form a continuum which merge with those of follicular adenoma, and in this grey area, cytological criteria alone cannot reliably distinguish between the two. (14) If a micro follicular focus in a nodular goiter is selectively sampled, the smear shows a repetitive pattern of microfollicles or rosettes with no colloid and the distinction from follicular neoplasm may be impossible. Mehdi et al (2003) (15) studied FNAC of 100 cases of thyroid swelling and surgical biopsy available in 34 cases. They also observed in their study that histological examination results were consistent with cytological findings except in two cases, where one case of colloid cyst and another of colloid goiter turned out to be follicular adenoma. In present study, one cytologically diagnosed case of follicular neoplasm turned out to be follicular carcinoma on histopathology and 7 follicular neoplasm were benign follicular adenoma. The cytological findings in follicular adenoma and follicular carcinoma are similar. Lowhagen advocated that a cytological report should only state that a follicular neoplasm is present with no implication of its benign or malignant nature (Lowhagen et al 1974) (16). In present study 81% results are found to be consistent in thyroid FNAC and 18.18% were not consistent and 3.33% were inadequate. One cytologically diagnosed case of follicular neoplasm was turned out to be follicular variant of papillary carcinoma (False Negative) and one case turned out multinodular goiter in histology. The follicular variant of papillary carcinoma may have well-formed follicles containing colloid, and cystic papillary tumors often contain abundant colloid. This can cause diagnostic difficulties if smears are poor in cells. Gagneten (1987) stressed the importance of doing multiple aspirations in a thyroid swelling in order to obtain representative material from different area.(17) In this study two cases of papillary carcinoma were diagnosed cytologically and very well confirmed histologically. Kumar et al (1999) analyzed cytological findings in 15 cases of follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma (histologically proven). (18)They considered that Adenomatous colloid goiter and follicular adenoma are differential diagnosis of follicular variant of papillary carcinoma due to presence of microfollicles but the presence of numerous colloid balls with multilayered microfollicles (rosettes) are cytological finding of follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma. In present study FNAC were done from salivary gland in 14 cases out of which 7 cases were correlated with histological findings (Table No.2). Maximum cases (6 cases 42.8%) were cytologically diagnosed as chronic non specific sialadenitis. Surgical biopsies available in two cases were found to be consistent. In this study 3 cases (21.4%) were diagnosed as pleomorphic adenoma and all were confirmed histologically. Tilak et al (2002) also reported 100% accuracy of FNAC for diagnosis of pleomorphic adenoma. In present study diagnostic accuracy of the FNAC for pleomorphic adenoma was found comparable to the other workers i.e. 100 %.( 5) In this study one case which was diagnosed mucoepidermoid carcinoma cytologically turned out to be pleomorphic adenoma with extensive squamous metaplasia on histologically. According to Klijanlenko et al (1997), aspiration of mucoid fluid may suggest low grade mucoepidermoid carcinoma. Multiple sampling is important to overcome the problems due to selective sampling. Epithelial metaplasia, mainly squamous and oncocytic, is often seen in plemorphic adenoma. Goblet cells are some time present and squamous metaplasia can be a prominent feature. (19) If a squamous component is selectively sampled by FNB and if the metaplastic cells appear atypical, the possibility of low grade mucoepidermoid tumor may be considered but the presence of groups of bland myoepithelial cells typical of plemorphic adenoma and a few fragments of myxoid stroma suggest the correct diagnosis. In present study one case was cytologically diagnosed as adenoid cystic carcinoma and confirmed histologically. Parijatham et al (2003) studied 40 cases of FNAC from salivary gland. Their study showed 100% accuracy rate for adenoid cystic carcinoma and chronic non specific sialadenitis, 90% for pleomorphic adenoma. Results obtained in our study, were very comparable to the study of Parijatham et al. (20)
Among the five cases of the neck lesions excluding lymph nodes and thyroid gland. 3 cases were correlated histologically (Table No.4).In one case a cytologic diagnosis of lipoma was suggested, which was confirmed histologically. A cytological suspicion of malignancy was considered in one case which was subsequently proved to be infiltrating squamous cell carcinoma. In this study out of 125 cases, 71 cases of FNA were correlated with histopathology. The overall accuracy rate of FNA cytology was 90.14% with the sensitivity 89.28% and specificity 90.69%.Positive predictive value and negative predictive value found 85% and 96.07% respectively. However, the results of present study correlated well with those of Tilak et al (2002) studied FNAC 154 cases of the palpable region of the head and neck region, 55 cases were available for histopathological correlation. Overall diagnostic accuracy was found 92.73% with sensitivity 90.91% and specificity 93.18 %.( 5) It can be said that results of this study compare favorably with those in published literature and are fairly accurate.
CONCLUSION
FNAC is an excellent first line method for investigating the nature of palpable lesions in the head and neck region. It can obviate the need for surgery if the lesions are shown to be nonneoplastic or can provide most useful information to the surgeon to determine the further mode of management. FNAC is having high accuracy rate to differentiate benign and malignant nature of the lesions. To obtain maximum diagnostic accuracy from the FNAC, close cooperation between a committed and trained cytopathologist and an experienced clinician is essential.FNAB is a simple, quick, economical and non traumatic procedure can easily be carried out in outpatient department or bed sides.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1560http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15601. Martin HE, Ellis EB, Aspiration biopsy. Surg. Gynecol obstet 59, 578-589, 1934.
2. Frable WJ. Thin-needle aspiration biopsy. Philadelphia : Saunders ; 1983
3. Orell SR : Fine needle aspiration cytology, 2005.
4. Koss LG : Thin needle aspiration biopsy (editorial). Acta Cytol 24 : 1-3, 1980.
5. Vijay Tilak. A.V. Dhaded, Ragini Jain et al : Fine needle aspiration cytology of Head and Neck masses. Indian J. Pathol. Microbiol 45(1) 23-30, 2002.
6. Agarwal S. Khan MA et al : FNAC as a diagnostic tool in head and neck lesions on their histopatholgical correlations. Indian J. Pathol Microbial 47(1) 135-136, 2004.
7. Peters B. Robert et al : Inter observer variability in the interpretation of fine needle aspiration biopsy of head and neck masses. Arch otolaryngol Head Neck Surg., 115, Number 12, 1438-1442, 1989
8. Shyamala Bhaskaran et al : Fine needle aspiration cytology, review of 1731 cases. Indian J. Pathol. Microbiol, 33, 392-395, 1990.
9. Frable WJ, Kardos TF. Fine needle aspiration biopsy : Application in the diagnosis of lymphoproliferative diseases. AM J. Surg Pathol 12: 62-72, 1988
10. Hehn ST, Miller TP. Utility of fine needle aspiration as a diagnostic technique in lymphoma. J Clin oncol 22 : 3046-3052, 2004.
11. Borges Anita: Aspiration cytology in the management of head and neck masses. In Aspiration cytology for clinicians and pathologists eds Kishnamurthy SC, Tata Memorial Centre, Bombay, PP 48-47, 1991.
12. Ustun et al Cystic change in metastatic lymph nodes: a common diagnostic pitfall in fine needle aspiration cytology. Diagn cytopathol 27, 387-392, 2002.
13. Mc Nicol AM : Criteria for diagnosis of follicular thyroid neoplasms and related conditions. Recent Advances in histopathology 20, 1-10, 2004.
14. Orell SR. et al : Fine needle aspiration cytology the thyroid gland 4th edition, 139- 142, 2005.
15. Syed Riaz Mehdi, Shaista M. Vasenwala, Mohd. Shoaib Zaeer : Role of FNAC and antithyroid antibodies in the diagnosis of thyroid disorders. Indian J. Pathol Microbiol 46(2) : 184-190, 2003.
16. Lowhagen T, Sprenger E. Cytologic presentation of thyroid tumors in aspiration biopsy smear. A review of 60 cases. Acta Cytol 18 : 192-194, 1974.
17. Gagneten C.B. Lowenstein A : The role of fine needle aspiration biopsy cytology in the evaluation of the clinically solitary thyroid nodule. Acta Cytol 31 : 595 – 598, 1987.
18. Kumar et al (1999) Follicular variant of papillary carcinoma of the thyroid : A cytologic study of 15 cases. Acta Cytol 43 : 139- 142, 1999.
19. Klijanienko J. Vielh P. Fine needle sample of salivary gland lesions IV. Review of 50 cases of mucoepidermoid carcinoma with histologic correlation. Diagn cytopathol 17 : 92-98 1997b.
20. Parijathan, B. et al : FNAC of salivary gland with hisopathologic correlation. Indian J. Pathol Microbiol Vol. 46 No. 2. Page No. 306, 2003.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcarePLEUROPULMONARY BLASTOMA - A RARE PEDIATRIC MALIGNANCY
English8590Rucha AsharEnglish Nandita MehtaEnglish Tarang KadamEnglish Hansa GoswamiEnglish R.N.GonsaiEnglishPleuropulmonary blastoma (PPB) is a rare dysontogenetic and aggressive intrathoracic malignant pulmonary neoplasm of early childhood. We present a case of pleuropulmonary blastoma in 2.5 year old female child who was referred to our hospital due to right side pleural effusion and right hydropneumothorax. Chest scan showed a large lytic lesion occupying most of the right hemithorax. Right posterolateral thoracotomy with excision of cyst was performed; the tumor was arising from the lower lobe and invading the chest wall. Histologically the lesion was pleuropulmonary blastoma type 2 with primitive looking round to oval blastematous cells and sarcomatous differentiation. Prognosis of this type of tumor is grave with 5 year survival is 42%.
EnglishLung, malignancy, Pleuro pulmonary blastomaINTRODUCTION
Primary pulmonary neoplasms are uncommon in children. One such tumor, pleuropulmonary blastoma (PPB), is very rare, highly aggressive and malignant. It originates from either the lungs or pleura. It contains both malignant mesenchymal and benign epithelial elements that resemble fetal lung and occurs mainly in children aged less than five years (1).
CASE REPORT
A 2.5-year-old female child was referred to our institute for evaluation of pleural effusion on a chest X-ray. She had respiratory distress, persistent cough and low grade fever since 1 month. She had received medical treatment for pediatric TB for 4 months but there is little clinical improvement. The abnormal chest x-ray showed no improvement. She presented with a picture of pneumonia with pleural effusion. CT scan showed a large cystic mass occupying most of the right hemithorax. (Figure 1).
A thoracocentesis was performed and about 50 ml of serous fluid was aspirated which shows no growth on culture.
Patient underwent a right thoracotomy. There was large solid cystic mass. There was no hilar or mediastinal lymph nodes; freeing the mass from the chest wall by extra pleural dissection was successful and right lower lobectomy was completed. The resected tumor was cystic with associated solid parts of fleshy, gray white masses. They sent it for histopathological examination. On Histopathological examination, grossly, multiple large greyish white soft tissue fragments aggregate measuring approximately 16x12cm. The cut surface of the tissue fragments showed brownish, fleshy appearance with foci of necrosis and haemorrhage as well as small cystic spaces. Multiple sections were taken from the received specimen and stain with haematoxylin and eosin. Histologically, Sections show highly cellular tumor area, separated by widely open branching, congested, thin walled vasculature. Tumour cells are primitive looking monomorphic, with round to oval hyper chromatic nuclei and scant ill defined cytoplasm, with mitosis. Areas of Spindled tumor cells with bipolar elongated eosinophilic cytoplasm arranged randomly in loose myxoid background is seen suggesting rhabdomyoblastic nature of tumor cells. There is also loose myxoid mesenchymal area and anastomosing sheet of well defined glandular and cuboidal epithelial area. There is also chondromyxoid nodule surrounded by strands of squamoid epithelial cells.
So collectively,
Pleura based mediastinal solid cystic tumor in pediatric age group with following predominant microscopic findings :
1. Primitive looking large stromal cell component
2. Chondromyxoid areas with foci of well defined benign cartilage component
3. Sarcomatous element ( spindle cell area) resembling rhabdomyosarcoma
4. Well defined benign epithelial element in the form of cuboidal to columner epithelial lined cyst and papillae.
These findings correspond to a type II PPB. Postoperative course was uneventful.
DISCUSSION
Pleuropulmonary blastoma is an aggressive tumor accounting for less than 1% of all primary malignant lung tumors in the pediatric population (2). Manivel and associates coined the term Pleuro pulmonary blastoma to describe a specific subtype of pulmonary blastoma on the basis of its exclusive clinical presentation in childhood and its pathologic features of variable anatomic location, primitive embryonic-like blastema and stroma, absence of a carcinomatous component, and potential for sarcomatous differentiation (3). It arises from Thoracopulmonary mesenchyma. There is a Proliferation of primitive mesenchymal cells which initially form Air-filled cysts lined by benign-appearing epithelium. Then Cells outgrow the cysts with formation of cystic solid area and finally only solid mass. Accordingly Denher and associates classified PPB into three groups: type 1 with purely cystic tumors, type 3 with predominantly solid tumors, and type 2 as an intermediate type (4). A progression from type I to type III over time may occur and each type is characterized by increasing histologic evidence of malignancy (5). The histologic appearance is variable - the tumor is characterized by primitive blastema and a malignant mesenchymal stroma often showing multidirectional differentiation as rhabdomyosarcomatous, chondrosarcomatous or liposarcomatous. The cystic component is lined by benign metaplastic epithelium (6). Vargas et al. demonstrated with cytogenetic analysis that the polysomy of chromosome 8 is a constant feature of pleuropulmonary blastoma and the clonal proliferation in pleuropulmonary blastoma is restricted to the malignant mesenchymal elements, supporting the notion that the epithelial components are non-neoplastic. (7) Immunohistochemically, the neoplastic cells can stain positive for vimentin. CD117 (c-kit) and alpha-1-antitrypsin are focally positive in tumor cells. CD99 is weakly positive. Other immunostains including EMA, myogenin, S100, GFAP, neuron specific enolase, TTF-1, alphafetoprotein, chromogranin, and synaptophysin are negative. The pneumocytes lining the cysts and small airspaces are highlighted by cytokeratin. Muscle specific actin and desmin are expressed in rhabdomyoblasts and primitive cells in the subepithelial regions of cystic lesions. (11) This neoplasm occurs not only in lung, but it may arise from mediastinum, diaphragm and/or pleura. This has raised the possibility that PPB might originate from the splanchnopleural or somatopleural mesoderm. Common metastatic sites include the brain, bone, lymph nodes, liver, pancreas, kidney, and adrenal glands (8). PPB may be associated with cystic pulmonary lesions, which may be evident at the time of diagnosis or predate the appearance of the tumor; there are contradictory reports about the value of prophylactic resection of the pulmonary cysts in protecting patients from developing PPB (9). The occurrence of PPB appears to herald a constitutional and heritable predisposition to dysplastic or neoplastic disease in approximately 25% of cases. Associated conditions include PPB, medulloblastoma, malignant germ cell tumor, thyroid neoplasia, and others. Thus, All patients with PPB and their families should be investigated carefully (2).
This patient, like most reported cases, presented with a picture of pulmonary infection and respiratory difficulty. The tumor has no characteristic findings on imaging studies, but it should be considered in the differential diagnosis of other benign cystic lung lesions on imaging studies (6). As complete tumor ablation is essential to prevent local recurrence and allow any chance of survival, the main goal of therapy should be radical surgery, followed by chemotherapy. Because the response to chemotherapy is poor, some authors suggest that chemotherapy should be given with local radiotherapy in the majority of patients (10). The prognosis for these patients is grave Types II and III PPBs are clearly aggressive malignancies with projected overall survival of 62% at 2 yrs and 42% at 5 yrs, even after multimodality therapy. Patients with pleural, mediastinal or extrapulmonary involvement at the time of diagnosis have worse prognosis than those without such involvement (6, 10).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. We are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1561http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15611. Calabria R, Srikanth MS, Chamberlin K, Bloch J, Atkinson JB. Management of pulmonary blastoma in children. Am Surg 1993; 59:192-196.
2. Priest JR, Watterson J, Strong L, Huff V, Woods WG, Byrd RL. Pleuropulmonary blastoma: a marker for familial disease. J Pediatr 1996; 128: 220-4.
3. Manivel JC, Priest JR, Watterson J, Steiner M, Woods WG, Wick MR, Dehner LP. Pleuropulmonary blastoma. The so-called pulmonary blastoma in childhood. Cancer 1988;62: 1516-1526.
4. Dehner LP, Watterson J, Priest J, Pleuropulmonary blastoma. A unique intrathoracic pulmonary neoplasm of childhood. Perspect Pediatr Pathol 1995;18: 214-226.
5. Wright JR Jr. Pleuropulmonary blastoma: A case report documenting transition from type I (cystic) to type III (solid). Cancer 2000 ;88(12):2853-8
6. Priest JR, McDermott MB, Bhatia S, Watterson J, Manivel JC, Dehner LP. Pleuropulmonary blastoma: a clinicopathologic study of 50 cases. Cancer 1997; 80: 147-61.
7. Vargas SO, Nose V, Fletcher JA, PerezAtayde AR. Gains of chromosome 8 are confined to mesenchymal components in pleuropulmonary blastoma. Pediatr Dev Pathol 2001 ;4(5):434-45
8. Kelsey AM, McNally K, Birch J, Mitchell EL. Case of extrapulmonary, pleuropulmonary blastoma in a child: pathological and cytogenetic findings. Med Pediatr Oncol 1997; 29: 61-4.
9. Papagiannopoulos K A, Sheppard M, Bush AP, Goldstraw P. Pleuropulmonary blastoma: is prophylactic resection of congenital lung cysts effective? Ann thorac surg 2001;72(2):604-605
10. Indolfi P, Casale F, Carli M, Bisogno G, Ninfo V, Cecchetto G, Bagnulo S. Pleuropulmonary blastoma: management and prognosis of 11 cases. Cancer 2000 ; 89(6):1396-401
11. Yeh YA, Edelman MC. Lung: Pleuropulmonary blastoma. Atlas Genet Cytogenet Oncol Haematol. July 2010.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareA STUDY ON THE EFFICACY OF PATELLAR TAPING FOR KNEE OSTEOARTHRITIS AS COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL PHYSICAL THERAPY
English9198Arnab ChandraEnglish K. S. SharadEnglish Anwer ShahnawazEnglish Siddhartha Shankar SikdarEnglishBackground: Taping has been successfully used by physiotherapists in management of sports injuries. It has been proposed that it can be used to treat degenerative joint disease like osteoarthritis however there is a lack of evidence. Purpose: To compare the effectiveness of taping technique along with conventional physical therapy versus conventional physical therapy alone in patients with patellofemoral joint osteoarthritis. Methods: Thirty subjects with mean (SD) age of 55±6 years were randomized into 2 groups. Subjects in group A were treated with McConnell taping technique along with ultrasound therapy and supervised exercise protocol while subjects in group B were treated with ultrasound therapy and supervised exercise protocol. The outcome measures were Visual Analogue Scale (VAS); Western Ontario McMaster Universities index (WOMAC), Timed Up and Go test (TUG) and Timed Stair Ambulation Test (TSAT) which were assessed prior and after 2 weeks of intervention. Results: Both the groups showed significant improvement in pain scores. Between groups comparison found that group A displayed statistically significant improvement in terms of pain intensity, WOMAC score, TUG and TSAT. Conclusion: Patients in taping group had greater gains in attaining functional abilities and pain relief compared to conventional group, though there was no significant difference in improvement in timed stair ambulation test between the two groups. Therefore, application of taping can be considered beneficial for pain relief and functional ability improvement in subjects with patellofemoral joint osteoarthritis.
EnglishPatellofemoral osteoarthritis, McConnell taping, WOMAC.INTRODUCTION
Osteoarthritis (OA) of knee is a common disease affecting thousands of Indian citizens1 . It is a prevalent musculoskeletal condition in older age group, causing pain, physical disability, and decreased quality of life2 . It also imposes a considerable economic burden on the health care system3 .The patellofemoral joint (PFJ) is one compartment of the knee that is usually affected by OA and is a source of symptoms. Within the PFJ, the lateral compartment is more frequently affected by the OA process than the medial4 . There is no specific treatment to alter the disease; current treatment is focused in reducing symptoms and enhancing function5 . Analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs are used widely, in spite of potential side effects and uncertainties about their efficacy6 . Simple, inexpensive treatment is required for common disorders such as knee OA, which is not life threatening but can cause pain and disable a large number of people in the community. Physical therapy management includes various treatment modalities like Short wave diathermy, Ultrasound therapy, and other heating modalities along with Exercise therapy, with variable outcomes. Exercise is recognized as an essential component of the long-term management of OA. The aim of exercise is to reduce pain and disability by strengthening muscles, improving joint stability, aerobic fitness, and proprioception and increasing range of motion7 . Since early days, tape has been used to support joints and prevent injury in athletes. Nowadays, knee tape is used by physiotherapists to treat knee pain. Many studies have shown that patellar taping decrease pain in patient with Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) and in patellofemoral osteoarthritis8 , although the mechanism for this improvement remains unknown. Taping is proposed to achieve its effect by both mechanical and functional mechanisms. Mechanically, the ROM at the joint is reduced by taping and the force required to displace the joint is increased9, 10. Functionally, taping can cause reflex stimulation of skin, encourage learning process due to skin drag, enhance proprioception and alter underlying muscle contraction. Knee taping is believed to relieve pain by improving alignment of the patellofemoral joint and/or unloading inflamed soft tissues11. More recently, there has been speculation that there may be a more suitable role of patellar taping in providing sensory feedback and influencing the proprioceptive status and neuromuscular control of the patellofemoral joint12 . Therefore, this study is designed to compare the efficacy of therapeutic taping adjunct to conventional physical therapy for the treatment of chronic patellofemoral joint osteoarthritis.
METHODS
Subjects
Thirty subjects were selected from the cases referred by the outpatient department (OPD) of National Institute for the Orthopaedically Handicapped (NIOH) and were randomly allocated into two groups. The inclusion criteria were: All referred and pre diagnosed case of knee osteoarthritis involving patellofemoral joint, anterior- or retro-patellar knee pain aggravated by at least two activities that load the PFJ (e.g. stair ambulation, squatting and/or rising from sitting), pain during these activities present on most days during the past month, pain severity >4 in VAS scale. Subjects were excluded if they had concomitant pain from other knee structures, hip or lumbar spine, history of tape allergy, recent knee injections (prior 3 months), history of any knee or hip surgery and moderate to severe concomitant tibiofemoral joint osteoarthritis. This study was approved by the Institutional Ethical Committee (IEC) of NIOH and written consent was taken from every subject. The nature and purpose of the study and its potential risks / benefits and expected duration of the study, and other relevant details of the study were explained to every subject in their own language. Participation of subjects in study was voluntary and that subjects were free to withdraw at any time, without giving any reason, without his/her medical care or legal right being affected.
Procedure
Subjects in group A received conventional physical therapy in the form of ultrasound therapy and supervised exercise protocol along with taping based on McConnell procedure. Subjects received continuous ultrasound therapy for 6 sessions (alternate day for 2 weeks) with the intensity set at 1.5 watt/cm2 for 8 minutes with 1 MHZ frequency. The subjects exercised for 6 sessions. The duration of each session was 20 minutes. The exercise performed were as follows:13 walking for 1 minute at normal pace, active knee range of motion (with in the limit of pain) for 2 minutes, free active movement of the hip and ankle joint for 2 minutes, flexibility exercises in which the following muscles (group) were stretched14 (Hamstring, Quadriceps, Hip adductor, Hip flexors, Gastronomies and Hip extensors). They did strengthening exercises which were progressed from non weight bearing to weight bearing.15 Non weight bearing exercises included: Isometric quadriceps, straight leg rising exercise, hamstring setting exercise, short arc terminal extension exercise and strengthening of vastus medialis. Mini squats were done as weight bearing exercises.
Taping procedure
Subjects laid supine with their knees extended and the quadriceps relaxed. Skin was shaved prior to tape application. Two tape were taken; one is adhesive tape of 2 inch width (adhesive, nonelastic, made by physiomed company) and another is leucopore (made of cotton by Johnson and Johnson company) for under wrap. At first, the under wrap was applied by leucopore anteriorly from lateral femoral condyle to just posterior to medial femoral condyle as in figure 1(a) to cover the patella completely. Over the under wrap, rigid adhesive tape was applied on the patella in the direction of medial glide and medial tilt. Medial glide technique: One end of the tape was secured to the lateral patellar border and the patella was glided medially by the use of the thumb while maintaining tension of the tape. It was applied up to medial border of medial hamstring tendon as in figure 1(b). Medial tilt technique: The tape was secured at the middle portion of patella and then pulled medially to tilt the lateral border of patella; correcting the tilt and it was applied up to the medial border of medial hamstring tendon as in figure 1(c). In both cases the medial soft tissues were brought over the medial femoral condyle toward patella to obtain a more secure fixation. The tape was applied on each subject for 6 sessions (alternate day for 2 weeks). Subjects were instructed to maintain the tape for at least 24 hours which was then removed by subject him/herself. Subjects were asked to check the skin for damage and apply antibiotic lotion to restore skin moisture. Same treatment protocol was given in group B except taping technique.
Outcome Measures
Baseline and post intervention data (after 2 weeks) were taken by using VAS scale16 , WOMAC Index of Osteoarthritis17, Timed stair ambulation test18 and Time up and go test19 . WOMAC Index is used to assess patients with osteoarthritis of the knee in terms of pain, stiffness, and physical function using 24 parameters where for knee possible pain score ranges from 0-20, for stiffness range 0-8 and for function 0-68. The pain, stiffness, and physical function was assed using 5 point ordinal scale (0- much improved, 1-improved, 2-no change, 3- worse, 4-much worse). Maximum total score is 96, and minimum is 0. So, higher WOMAC scores indicate poorer outcome. The timed stair ambulation test involves the participant ascending and descending a set of nine standard steps at their usual pace and the total time taken is recorded. Longer the time taken; poorer is the physical function. Time up and go test is a valid and reliable test of function in older individuals. Participants were instructed to rise from a standard arm chair, walk around a cone on the floor 3 meters away, return to the chair and sit down again, whilst being timed by a stop watch. Participants performed the test bare foot, once only and at their own pace.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Analysis of data was done using SPSS 17.0 Software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). The observed values measured by VAS, TSAT and TUG were tested by the fisher’s t test (independent t- test) to test for differences between the groups. Mann Whitney U test was used to analyze WOMAC scale scores in between groups. A statistically significant difference was defined as p≤ 0.05 at 95% confidence interval.
RESULTS
The study population belongs to middle age group with mean age 55 (SD ±6) years and male: female ratio - 1:1.6. The mean and SD for between groups comparison of all 4 parameters are represented in figures 2 to 5. When comparing between groups, all outcome measures showed significant improvement (p≤0.05) in group A as shown in table 1 and 2.
DISCUSSION
The result of present study shown that taping group had beneficial effect as compare to ultrasound therapy and supervised exercise alone. Study done by Hinman et al evaluated the effects of knee tape in a population with osteoarthritis, and 25? reduction in pain was observed in patient with patellofemoral joint disease by taping the patella medially for four days20. Few of the authors suggested that this effect is not produced by medialization of patella. Bockrath et al21 also argued that patellar tape may elicit neural inhibition by facilitating large afferent fiber input. Herrington22 proposed that patellar taping may lead to altered large fiber afferent input to the dorsal horn, decreasing the perceived pain that may be contributing to quadriceps inhibition. He also suggested that there is potential for restoration of quadriceps function through increased alpha motor neuron excitation. Additionally, cutaneous stimulation from the patellar tape may change the order and timing of motor unit recruitment23. Changes in Electromyographic (EMG) activity of the Vastus medialis obliquus (VMO) relative to Vastus lateralis (VL) after the application of patellar tape has been reported in several studies24 . The present study demonstrated that the application of ultrasound therapy with supervised exercise protocol had shown significant changes in pain as well as physical function within the group. In the present study WOMAC index was used to assess overall knee function since its validity and reliability is already established25 . There was also significant difference in WOMAC index in all the subjects after the 2 weeks therapeutic interventions of taping, ultrasound therapy, and supervised exercises. However, it was noted that WOMAC index was highly reduced in the subjects treated by taping. In the present study, group A had shown significant changes in pain and functional activities than group B which indicated that combination of patellar taping, ultrasound therapy and supervised exercise protocol was helpful in reducing pain and improving physical functional status of subjects with knee osteoarthritis. So this treatment could be used as an effective conservative management for pain relief and improving physical function. Further clinical research is needed in this field before using only the above treatment as a standard therapy, and as the best treatment approach requires a long term therapy for osteoarthritis knee.
CONCLUSION
The present randomized clinical trial provided evidence to support the use of physical therapy regimen in the form of ultrasound therapy, supervised exercise protocol and patellar taping in relieving pain and improving physical function in subjects with chronic osteoarthritis of knee joint. In addition, results supported that combination therapy is of great value which can be useful in improving quality of life as knee osteoarthritis is a heterogeneous condition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank all the staffs of Indoor Physiotherapy department of NIOH, Kolkata for their guidance throughout the study. We also thank Dr. Ratnesh Kumar, Director, NIOH for allowing us to conduct our study. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1562http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15621. Manjusha Vagal. Medial taping of patella with dynamic thermotherapy — A combined treatment approach for osteoarthritis of knee joint. The Indian Journal of Occupational Therapy 2004;36(2):32 – 36.
2. Felson DT, Naimark A, Anderson J, Kazis L, Castelli W, Meenan RF. The prevalence of knee osteoarthritis in the elderly. The Framingham Osteoarthritis Study. Arthritis Rheum 1987;30:914–18.
3. The Arthritis Foundation of Australia. The prevalence, cost and disease burden of arthritis in Australia. Canberra: Access Economics Pty Limited, Canberra ACT, 2001.
4. Iwano T, Kurosawa H, Tokuyama H, Hoshikawa Y. Roentographic and clinical findings of patellofemoral arthritis. Clinical Orthopaedicsand Related Research 1990; 252:190-7.
5. Dieppe PA. Management of osteoarthritis of the hip and knee joints. Current Opinion in Rheumatology 1993;5:487-93.
6. Dieppe PA, Frankel SJ, Toth B. Is research into the treatment of osteoarthritis with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs misdirected? Lancet1992;341:353–4.
7. Rebecca Grainger, Flavia M Cicuttini. Medical management of osteoarthritis of the knee and hip joints, MJA 2004;180(5):232- 236 8. Cushnaghan J, McCarthy C, Diappe. Taping the patella medially: a new treatment for osteoarthritis of the knee. British Medical Journal 1995;308:753-755.
9. Vaes P H, Duquet W, Casteleyn P, Handelberg F, Opdecam P. Static and dynamic roentgenographic analysis of ankle stability in braced and nonbraced stable and functionally unstable ankles. Am J Sports Med 1998;26:692–702.
10. Larsen, E. Taping the ankle for chronic instability. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica 1984;55(3):551–53.
11. Hunter DJ, March L, Sambrook PN. The association of cartilage volume with knee pain. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 2003;11:725-9.
12. Mokhtarinia H, Ebrahimi-Takamjani I, Salavati M, Goharpay S, Khosravi A .The effect of patellar taping on knee joint proprioception in patient with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Acta Medica Iranica 2008;46(3):183-190
13. Carolyn Kishner, Lynn Allen Colby. The Knee. Therapeutic exercise foundations and technique, 5th edition. Philadelphia, Davis Plus 2007. p. 687 – 757.
14. Laprade J, Culham E, Brouwer B. Comparison of five isometric exercises in the recruitment of the vastusmedialis oblique in persons with and without patellofemoral pain syndrome. JOSPT 1998;27:197-204.
15. Doucette, SA and Goble, EM. The effect of exercise on patellar tracking in lateral patellar compression syndrome. Am J Sports Med 1992;20:434.
16. Huskisson EC. Visual analogue scales. In [Melzark R] (ed.) Pain measurement and assessment. New York: Raven 1983;33-7.
17. Bellamy N, Buchanon WW, Goldsmith CH, Campbell J, Stitt L. Validation study of WOMAC: a health status instrument for measuring clinically-important patientrelevant outcomes following total hip or knee arthroplasty in osteoarthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 1988;15:1833-40
18. Kennedy DM, Stratford PW, Wessel J, Gollish JD, Penney D. Assessing stability and change of four performance measures: a longitudinal study evaluating outcome following total hip and knee arthroplasty. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 2005;6:3.
19. Podsiadlo D, Richardson S. The timed ‘up and go’. A test of basic functional mobility for frail elderly persons. J Geriatric Soc 1991;39:142-48
20. Hinman RS, K. L. Bennell, K. M. Crossley, J McConnell. Immediate effects of adhesive tape on pain and disability in individuals with knee osteoarthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 2003;42:865-869.
21. Bockrath K, Wooden C, Worrell T, Ingersoll CD, Farr J. Effects of patellar taping on patella position and perceived pain. Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise 1993; 25(9):989-92.
22. Herrington L. The effect of patellar taping on quadriceps peak torque and perceived pain: a preliminary study. Phys Ther Sport 2001;2:23–28.
23. Cowan SM, Bennell KL, Hodges PW. Therapeutic patellar taping changes the timing of vasti muscle activation in people with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine 2002;12(6):339- 347.
24. Gilleard W, McConnell J, Parsons D. The effect of patellar taping on the onset of vastusmedialisobliquus and vastuslateralis muscle activity in persons with patellofemoral pain. Phys Ther 1998;78:25– 32.
25. Thumboo J, Chew LJ, Soh CH. Validation of the Western Ontorio and McMaster University Osteoarthritis Index in Asians with osteoarthritis in Singapore. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2001; 9(5):440-446.
Table 1: It shows the between groups comparison of baseline and post intervention data of Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and Western Ontario and McMaster University Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) along with the results of statistical tests. Baseline VAS and WOMAC scores of group A and group B were 6.78±0.90, 43±5.54 and 6.73±0.83, 40.93±5.92 respectively. Post intervention VAS and WOMAC scores of group A and group B were 3.66±0.95, 23.26±3.57 and 4.46±1.08, 26.73±3.08 respectively. All p values are ≤ 0.05 thus showing significant difference was present between pre and post intervention data.
Table 2: It shows the between groups comparison of baseline and post intervention data of Timed Stair Ambulation Test (TSAT) and Timed Up and Go Test (TUG) along with the results of statistical tests. Baseline TSAT and TUG scores of group A and group B were 21.86±3.73, 19.80±1.85 and 21.66±3.08, 19.06±1.83 respectively. Post intervention TSAT and TUG scores of group A and group B were 16.73±3.91, 14.80±1.65 and 19.13±2.06, 16.33±1.67 respectively. All p values are ≤ 0.05 thus showing significant difference was present between pre and post intervention data.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareANTIMICROBIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY PATTERN OF CLINICAL ISOLATES OF PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA IN AN INDIAN TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL
English99104A. Heraman SinghEnglish Ranjan BasuEnglishObjective: Resistance to antipseudomonal antibiotics is increasing worldwide. Area-wise studies on antimicrobial susceptibility patterns are essential to guide policy on the appropriate use of antibiotics. The present study was conducted to find out the current antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of P.aeruginosa isolates obtained from various clinical samples at our hospital. Methods and Material: The present study was conducted in a tertiary care hospital in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh , India , during Jan 2011 – Jun 2012. 107 clinical isolates of P.aeruginosa obtained from various clinical samples were studied. They were identified by Routine standard operative procedures. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method and the results were interpreted according to the CLSI guidelines.Data obtained was analysed and presented in counts and percentages. 95 % confidence interval and p values were also calculated as applicable. Results: Imipenem was the most active antibiotic with 95.3 % susceptibility rate followed by Piperacillin-Tazobactem [89.7% ] and Levofloxacin [ 84.1% ] . Amikacin showed better susceptibility rate [74.7%] when compared to that of Gentamicin [65.4%]. The susceptibility rates to Cephalosporins and Aztreonam were relatively low. Most of the P.aeruginosa strains were isolated from clinical samples like pus [32.7% ],urine [ 26.1% ], and respiratory secretions [ 22.4% ]. 29 [27.1%] out of 107 clinical isolates of P.aeruginosa were found to be multidrug resistant. Most of the MDR P.aeruginosa strains were isolated from pus, urine, and respiratory secretions. Conclusions: The overall resistance demonstrated by clinical isolates of P.aeruginosa is high. This can be attributed to the inappropriate use of antibiotics. Guidelines on appropriate use of antibiotics not only reduces the morbidity and mortality in the patients infected with P.aeruginosa but also controls the emergence and spread of resistance among these pathogens.
EnglishAntimicrobial agents, multidrug resistance, P. aeruginosa , susceptibilityINTRODUCTION
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a very successful opportunistic pathogen. It can survive harsh environmental conditions and displays intrinsic resistance to a wide variety of antimicrobial agents that facilitates the organism’s ability to survive in the hospital setting. It is a notable cause of nosocomial infections of the respiratory and urinary tracts, wounds, blood stream, and even the central nervous system. In immunocompromised patients the infections are often severe and frequently life-threatening. In addition to its intrinsic resistance to various antibiotics, it also readily acquires resistance to the potentially active agents (1). Since some of the resistance markers are carried by promiscuous plasmids, the threat to human health is compounded by the possibility of transmission of the markers to other gram-negative pathogens (2).
Resistance to antipseudomonal antibiotics is increasing worldwide. This situation has been compounded by the lack of new classes of antipseudomonal drugs (3). Much of the antimicrobial resistance problem stems from the misuse of antibiotics, particularly excessive use. One of the main antibiotic resistance containement strategies is therefore to increase appropriate use and to reduce misuse, of antibiotics. Infection prevention and control activities to limit the spread of resistant bacteria are crucial (4). Area-wise studies on antimicrobial susceptibility profiles are essential to guide policy on the appropriate use of antibiotics. The present study was conducted to find out the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of P.aeruginosa isolates obtained from various clinical samples at our hospital. The information would be useful in establishing empiric therapy guidelines and to contribute data to larger more extensive surveillance programs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was conducted in the department of Microbiology, GSL Medical College and General Hospital, Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh, India. 107 isolates of P. aeruginosa were obtained from various samples received in the laboratory during the period January 2011 – June 2012. Ethical clearance was obtained from the institute. Routine standard operative procedures are followed in the laboratory in isolating and identifying the organisms from the clinical samples. P. aeruginosa was identified by Gram stain morphology, typical colony appearance, characteristic sweet grape like odour, blue-green appearance [pyocyanin pigment], motility and positive oxidase reaction (5). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method and results are interpreted according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines (6). Antipseudomonas antibiotics like piperacillin (100 mcg), piperacillin-tazobactum (100/10 mcg), ceftazidime (30 mcg) , cefepime (30 mcg) , aztreonam (30 mcg), imipenem (10 mcg) , gentamicin (10 mcg) , amikacin (30 mcg), ciprofloxacin (5 mcg) and levofloxacin (5 mcg) were tested (HIMEDIA, MUMBAI, INDIA) . Multi-drug resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains were defined as isolates showing resistance to antibiotics from at least 3 of the 6 antipseudomonal classes of antimicrobial drugs tested in this study: antipseudomonal penicillins, cephalosporins, monobactams, carbapenems, aminoglycosides and fluoroquinolones. The data obtained in this study was summarized by counts and percentages. Antibiotic Susceptibility rates were presented with the respective 95% confidence interval values. Unpaired proportions were compared using Chi Square test or Fisher’s Exact Probability test, as appropriate . All analysis was two tailed and p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
RESULTS
The results of antimicrobial susceptibility of P.aeruginosa clinical isolates to various antibiotics tested in this study are shown in Table – I and Figure - I . 95 % confidence interval data is also presented. Imipenem was the most active antibiotic with 95.3 % susceptibility rate. The next best were Piperacillin-tazobactam combination and levofloxacin with susceptibility rates of 89.7% and 84.1% respectively. The susceptibility rates between antibiotics that belonged to the same class were statistically compared as mentioned in Table – II , III and IV. Antimicrobial resistance patterns of P. aeruginosa isolates to various antibiotics are shown in Table – V. Out of 107 clinical isolates, 29 (27.1%) of P. aeruginosa were found to be multidrug resistant. The distribution pattern of P. aeruginosa isolates among various clinical samples is shown in Table -VI. Most of the P. aeruginosa strains were isolated from pus, urine, and respiratory secretions. The distribution pattern of MDR P.aeruginosa isolates among various clinical samples studied is shown in Table - VII. Most of the MDR P.aeruginosa strains were isolated from pus, urine, and respiratory secretions.
DISCUSSION
Antimicrobial surveillance should be done periodically to monitor the current susceptibility patterns in local hospitals (7) . In the present study, Imipenem was the most active antibiotic with 95.3 % susceptibility. This could be due to its restricted use in our hospital. This observation is in line with recent studies which reported very good sensitivity to carbapenems (8,9) However, some studies reported a notable resistance among the isolates of P.aeruginosa against carbapenems (7,10) . The second most active antibiotic was Piperacillin -Tazobactem with 89.7 % susceptibility. It had significantly better antibacterial activity against P.aeruginosa isolates than Piperacillin [68.2%] alone . This finding is in agreement with the study from Gujarat which has recommended the use of PiperacillinTazobactem like combinations against P. aeruginosa infections (10). Levofloxacin had better susceptibility rate [ 84.1% ] when compared to Ciprofloxacin [ 70.0% ]. This could be due to the overuse of Ciprofloxacin in our setting. The susceptibility rates to fluoroquinolones are better than previous Indian studies (11, 12). However they are in favour to the findings made in foreign studies (7, 13, 14). Among aminoglycosides Amikacin showed better susceptibility rate [74.7%] when compared to that of Gentamicin [65.4%] and it was found significant statistically. Better susceptibility rates to Amikacin were also reported by previous Indian studies (8,10 ) . They are generally used in combination with an antipseudomonal betalactam antibiotic. Amikacin use may be restricted to severe nosocomial infections (10). The rate of Susceptibility to Ceftazidime was 47.6 %. It was relatively low compared to the rates reported in various other studies (8,12,13,14) . This may be related to its frequent use in hospitalised patients where the possibility of emergence of resistance is high. However, the rate was better than that reported from Salem (11). Interestingly, the susceptibility rate to Aztreonam [53.2%] was not high even though it was not a commonly used antibiotic. Most of the P.aeruginosa strains were isolated from clinical samples like pus [ 32.7% ], urine [ 26.1% ], and respiratory secretions [ 22.4% ] . Out of 107 clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa , 29 [ 27.1% ] were multidrug resistant [ MDR ]. Most of these were isolated from pus, urine, and respiratory secretions. This indicates that infections with most resistant strains of P.aeruginosa are frequently encounterd in ICU units and post operative wards. This could be due to the frequent use of multiple antibiotics in critical care units. High prevalence rates of MDR P.aeruginosa strains in respiratory secretions was also reported by studies from Salem and Malaysia (7,12) . However, a standard definition of P.aeruginosa multidrug resistance would allow better comparisons between studies (7).
CONCLUSION
The overall resistance demonstrated by clinical isolates of P.aeruginosa is high. This can be attributed to the inappropriate use of antibiotics. Our study should guide clinicians on appropriate use of antibiotics. This not only reduces the morbidity and mortality in the patients infected with P.aeruginosa but also controls the emergence and spread of resistance among these pathogens. Regular monitoring of the use of antibiotics helps in preserving the effectiveness of antibiotics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1563http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15631. Betty A Forbes, Daniel F. Sahm, Alice S. Weissfeld. Baily and Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology. 11th edition .Mosby Inc. 2002 ; 389 , 394.
2. Albert Balows, Brian I. Duerden. Topley and Wilson’s .Vol-2; Systemic Bacteriology; 9th edition . Arnold .1998 ; 1099
3. Fauci, Braunwald, Kasper, Hauser, Longo, Jameson et al. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine; 17th edition. 2008 ; vol 1 ; 954
4. WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data ; The evolving threat of antimicrobial resistance: Options for action ; 2012
5. Collee JG, Fraser AG, Barry P Marmion, Simmons A. Mackie and McCartney Practical Medical Microbiology; 14th Edition. Churchill Livingstone, London. 1996 ; 417-418
6. Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute, 2012. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Wayne. 22nd Informational Supplement, 32(3).
7. Siva Gowri Pathmanathan, Nor Azura Samat, Ramelah Mohamed. Antimicrobial susceptibility of clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from a Malaysian Hospital. Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2009 ; 16 (2): 27-32
8. Shenoy S, Baliga S, Saldanha DR, Prashanth HV. Antibiotic sensitivity patterns of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains isolated from various clinical specimens. Indian J Med Sci 2002;56:427-30
9. Raja NS, Singh NN. Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a tertiary care hospital. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2007;40:45-49.
10. Javiya VA, Ghatak SB, Patel KR, Patel JA. Antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Pseudomonas aeruginosa at a tertiary care hospital in Gujarat, India. Indian J Pharmacol 2008;40:230-4
11. K.M. Mohanasoundaram. Antimicrobial resistance in pseudomonas Aeruginosa ; Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2011 June, Vol-5(3): 491-494
12. Anupurba S, Bhattacharjee A, Garg A, Sen MR. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from wound infections. Indian J Dermatol 2006;51:286-8
13. Farida Anjum, Asif Mir. Susceptibility pattern of pseudomonas aeruginosa against various antibiotics. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.2010 ; Vol. 4 (10), 1005-1012
14. E.O.K. Nwankwo , S.A. Shuaibu . Journal of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, 2010 . ISSN: 2078-0273
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareTHE ACCESSORY NAVICULAR BONE - A RADIOLOGICAL FINDING AND DISCUSSION OF ITS CLINICAL PRESENTATION
English105108S.D. DesaiEnglish Sahana B. N.English Monish BamiEnglishIntroduction- The accessory navicular is located on the posteromedial aspect of the foot, in close proximity with the navicular bone. This radiographic variant has been described in the anatomic and orthopaedic literatures with a variation of names such as ostibiale externum, osnaviculare secundarium, osnaviculare accessorium, osscaphoidea accessoria and pre-hallux. We report here two cases to better the understanding of this condition. Case Report- Two X-rays with asymptomatic accessory navicular bones were obtained from the department of orthopaedics. Case 1: A 43 year old male patient came to orthopaedic OPD with fracture of lower one third of left tibia, both leg and foot was radiographed for the same. Case 2: A 27 year old female patient came with left ankle sprain for which X- ray of foot along with ankle joint was taken. Conclusion- Though asymptomatic, they were at risk of developing symptoms related to accessory navicular later in life. Therefore the findings are to be considered by radiologists, orthopaedicians and physicians before treating a patient with complaints of pain at ankle joint or foot and a high degree of clinical suspicion must be kept in mind in patients with persistant pain.
EnglishAccessory navicular, ostibiale externum, prehallux, X ray.INTRODUCTION
The navicular bone is uniquely situated in the midfoot. The accessory navicular was first described by Bauhin in 1605. This radiographic variant has been described in the anatomic and orthopaedic literature1 . 10% to 14 % of normal feet have an accessory navicular bone, which may exist unilaterally or bilaterally2 . Bilateral location occurs in 50–90% of cases and there is a higher prevalence in females3 . It is located on the posteromedial aspect of the foot, in close proximity with the navicular bone4 . Accessory bones of the foot are anomalies that develop during ossification5 . It arises from a separate ossification centre in the navicular tuberosity region6 . In most cases, these bones are inconsequential; however, when they are associated with trauma they can result in acute or chronic foot pain. To appropriately diagnose and treat foot problems, it is essential to know the location of accessory bones. The accessory navicular bone has been classified by various authors into three primary types. Type I also referred to as "ostibialeexternum" occurs mainly as a round sesmoid within the substances of the distal posterior tibial tendon. It is rarely associated with symptoms. Type II also referred to as "prehallux” is associated with a synchondrosis within the body of the navicular at risk for disruption either from traction injury or shear forces in this region. Type III also known as a “navicular beak” or a “cornuatenavicular”, occurs with the fusion of accessory navicular bone to the body of the navicular4, 7 .
CASE REPORT
We report two cases of unilateral accessory navicular bone found accidently during X- ray imaging of foot. Case 1: A 43 year old male patient came to orthopaedic OPD with fracture of lower one third of left tibia, both leg and foot was radiographed for the same. Case 2: A 27year old female patient came with left ankle sprain for which X- ray of foot along with ankle joint was taken. In both these cases accessory navicular were found but was asymptomatic, when right foot X- ray was taken there was no evidence of accessory navicular in both the cases.
DISCUSSION
Clinical presentations: Typical young female (10- 20 years of age) complaining of mid foot/arch pain which may be insidious or post trauma. Difficulty with footwear’s, prominentnavicular, tenderness over the prominence, pesplanus, painful navicular syndrome and posterior tibialis tendinopathy (PTT). The type II accessory navicular is the most commonly symptomatic variant with localized chronic or acute on chronic medial foot pain and tenderness with associated inflammation of overlying soft tissue8 . In the setting of chronic medial foot pain, especially occurring after stress or physical exercise accessory navicular bone should be suspected. PTT: The presence of either an accessory navicular type 2 or type 3 (cornuatenavicular) is a risk factor for PTT, since the accessory navicular acts as it were a native navicular with the bulk of the posterior tibialis tendon inserting onto the accessory navicular9 . Diagnosis of this condition relies on radiographic evaluation. Routine standing anteroposterior and lateral view are enough to look for accessory navicular but in some cases the 45-degree eversion oblique view of the foot is useful in identifying this condition, although several different imaging techniques can be used. Treatment of this condition includes both surgical and nonsurgical options. Ultimately, surgery yields the best outcome for young patients, though conservative management has relevance for less active patients8 . Asymptomatic accessory navicular is non-operative. If the symptoms persist and ultrasonography demonstrates changes in the synchondrosis, operative intervention may be performed. There are 2 surgeries that can be performed depending upon the condition and symptoms. First is simple surgical excision. Second is Kindler procedure, in this the ossicle and navicular prominence is excised as in simple excision but along with the posterior tibial tendon advancement. Posterior tibial tendon is split and advanced along the medial side of foot to provide support to longitudinal arch4 . In the present cases no active treatment was given as they were asymptomatic. They were treated for their presenting conditions and were advised for follow up in case of symptoms related to accessory navicular bone. In a study done by Evangelos Perdikakis & EleniGrigoraki & Apostolos Karantanas Accessory navicular bone was identified in 34 cases (20%) of the 170 exams. It was detected in 14 male and 14 female patients with the following incidence: 11.15% type I (19cases), 4.11% type II (7 cases) and 4.74% type III (8 cases)1 . FarhanAli, James A. Fernandes reported a case of osteomyelitis of an accessory navicular bone in a young girl aged 11-years to make treating clinicians aware of this rare possibility2 . Chen et al. described degeneration of the accessory navicular synchondrosis in adults and its confusion with tendinitis of the posterior tibial tendon with distruption10 .
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we should look for an accessory navicular bone on radiography in patients with flatfoot or PTT abnormalities. Conversely, patients with an accessory navicular bone type 2 or 3 and medial foot pain or flatfoot should be examined by MRI for insertion abnormalities of the PTT or painful accessory navicular. The findings are to be considered by radiologists, orthopaedicians and physicians before treating a patient with complaints of pain at ankle joint or foot. Clinicians should also be aware that these accessory bones are possible sources of foot pain that may lead to disability.
Limitations
Plain radiographic identification of the accessory navicular is insufficient to attribute symptomatology. Instead ultrasound can be done which allows for comparison with the asymptomatic side and localization of pain. Bone scintigraphy is another option that has high sensitivity but positive findings lack specificity. Magnetic resonance imaging is of high diagnostic value for demonstrating accessory navicular along with both bone marrow and soft tissue oedema.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1564http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15641. Perdikakis E, Grigoraki E, Karantanas A. Osnaviculare: the multi-ossicle configuration of a normal variant. Skeletal Radiol 2011; 40:85–8.
2. Ali F, Fernandes J A. Osteomyelitis of the accessory navicular bone in the foot- A case report. ActaOrthop. Belg 2004;70:287-9.
3. Lawson J P, Ogden J A, Sella E, Barwick K W. The painful accessory navicular. Skeletal Radiol 1984;12:250–62.
4. Canale S T. Pesplanus. In: Canale S T, editor. Campbell’s operative orthopaedics, vol 4, 10th ed. United States of America; Mosby; 2005:4027-8.
5. Requejo S M, Kulig K,Thordarson D B. Management of foot pain associated with accessory bones of the foot: two clinical case reports. J Orthop Sports Phys 2000;30(10):580-91.
6. Standring S. Foot and ankle.In: Standring S, editor. Gray's Anatomy, 39th ed. Churchill Livingston: Elsevier; 2005.p.1515.
7. Choi Y S, MD, Lee K T, Kang H S, Kim E K. MR imaging findings of painful typeII accessory navicular bone: correlation with surgical and pathologic studies. Korean J Radiol 2004;5(4):274–9.
8. Fredrick LA, Beall DP, Ly JQ, Fish JR. The symptomatic accessory navicular bone: a report and discussion of the clinical presentation.Current Problems in Diagnostic Radiology 2005;34(2):47-50.
9. Bernaerts A, Vanhoenacker F M, Van De Perre S, De Schepper A M, Parizel P M. Accessory navicular bone: not such a normal variant. JBR–BTR 2004;87(5):250-2.
10. Chen Y J,Hsu R W, Liang S C. Degeneration of the accessory navicularsynchondrosis presenting as rupture of the posterior tibial tendon. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1997;79(12):1791-8.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareEFFECT OF DIFFERENT STRESSORS ON ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHICALLY DERIVED INDEX QT DISPERSION
English109114Sangeeta GawaliEnglish Prreeya MardiikarEnglish V.G. JaltadeEnglishIntroduction: Effect of stress on cardiovascular hemodynamics has been addressed in several studies. Epidemiological evidence suggests that there is relationship between stress and cardiac morbidity and mortality in susceptible individuals. Present study was conducted to study the effect of physical and mental stress on various cardiovascular parameters in healthy adults. Methods: The present study comprised of 90 healthy male subjects who underwent thorough clinical examination to rule out cardiovascular diseases. The subjects were exposed to various stressors like 3 minute mental arithmetic calculations, Harward step test, and cold pressor test. Various ECG derived indices like QT interval, Corrected QT interval and QT dispersion were studied before and after inducing stressors. Results: Statistically significant increase in heart rate, blood pressure and decrease in QT interval (P0.05). Interpretation and conclusion: Prolonged QT dispersion during different stressors is regarded as a marker of imbalanced distribution of sympathetic nervous system on heart. Despite this known fact QT dispersion is not affected in our subjects strongly emphasizing that prolonged QT dispersion is always associated with cardiac pathology. It was concluded that altered cardiac functions have direct effect on sympathovagal imbalance leading to increase in QT dispersion.
EnglishStress, QT interval, QT dispersion. , Active mental stress, Passive mental stress. INTRODUCTION
The duration of the QT interval on the surface ECG is a global measure of the time the heart takes to depolarize and repolarize. Prolonged QT interval is associated with generation of life threatening rhythm disturbances and sudden cardiac death1 . QT duration is influenced by heart rate (RR interval, cardiac cy'RESULTScle). So heart rate is required in analysis of repolarisation duration. Autonomic nervous system 2 which can act directly at the cellular level or indirectly through modulation of heart rate is another source of QT changes. Both acute and chronic stresses induce Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine responses inducing QT changes and lethal arrhythmias through alteration of the neural transmission to the heart.2 An epidemiological study also suggests that there is a relationship between stress and cardiac morbidity and mortality in susceptible individual. 3,4,5,6 However effect of physiological induced stress on QT interval and QT dispersion in healthy young adult is subject to speculation. Previous reports provided conflicting data on the effect of stress on QT interval and dispersion. Therefore we have accomplished trials assessing the effect of stressors on QT interval and QT dispersion in healthy individuals. We hypothesized that any kind of physical and mental stress leads to increase in QT dispersion even in healthy subjects.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
We conducted three separate studies under laboratory circumstances in the department of Physiology, B.J M.C. Pune to assess the effect of stress on QT interval and QT dispersion. Study protocol was approved by local ethical committee and participants signed a written consent form. Healthy 90 male medical students of first MBBS were enrolled. The subjects were studied under three groups. Each group (n=30) was exposed to 3 minute mental arithmetic test, Harward step test, cold pressor test respectively. No drug or medication was taken. Participants were instructed not to smoke or consume any alcohol, caffeine or to engage in strenuous physical activity 12 hours prior to testing. The arrival of participants was followed by 5 minute briefing session in which nature and purpose of study was explained. The entire group underwent thorough clinical examination to rule out cardio respiratory disorder. History of hypertension, diabetes, smoking and alcohol was ruled out.
Data collection
Volunteers were assuming supine position. Vital parameters like resting heart rate, blood pressure were recorded before and after test. Resting 12 lead ECG was taken in a room with comfortable temperature, (22 to 25 0 C) at the speed of 25mm/sec with gain of 10 mm/ mV before and after the test. Uncorrected QT interval, Corrected QT interval, QT dispersion were calculated from 12 lead ECG. Uncorrected QT interval was calculated as beginning of Q wave to the end of T wave i.e. reaching of T wave to isoelectric line. Corrected QT interval (QTc) was calculated by Bezett?s formula QTc = QT/√RR QT dispersion (QTd) was calculated as difference between shortest and longest QT interval recorded from 12 lead ECG. For manipulation check purpose, immediately after exposure participants were asked to rate perceived level of stress on 7 point Likert scale.7 1=Not stressed at all 7=Extremely stressed.
Study 1
3 minute arithmetic test— 3 min MA8
Method- In psychophysiology, because of its simplicity and effectiveness 3 min MA test is one of the frequently used active mental stressor. Participants were asked to perform a 1-3 min MA task, which has been shown to induce psychological stress. The task involved fast and correct serial subtraction from a 3 or 4 digit numbers like 7 from 700. In order to increase the perceived importance of stressfulness of the task, participants were told to speak out the results loudly so that the number of correct answer would be recorded. Study 2 Harward step test— Method-it consists of 2 steps of 20 inches in height which the subjects climb up and down at the speed of 30 steps/min for minimum of 4 to 5 minutes. Action of climbing represents actual physical training. The stepping procedure is completed in 4 counts, at counts 1 and 2 the subject steps up to an erect standing position with both feet on the platform, at counts 3and4, subject returns to the standing position in front of the platform. To avoid local muscle fatigue, the leading leg may be changed periodically. The test is terminated when subject is unable to maintain the required rhythm. The rhythm of stepping was regulated by metronome set at frequency of 30 steps /min. Study 3 Cold pressor test Method- Subject was asked to immerse his dominant hand up to wrist in a water bath maintained at 370C for exactly two minutes. After two minutes the subject was asked to put the same hand up to the wrist in an ice water bath saturated with ice cubes and temperature maintained at 2 0 to 40 C. Subject was asked to report the moment at which he first felt pain, cramps, or hurting sensation by saying “yes” and was asked to keep his hand in the same ice cold water for as long as possible or till it became unbearable. Both responses were carefully timed with help of stop watch. Subjects who exceeded four minutes cold pressor tolerance limit were asked to withdraw their hand and test was terminated. ECG was recorded before and immediately after the withdrawal of hand. Statistical analysis-Results are expressed as mean + SD. Paired„t? test was applied to compare QT interval, QTc, QTd before and after stress test. Probability value of less than 0.05 was accepted as significant.
RESULTS
Characteristics of subjects-
Mean age-18.31 + 3.57 yrs
Height-165.72 + 7.25 cm
Weight- 45.52+2.31Kg.
BMI- 27.3 + 6.71 Kg/ m2
Table I shows significant increase in heart rate, systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure and significant decrease in uncorrected and corrected QT interval (p0.05) after 3 minute arithmetic test. Table II shows significant increase in heart rate and systolic blood pressure (p0.05) after Harvard step test. Table III shows significant decrease in heart rate, increase in systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, and significant increase in uncorrected and corrected QT interval (p0.05) after cold pressor test.
DISCUSSION
A number of possibilities underlie the mechanism by which stress may influence repolarisation homogeneity in the myocardium in absence of ischemia through altered autonomic activity. Animal studies have shown that sympathetic stimulation causes a temporary status during which action potentials shorten non homogenously; thereby creating dispersion of repolarisation 8,9,10,11 Stress promotes differing level of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation of the heart, thereby producing difference in heart rate and blood pressure response. According to latest definition of Hans Selye 12, 13 biological stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it. Excessive heat or cold, forced immobilization or exercise, chemical, biological and psychological agent may elicit same neuroendocrine or nonspecific response which consist of increase level of ACTH by pituitary leading to increase release of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex.12 Stress is both, active and passive, physical and mental. Active stress is one in which the subject is required to actively cope (do something) and perform in a challenging situation.12 3 minute arithmetic test, Step test, Cold pressor test are active mental and physical stress. Passive mental stress is one in which the subject is unable to cope an unpleasant or distressing situation. It is characterized by lack of control over the source of stress. A video clip of distressing images is a kind of passive mental stress. We have studied only active mental stress, as we could not arrange for video clips. Previous studies have shown that passive mental stress has no effect on heart rate and QTd because perceived level of stress achieved is below the midpoint 4 on 7 point Likert scale.13 3 minute arithmetic test and QT prolongation--3 minute arithmetic test is considered to be active mental stress. Adjustment of QTd to changing heart rate is dynamic phenomenon consisting of fast adaptation phase and slow adaptation phase. Franz 14 showed that after rapid change in heart rate, fast adaptation phase of repolarisation usually last 30-60 sec followed by 2 min slow adaptation phase. We proposed that part of QT prolongation we noted was due to delay in heart rate adaptation and only remaining fraction was caused directly by active mental stress. Step test and QT dispersion- We have found increase in heart rate and systolic blood pressure which is due to sympathetic stimulation and increase pumping of the heart which increases cardiac output, thereby increasing systolic blood pressure respectively. Decrease in diastolic blood pressure is due to exercise induced peripheral vasodilatation. Decrease in QT interval is 15 ECG manifestations of ventricular depolarisation and repolarization ionic current that contributes to action potential. Amplitude of this ionic current is influenced by heart rate .Exercise induced increase in heart rate leads to decrease in QT interval as both phase of depolarization and repolarisation shortens. There was no significant increase in QT dispersion though there is sympathetic stimulation. Increase in QTd is an indication of inhomogeneous ventricular repolarisation phase and always associated with cardiovascular disorder. Previous studies have shown QT variability and QTd changes during challenges associated with increase in sympathetic activity in patients with CCF in which there is always autonomic imbalance16. So it appears that autonomic imbalance when associated with cardiac pathology leads only to increase in QTd which may be the reason we have not found significant increase in QTd in our healthy subjects. Cold pressor test and QT dispersion—this study demonstrates increase in blood pressure and decrease in heart rate after CPT. Previous study 16has shown sympathaticoadrenaomedullary secretion of catecholamine is increased during acute cold exposure. One of the immediate local responses to cold is widespread peripheral vasoconstriction which is responsible for increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure in our subjects.17 We have found decrease in heart rate which is due to reflex baroreceptor response. Pooling of blood from skin surface increases filling pressure which may directly affect pacemaker of the heart. Moderate increase in filling pressure increase the heart rate, but longer increase in filling pressure decrease heart rate which may be the cause of decrease in heart rate in our subjects17 . Prolonged QT interval is regarded as a marker of an autonomic imbalance distribution of sympathetic activity indicating that autonomic neural tone is an important determinant of QT interval and dispersion. 18Release of catecholamine following acute cold exposure is mainly responsible for QT prolongation. Decrease in QT dispersion in our subjects is due to decrease in heart rate which indicates that heart has maintained its rhythmicity despite sympathetic stimulation.
CONCLUSION
Our study has shown -
1. A direct correlation between various stresses induced changes in heart rate and QT dispersion. Increase in heart rate with increase in QT dispersion as seen after step test and 3 minute Arithmetic test. Decrease in heart rate with decrease in QT dispersion as seen after cold pressor test which indicate heart has maintained its rhythmcity.
2. Transient stress induced changes in autonomic balance and ventricular repolarization including transient QT prolongation.
3. Increase in QT dispersion is always pathological.
Study Limitations-Several limitations of the present study need to be addressed. First, the sample size is small. Large sample size may provide an additional insight. The second is the continuous computerized ECG monitoring needed throughout the test. Future directions--Further work is needed to elucidate the mechanism involved for e.g. whether central cortical processing or local sensitivity at the level of myocardial cell may be responsible. New markers like advanced T wave loop variable need to be studied. Measuring the level of catecholamine and cortisol which are the true markers of stress can be measured.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. The authors also wish to thank all the volunteers who participated whole heartedly in the study. The authors are grateful to all the staff who have contributed and cooperated in the study.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1565http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15651. Zareba W, Moss .AJ, LE Cessies. Dispersion of ventricular repolarisation and sudden cardia death in coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiology 1994; 74: 550-553.
2. Browne K F, Zipes DP, Hger J J,Prystowky E N. Influence of ANS on QT interval. Am J Cardiology 1982; 59:1099-1103.
3. Kamarck T W, Jenning J R. Biobehavioral factors in sudden death. Psychol Bull 1999; 109: 42-73.
4. Lear J, Poole W K, Kloner R A. Sudden cardiac death trigger by an earthquake. New England J Med 1996; 334: 413-419.
5. Meisel S R,Kutz I, Dayan K I Pauzer H, David D. Effect of Iraqi missile War on incidence of acute myocardial infarction and sudden death in Israeli civilians. Lancet 1991; 338: 660-661.
6. Trichopoulas D,Katsou yanni K,Zavitsanos X . Effect of psychological stress and fatal heart attack: the Atthens, Earthquake natural experiment. Lancet 1981; 1: 441-443.
7. Likert A . A technique for measurement of attitude. Methods Psycho (Frankfurt). 1932;140: 44-53.
8. Andrassy G, Szabo A, Trummer Z, Gyozo A, Tahy A. The application of mental stress to detect impaired myocardial repolarisation reserve. Eur Heart J 2003; 24: 283.
9. Han J, Garcia de Jalan P, Moe G K. Adrenergic effect on ventricular vulnerability. Cir Res1964; 14: 516-524.
10. Schwartz P J . QT prolongation , sudden death and sympathetic imbalance, The pendulum Swings . J cardiovascular electrophysiology 2001; 12: 1074-1077.
11. Schwartz P J, Verrier RL, Lown B. Effect of stellectomy and vagotomy on ventricular refractoriness. Circ Res 1977; 40: 536-540.
12. Selye H. Stress without distress. Mcdelland and Stewart Ltd. Toronto 1974.
13. Selye H. Stress in health and disease, Butterworths, Bosten 1976.
14. Franz M R, Swerdlow CD, Liem LB, Schaefer J. Cycle length dependence of human action potential duration in vivo: effect of single extra stimuli, sudden sustained rate acceleration and deceleration and different study state frequency. J clin invest. 1988; 82:972- 979.
15. Sana Khatib, Nancy Allen, Judith Kramer, Robert Callif. What clinicians know about QT interval. JAMA 2003; 289: 2121-2127.
16. D.S.Raghunandan, Nagraj Desai, Ronald Berger. Increase beat to beat variability in patients with CCF. Indian heart journal 2005;57: 138-142.
17. Abidskov J, A. Aderenergic effect of QT interval on ECG. Am heart J 1976; 92: 210- 216.
18. A. K.Ghosh, J K Ghosh, S Kundu. Heart rate responses to cold water immersion of extremities. Indian J Physiol and Allied Sci. 1975; 29 :64-69.
19. Lo SSS, Muthian CJ, Sutter MI. QT interval and QT dispersion in primary Autonomic failure. Heart 1996; 75:498-501.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareNUTRIENT INTAKE OF OBESE ADOLESCENTS IN SELECTED DISTRICTS OF TAMIL NADU
English115121A. Ponni SyamalaEnglish Dorothy JaganathanEnglishObjective: To assess the nutrient intake of the obese adolescents in selected districts of Tamil Nadu. Material and Methods: The study was carried out among 6000 adolescents of 12–17 years of age in five districts (Coimbatore, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, and Tirunelveli) of Tamil Nadu. The dietary survey (weighed food record method) was conducted among 55 obese adolescents from each age group in five districts (Coimbatore, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, and Tirunelveli) of Tamil Nadu. The intake of energy, other macronutrients, and micronutrients for individuals was calculated using the Nutritive value of Indian foods (ICMR, 2010) and compared with RDA. Results: Among 6000 adolescents, 23 percent were obese in Coimbatore while 17 percent in Madurai, 22 percent in Salem, 20 percent in Tiruchirappalli and 18 percent in Tirunelveli Districts. The nutrient intake of the selected adolescents except for iron exceeded the ICMR Recommended Dietary Allowances. The mean calorie intake was higher among adolescents of Coimbatore District (Boys- 2842±54.9 kcal/day; Girls - 2503±167.4 kcal/day) when compared to other districts. Conclusion: The study suggests that the nutrient intake of obese adolescents varies from each district remarkably with socioeconomic status, food consumption pattern and lifestyle habits. The nutrient intake of the selected adolescents exceeded the ICMR Recommended Dietary Allowances. It is concluded that proper nutrition is essential to keep teens healthy and able to grow and develop properly.
EnglishAdolescent Obesity, Weighed Food Record, Nutrient Intake.INTRODUCTION
Obesity is defined as an excess accumulation of body fat which is the result of a positive energy balance where caloric intake exceeds caloric expenditure. According to newly established national criteria, teens are at significant risk for becoming obese adults. Proper nutrition is essential to keep teens healthy and able to grow and develop properly. Healthy Eating help teens to participate better in school and athletic activities. There are also disturbing trends such as sedentary work, faulty dietary habits and stress causing activities that aggravates obesity, heart disease and diabetes particularly among adolescents. Socioeconomic status was inversely related to the prevalence of obesity, regardless of geographic region. Dietary habits in childhood will impact on growth, development and disease risk throughout life.1 Overweight and obesity are strongly associated with certain types of diets, such as those that include large amounts of fats, animal-based foods and processed foodstuffs.2 Sedentary lifestyles are also an important factor, including spending no time for outdoor sports and participating in little or no physical activity during leisure time.3 Physical inactivity plays an important role in the development of obesity. In a modern affluent society, energy sparing devices also reduce energy expenditure and enhance the tendency to become obese. Whereas the rising prevalence of obesity can be partly explained by environmental changes over the last 30 years, in particular the unlimited supply of convenient, high caloric dense foods together with a sedentary lifestyle, and genetic component also tend to increase the risk of obesity.4 Objectives ? Asses the health status of the adolescents in the selected districts of Tamil Nadu. ? Assess the nutrient intake of the obese adolescents. ? Impart nutrition education programme to the adolescents.
MATERALS AND METHODS
Selection of area: Based on convenience sampling technique, the investigator chose five districts [15 percent of total districts, as Tamil Nadu has 32 districts)] of Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, and Tirunelveli). The schools were selected with the official permission from the inspectors of matriculation schools. Hence based on purposive sampling technique, the investigator conducted the study in 25 matriculation higher secondary schools.
Selection of samples:
The samples were selected based on the following inclusion criteria –
adolescents aged between 12 and 17 years.
adolescents who are not included in any similar researches.
Only those adolescents who fulfilled the above mentioned criteria and those who consented to participate were included in the study. A stratified random sampling technique was adopted to select the samples to get an equal distribution of adolescents from each age group. The total sampling unit comprises of 6000 adolescents. One thousand and two hundred samples were selected from each district (600 boys and 600 girls). One hundred boys and one hundred girls were selected from each age group.
Conduct of the study
Demographic profile, food consumption pattern and lifestyle habits of adolescents:
School authorities were requested by the investigator to provide a list of children attending classes from standard seven to standard twelve. Anthropometric measurements (height, weight, waist and hip circumference) were taken and data regarding the samples were collected through the questionnaire. Questionnaire assessed the socioeconomic status, participation in sports, physical exercise, sleeping habit during day time, diet (vegetarian or non vegetarian), junk food consumption, meal pattern, frequency of visiting restaurants and other factors that influence physical health of representative samples of adolescents. Food frequency questionnaires are commonly used to assess habitual food intake. A self administered food frequency questionnaire was designed to assess the food consumption pattern of adolescents.
Anthropometric measurements:
The measurement of height is a standard component of most fitness assessments. The measurement was made and the result was recorded in the student health record and data log. The body weight was recorded using a standard balance scale. The weight was read on the scale and recorded immediately on the student’s health record and data log. BMI was classified using CDC percentiles (Centre for Disease Control, 2000). Adolescents with BMI more than or equal to 95th percentile with respect to age and gender were considered as obese, between 85th percentile and less than 95th percentile were considered as overweight and between 5th percentile and less than 85th percentile were considered as healthy weight and less than 5th percentile were considered as under nourished.
Dietary survey
Dietary survey constitutes the most important point of any complete study on nutrition status of individual or group. Dietary survey is the assessment of dietary or nutritional status at intermittent times to detect changes in the dietary or nutritional status of population. A dietary assessment is a comprehensive evaluation of a person's food intake. Measuring dietary intake in children enables the assessment of nutritional adequacy of individuals and groups and can provide information about nutrients, including energy, food, and eating habits.5 Weighed food record Food intakes might be assessed accurately by the Weighed Food Record.6 The weighed-food record is the most accurate record of individual food intake and in the precise weighing modality, is taken to represent the "gold" standard , though it does require the subject to be motivated and able to weigh and record accurately. It is therefore often used as the reference method for validating more expedient methods.7 Hence, to assess the dietary intake and adequacy of the diet consumed, weighed food record was adopted for three consecutive days. This method involves recording the weights of all foods prior to their consumption. Based on convenient sampling technique, 55 samples from each age group were selected for the dietary survey. The weighing was performed by the investigator by using a calibrated scale of the appropriate capacity (2 to 5 kg) and accuracy (± 1 to 5 g). The weight of all foods and beverages consumed by the samples and of any edible or non - edible leftovers were recorded by the investigator in a booklet. For meals consumed away from home, estimates of the weights were recorded by the subsamples and later checked by the investigator with the help of household measures. From this, the intake of energy, other macronutrients, and micronutrients for individuals was calculated using the Nutritive value of Indian foods (Indian Council of Medical Research, 2010) and compared with RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowances).8 Awareness on obesity and promoting healthy eating habits and positive lifestyle practices Sound nutrition can play a role in the prevention of several chronic diseases, including obesity, coronary heart disease, and certain types of cancer, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.9 Nutrition education programme involved educational components (classroom instruction by teachers, nutrition education integrated across curricula, peer training), environmental components (school menus, classroom snacks and special treats), and/or other components (physical activity, family education and community involvement). Statistical analysis and interpretation: Mean and standard deviation were calculated for the statistical analysis. Student's t test was used to compare the mean results of the analyzed variables and chi - square was used for the comparison of frequencies. ANOVA was employed to test the statistical significances of the differences between the BMI of boys and girls.
RESULTS
Mean BMI of the adolescents: BMI is a useful tool to identify possible weight problems; it screens children and teens for being obese, overweight, healthy weight and underweight. The BMI of the adolescents were assessed and the results are presented in Table 1. Girls had a higher BMI while compared with boys of the same age. Studies in Britain have indicated, females between the ages 12 and 16 have a higher BMI than males of the same age by 1.0 kg/m2 on average.10 Prevalence of obesity among adolescents: BMI is a reliable indicator of body mass fatness for most children and teens. BMI was classified using CDC percentiles (Centre for Disease Control, 2000). Table 2 shows the prevalence of obesity among the selected adolescents. Among 6000 adolescents, boys and girls with normal BMI were 16 percent and 19 percent respectively. The prevalence of overweight was 21 percent among boys and 23 percent among girls. The prevalence of obesity was 29 percent in boys and 32 percent in girls. The prevalence of underweight was 34 percent in boys and 26 percent in girls. Girls had a higher prevalence rate of overweight and obesity while compared with boys of the same age. ANOVA was employed to test the statistical significances of the differences between the BMI of boys and girls. Although there was no increase in the mean height of children and young adults between 1995 and 2002, weight and BMI increased year by year for all age and sex groups. As a result, there was a steady upward trend in the prevalence of overweight and obesity during this years.11 District wise prevalence of obesity: India is following a trend of other developing countries that are steadily becoming more obese. According to the National Family Health Survey (2007), Tamil Nadu ranks fourth among the States in obesity. Body Mass Index (BMI) calculation is used to assess the health status of the adolescents in five districts (Coimbatore, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, and Tirunelveli) of Tamil Nadu and the results are presented in Table 3. Among 6000 adolescents, 23 percent were obese in Coimbatore whereas17 percent in Madurai, 22 percent in Salem, 20 percent in Tiruchirappalli, and 18 percent were obese in Tirunelveli Districts. The value of chi square was significant at five percent level. Mean nutrient intake of the adolescents: The nutrient intake of the adolescents selected for the survey were calculated and compared with the RDA. The nutrient intake of the adolescents belonged to the age group of 16 years were clearly depicted in the Table 4. The nutrient intake of the adolescents except for iron exceeded the Recommended Dietary Allowances. The mean calorie intake was higher among adolescents of Coimbatore District (Boys2842±54.9; Girls - 2503±167.4) when compared to other districts. Calcium intake was higher in Tirunelveli District (Boys - 764.8±86.9 mg/day; Girls - 803.3±54.2 mg/day) when compared to other districts. Nutritional needs during adolescence are increased because of the increased growth rate and changes in body composition associated with puberty.12
DISCUSSION
The study was carried out among 6000 adolescents of 12–17 years of age in five districts (Coimbatore, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, and Tirunelveli) of Tamil Nadu. Among 6000 adolescents, 23 percent were obese in Coimbatore whereas17 percent in Madurai, 22 percent in Salem, 20 percent in Tiruchirappalli, and 18 percent in Tirunelveli Districts. The dietary survey (weighed food record method) was conducted among 55 obese adolescents from each age group in five districts of Tamil Nadu. The intake of energy, other macronutrients, and micronutrients for individuals was calculated using the Nutritive value of Indian foods (ICMR, 2010) and compared with RDA. The nutrient intake of the adolescents except for iron exceeded the Recommended Dietary Allowances. This may be due to frequent consumption of energy dense foods and fat-rich foods by the obese samples. The mean calorie intake was higher among adolescents of Coimbatore District (Boys2842±54.9; Girls - 2503±167.4) when compared to other districts. Calcium intake was higher in Tirunelveli District (Boys - 764.8±86.9 mg/day; Girls - 803.3±54.2 mg/day) when compared to other districts. This may be due to the excess consumption of milk and milk products and other calcium rich foods by the adolescents in Tirunelveli District. Similar results were observed for the adolescents of other age groups.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The study showed that adolescent obesity varies from each district with respect to family income, family history, dietary pattern, and lifestyle habits. The nutrient intake of the adolescents except for iron exceeded the Recommended Dietary Allowances. . It was also noted that the intake of girls is higher than boys. Nutrition education was imparted to the samples and parents in the Parents Teachers Association meeting. This session involved power point presentation on obesity, causes, risk factors, signs and symptoms, complications, dietary management, treatment and prevention. Pamphlets and Compact Discs containing information on obesity were distributed to the samples. The impact of nutrition education showed that the adolescents were more aware of the positive aspects of health and nutrition. It was concluded that individually targeted obesity prevention education programme will produce beneficial effects on dietary pattern of the obese adolescents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the students, their parents and the staffs of the schools for their participation in the trial and their support. The author also thanks the Inspector of Matriculation Schools (IMS) of five districts (Coimbatore, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, and Tirunelveli) for their help during the data collection phase. The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1566http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15661. Wright CM, Parker L, Lamont D, Craft AW. Implications of childhood obesity for adult health: findings from the thousand families cohort study. British Medical Journal 2001; 323: 1280–4.
2. Chopra M, Galbraith S, Darnton-Hill I. A global response to a global problem: the epidemic of over nutrition. Bull World Health Organ 2002; 80: 952-958.
3. Flodmark CE, Lissau I, Moreno LA, Pietrobelli A, Widhalm K. New insights into the field of children and adolescents’ obesity: the European perspective. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2004; 28:1189-1196.
4. Friedman JM. Modern science versus the stigma of obesity. Nat Med 2004; 10: 563– 569.
5. Burrows TL, Martin RJ, Collins CE. A systematic review of the validity of dietary assessment methods in children when compared with the method of doubly labeled water. J Am Diet Assoc 2010; 110(10):1501- 10.
6. Li YP, He YN, Zhai FY, Yang XG, Hu XQ, Zhao WH, Ma GS. Comparison of assessment of food intakes by using 3 dietary survey methods [Article in Chinese].Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 2006; 40(4):273-80.
7. Anna Ferro-Luzzi. Weighed record Individual food intake survey methods. National Institute for Food and Nutrition Research, 2003; Rome, Italy.
8. Indian Council for Medical Research.Nutrient requirement and recommended dietary allowances for Indians, A Report of the Expert Group of the Indian Council of Medical Research 2010; AP, Hyderabad: 40, 41.
9. Botero D, Wolfsdorf JI. Diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. Arch Med Res 2005; 36:281.
10. Health survey for England: The health of children and young People, http://www.archive2.officialdocuments.co.uk
11. Sproston.K and Primatesta.P. Health Survey for England 2002. Volume 1: The health of children and young people 2003. The Stationery Office, London.
12. Spear BA. Adolescent growth and development. J Am Diet Assoc 2002; 102:S23.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF UNDER FIVE CHILDREN IN URBAN FIELD PRACTICE AREA
English122126Veena AlgurEnglish M C YadavannavarEnglish Shailaja S PatilEnglishIntroduction: Children under the age of 5 years constitute a priority group because of their large numbers. In India they comprise about 13% of the total population.They are also regarded as vulnerable or high risk group because of the problems arising out during their growth, development and survival. 50% of the deaths are occurring among children during the first 5 years of life in developing countries including India. Malnutrition is regarded as the most widespread condition affecting the health status of under five children. Approximately 47% of the India’s under five children are underweight. one in three adult women in India is underweight and therefore at risk of developing babies with low birth weight .The under five children suffer from a host variety of diseases like diarrhea , respiratory infections, measles, pertusis, polio, tuberculosis and diphtheria due to malnutrition. Objectives: 1) to assess the nutritional status of under five children in UHTC area. 2) To relate the nutritional status by socioeconomic variables. Materials and methods: Study area: The present study will be conducted in the rural field practice area of UHTC Type of study: Cross sectional study. Study period: 3 months Sample size: 500 children residing in UHTC area
EnglishMalnutrition UHTC Under five ChildrenINTRODUCTION
Malnutrition in India can be termed as a burning social problem due to the impact of socio cultural influence on nutrition. Malnutrition is more due to lack of knowledge and awareness about proper nutrition at a particular stage of growth and development. The state of malnutrition among children in India Nutrition is essential for human development and the focal point of health and well being. It is accepted that the lack of proper nutrition leads to irreversible effects, endangering survival and development. The reasons for malnutrition are myriad and include poverty, lack of nutritious food, inadequate food, improper infant and child feeding, among others. Malnutrition is a complex phenomenon and it is both the cause and effect of poverty and illhealth, and follows a cyclical, intergenerationalpattern.1 Due to such socio cultural environment developing country like India is unable to tackle the issues related to malnutrition. This condition of under-nutrition, therefore, reduces work capacity and productivity among adults and enhances mortality and morbidity amongst children2 . There is need find ways to fight against malnutrition of children as they are the future of Nation Pre-school children are one of the most nutritionally vulnerable segments of the population. Nutrition during the first five years has an impact not only on growth and morbidity during childhood, but also acts as a determinant of nutritional status in adolescent and adult life3 . Malnutrition, the issue itself is vicious in nature and needs utter attention It is rather obvious that the issue of poor nutrition causing other health problems in the country, including high infant mortality rate and malnutrition is extremely pressing. In fact, the lack of progress over the past decade and the current high levels of malnutrition have led to India being recognized as having, perhaps, the worst malnutrition problem in the world4 In India children under the age of 5 years constitute a priority group because of their large numbers, about 13% of the total population. Malnutrition is regarded as the most widespread condition affecting the health status of under 5 children. Approximately 47% of the India’s under 5 children are underweight. In the light of the above considerations, the present study is an endeavor to find out the health status of the under five children in the field practice area of Urban Health Training Center Kalalgalli. Department of community medicine BLDEA’S Shri BM patil Medical College Bijapur
OBJECTIVES
To assess the nutritional status of under five children in UHTC area.
To study the socioeconomic determinants of malnutrition.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area: Urban Field Practice Area Kalalgalli. Type of study: Cross Sectional study. Study period: 3 months ( Oct 2009 to Dec 2009) Sample size: Urban Health Training Centre Kalalgalli caters for a population of approx 6100. The enumerated list of under five children is 793 (2008 ). Considering the prevalence rate of 45% malnutrition among under 5 children in India with allowable error of 10% the calculated sample size was 488, thus the actual sample size of 500 was randomly chosen for this study out of 793 children .The study was carried out by interviewing parents/caretakers of under five children using pretested and predesigned questionnaire by house to house visit. The assessment of nutritional status was done by anthropometric measurements like Height, Weight, Mid Arm Circumference etc., using standardized instruments and the data was analyzed using appropriate statistical tests.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSSION
The study has found that a high proportion of higher education status among fathers of children (60%),A significant number of mothers (34%) were illiterates which may be the reason for high prevalence of malnutrition among children. Most of the families belong to lower middle class of socio economic status because most of them were engaged in petty business and many were housewives. The overall prevalence of malnutrition based on IAP classification was found to be 66% in the present study. Similar findings was found in NNMB study in Kerala and Orissa.4,5 In the present study higher number of children had Grade I malnutrition in 25-36 mth age group (26%) followed by 0-12 and 13-24 mth age group (24%). Similar observation of high prevalence among lower age groups were reported by studies in Chandigarh and Kolkata.6 The present study has found similar level of malnutrition with regard to MAC and BMI standards (45.2%and 40.1%) respectively In the present study, it was found that 85% of children were fully immunized, 11% were partially immunized and 4% were not immunized at all. So the immunization coverage is increasing over the years which can be seen from the fact that the proportion of fully immunized children were uniformly showing a upward trend with decrease in the age group of children .Similar findings were found in a Tamilnadu study among refugee children.7 The most commonly missed vaccine being measles.
Higher proportion of all the Grades of malnutrition was found in 25-36 mths age group (Grade 1= 30% GradeII = 27% Grade IV =24%) followed by 13-24 mths age group (Grade 1=26%, Grade II =25%,Grade III=29% and Grade IV=31%).the differences between the age group and malnutrition was not found to be statistically significant..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1567http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15671. Child Malnutrition in Karnataka - A Report by Adv Clifton.D.Rozario Advisor to Commissioners of Hon’ble Supreme Court in the Case P.U.C.L vs UoI and Ors. (W.P no 196 of 2001) page no 4
2. National Nutrition Policy, 1993, Government of India
3. Nutrition Transition in India, Prema Ramachandran, Nutrition Foundation of India, 2007
4. “A Leadership Agenda for Action: The Coalition for Sustainable Nutrition Security in India”
5. Rai MK and Vailaya J. The national nutrition scheme. An analysis of results of two national surveys.indian pediatrics 1996, 33(4)305-312
6. Swami HM,Thakur JS,et al.NID to assess the nutritional status of under five in chandigarh Indian journal of pediatrics 2000,67(1),15-17.
7. Ray SK et al nutritional status of pavement of weller children of Calcutta city. IJPM 1999,43(1),49-54.
8. Bazruy J, Pand P et al, refugee children in India, A comparative study journal of pediatrics 2005,72(6),481-87
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareCOMPARATIVE STUDY OF THREE DIFFERENT METHODS FOR THE RAPID DIAGNOSIS OF PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM AND PLASMODIUM VIVAX MALARIA
English127132Aparna Y. TakpereEnglish Vinod S. KambleEnglish Rajni YadavEnglish Prashant K. ParandekarEnglish Sanjay WavareEnglishObjectives: The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of Rapid screening methods like Quantitative Buffy Coat (QBC) and Antigen detection assay- pLDH (plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase) and HRP2 (Histidine rich protein 2) as compared to Peripheral smear examination in the rapid diagnosis of malaria. Methodology: A total of 137 samples were collected from clinically suspected cases of malaria during May2010 to July 2010 and malaria microscopy with Leishman stained smears, QBC and antigen detection test (pLDH and HRP2) was done. Sensitivity and specificity was calculated. Z test was applied to find out the difference between any two tests. Results: Of the total number of samples, 28 were positive; out of which 19 (13.87%) samples were positive by peripheral smear, 28 (20.44%) were positive by QBC and 21 (15.33%) by antigen detection tests. 19 were positive by both QBC and Peripheral smear and 109 were negative by both. QBC detected additional 09 positive cases which were negative on peripheral smear. 19 were positive by both Antigen test and peripheral smear, but antigen test detected 02 additional positive cases than peripheral smear. The QBC test was 100% sensitive, 92.37% specific with Positive Predictive Value of 67.86% and Negative Predictive Value of 100%.The antigen test was 84.21% sensitive, 95.76% specific with Positive Predictive Value of 76.19% and Negative Predictive Value of 97.47%. Out of 25 P. vivax positive cases, 16 were positive by peripheral smear and 16 were positive by Antigen test. Out of 05 positive cases of P.falciparum by Antigen test only 03 were positive by peripheral smear and 03 were positive by QBC. Among the peripheral smear negative cases, QBC could detect additional 09 cases out of 11 cases i.e. 81.81%. Conclusion: We did not find any significant difference between Peripheral smear and Quantitative buffy coat (QBC) and Peripheral smear and Antigen detection assay. Quantitative buffy coat is advantageous where work load is high, but is costly and gives false positive report. Antigen detection test is useful when microscopy is not available and immediate clinical diagnosis is required especially for P. falciparum cases, but gives false positive results even after treatment. Both the methods cannot replace microscopic method for identification of species and for determination of parasitaemia.
EnglishQuantitative buffy coat (QBC), Peripheral smear, pLDH (plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase), HRP 2 (Histidine rich protein 2), malarial parasite.INTRODUCTION
Malaria presents a diagnostic challenge to the medical community worldwide (1). Resurgence has occurred in many parts of the globe due to insecticide and drug resistance, social instability and non-availability of anti-malarial vaccine (2) . Non-specific nature of the symptoms and signs of malaria results in mis-treatment; both overtreatment with anti-malarial agents and undertreatment of patients with non-malarial illnesses. (3)According to the World Malaria Report released in 2006 by the World Health Organisation, there were 247 million malaria cases, 3.3 billion people at risk and 8, 81,000 deaths from 109 countries. In 2008, India had an estimated 1.52 million malaria cases accounting for 60% of cases in the WHO South East Asian Region. (4) Due to the serious nature of P. falciparum infections, prompt and accurate diagnosis is essential for effective malaria management (1). The commonly employed method for the diagnosis of malaria include microscopic examination of Romanowsky stained blood films (5) which is labour-intensive, time consuming and requires experienced microscopist for accurate identification and its sensitivity decreases in parallel with the density of malarial parasites in blood.(6,) Newer techniques such as hybridisation with DNA probes are too sophisticated for routine use in the field. (7) In recent years, numerous quick and new techniques like Fluorescent staining (QBC) and Antigen detection tests detecting parasite antigens like Histidine rich protein -2 (HRP-2), Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) and PAN specific aldolase have been developed.(1,5) WHO has recently reiterated “the urgent need for simple and cost effective diagnostic tests for malaria to overcome the deficiencies of (both) light microscopy” and clinical diagnosis. (3) So the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of Rapid screening methods like QBC and Antigen detection assay (pLDH and HRP2) as compared to Peripheral smear examination in the rapid diagnosis of malaria.
METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted in the Department of Microbiology of Shri. B. M. Patil Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre, Bijapur. Karnataka. India from May 2010 to July 2010. Study design: It was a cross-sectional study. Study Type: It was an observational and analytical type of study. Statistical test: Z test. Inclusion criteria: A total of 137 samples were collected from clinically suspected cases of malaria of all the age groups in both the sexes attending our hospital and for whom malaria microscopy or QBC or antigen detection test had been requested. Exclusion criteria: Patients already on antimalarial drugs were excluded from the study. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Ethical committee before starting the project. Informed and written consent was obtained from all the patients. The detailed history, clinical signs and symptoms were recorded in the proforma. 2ml venous blood was collected under aseptic precautions. Standard thick and thin smears were prepared and the remaining sample was collected in a sterile EDTA bottle. The smears were stained with Leishman?s stain and observed under oil immersion objective by a trained microscopist who was blinded with the results of QBC and Antigen detection test. The blood collected in EDTA was subjected to Quantitative buffy coat method and antigen detection test. QBC was done using QBC malaria test kits provided by BD (Becton Dickinson) Diagnostics. The QBC malaria tube was filled from the end nearest to two blue lines from a collection tube of well mixed venous blood, to a level between the two blue lines. The tube was held horizontal and rolled between the fingers to mix the blood with anticoagulant coating and staining agent. Tube was tilted slightly so that blood flows away from the orange coated end and closed by pressing a plastic closure. With a clean forceps, a float was inserted into the unsealed end of the tube. Then the tube was labelled and placed into slots of centrifuge rotor. After proper balancing, the tube was centrifuged at rate of 12000 rpm for 5 minutes. Centrifugal tube was inserted into the groove of Para viewer. Para viewer with QBC tube was placed on the stage of a white light microscope fitted with a paralens adaptor. About 2-3 drops of fluorescence optical immersion oil was added over buffy coat area of the tube. Using 60X objective and a minimum working distance of 0.34mm, the buffy coat of the tube was brought into focus and the entire circumference of the tube was examined. The total examination time to exclude negative was approximately 2 minutes. The presence of malaria parasite was indicated by the distinct bi-coloured signet forms of trophozites strikingly apparent in cells near the granulocyte layer. Gametocyte of P. falciparum appears as yellow sickle-shaped bodies. Schizonts of P.vivax can be recognised by the presence of malaria pigment which appears dark brown in colour. (8) Malaria pLDH/HRP2 was detected according to manufacturer?s instruction using SD BIOLINE Malaria Antigen P.f/Pan rapid kit test” manufactured by SD Bio Diagnostics Pvt. Ltd.
RESULTS
Of the 137 patients studied the maximum number of patients i.e. 51% of the patients belonged to the age group 16-30 years. The male and female ratio was 1.4:1. Of the total number of samples, 19 (13.87%) samples were positive by peripheral smear, 28 (20.44%) were positive by QBC and 21 (15.33%) by antigen detection tests. (Table 1) 19 were positive by both QBC and Peripheral smear and 109 were negative by both. QBC detected additional 09 positive cases which were negative on peripheral smear. (Table 2) 19 were positive by both Antigen test and peripheral smear, but antigen test detected 02 additional positive cases than peripheral smear. (Table 3) The QBC test was 100% sensitive, 92.37% specific with Positive Predictive Value of 67.86% and Negative Predictive Value of 100%. (Table 4) The antigen test was 84.21% sensitive, 95.76% specific with Positive Predictive Value of 76.19% and Negative Predictive Value of 97.47 %. (Table 4) Out of 25 P.vivax positive cases, 25 were positive by QBC, 16 by peripheral smear and 16 by antigen test. Out of 05 positive cases of P. falciparum, 05 were positive by antigen test and only 03 cases were positive by peripheral smear and 03 were positive by QBC. (Table 5) Among the peripheral smear negative cases, QBC could detect additional 09 cases out of 11 cases i.e. 81.81%. (Table 5)
DISCUSSION
Majority of the patients in our study were adults. The mean age was 35.02 years and SD of 17.97 years. The results are in consistent with Sangeeta Gupta et al. A cautionary note is however warranted in generalising from these data because the available national data provides very little information on age-specific prevalence for India.(9) In the present study QBC detected more number of positive cases i.e. 28 (20.44%) than peripheral smear 19 (13.87%) which is consistent with H.Singh et al (10), MJW Pinto et al(5) and BVS Krishna et al.(11) (Table 1). We also found that Antigen test detected more positive cases – 21(15.33%) than Peripheral smear. This is in consistent with findings of C. Rajendran et al.(12) The total incidence of malaria in our study was 13.86% (19/137). (Table 1)
In the present study only 19 (13.87%) cases were positive by peripheral smear. This is in agreement with Pinto MJW et al. (5) This could be due to the fact that in 100 fields of a thick blood films, approximately 0.25ul of blood is examined and during staining 60-80% of parasites may be lost. Hence the detection limit of thick blood films is about 5-20 parasites /µl. (11) (Table 1) Compared to Peripheral smear, QBC was found to be 100% sensitive as it could detect additional 09 cases which were negative on peripheral smear. All the blood samples which were negative by QBC were also negative by peripheral smear. This is in agreement with Bhandari et al (13) who had 100% sensitivity with QBC. QBC is of great importance in peripheral smear negative cases and should be preferably used as a final diagnostic test and not as a screening test or first line investigation considering its high cost and tendency to report false positives.(13)(Table 2) Antigen test was superior to Peripheral smear study in our study as it could detect 9.05% more cases than peripheral smear. However, it does give the remainder 9.523% false positive result. We observed low sensitivity (84.21%) with antigen test. This could be due to low parasitaemia levels as observed by Iqbal et al (6) who observed 75% sensitivity at parasitaemia of 100 parasites/µl. (Table 3) Using Peripheral smear study as the „gold standard?, the QBC with respect to peripheral smear was found to be 100% sensitive which is in agreement with Bhandari et al (13) who had 100% sensitivity with QBC and specificity of 93.61%. This could be because in the QBC method approximately 65-75ul of blood is used. Due to the high concentration of parasitized erythrocytes in a small region, there is more probability of detecting the parasites within a short time. There is no loss of parasites during the procedure and hence the detection limit is 2 parasites/µl of blood or lower. (13) But the specificity of the QBC test was low in our study as shown in other studies. (13, 14, 15) The Positive Predictive Value of QBC did not reveal the absolute certainty of diagnosis. However, the claim of 100% sensitivity was proven in this study. This may be due to the fact that Howell-jolly bodies, artefacts such as cell debris and bacterial contamination may give false positive results. (13) The „z? value was 1.45 (6.57/4.53) i.e. numerator < 2 x denominator. Therefore, there is no significant difference at p=0.05 i.e. p>0.05 (Table 4) Antigen detection test was superior to peripheral smear in our study as it could detect 9.05% more cases than Peripheral smear. This could be due to persistence of HRP2 following clearance of P.falciparum. The antigen test has got high specificity of 95.76%, however it does give the remainder 9.523% false positive results, but the sensitivity was low (84.21%). This might be due to low parasitaemia and the sensitivity of the test increases with increase in parasite density as also observed by Iqbal et al (6) and C. Rajendran et al. (12) The „z? value was 0.34 (1.46/4.26) i.e. numerator < 2 x denominator. Therefore, there is no significant difference at p=0.05 i.e. p>0.05 (Table 4) The QBC method was 100% sensitive than antigen test. Also QBC positive cases with low parasitaemia (grade 1 and grade 2) gave negative result with antigen test. The „z? value was 1.12 (5.11/4.61) i.e. numerator < 2 x denominator. Therefore, there is no significant difference at p=0.05 i.e. p>0.05(Table 4) Species identification especially gametocytes of P. falciparum was not possible in 03 cases with QBC which was confirmed by peripheral smear examination. Concern over the ability of QBC method to enable species identification has been expressed. (5, 14) This could be attributed to the morphology of the erythrocytes being not apparent in QBC (13) also the gametocytes have a buoyant density similar to that of leucocytes and are found within the buffy coat, where it is difficult to distinguish parasites from leucocytes.(14)(Table 5)
CONCLUSION
In the present study of two months duration, we compared Peripheral smear a known „Gold Standard? with Quantitative buffy coat (QBC) and Antigen detection assay. We did not find any significant difference between Peripheral smear and Quantitative buffy coat and Peripheral smear and Antigen detection assay. Quantitative buffy coat is advantageous where work load is high, but it is costly and gives false positive report. Antigen detection test is useful device when microscopy is not available and immediate clinical diagnosis is required especially for P. falciparum cases which may develop cerebral complications. But it gives false positive results even after treatment. Both the methods cannot replace microscopic method for identification of species and for determination of parasitaemia. Therefore, further studies should be done with large number of samples for the evaluation of Quantitative buffy coat and Antigen detection test.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With a deep sense of gratitude, we would like to thank Indian Council of Medical Research for selecting this project for Short Term Studentship Program. We also thank the patients without whom this study would not have been possible. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to the authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1568http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15681. Parija SC, Dhodapkar R, Elangovan S, Chaya DR. A comparative study of blood smear, QBC and antigen detection for diagnosis of malaria. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 2009; 52(2):200-201.
2. Zeb J, Zeb W, Hamid Jan A, Faqir F. Evaluation of two immuno-chromatographic based kits for rapid diagnosis of malaria. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 2009; 23(2):149- 152.
3. Tjitra E, Suprianto S, Dyer M, Currie BJ, Anstey NM. Field evaluation of the ICT malaria Pf / Pv immunochromatographic test for detection of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax in patients with presumptive clinical diagnosis of malaria in eastern Indonesia. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37:2412-2417.
4. WHO World Malaria Report 2008 5. Pinto MJW, Rodrigues SR, Desouza R, Verenkar MP. Usefulness of quantitative buffy coat blood parasite detection system in diagnosis of malaria. Indian J Med Microbiol 2001; 19(4):219-221.
6. Iqbal J, Sher A, Hira PR, Al-Owaish R. Comparison of the OptiMAL test with PCR for diagnosis of malaria in immigrants. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37(11):3644-3646.
7. Uguen C, Rabodonirina M, De Pina JJ, Vigier JP, Martet G, Maret M, Peyorn F. Parasight® F rapid manual diagnostic test of Plasmodium falciparum infection. Bull Wld Hlth Org 1995; 73(5):643-649.
8. Dickenson B. QBC Malaria diagnostic kit product information and test procedures. User?s manual. Becton Dickenson and Co.
9. Gupta S, Gunter JT, Novak RJ, Regens JL. Patterns of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum malaria underscore importance of data collection from private health care facilities in India. Malar J 2009; 8:227.
10. Singh H, Tyagi PK, Sharma SK. Malaria diagnosis: Quantitative buffy coat versus conventional microscopy. J Asso Phy Ind 2001; 49:945-946.
11. Krishna BVS, Deshpande AR. Comparison between conventional and QBC methods for diagnosis of malaria. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 2003; 46(3):517-520.
12. Rajendran C, Dube SN. Field evaluation of a rapid immunochromatographic test kit for the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum and non-falciparum malaria parasites from Sonitpur district, Assam. J of Parasitic Diseases 2006 June; 30(1): 94-97
13. Bhandari PL, Raghuveer CV, Rajeev A, Bhandari PD. Comparative study of peripheral blood smear, quantitative buffy coat and modified centrifuged blood smear in malaria diagnosis. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 2008; 51(1):108-112.
14. Rickman LS, Oberst R. Rapid diagnosis of malaria by acridine orange staining of centrifuged parasites. Lancet; January 14, 1989:pp.68-71
15. Gurung B, Bairy I, Jagdishchandra, Manohar C. Evaluation of Falcivax against quantitative buffy coat (QBC) for the rapid diagnosis of malaria. Inter J Coll Research on Int Med and Pub Hlth 2010; 2(5):132-140.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareDOPING IN SPORTS- PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
English133139Vishesh RohatgiEnglish Narayana Reddy S.EnglishDoping is widely known as the use of banned substances and practices by sports personnel particularly athletes in an attempt to improve sporting performances. There are at least two essential reasons to support the fight against doping: the depth of corruption on the „fair competition?- the sine qua non of all sporting events, and the potential harmful effects on athletes. To ensure equal competitive conditions and to protect the health of athletes, the International Olympic Committee, WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) and International Sports Federations have accepted use of performance-enhancing substances and methods by competitors directly or indirectly as „doping?, and have forbidden them. Nevertheless, the desire to win for acclaim and/or associated benefits drives athletes to misuse these drugs and methods. When current antidoping programmes were developed, the most frequently used doping agents were xenobiotics, such as adrenergic stimulants and anabolic steroids that are readily detectable in urine with the use of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. As effective and stringent laws came into effect, use of traditional doping agents were restrained but some athletes turned to other means to improve performance, including blood doping and use of recombinant peptide hormones such as Erythropoietin and insulin-like Growth factor-1. And hence highlighted the potential misuse of this technology and „gene doping? .With progress in genetic engineering, many other genes with this potential for abuse will be discovered and tried subsequently. For this reason, it is important to promote research and to develop timely legal regulations in the field of gene doping.
Englishdoping, dope, sports, androgenic steroids, gene doping, biological passportINTRODUCTION
The word „Dope? comes from the Dutch word "doop" [1] (a thick dipping sauce) that entered American slang to describe how robbers stupefied victims by mixing tobacco with the seeds of Datura stramonium, known as jimsonweed, which contains a number of tropine alkaloids, causing sedation, hallucinations and confusion. Doping in sports is not a new phenomenon; Arthurian knights supposedly drank magical potions from the cup of Merlin. The Ancient Olympics in Greece were filled with corruption and doping to such an extent that the games had to be dissolved. In Ancient Rome, gladiators used to drink herbal infusions to strengthen them before chariot races and going into battle [2]
Perhaps the most sinister of all is the publication of the book "Faust's Gold" which gives an indepth look at the systematic doping machine implemented by the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the 1970s. Many of the athletes were given performance enhancing agents and around 142 former female athletes experienced androgenic changes.[2], [3] Heidi Krieger, the GDR shot-putter had so many testosterone injections that she opted for a sex change operation and now lives as Mr. Andreas Krieger. It is estimated that around 10,000 athletes were processed through the GDR doping machine. [2], [3]
A famous case of illicit use of androgenic steroids in a competition was Canadian Ben Johnson's victory in the 100 m at the 1988 Summer Olympics. He failed the drug test when Stanozolol was found in his urine. He later admitted of using steroid as well as Dianabol, Testosterone Cypionate, Furazabol, and Human growth hormone amongst other things. Johnson was therefore stripped of his gold medal and lost his recognition of what had been a world-record performance. [4]
In 1998 the entire Festina cycling team were excluded from the Tour de France following the discovery of a team car containing large amounts of various performance-enhancing drugs. The team director later admitted that few of them routinely given banned substances. Operación Puerto (Operation Mountain Pass) [5] is the code name of a Spanish Police operation against the doping network of Doctor Eufemiano Fuentes, started in May 2006, which resulted in a scandal that involved several of the world most famous cyclists at the time. India has been making strides on the international sports scene and now has been associated with what often comes with success — a doping scandal. Indian team players in the 4x400-meter relay squad that won gold at the Commonwealth and Asian games were among eight track and field athletes banned for out-of-competition doping violations. While the trial is going on, according to athletes, they tested positive due to intake of Ginseng found commonly in various ayurvedic products as well as many health/nutritional supplements [6] like Revital. Ginseng has been used as an energy booster; ginseng root does not contain prohibited substances, but products containing ginseng have tested positive for ephedrine. [7] No game is spared from doping. In Kabaddi world cup 2011, India lifted the title. It was found out later that 53 players including an Indian player were tested positive for anabolic steroids. [8]
Fighting to save the soul of sport
In 1967 The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was established in order to deal with the increasing problem of doping in the sports world. The initial goal of putting in place an anti-doping structure was rapidly widened to encompass the following three fundamental principles:
Protection of the health of athletes.
Respect for both medical and sport ethics.
Equality for all competing athletes. In November 1999, The World Anti-Doping Program [9] was developed and implemented to harmonize anti-doping policies and regulations within sports
organizations and among governments.
The three levels of the World Anti-Doping Program are: 1. World Anti-Doping Code (Code) 2. International Standards 3. Models of Best Practice and Guidelines Levels 1 (Code) and 2 (International Standards) are mandatory for all Code signatories. Level 3 (Models of Best Practice and Guidelines, including Model Rules) is recommended by WADA, and is made available to Code signatories upon request but is not mandatory. And since then, Doping is defined as the occurrence of one or more of the anti-doping rule violations set forth in the Code [9]. The Code is the fundamental and universal document upon which the World Anti- Doping Program in sports is based. [9] Going upon WADA standards, National Anti-Doping agency was established in March 2008, which follows the Code. In February 2011, the United States Olympic Committee and the Ad Council launched an antisteroid campaign called Play Asterisk Free, which was aimed at teens. The campaign first launched in 2008 under the name "Don't Be an Asterisk" Anti-doping research (ADR) contributes to the development and implementation of efficient programs for the control of doping and to provide much needed information and education regarding doping to the concerned sports bodies as well as the public. It utilizes research, analytical services and education to identify dangerous and banned substances in sports and help halt their use. In 2009, Anti doping research developed an equine test for the blood-boosting drug CERA (short for the brand name Mircera; also known as Continuous erythropoietin receptor activator).[10] Testing and analysis of samples are done in WADA-accredited laboratories and the results are reviewed and notified and appropriate action taken including suspension from athletics and forfeiture of medals, points and prizes.
Athletes seeking to avoid testing positive for doping use various methods to cheat on the drug tests. The most common methods include: ? Urine replacement, which involves replacing dirty urine with clean urine from someone who is not taking banned substances. Urine replacement can be done by catheterization or with a prosthetic penis such as The Original Whizzinator. ? Diuretics, used to cleanse the system (dilute the urine) before having to provide a sample. ? Blood transfusions, which increase the blood's oxygen carrying capacity, could trigger a positive test result without the presence of drugs Banned Drugs According to WADA 2011 prohibited list [11] prohibited drugs include (list not complete) Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS): Testosterone, Stanozolol, Danazol Peptide hormones, growth factors and related substances Erythropoietin (EPO), Insulin, Growth hormone, Insulin like growth factor-1(IGF-1) Beta-2 Agonist: All beta-2 agonist except salbutamol and salmeterol Hormone antagonists and modulators: Aminoglutethimide, tamoxifen, raloxifene, clomifene Diuretics and other masking agents: Furosemide, Thiazides, Albumin, Dextran, Mannitol Steroid inhalers and beta-agonist inhalers are mostly permitted with prior written notification but are banned orally. Similarly, steroids are permitted with notification by intraarticular administration but are banned intramuscularly or intravenously. Beta-blockers are banned in control sports only e.g. archery, shooting, bobsleigh, snooker, darts, and synchronized swimming. Alcohol is banned in sports such as motor-racing and shooting where performance of skilled tasks may be affected. [12], [13] Many athletes do not realise that caffeine is also banned in sport; a level greater than 12 micrograms/ml constitutes an offence. Many of the over the counter analgesics contain caffeine as do beverages, sports drinks and dietary supplements. [14]
Doping in Sports:
Future Gene doping is defined as the "non therapeutic use of cells, genes, genetic elements, or modulation of gene expression, having the capacity to improve athletic performance"[15] Gene doping is done using techniques developed for gene therapy. The most commonly used method is a viral vector, a “delivery vehicle” that does not cause disease, contains the gene of interest, and can be engineered to inject this gene into a specific type of tissue. In the case of certain muscle-enhancing treatments, the virus is injected directly into muscle tissue, where it proceeds to “infect” the muscle cells? nuclei, replicating the gene and ultimately increasing muscle mass. Injection of EPO (Erythropoietin) increases the number of red blood cells and thus enhances oxygen-carrying capacity. This conventional method of doping is believed to be in widespread use in endurance sports like cycling and longdistance running. In some cases doping comes natural!! Eero Mäntyranta, a Finnish cross-country skier who won two gold medals in the 1964 Winter Olympics had familial mutation which led to an excessive response to EPO, which resulted in very high levels of red blood cells. This high level of red blood cells and the accompanying increase in oxygen-carrying capacity helped him and several members of his family do well in endurance sports.[16] Question arises Should natural doping be banned ? When muscle tissue is damaged, as it is during exercise, satellite cells which are around the wounded fiber proliferate to help the repair process; the repaired muscle fiber, hence is bulkier and stronger. IGF-1 gene partly controls the building and repair of muscles by stimulating the proliferation of satellite cells. [16].
The leg muscles of mice treated with IGF-1 (right) are bigger than the leg muscles of untreated mice (left). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/349383 9.stm Another gene that encodes the antigrowth factor myostatin has the opposite effect, halting the proliferation of satellite cells. This myostatin gene is effectively blocked in the Belgian Blue Bull breed of cattle. The absence of myostatin not only allows unchecked muscle growth but also interferes with fat deposition; the result is a lean, “double-muscled” bull. [16] In such a case someday we can chose our own „six packs?! A team of scientists from the U.S. and South Korea have engineered what they call a “marathon” mouse. This mouse has been given an enhanced form of the gene PPAR-Delta, a gene that regulates the expression of several other genes and ultimately enhances “slow-twitch” muscle fibers. The scientists found that the enhanced mice can run roughly twice as far as normal mice, and they can run for about an hour longer than the average 90 minutes a normal mouse can run, even without previous exercise. [17] The enhanced mice experienced an increase in slow-twitch muscle fibers and a decrease in fasttwitch fibers, as well as an increase in fat burning in adipose tissues [17] Another famous hormone is Human growth hormone (HGH) and given the lack of a specific test and claims of human growth hormone performance benefits, abuse has markedly increased. The side-effect profile of HGH is particularly grim and patient may present with acromegalic features. One of the first elite athletes to admit to the abuse of Human growth hormone was Ben Johnson. Relatively new additions to the armamentarium are the artificial oxygen carriers such as perfluorocarbon emulsions and haemoglobin solutions. [2] Of course, athletes might also be interested in these genes and hormones, especially athletes in endurance sports like cycling and long-distance running, as it could “make their exercise more efficient” and help them increase endurance more quickly. More importantly it is difficult to be detected by usual tests.
Don’t tamper your Biological passport
It is an individual, electronic record for professional athletes, in which profiles of biological markers of doping like testosterone over epitestosterone ratio (T/E), hemoglobin, RBC count, PCV, and results of doping tests are collated over a period of time. The fundamental principle of Athlete biological passport is based on monitoring of athletes biological variables over a period of time rather than direct detection of doping substance [18] While a new drug test must be developed and validated for each new drug, the main advantage of the athlete passport is that it is based on the stability of the physiology of the human being. The blood module of the athlete passport aims to detect any form of blood doping, the steroid module- any form of doping with anabolic steroid and the endocrine module- any modification of the growth hormone/IGF-1 axis.
SUMMARY
Despite the development and research, doping in sports is on the rise in elite, amateur and school sports. Where some take drugs due to lack of awareness or to seek professional advantage, others feel pressurized into considering doping as the only viable option to level the playing field. Going with the notion of „Once a cheat, always a cheat? an effective anti-doping program must incorporate educational components in addition to testing. To assess the medical and social aspect of the doping phenomenon, it is necessary to conduct surveys and periodic surveillance on abused drugs. With „Sports medicine? coming up as an emerging field, it needs to be encouraged in medical schools. Research needs to be undertaken on potential doping agents and improvement of detection techniques. Information and education should be provided to athletes as well as to the society. The potential benefits to society and to the individual from sports will only be maximized where fair play is ensured at all costs. The field of gene therapy and by extension, gene doping, is full of unpredictable and dangerous results and need to be monitored stringently. Clearly technical advances cannot address what is essentially a behavioral problem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1569http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15691 Dope. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved June 14, 2012, available from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/bro wse/dope
2 Sheehan Orla, Quinn Brendan.Doping in Sports-A deadly game [online]. Available from: URL: http://www.theathlete.org/doping-insport.htm
3 Ungerleider S. Faust's gold: inside the East German doping machine.1st edition. St Martin's Press; 2001
4 Mackay Duncan. “Lewis: „Who cares I failed drug test? [online]. 2003 [cited 2003 April 24]. Available from: URL: http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2003/apr/24 /athletics.duncanmackay
5 Inside the blood doping investigation [online]. 2006 [cited 2006 July 10]. Available from: URL: http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0 ,1518,425939,00.html
6 Koshie Nihal.Dope-tainted athletes played Russian roulette: WADA [online]. 2012 [cited 2012 Feb 09]. Available from: URL: http://www.indianexpress.com/news/dopetai nted-athletes-played-russian-roulettewada/909789/
7 Bledsoe Jim. Ginseng: Another scientific study gives the thumbs down [online]. Available from: URL: http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/0170.htm 8
Kabaddi doping: Indian player found positive [online]. Available from: URL: http://www.dayandnightnews.com/2011/11/k abaddi-doping-indian-player-found-positive/
9 World Anti-Doping Code [online]. 2009 [cited 2009]. Available from: URL: http://www.wada-ama.org/en/World-AntiDoping-Program/Sports-and-Anti-DopingOrganizations/The-Code/
10 Anti-Doping research develops new equine test for the powerful blood-boosting drug CERA [online]. 2009 [cited 2009 Nov 24]. Available from: URL: http://www.antidopingresearch.org/PressRele ase_Nov24_09.pdf
11 The 2011 Prohibited List. The World AntiDoping code [online].2010 [cited 2010 Sept 18]. Available from: URL: http://www.wadaama.org/Documents/World_AntiDoping_Program/WADP-Prohibitedlist/To_be_effective/WADA_Prohibited_List _2011_EN.pdf
12 Mottram DR. Banned drugs in sport. Does the International Olympic Committee list need updating? Sports Med 1999; 27:1-10
13 O'Brien CP, Lyons F. Alcohol and the athlete. Sports Med 2000; 29:295-300
14 Green GA, Catlin DH, Starcevic B. Analysis of over-the-counter dietary supplements. Clin J Sports Med 2001; 11:254-9
15 The 2008 Prohibited List. The World AntiDoping code [online]. 2007 [cited 2007 Sept 22]. Available from: URL: http://www.wadaama.org/rtecontent/document/2008_List_En. pdf
16 Sweeney, H.L. Gene Doping. Scientific American [serial online] 2004 July [cited 2004 July] pp. 63-69.Available from: URL: http://www.bio.utexas.edu/courses/kalthoff/b io301C/readings/13Sweeney.pdf
17 Yong-Xu Wang, Chun-Li Zhang, Ruth T. Yu et al. Regulation of muscle fiber type and running endurance by PPAR-δ. PLoS Biol [serial online]. 2004 Oct [cited 2004 Aug 24]; 2(10). Available from: URL: http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/1 0.1371/journal.pbio.0020294
18 Athlete Biological Passport. World Anti Doping Agency [online]. 2009 [cited 2009 Dec]. Available from: URL: http://www.wada-ama.org/en/ScienceMedicine/Athlete-Biological-Passport.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareISOLATED PANCREATIC INJURY FOLLOWING BLUNT TRAUMA ABDOMEN
English140145A. RameshEnglish C.P.Ganesh BabuEnglish Sudeepta Kumar SwainEnglish K.RaghuramEnglish T.Tirou AroulEnglishA 27-year-old male presented with the complaints of abdominal pain and distension for two weeks following blunt abdominal trauma. Abdominal examination revealed a large tender mass in epigastrium, Left hypochondrium and lumbar regions. Contrast Enhanced Computed Tomography (CECT) imaging showed Necrotic pancreatitis. He was initially managed conservatively for a period of five weeks. As patients general condition worsened with increasing abdominal pain and significant weight loss, he was subjected to Laparotomy and Necrosectomy. Patient developed high output pancreatic fistula, which was managed conservatively for a period of six weeks with Partial Parentral Nutrition and Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio Pancreatogram (ERCP), was done which was not contributory. This case report is presented for an uncommon presentation of isolated pancreatic injury following blunt trauma abdomen.
EnglishPancreas, NecrosectomyINTRODUCTION
Pancreatic and biliary injuries are uncommon but may be associated with high morbidity and mortality, particularly if diagnosis is delayed. Pancreatic and biliary injuries may be more subtle. Moreover, these injuries may be overlooked in patients with extensive multiorgan trauma. Isolated pancreatic injuries are rare, occurring in less than 2% of blunt abdominal trauma patients, and associated injuries, especially to the liver, stomach, duodenum, and spleen, occur in over 90% of cases. Symptoms and clinical findings are often non-specific and unreliable. Imaging will show evidence of pancreatic injury. The main source of delayed morbidity and mortality from pancreatic trauma is disruption of the pancreatic duct.
Imaging Findings in Pancreatic Injuries Due to Blunt
Trauma Direct findings
Pancreatic enlargement, Laceration (focal linear non enhancement), Comminution Inhomogeneous enhancement
Secondary findings Peripancreatic fat stranding Peripancreatic fluid collections, which may communicate with a laceration Fluid between the splenic vein and pancreas Hemorrhage Thickening of the left anterior pararenal fascia Associated injuries to adjacent structures
Case Report
A 27-year-old male patient with complaints of abdominal pain, abdominal distension and fever for the past two weeks. He gave a history of blunt trauma (injury during a fist fight) 2 weeks prior to admission. He consumes alcohol occasionally for 5 years. On examination, patient was haemodynamically stable. Per Abdomen: A large tender fixed mass present in epigastrium, left hypochondrium and lumbar region. No evidence of peritonitis. Chest: Features of Right lower zone consolidation with pleural effusion. Clinical Impression: Traumatic Pancreatitis with Pseudocyst.
Investigations
Serum Amylase – 51 IU/L, Serum Calcium – 7.9 mg/dl; Complete Blood Count, Renal Function Test, Liver Function Test, Serum Electrolytes – Within Normal Limits
Ultra Sonogram Abdomen
Minimal free fluid in abdomen, Thickened omentum, Bowel distended, Bilateral pleural effusion Right > Left, Pancreas obscured by poor window.
Contrast Enhanced Computed Tomography (CECT) Abdomen
Acute Necrotizing Pancreatitis with Retroperitoneal fluid collection Minimal ascites, bilateral pleural effusion Patient managed conservatively with IV antibiotics and proton pump inhibitors. Follow up Contrast Enhanced Computed Tomography Abdomen after 3 weeks: Necrotic pancreatic parenchyma in the body and tail with localized pancreatic fluid collection and Left Pleural Effusion. Mild resolution of inflammatory changes compared to previous CT. Patient’s condition improved and discharged after 10 days Final Diagnosis: Traumatic acute necrotizing pancreatitis 10 days later, patient was readmitted for persistent pain. Abdominal examination showed large tender mass in epigastrium, left hypochondrium and lumbar regions. Investigations Hemoglobin: 9.5 gm/dl, Total Count: 16,700 cells/cu.mm, Differential Count: N70L23E3, Serum Calcium: 8.9 mg/dl; Serum Amylase: 76 IU/L, Renal Function Test, Serum Electrolytes, Liver Function Test: Within Normal Limits, Blood Culture and Sensitivity – Sterile.
Ultra Sonogram Abdomen
Heterogeneous appearing mass in body and tail region of Pancreas? Infected cyst, Minimal ascites, Left pleural effusion. Patient first managed conservatively but the symptoms were worsening with weight loss and fever. He was subjected to exploratory laparotomy.
Operative Findings
• Plastered peritoneal contents with thick adhesions
• Frank pus draining from lesser sac.
• Cavity extending to left paracolic gutter.
• Necrosis of the body and tail of pancreas.
• Pancreatic duct shows no evidence of disruption.
Pancreatic Necrosectomy was done. Two 30F drains were put into the necrotic bed. Pus Culture revealed Acinetobacter Spp. IV antibiotics were started as per Culture and Sensitivity.
Drain Fluid Amylase
Post Operative Day 4 - 9,940 U/L, Post Operative Day 12 - 40,300 U/L, Post Operative Day 32 - 815 U/L (30-40 ml/day) Subsequent Culture revealed Klebsiella pneumoniae and E.coli showing sensitivity to Ciprofloxacin.
Post Operatively
Post Operative Day 40
Fistulogram revealed residual blind ending tract in the left upper abdomen with no evidence of communication to Pancreatic Duct. Patient managed conservatively with Partial Parentral Nutrition and Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio Pancreatogram (ERCP) was done which was not contributory.
Follow Up
Post Operative Day 50 - Drain fluid 10 ml/day, Drain removed
Post Operative Day 60 - Wound healthy, Patient discharged
Post Operative Day 75 - Patient came for follow up, No specific complaints, Good weight gain (5 kg in 1 month)
DISCUSSION
Injury to the pancreas after blunt abdominal trauma is less frequent than that of other solid organs, such as the liver and spleen. Pancreatic injuries occur in less than 2% of all patients with abdominal trauma. Penetrating injuries are three to four times more common than blunt injuries (1) . Pancreatic injuries are usually associated with injuries to adjacent organ and major vascular structure. Mortality due to blunt trauma is about 15-50%. Mostly death results from the hemorrhage from nearby vascular structures (2) . Second most common cause of death is delayed mortality from intra-abdominal sepsis. Frequently noted in the history in traumatic pancreatitis is impact of the epigastric area of the patient with the steering wheel of a car in head-on collision. Cyclists involved in accidents are peculiarly liable to pancreatic injury, the blow to the abdomen being delivered by the handlebars or direct blow by assault. Pancreatic contusion is generally believed to involve rupture of minor or major components of the duct apparatus with consequent effects due to activity of liberated enzymes. The area of the pancreas most likely to be damaged as a result of a blow or crushing force is that which overlies the vertebrae (3).Although the middle segment of the pancreas is the most vulnerable, injuries of the head and the tail do occur. Typical mode of trauma is the clue and high index of suspicion is required to diagnose the pancreatic injury (4). They present with mild epigastric pain, abdominal tenderness or other non-specific abdominal findings. Investigations will show increased hematocrit, Increased Total Leukocyte Count, absent psoas shadow in plain x-ray abdomen. Serum amylase has been claimed to be neither sensitive nor specific in the diagnosis of pancreatic injury (5) . Serum amylase is increased in 90% case of pancreatic trauma (6) . Even if elevated, there is no correlation to the severity of the injury (7) . Contrast-enhanced computerized tomography (CE-CT) has been used to predict the severity of an attack of acute pancreatitis (8).The presence of gas within an area of necrosis shown by CE-CT is highly suggestive of infection. Management: The management of patients with blunt pancreatic injuries should be individualized. Selected patients with stable abdominal signs without pancreatic ductal injuries may be carefully observed. Any deterioration of clinical situation or demonstration of pancreatic ductal injury should mandate an exploratory laparotomy. The treatment has to be tailored to individual situations especially in patients with severe concomitant injuries. 1. Initial Management: Pancreatic injuries rarely occur alone and are often associated with other intra-abdominal injuries. Hence, these patients must be managed as all other trauma patients with the aim of ensuring hemodynamic stability first before any specific treatment of the pancreatic injuries if such treatment is required (9) . 2. Antibiotics: The gastrointestinal tract is thought to be the major source of organisms infecting necrotic pancreatic tissue. Increased translocation of bacteria and toxins is known to occur in acute necrotizing pancreatitis (10,11) . Prophylactic antibiotic use may reduce the incidence of septic complications particularly infection involving areas of pancreatic necrosis (12,13). In a recent prospective trial (14), the incidence of gram-negative pancreatic infection and late mortality (deaths more than two weeks after the onset of pancreatitis) were significantly reduced in patients with necrotizing pancreatitis who were treated with selective gut decontamination (14) . 3. Nutrition: Early introduction of nutrition via the gastrointestinal tract may also help to restore mucosal integrity and reduce bacterial translocation. A number of studies in patients with major trauma, surgery and burns showed that enteral nutrition significantly decreased the acute phase response and incidence of septic complications when compared with total parenteral nutrition. It can be concluded that enteral nutrition is safe in patients with severe acute pancreatitis and there is some evidence that it may be preferable to parenteral nutrition (15) . 4. ERCP: ERCP is an invaluable tool in the overall management of pancreatic trauma. In the early stages or pre-operatively, it is able to provide real-time diagnostic images and allow guided intervention. It can even be performed intraoperatively or in the late stages of pancreatic trauma. Through its interventional ability by placement of an endoscopic stent, major surgery can be averted even in the presence of pancreatic ductal injuries. ERCP is also useful in managing post-injury or post-operative complications. Pseudocysts, pancreatic fistulae and chronic pancreatitis are some of these conditions, which could be diagnosed and managed endoscopically without major surgery (16, 17) . 5. Non-Surgical management: Sterile pancreatic necrosis should initially be managed nonoperatively. Non-surgical management, including early antibiotic treatment, should be used in all patients with sterile pancreatic necrosis (18). In contrast other authors have observed a similar mortality in patients undergoing necrosectomy between those with sterile and those with infected necrosis(19) . 6. Surgical management: Timing of surgery is critical. Necrosectomy is technically difficult during the first week but becomes progressively easier with time (20) .
The Aims of Operative Management
To control hemorrhage
Treatment of other associated injuries
Debridement of non-viable tissues
Preservation of maximal viable tissues
Adequate drainage of exocrine pancreas
Indications for surgical intervention Absolute:
Presence of infected pancreatic necrosis shown by CE-CT or FNAB. Relative: In a patient with >50% pancreatic necrosis, failure to improve appreciably after 2 - 3 weeks, unexplained deterioration, or a suspicion of infected pancreatic necrosis even in the absence of firm evidence on CE-CT and FNAB. Necrosectomy has traditionally been undertaken by an open route (21). Following laparotomy the lesser sac is opened if possible, the colon is mobilized downwards and the pancreas identified. Necrotic pancreas is debrided by blunt finger dissection and wide bore suction drainage. If opening of the lesser sac is not possible, direct access from the infracolic compartment via the left transverse mesocolon (Space of Riolan) is an alternative. Adequate debridement is usually achieved with a single visit to theatre. Any associated fluid collections are drained by the most direct route. Large drains and irrigating catheters are left within the retroperitoneal area and continuous irrigation is continued post surgery (21) . In addition, the longer surgical intervention can be delayed after the onset of acute necrotizing pancreatitis, the better survival is, probably because of improved demarcation between viable and necrotic tissue at the time of operation. The role of delayed necrosectomy (after the resolution of multisystem organ failure) in patients with sterile acute necrotizing pancreatitis also remains controversial. Some investigators advocate debridement in patients who remain systemically ill four to six weeks after the onset of acute pancreatitis, with fever, weight loss, intractable abdominal pain, inability to eat, and failure to thrive (22,23) .
Outcome
Operative outcome of necrotizing pancreatitis is related to the timing of surgery; the later the surgery, better the outcome. In a stable uncomplicated patient, delaying surgery may decrease the morbidity of an attack (24) .
CONCLUSION
Trauma accounts for approximately 2 - 4 per cent of cases of acute pancreatitis. Following an upper abdominal injury, acute pancreatitis should always be suspected. Isolated pancreatic injuries are rare in blunt trauma abdomen, patient usually present late, can be diagnosed if suspicion is high based on mode of trauma and CECT abdomen. A latent period may intervene before appearance of symptoms. Operation is not necessary in all cases of pancreatitis following injury. The conservative nonoperative management which has greatly reduced the mortality in the usual types of pancreatitis is advocated for cases following nonpenetrating abdominal injury, if serious injury to other organs and massive hemorrhage can be ruled out. Indications for surgical intervention are penetrating wounds, injury to the important blood vessels, injury to adjacent viscera as spleen, liver or gastro-intestinal tract, and failure to respond promptly to conservative management or for subsequent pancreatic collections. If one cannot diagnose the exact grade of injury preoperatively or intraoperatively, conservative surgery is the best option, but in appropriately selected patients, pancreatic resection can be performed with good results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1570http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15701. Hendel R, Rustrals CH. Management of pancreatic trauma. Can J Surg 1985;28: 359- 62.
2. Ivatury R, Nallathambi M, Rao P. Penetrating pancreatic injuries. Analysis of 103 consecutive cases. AmJ Surg 1990; 56: 90- 93.
3. Howard, J. M.: Surgical physiology of pancreatitis, S. Clinics of No. America, 29:1789-1800, Dec. 1949. Ivy, A. C., Gibbs, G. E.: Pancreatitis: A review, Surgery, 31:614-642, April 1952.
4. Craiq MH, Talton DS, Hanser CJ, Poole GV. Pancreatic injuries from blunt trauma. Ann Surg 1995; 61(2): 25-28.
5. Olsen WR. The serum amylase in blunt abdominal trauma. J Trauma 1973;13:200- 204.
6. Bradley EL 3rd, Young PR Jr, Chang MC, et al. Diagnosis and initial management of blunt pancreatic trauma:guideline from a multiinstitutional review. Ann Surg 1998;227(6): 861-69.
7. Buechter KJ, Arnold M, Steele B, Martin L, Byers P, Gomez G, Zeppa R, Augenstein J. The use of serum amylase and lipase in evaluating and managing blunt abdominal trauma. Am Surg 1990; 56:204-8.
8. Nordestgaard AG, Wilson SE, Williams RA. Early computerized tomography as a predictor of outcome in acute pancreatitis.Am J Surg, 1986;152:127-132.
9. Miller PR, Croce MA, Bee TK, Malhotra AK, Fabian TC. Associated injuries in blunt solid organ trauma: implications for missed injury in nonoperative management. J Trauma 2002; 53:238-42.
10. Runkel NS, Moody FG, Smith GS, Rodriguez LF, LaRocco MT,Miller TA. The role of the gut in the development of sepsis in acute pancreatitis. J Surg Res, 1991;51:18- 23.
11. Wang X, Andersson R, Soltesz V, Leveau P, Ihse I. Gut origin sepsis, macrophage function, and oxygen extraction associated with acute pancreatitis in the rat. World J Surg, 1996;20:299-308.
12. Howes R, Zuidema GD, Cameron JL. Evaluation of prophylactic antibiotics in acute pancreatitis. J Surg Res, 1975;18:197- 200.
13. Finch WT, Sawyers JL, Shenker S. A prospective study to determine the efficacy of antibiotics in acute pancreatitis. Ann Surg, 1976;183:667-671.
14. Luiten EJ, Hop WC, Lange JF, Bruining HA. Controlled clinical trial of selective decontamination for the treatment of severe acute pancreatitis. Ann Surg 1995;222:57-65.
15. Moore EE, Felaciano DV, Andrassay RJ. Early enteral feeding compared with parenteral reduces postoperative septic complications: the results of a Meta analysis. Ann Surg, 1992;216:172-183.
16. Thomas H, Madanur M, Bartlett A, Marangoni G, Heaton N, Rela M. Pancreatic trauma--12-year experience from a tertiary center. Pancreas 2009; 38:113-6.
17. Kim HS, Lee DK, Kim IW, Baik SK, Kwon SO, Park JW, Cho NC, Rhoe BS. The role of endoscopic retrograde pancreatography in the treatment of traumatic pancreatic duct injury. Gastrointest Endosc 2001; 54:49-55.
18. Rau B, Pralle U, Uhl W, Schoenberg MH, Beger HG. Management of sterile necrosis in instances of severe acute pancreatitis.J Am Coll Surg, 1995;181:279-288.
19. Fernandez-del-Castillo C, Rattner DW, Makary MA, Mostafavi A, McGrath D, Warshaw AL. Debridement and closed packing for the treatment of necrotizing pancreatitis. Ann Surg, 1998; 228:676-684.
20. Mier J, Leon EL, Castillo A, Robledo F, Blanco R. Early versus late necrosectomy in severe necrotizing pancreatitis. Am J Surg,1997;173:71-75.
21. Beger HG, Büchler M, Bittner R, Block S, Nevalainen T, Roscher R. Necrosectomy and postoperative local lavage in necrotizing pancreatitis. Br J Surg, 1988;75:207-212.
22. Rattner DW, Legermate DA, Lee MJ, Mueller PR , Warshaw AL. Early surgical debridement of symptomatic pancreatic necrosis is beneficial irrespective of infection. Am J Surg 1992;163:105-10.
23. Ho HS, Frey CF. Gastrointestinal and pancreatic complications associated with severe pancreatitis. Arch Surg 1995;130:817- 23.
24. Vege SS, Baron TH: Management of pancreatic necrosis in severe acute pancreatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:192-95.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareA STUDY OF GALLSTONES ASSOCIATED ACUTE PANCREATITIS AND ITS MANAGEMENT IN RURAL INDIA
English146150Subodh P. UganeEnglish Prashant DhankeEnglish Hamza QaziEnglishIntroduction: Acute pancreatitis is an inflammation of the pancreas caused by auto-digestion of the gland by its enzymes. It includes a broad spectrum of pancreatic diseases, which vary from parenchymal edema to necrosis. The objective of the current study was to describe the symptoms of the patients with gallstones-associated pancreatitis and to reinforce the opinion that operation, within the first 72 hours after the onset of the disease, has many advantages and has to be considered as a treatment option when Endoscopic Retrograde CholecystoPancreatography (ERCP) is not available. Methods: The present retrospective study concerns all patients that were hospitalized in Civil Hospital, Sangli during the period between Jan 1, 2001 and Dec 31, 2011 under the diagnosis of gallstone-associated acute pancreatitis. From the records 216 cases were identified (86 males and 130 females). The mean age was 62.93 (SD 15.85years), ranging from 17 to 91 years. Results: 48 patients (22.22%) fulfilled more than 3 of Ranson's criteria. 40 patients (18.52%) presented with necrotizing pancreatitis. All patients underwent open cholecystectomy and common bile duct exploration. Necrosectomy concomitantly with cholecystectomy was performed in 14 patients (6.48%). The mean hospitalization was 10.53 days (S.D. 6.38 days), ranging from 2 to 36 days. The associated mortality reached 5.55% (12 patients) and no patient died in the operating theatre. During the 12-month follow-up period, 4 patients (1.85%) developed pancreatic pseudocysts.
EnglishAcute gallstone pancreatitis, CholecystectomyINTRODUCTION
Acute pancreatitis is an inflammation of the pancreas caused by auto-digestion of the gland, by its enzymes. It includes a broad spectrum of pancreatic diseases, which vary from parenchymal edema to necrosis. The clinical course of an episode of acute pancreatitis varies from a mild-transitory form to a severe necrotizing form characterized by multisystem organ failure and mortality in 20-40% of cases [1]. Mild pancreatitis does not need specialized treatment, and surgery is necessary only to treat underlying mechanical factors such as gallstones or tumors at the papilla of Vater [1]. Etiologically, the most frequent form is acute biliary pancreatitis [2]. Treatment of such an entity is still controversial, but a minimally invasive technique undoubtedly plays an important role [2]. The objective of the current study was to describe the symptoms of the patients with gallstoneassociated pancreatitis and to reinforce the opinion that operation, within the first 72 hours after the onset of the disease, has many advantages and has to be considered as a treatment option when Endoscopic Retrograde CholecystoPancreatography (ERCP) is not available.
METHODS
The present retrospective study includes all nonalcoholic patients hospitalized in the Civil Hospital, Sangli during the period between Jan 1, 2001 and Dec 31, 2011 under the diagnosis of gallstone-associated acute pancreatitis (GAAP). The characteristics of the 216 patients included in the present study are presented in Table 1. The diagnostic approach of the patients included both laboratory and imaging investigation. All laboratory examinations necessary to a full patient evaluation according to Ranson’s criteria were performed. In the context of the imaging study a plain chest film, a plain abdominal film, ultrasonography and computerised tomography were performed. All patients were evaluated with the Ranson's criteria. It is important to notice that 138 (63.89%) patients were aware of the gallstones. All patients underwent cholecystectomy and common bile duct exploration. Necrosectomy concomitantly with cholecystectomy was performed in 14 patients (6.48%). One hundred and two patients were followed-up during a 12 month period. The follow-up included laboratory examination and CT-scanning every 6 months.
RESULTS
The symptomatology is of prime importance in the diagnosis of the acute pancreatitis in general. Table 2 presents the symptoms appearing in Gallstone-associated Acute Pancreatitis (GAAP) in the present series. The laboratory investigation plays a major role both in the diagnosis and in the prognosis of the Gallstone-associated Acute Pancreatitis (GAAP). Table 3 presents the laboratory results of the patients. Forty-eight patients (22.22%) fulfilled more than 3 Ranson's criteria. Furthermore, according to Ranson’s classification, 176 patients (81.48%) had a mild to moderate acute biliary pancreatitis and 40 (18.52%) had a severe one.
The imaging studies represent a paramount factor in the diagnosis and decision-making of Gallstone-associated Acute Pancreatitis (GAAP). The results of the imaging investigation are presented in Table 4. In the above table under each examination are cited the possible findings that led the examination to be conclusive. All patients underwent cholecystectomy and common bile duct exploration. Necrosectomy concomitantly with cholecystectomy was performed in 14 patients (6.48%). The mean hospitalization period was of 10.53 days (S.D.= ±6.38days). The duration of the hospitalization ranged from 2 to 36 days. The associated mortality was 5.55% (12 patients) and no patient died in the operating theatre. During the 12-month follow-up period: 4 patients (1.85%) developed pancreatic pseudocysts.
DISCUSSION
It is well known that acute biliary pancreatitis is more frequently found among females than males [3-8]. The above data is consistent with the findings in the present study, since the female: male ratio is around 2:3. As for severity, there was no significant association between gender and any of the severity parameters with a few minor exceptions: longer hospital stays, higher Imrie scores and more pseudocysts for women, and more necroses in women with idiopathic pancreatitis. Thus, gender is no independent risk factor for the severity and outcome of acute pancreatitis [9], Overall length of hospital stay was positively correlated with complications, choledocholithiasis, co-morbidity, and deferment of endoscopic or surgical procedure [10-12]. In the present series the above statement reflects to the fact that the range of the hospitalization varies from merely 2 days to 36 days. In the modern era of laparoscopic and endoscopic surgery it is generally accepted that Gallstoneassociated Acute Pancreatitis (GAAP) has to be managed by endoscopic removal of the gallstone and secondary laparoscopic removal of the gallbladder [13-16]. In the present series neither Endoscopic Retrograde Cholecysto Pancreatography (ERCP) nor laparoscopic approach was available for that reason open surgery was performed. A field of controversy is the timing of the operation. According to several authors operation can be performed at the acute phase, while according to others it should be performed several weeks after the acute episode [17-23]. In our series the preferred time of the operation was within 72 hours from the acute episode. This choice was proved to be right as this was proven by the low mortality rate and the duration of the hospitalization.
CONCLUSION
Despite the fact that open surgical management of the Gallstone-associated Acute Pancreatitis (GAAP) is not the optimal treatment of the disease, the operation has to be a logical option in the interventional arsenal of the surgeon, especially when the institutional facilities at which he works don’t offer access to Endoscopic Retrograde CholecystoPancreatography (ERCP) and laparoscopic instrumentation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge all the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. We are also grateful to Editors, Publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1571http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15711. Gloor B, Uhl W, Muller CA, Buchler MW (2000) The role of surgery in the management of acute pancreatitis. Can J Gastroenterol 14:136D-140D
2. Ricci F, Castaldini G, de Manzoni G, Borzellino G, Rodella L, Kind R, Cordiano C (2002) Treatment of gallstone pancreatitis: six-year experience in a single center. World J Surg 26(l):85-90
3. Pezzilli R, Billi P, Morselli-Labate AM (1998) Severity of acute pancreatitis: relationship with etiology, sex and age. Hepatogastroenterology 45(23): 1859-1864
4. Bell AM, O'Rourke MG (1986) Gallstone pancreatitis. Med JAust 144(11):572-574
5. Carballo F, Martinez de Pancorbo C (1995) Epidemiological aspects of acute pancreatitis. Ann Ital Chir 66(2): 155-158
6. Halvorsen FA, Ritland S (1996) Acute pancreatitis in Bus- kerud County, Norway. Incidence and etiology. Scand J Gastroenterol 31(4):411—414
7. Ranson JH (1982) Etiological and prognostic factors in human acute pancreatitis: a review. Am J Gastroenterol 77(9): 633-638
8. Singal AK, Elamin AH, Ayoola AE (2003) Profile of acute pancreatitis in Jizan, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 24(1): 72-75
9. Lankisch PG, Assmus C, Lehnick D, Maisonneuve P, Lowenfels AB (2001) Acute pancreatitis: does gender matter? Dig Dis Sci 46(ll):2470-2474
10. Aiyer MK, Burdick JS, Sonnenberg A (1999) Outcome of surgical and endoscopic management of biliary pancreatitis. Dig Dis Sci 44(8):1684—1690
11. Catto JW, Alexander DJ (2002) Pancreatic debridement in a district general hospital— viable or vulnerable? Ann R Coll Surg Engl 84(5):309-313
12. Fielding GA, Mok F, Wilson C, Imrie CW, Carter DC (1989) Management of gallstone pancreatitis. Aust N Z J Surg 59(10):775— 781
13. Carr-Locke DL (2003) Biliary pancreatitis. Can J Gastroenterol 17(3):205-208
14. Carr-Locke DL (1995) Endoscopic treatment of acute biliary pancreatitis. Ann Ital Chir 66(2):203-207
15. Gloor B, Uhl W, Muller CA, Buchler MW (2000) The role of surgery in the management of acute pancreatitis. Can J Gastroenterol 14:136D-140D
16. Nam JH, Murthy S (2003) Acute pancreatitis - the current status in management. Expert Opin Pharmacother 4(2): 235-241
17. Osborne DH, Imrie CW, Carter DC (1981) Biliary surgery in the same admission for gallstone-associated acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 68(11):758—761
18. Saltzste'in EC, Peacock JB, Mercer LC (1983) Early operation for acute biliary tract stone disease. Surgery 94(4): 704-708
19. Prorok JJ, Trostle DR (1986) Early definitive surgery for acute pancreatitis associated with cholelithiasis. Am Surg 52(4):201-204
20. Mercer LC, Saltzstein EC, Peacock JB, Dougherty SH (1984) Early surgery for biliary pancreatitis. Am J Surg 148(6):749- 753
21. Heij HA, Veen HF, Eggink WF, Obertop H (1985) Timing of surgery for acute biliary pancreatitis. Am J Surg 149(3): 371-374
22. Kelly TR, Wagner DS (1988) Gallstone pancreatitis: a prospective randomized trial of the timing of surgery. Surgery 104(4):600- 605
23. Burch JM, Feliciano DV, Mattox KL, Jordan GL Jr. (1990) Gallstone pancreatitis. The question of time. Arch Surg 125(7):853-859; discussion 859-860.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24HealthcareQSAR STUDIES OF PHTHALIMIDE DERIVATIVES FOR THEIR POTENT ANXIOLYTIC ACTIVITY
English151156Suvarna Prabhakar GajareEnglish Supriya S. MahajanEnglishHeterocyclic compounds represent an important class of biologically active molecules; specifically those containing the substituted imide nucleus have been shown to possess high biological activities. Phthalimide derivatives have been found to exhibit industrial, agricultural and biological applications. A series of phthalimide derivatives were synthesized and studied for their acute oral toxicity as per the OECD guidelines and anxiolytic activity using Elevated plus-maze animal model. The compounds were screened for anxiolytic activity using diazepam as the standard. Anxiolytic activity was calculated based on the per cent open arm entries and average time spent by mice on open arms. The QSAR studies were carried out by using molecular modeling software Maestro from Schrodinger, USA. The best QSAR model was obtained when anxiolytic activity was correlated with ionization potential (IP) values of phthalimide derivatives.
EnglishPhthalimides, Acute oral toxicity, Anxiolytic activity, Elevated plus maze, QSAR, Ionization potentialINTRODUCTION
Phthalimide derivatives form an interesting group of compounds, many of which possess broad spectrum pharmacological properties such as analgesic1 , anticonvulsant2 , antitubercular3, 4 , hypolipidemic5 , anxiolytic6 , anti-inflammatory7 , antimicrobial8 and antipsychotic9 . Anxiety is an emotional state, unpleasant in nature, associated with uneasiness, discomfort and concern or fear about some defined or undefined future threat10 . During the last two decades, pharmacology with psychoactive drugs has been increasingly recognized as most effective in the management of anxiety, stress and psychosomatic disorders. The continuous usage of tranquilizers and psychotropic drugs has led to a variety of autonomic, endocrinal, allergic, hematopoietic and neurologic side effects. Elevation or depression of mood is another important side effect of such drugs. Tranquillizers have proved their efficacy in controlling anxiety and tension in many emotional as well as physical disorders. However, such agents primarily relieve the symptoms and offer relief for only a short duration10 . Elevated plus maze is the simplest apparatus used to study anxiolytic response of almost all the types of anxiolytic agents. Major advantages of this procedure are - a) it is simple, fast and less time consuming, (b) no noxious stimuli (sound or light) are required, and (c) it is a predictable and a reliable procedure for studying anxiety response as well as anxiolytic action of drugs11 . By QSAR models, the biological activity of a new or untested chemical can be inferred from the molecular structure of similar compounds, whose activities have already been assessed. The quantitative structure activity relationships study is essentially a computerized statistical method, which tries to explain the observed variance in the biological effect of certain classes of compounds as a function of molecular changes caused by the substituent 12, 13 .
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Chemistry
The chemicals required for the synthesis of phthalimide derivatives were purchased from Merck Specialties Pvt. Ltd., Spectrochem Laboratories, and Rankem Laboratories. All phthalimide derivatives were synthesized by ecofriendly method using microwave irradiation method14. Structural data of the synthesized derivatives is presented in Table 1.
Pharmacological Evaluation
The acute oral toxicity studies and anxiolytic activity were performed on Swiss albino mice of either sex, weighing between 25 and 30 g. All the animals were purchased from Haffkine Biopharmaceuticals Ltd., Mumbai, India. The animals were maintained at 25 ± 2 °C, 50 ± 5 % relative humidity and 12 h light/dark cycle. The animals were fasted for 24 h prior to the experiments and water provided ad libitum. The animal study protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee of C. U. Shah College of Pharmacy, Mumbai, India. Acute oral toxicity studies15 Acute toxicity studies were performed as per the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines. Before experimentation, the animals were divided into the control group and the test groups, each group consisting of six animals. The control group received orally, a single dose of 10 ml/kg body weight of a control [1 % w/v sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) suspension]. The test compounds, at different dose levels of 500, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg body weight, were administered orally to the animals present in the test groups. After the administration of the test compounds, animals were observed for a period of 14 days for the changes in the skin, fur, eyes and behavioral pattern. Mortality of mice in each group was also observed. A dose leading to these changes or mortality was considered to be a toxic dose.
Anxiolytic activity16-18
Procedure:Elevated plus maze method Mice of either sex weighing between 20 and 25 g were used for determining anxiolytic activity of phthalimide derivatives. Six animals were used for the negative control and the positive control (standard) groups, each. The animals in the test groups were administered the test compounds orally at a dose of 200 mg/kg as a suspension in 0.5 % sodium CMC. The mice in the positive control group were treated with an oral dose of 1 mg/kg of diazepam in the form of a suspension in 0.5 % sodium CMC. The mice in the negative control group were administered orally 0.5 % sodium CMC (10 ml/kg). After an hour, the test animals were placed individually at the center of the maze, facing an enclosed arm. The anxiolytic activity was evaluated for 5 min as: 1) the number of entries by each mouse on the open arms, 2) the number of entries by each mouse on the closed arms, 3) the time spent by each mouse on the open arms, and 4) the time spent by each mouse on the closed arms. The anxiolytic activity was calculated as the per cent open arm entries and the average time spent on the open arms. The per cent open arm entries of mice was calculated by using the following formula.
Quantitative structure activity relationships (QSAR) studies
“Maestro” – the molecular modeling software from Schrodinger Inc, USA, was used to develop quantitative structure activity relationships models. The software LigPrep was used to get correct conformational structures of the synthesized phthalimides. The software QikProp provided different physicochemical parameters of phthalimides. The correlation between the biological activity and physiochemical properties of phthalimide derivatives was studied using the program Strike from Schrodinger. The QSAR studies of 15 phthalimide derivatives were performed by simple linear regression analysis, considering Log (% open arm entries) for anxiolytic activity as the dependent variable. The best QSAR model obtained for anxiolytic activity was validated by dividing the data set of 15 phthalimide derivatives into training set of 9 compounds and test set of 6 compounds. Distribution of compounds into two sets was done randomly. Internal validity of the best QSAR model was checked by correlating the observed and predicted biological activities of the training set compounds and external validity was checked by correlating the observed and predicted biological activities of the test set compounds. Statistical analysis The results of the anxiolytic activity were expressed as mean ± SEM (Standard Error of Mean) values. The statistical analysis for the anxiolytic activity of phthalimide derivatives was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Dunnett?s test, for multiple comparison between the control group and the test groups, using the GraphPad software, USA. The „p? values less than 0.05 were considered to be significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Acute oral toxicity studies
None of the synthesized compounds showed any significant changes in the skin, fur, eyes and other behavioral patterns in mice at any of the tested dose levels. No mortality was observed in the control and the test groups.
Anxiolytic activity of phthalimides
Anxiolytic activity of phthalimide derivatives is presented in Table 2. The well-known anxiolytic agent diazepam increases the per cent open arm entries and average time spent by mice on open arms. The per cent open arm entries given by diazepam was 47.36. Out of 15 compounds, 10 compounds showed better anxiolytic activity as compared to the standard, diazepam. Compounds 1, 8, 9 and 15 showed per cent open arm entries slightly lesser than 50, but it was more than that for diazepam, whereas compounds 2, 3, 7, 12, 13 and 14 showed per cent open arm entries equal to or more than 50. Remaining compounds showed per cent open arm entries in the range of 44-47. The average time spent on open arms by the mice treated with diazepam was 5.24 ± 0.30 sec. It was more than diazepam in case of compound 8 (5.30 ± 0.89 sec) and compound 12 (5.72 ± 0.60 sec). Thus, these compounds showed higher anxiolytic activity as compared to diazepam.
Development and validation of QSAR models
The best QSAR model (equation 1) obtained for the anxiolytic activity of the synthesized phthalimide derivatives is discussed below. Log (% open arm entries) = 1.2253 + 0.0041 IP……………………eq. 1 n = 9, r2 = 0.97, s = 0.0041, F = 26.5 The positive sign associated with ionization potential (IP) in equation 1 indicated that the compounds with high IP can show good anxiolytic activity. The correlation between the observed and predicted anxiolytic activities for the training and test set compounds is shown graphically in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. The high values of r 2 for the training set (r 2 = 0.982) and test set (r 2 = 0.923) indicated good internal predictivity and external predictivity of the best QSAR model.
CONCLUSIONS
Out of 15 phthalimide derivatives 10 were found to be good anxiolytic agents. Increase in the per cent open arm entries and average time spent by mice on open arms indicated reduction in fear in animals. Compounds with high IP showed good anxiolytic activity. New phthalimide derivatives showing higher anxiolytic activities can be designed and synthesized using the results obtained from the QSAR studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars, whose articles are cited and include in reference of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors, editors and publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been received and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1572http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15721. Antunes R, Batista H, Srivastava R, Thomas G, Araujo CC, Longo RL. Synthesis, characterization and interaction mechanism of new oxadiazolo-phthalimides as peripheral analgesics. J Mol Str 2003; 660:1-13.
2. Bailleux V, Vallee L, Nuyts JP, Vamecq J. Anticonvulsant activity of some 4-amino-Nphenylphthalimides and N-(3-amino-2- methylphenyl) phthalimides. Biomed and Pharmacother 1994; 48:95-101.
3. Jean SL, Paulo YR, Chung CM, Celio TH, Fernando PR, Clarice LQ. Synthesis and in vitro anti mycobacterium tuberculosis activity of a series of phthalimide derivatives, Bioorg Med Chem 2009;17:3795–3799.
4. Babu AH, Ramana AV, Sinha R, Yahav JS, Arora SK, Antitubercular agents. Part 1: Synthesis of phthalimido and naphthalimido linked phenazines as a new prototype antitubercular agent. Bioorg Med Chem 2005;15:1923-1926.
5. Chapman JM, Cocolas GH, Hall IH, Hypolipidemic activity of phthalimide derivatives. A comparison of phthalimide and 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one 1,1-dioxide derivatives to phthalimidine and 1,2- benzisothiazoline 1,1-dioxide congeners. J Med Chem 1983;26 (2):243–246.
6. Hassanzadeh F, Rabbani M, Khodarahmi GA, Fasihi A, Hakimelahi GH, Mohajeri M, Synthesis of phthalimide derivative and evaluation of their anxiolytic activity, Res Pharm Sci 2007; 2: 35-41.
7. Collin X, Robert J, Wielgosz G, Le BG, Bobin-Dubigen C, Grimaud N. New antiinflammatory N-pyridinyl (alkyl) phthalimides acting as tumour necrosis factor-alpha production inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2001;36:639 -649.
8. Patel HS, Mistry HJ, Patel NK, Desai SN. Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of some new phthalimide derivatives. Bulgarian Chem Comm 2004;36:167 -172.
9. Al-Rashood KA, Mustafa AA, Alhaider AA, Ginawi OT, Madani AAE, El-Obeid HA. Antipsychotic properties of new N-(4- substituted-1-piperazinylethyl) and N-(4- substituted-l-piperidinylethyl)-phthalimides. J Pharm Sci 1988;77: 898-901.
10. Tripathi, KD. Essentials of medicinal pharmacology. 4th ed. New Delhi: Jayee brother publication; 1993. p.752.
11. Koslow SH, Murthy R, Coelho, GV. Plants and plant products for mental health, us department of health and human services, 4th edition, 1995, 163-171.
12. Kubinyi H. Burger?s medicinal chemistry and drug discovery: the quantitative analysis of structure activity relationships, 5th ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1995(1) p. 497- 552.
13. Mure SA, Bologab CM, Mracecb A, Chiriacb B, Jastorffc ZS, Náray-Szabóe G. Comparative QSAR study with electronic and steric parameters for cAMP derivatives with large substituents in positions 2, 6 and 8, J Mol Str: Theochem 1995;342: 161-171.
14. Gajare SP, Mahajan SS. Eco-Friendly synthesis of phthalimide derivatives, their analgesic activitiy and QSAR studies. I J Pharm Phytopharmacological Res. In press
15. OECD (2008) OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals Test No. 425: Acute Oral Toxicity – Up and Down procedure.
16 Sharma K, Arora V, Rana AC, Bhatnagar M. Anxiolytic effect of convolvulus pluricaulis choisypetals on elevated plus maze model of anxiety in mice. J Herb Medi Toxi 2009;3: 41-46.
17 http://www.answers.com/topic/anxiolytic activity - animal model, visited on December 2010.
18 Kulkarni SK. Handbook of experimental pharmacology, 3rd ed. New Delhi: Vallabh Prakashan 1999; p. 27-32, 123-128.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24TechnologyCHEMICAL KINETICS OF OZONATION AND OTHER PROCESSES USED FOR THE TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER CONTAINING PHARMACEUTICALS: A REVIEW
English157168Gome A.English Upadhyay K.EnglishIn the last decade, considerable interest has developed regarding the presence of pharmaceuticals and threat due to their presence in the water but comparatively little has been studied to understand and counter the potential effects of these pharmaceuticals. A number of reports about the ozone treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater have been published over the years but no comprehensive review has been published, especially during the last decade. Thus the aim of this paper is to present a review of treatment of wastewater containing pharmaceuticals by ozone and other advanced oxidation processes. An attempt has been made to assess the effect of ozonation and kinetics of different chemical reactions taking place during the treatment of wastewater mainly containing pharmaceuticals. It was observed that rate of degradation of some of the pharmaceuticals, especially antibiotics, is affected greatly by pH i.e. ozonation rate improved at higher pH compared to low. For the processes studied, it can be concluded that high removal efficiencies for pharmaceuticals can be achieved by alkaline ozonation and O3/H2O2. The study will give technical overview and useful information to the engineers and researchers who will work for the betterment of research activities in this field in future.
EnglishOzonation, Pharmaceuticals, Rate constants, Rate of degradation.INTRODUCTION Growing industrialization has given rise to the discharge of liquid, solid and gases into natural systems, which has been degrading the environment consequently. It increased the number of diseases in turn, which necessitated the production of a wide array of pharmaceuticals to combat. In order to manufacture these pharmaceuticals a huge quantity of water is required industrially which produces large amount of wastewater. Manufacturing of bulk pharmaceuticals involve a number of unit operations and unit processes including chemical synthesis, extraction, fermentation, and many other complex methods. Thus characterization of released pharmaceuticals and manufacturing industry is difficult [1]. Because of such diversity, chemical kinetics of these pharmaceuticals is complex, depends upon the type of particular pharmaceutical involved and treatment processes. Numerous studies have reported the occurrence of trace pharmaceuticals (mainly antibiotics) in aquatic environments worldwide [2-3]. Not all the pharmaceutical compounds are completely removed in sewage treatment plants [4-7] . Various technologies have been evaluated for the removal of pharmaceuticals: chlorination [8] , biodegradation [9], photo-degradation [10-12] , membrane filtration [13], activated carbon [14] and ozonation [15]. Many studies presented in that review reported important observations such as degree of reaction, reaction kinetics, degradation pathways and by-products of oxidation of pharmaceuticals using ozonation and advanced oxidation processes [16] . For ultimate treatment of all types of inorganic/organic impurities in water/wastewater, ozonation and advanced oxidation treatment has become the most important treatment technique [17]. Many researchers found ozonation particularly effective in achieving over 90% degradation for a variety of pharmaceutical compounds [18-22] . Literature Review Human drugs in the environment were first reported in the mid 1970s [23] . The research work on the application of ozonation process in wastewater treatment started in the late forties [24] . Large number of applications of ozonation in drinking water treatment, industrial wastewater treatment, biomedical waste treatment etc. has been reported in literature [25] . Many researchers have worked on pharmaceutical wastewater treatment by ozone or ozone combined with H2O2 and UV. Most of the research works in this area is related to the mechanism of direct or indirect reactions of ozone and calculation of rate constants [26] . In almost all the reported cases so far, synthetic samples were used and thus the results deviate when the treatment of actual samples from pharmaceutical industries, are carried out [27] . Thus, description of treatment of any wastewater containing pharmaceuticals or pharmaceutical industry wastewater treatment is complex. For ultimate treatment of a variety of organic pollutants water and wastewater, ozonation and advanced oxidation treatment has emerged as important treatment techniques [28-30]. With a focus over the past decade, given below is the review of research carried out relevant to the present paper. Degradation of cefradine (an antibiotic) was studied using an immobilized TiO2 photo catalyst. At an unknown pH, near complete conversion of 70 mg/lit cefradine was achieved in 2 hours. Rate of degradation was found to have increased when H2O2 was added [31] . Ozonation experiments of 4-chlorophenol were conducted in a homogeneous system and reactions of chlorophenol mixtures were performed in a heterogeneous system [32]. The overall rate constant for the reaction between ozone and chlorophenols were also evaluated. The second order rate constants increased (i.e. from 103 to 109 lit/mol.s) with increase in pH. It was concluded that experimental results obtained for kO3 at pH = 2.5 agree satisfactorily with the theoretical values calculated. Conversion of sulfachlorpyridazine (a variety of sulfonamide antibiotics) by ozonation was reported. At pH value of 7.5 and ozone dose of 0.3 mg/lit, more than 95% of initial sulfachlorpyridazine was converted in 1.3 minutes [33]. For the reaction between hydroxyl radicals and sulfachlorpyridazine and some other sulfonamide antibiotics, the second order rate constants were been reported [34] . Presence of carbamazepine, an anti-epileptic drug, in sewage treatment plant effluents as a result of its low biodegradability was reported and analysis was carried out for its removal by ozonation process through the kinetics assessment [35]. Low degree of mineralization was observed after 60 min of ozonation treatment and it was concluded that ozonation is suitable for carbamazepine reduction even at the process conditions. Slow degradation of diazepam (an anti-anxiety agent) by molecular ozone with a second-order rate constant of 0.75 M-1 s -1 at 200C was analyzed. The analysis revealed that the diazepam degraded mostly through hydroxyl radical reactions with rate constant 7.2 x 109 M -1 s -1 . Degradation of any intermediate or by-product formed was not determined [36] . Industrial wastewater treatment by ozonation in a gas-induced reactor with chemical coagulation pretreatment was investigated [37]. Kinetic investigations were also made using a proposed complex kinetic model, which revealed that adsorption of organic pollutants onto granulated activated carbon is a faster and more important step than liquid-phase oxidation of these pollutants. It was concluded that final effluent after chemical coagulation and combined granulated activated carbon adsorption/ozonation treatments was free from any color and had a COD concentration much lower than 100 mg/l which was recommended to be considered for non-potable use. Fast reaction of lincomycin (an antibiotic) towards ozonation was investigated using a stopped flow technique. For both protonated and neutral form, the absolute second-order rate constants were calculated as 3.26 x 105 and 2.43 x 106 M -1 s -1 respectively [38]. It was concluded that the degradation of lincomycin by ozonation is pH dependent and no significant role of hydroxyl radical reactions was reported. Advanced oxidation studies of the pharmaceutical diclofenac (a widely used anti-inflammatory drug) with ozone and UV/H2O2 were carried out. For kinetic experiments, ozonation runs were carried out at three different pH values (5.0, 5.5 and 6.0). After 90 minutes of treatment, 32% degree of mineralization for ozonation and 39% for UV/H2O2 was observed. To prevent radical oxidation, tert-butyl alcohol (a radical scavenger) was also used. Under the conditions studied, both ozonation and UV/H2O2 showed good degradation efficiencies but further investigations were recommended for the prediction of kinetics and intermediate products formation [39] . Ozone treatment of antibiotics producing wastewater mainly containing amoxicillin from chemical and kinetic point of view was carried out. Chemical investigations showed that the ozonation process is characterized by low degree of mineralization even for longer treatment times [40]. The observed low degree of mineralization and structures of intermediates and products of amoxicillin ozonation strongly suggested the need of further investigations in order to assess their eco-toxicological behavior. Assessment of the potential of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) for the oxidation of pharmaceuticals during wastewater treatment for the determination of rate constants was carried out [41]. Experiments performed at μg/L to ng/L levels proved that the rate constants determined in pure water could be applied to predict the oxidation of pharmaceuticals in natural waters. It was reported that compared to ozone, ClO2 reacted more slowly and with fewer compounds, it reacted faster with the investigated compounds than chlorine. In conclusion, the results indicated that ClO2 will only be effective to oxidize certain compound classes such as the investigated classes of sulfonamide and macrolide antibiotics, and estrogens. Some 25 pharmaceuticals, hormones and fragrances were treated and pseudo first-order degradation kinetics was observed for all compounds. After experimental evaluations, compounds could be divided into different classes according to their rate constant and persistence in wastewater (i) for kbiol10: transformation by more than 90% . It was concluded through an overview of kbiol values that biological degradation in studied wastewater treatment contributed only to a limited extent to the overall load reduction of pharmaceuticals [42] . In ozonation and kinetics study of bezafibrate (a lipid regulator largely used for the treatment of hyperlipidaemia), BOD5 measurements indicated that a 0.5 mmolL-1 aqueous solution of bezafibrate was not readily biodegradable. Second-order kinetic constants were estimated; for the ozone attack at pH 6.0, 7.0 and 8.0 in the range between 2.7 x 103 and 1.0 x 104 Lmol-1 s -1 with absolute method and 1.5 x 103 and 1.3 x 104 Lmol-1 s -1 with the competition method [43]. It was concluded that ozonation is a suitable technique to improve the biodegradability and reduce the toxicity of waters containing bezafibrate, although it was recommended that the optimal ozone dose needs to be determined according to the effluent composition.
Pharmaceutical compound sulfamethoxazole from wastewater was subjected to different oxidation processes involving ozonation, photolysis and catalysis under different experimental conditions [44]. All treatment processes were compared with respect to removal rates of sulfamethoxazole and total organic carbon (TOC). Conclusions drawn from the study were as follows: ozonation allowed fast removal of sulfamethoxazole in water and the use of combined ozone systems were reported appropriate to reduce the reaction time needed for total disappearance of sulfamethoxazole. Photocatalytic oxidation (O2/UVA/TiO2) allowed significant elimination of sulfamethoxazole but it was observed that it needs some higher reaction time than the O2/UVA/TiO2 system. Ozone alone could remove only 10% TOC (total organic carbon), while O3/UVA/TiO2 system gave highest TOC removal rates. To eliminate the toxicity of the water, photocatalytic oxidation systems with oxygen or ozone were reported to be the most appropriate technologies. It was concluded that the mechanism of photocatalytic ozonation mainly involves direct ozone reaction with sulfamethoxazole, and for TOC elimination, free radical oxidation and surface reactions were the main mechanisms of oxidation. Ozonation of naproxen and carbamazepine during catalytic and non-catalytic semi-continuous oxidation experiments at 250C in the pH range 3- 7 was carried out. The catalyst TiO2 increased the mineralization compared to ozonation without catalyst and also enhanced it in both acidic and neutral solutions. Second order kinetics was assumed between organic compounds and ozone. It was observed that catalyst promotes ozone decomposition under acidic conditions, while it behaved as an ozone decomposition inhibitor at neutral pH. When the pH was increased, the rate constant of the first mineralization period also increased and the rate of mineralization was found decreased when the concentration of hydroxide was increased. Experiments carried out in the absence of ozone indicated that the adsorption of intermediates could not reduce dissolved organic carbon during the ozonation reaction [45] . Ozonation of an effluent from a wastewater treatment plant was performed using alkaline ozone and a combination of ozone and hydrogen peroxide. Application of alkaline ozone resulted in some degree of mineralization but complete mineralization could only be achieved after adding hydrogen peroxide. The measured organic matter as TOC and the hydroxyl radicals produced from the peroxide-induced ozone decomposition was fitted into a second order reaction kinetics model [46]. Over 99% removal efficiencies were observed after 5 minutes for most compounds irrespective of the use of hydrogen peroxide. It can be concluded that for reducing the total charge of pollutants (in biotreated effluents) both alkaline and hydrogen peroxide ozonation are a promising alternative. Studies of the kinetics and mechanism of pchloronitrobenzene (pCNB-is a toxic, not readily biodegradable compound used in the production of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, antioxidants etc.) degradation by ozone were conducted. Nitrobenzene and chlorobenzene were taken as reference compounds and reaction rate constants of pCNB with O3 and •OH were observed as 2.6 x 109 L mol-1 s -1 and 1.6 L mol-1 s -1 respectively for reactions between pCNB and •OH/O3. Increased concentration of chloride and nitrate ions observed during ozonation, was reported to be almost equal to the reduced concentration of pCNB. It was concluded that the radical scavengers (CO3 2−/HCO3 - ) prohibited the carboxylic acids to mineralize further into CO2, thus the TOC of the water sample decreased very slowly at the latter period of pCNB ozonation [47] . Chemical, photochemical and surface reactions control the photocatalytic ozonation of sulfamethoxazole and the kinetic regime of ozonation corresponds to fast reaction [48] . Hydroxyl radical and photocatalytic reactions were reported to contribute mainly for the removal of total organic carbon. Ozonation of some pharmaceuticals in the pH range between 2.5 and 9 and the rate constants for the reactions between ozone and the selected compounds were studied. Simultaneous ozonation of the pharmaceuticals in different water matrices was also carried out. The influence of the operating conditions such as initial ozone dose, nature of pharmaceuticals and type of water on the pharmaceuticals elimination efficiency was established. A kinetic model was proposed for the evaluation of the partial contribution to the global oxidation of both, the direct ozonation reaction and radical pathway [49] . During the ozonation study of various pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds and pesticides, second-order rate constants for the reactions of selected compounds were determined. Bench-scale experiments were also conducted with surface waters spiked with 16 target compounds to assess removal by oxidation using ozone. The second-order rate constants for direct molecular ozone reaction were determined as 650?22, 601?9, 558?9, 2215?76 and 1427?62 M-1 s -1 in ultrapure water buffered to pH 8.10, respectively. Variation in pH did not affect the kinetics. It was observed that ozone is effective for removing trace organic contaminants from water and could be concluded that over 80% of caffeine, pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors were removed by ozonation [50] . Treatment studies of heterogeneous catalytic wet peroxide oxidation systems using a nanocomposite (Fe2O3/SBA-15) catalyst were conducted to analyze wastewater [51]. The pH of the reaction medium was reported to have critical influence in Fenton-like reactions and a pH between 3 and 4, optimum for advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). The effect of the reaction temperature showed that a temperature of 800C is necessary for total organic carbon degradation. Increase in temperature from 80 to 1000C resulted in a slight increase in TOC conversion, especially at final reaction. Survey of over seventy individual pollutants (mainly pharmaceuticals and personal care products, as well as some metabolites) in a sewage treatment plant was conducted over oneyear period from sewage treatment plant. The ozonation results showed that paraxanthine, caffeine and acetaminophen were the main individual pollutants usually found in concentrations over 20 ppb. Ozonation with doses lower than 90 μM allowed the removal of many individual pollutants including some of that more refractory to biological treatment. The kinetic analysis allowed the determination of second order kinetic constants for the ozonation of pollutants in its wastewater matrix and ozonation treatment yielded high removal efficiencies of most individual pollutants detected in treated wastewater [52] . Three tertiary-treated wastewater effluents were analyzed to determine the impact of wastewater quality on ozone (O3) decomposition and subsequent removal of some organic contaminants including pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, and personal care products. The O3 dose was normalized based on total organic carbon and nitrite to allow comparison between the different wastewaters with respect to O3 decomposition. The decomposition of ozone occurred at different rates in the three wastewaters [53]. Advanced oxidation using ozone and hydrogen peroxide did not increase the net production of hydroxyl radical compared to ozone under the conditions studied. Trace contaminants greater than 95% were removed with second order reaction rate constants with O3 (kO3) > 105 M -1 s -1 and with OH (kOH) > 109 M -1 s -1 . Ozonation of the quinolone antibiotic levofloxacin at different pH revealed strong influence of pH on levofloxacin degradation rate as well as reaction pathways whereas addition of different H2O2 amounts (concentrations 2-100 μM) had only limited effect. At pH 10, the tertiary amine at the piperazinyl substituent was found unprotonated leading to fast ozonation and high concentrations of the N-oxide degradation product. At pH 7, degradation at the quinolone moiety was also observed, probably mediated by reaction with hydroxyl radicals. It was concluded that degradation was about 2 times faster at pH 10 compared to pH 3 and 7 explained by direct ozonation [54] . Investigations on the aqueous degradation of two cytostatic drugs (cyclophosphamide and methotrexate) by ozone were made [55]. The second-order rate constant, for the reaction of cyclophosphamide with molecular ozone and hydroxyl radicals, was also determined as 3.3±0.2 M -1 s -1 . The study showed that ozone is very effective to oxidize methotrexate and it was found that high contact time would be required to remove cyclophosphamide in natural water matrix. Further research was recommended to examine the ozonation efficiency for the removal of relevant cyclostatic drugs and their byproducts. Degradation study by advanced oxidation techniques were carried out by selecting some commonly used pharmaceuticals and personal care products in laboratory bench scale experiments. The research was conducted to find the appropriate treatment technique out of seven advanced oxidation methods in laboratory batch experiments. Physicochemical properties of the compounds and solution pH showed substantial effect on the removal of pharmaceutical compounds [56]. Based on kinetic analysis and removal profiles, ozone/UV treatment was found to be most appropriate method. Oxidation studies of hydrochlorothiazide by ozone, UV radiation and hydroxyl radicals were performed. Influence of some operating variables on the degradation process was determined and kinetic parameters were also evaluated. By using competition methods of kinetics, the values obtained for the second-order rate constants varied from 91.3 M-1 s -1 at pH = 3 to 16 400 M-1 s - 1 at pH = 9. A kinetic model was proposed for the prediction of the elimination of the selected pharmaceutical, which could reproduce experimental data well [57] . Ozonation runs were made to determine rate constants for direct reaction between ozone and benzotriazole at pH values ranging from 2 to 10.2. The behavior of benzotriazole was predicted in ozonation and advanced oxidation processes. The second order rate constants were determined by two different methods [58]. The rate constants were found to vary from 1.7x1010 M -1 s - 1 at pH 2 to 6.2x109 M -1 s -1 at pH 10.2. Further investigations for the identification and quantification of byproducts formed and also for the evaluation of toxicity and biodegradability were suggested. Degradation characteristics of sulfamethoxypyridazine (pharmaceuticalantibacterial agent) through oxidation experiments by ozonation and photocatalysis were studied. Sulfamethoxypyridazine followed pseudo first-order kinetics. At pH 6, sulfamethoxypyridazine degraded almost completely within 7 hrs in UV/TiO2. At the same pH the reaction rates for its decomposition in water were observed as highest compared to runs at pH 3 and pH 11. Ozonation was concluded to be superior to photo-catalysis for the removal of selected compound [59] . Catalytic ozonation studies of some pharmaceutical compounds were performed and a two-step first order kinetic model was proposed. The compounds were observed to be removed completely in less than 10 minutes through fast direct reactions with ozone with or without the presence of catalyst (Al2O3 or Co3O4/Al2O3). By using the same catalyst, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon removal efficiency were found to have improved by single ozonation process [60]. It was concluded that the presence of catalyst does not rapidly improve the removal of pharmaceutical compounds but they affect the mineralization of these pharmaceutical compounds. Degradation studies of tetracycline (a pharmaceutical compound) by ozone at laboratory level at different pH, gas flow rate, gaseous ozone concentration, H2O2 concentration were carried out and pseudo-first order kinetic model was developed [61]. It was reported that the tetracycline degradation rate increased with increase in pH, gas flow rate, and gaseous ozone concentration. H2O2 addition or radical scavenger had little effect on the rate of removal of tetracycline. It was also observed that ozonation is a dominant process and radical contribution could be neglected. Advanced oxidation processes (ozone, electron beam and UV) were studied to evaluate the degradation and mineralization of antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole and chlortetracycline). The oxidation efficiency of each organic compound was observed to be dependent upon the advanced oxidation process used and algal toxicity significantly reduced after each treatment. The rate constants of hydroxyl radicals and hydrated electrons for sulfamethoxazole were (8.5±0.3) x 109 M -1 s -1 and (1.0±0.03) x 1010 M -1 s -1 [62] , respectively, and the rate constants for chlortetracycline were (5.2±0.2) x 109 M -1 s -1 and (1.3±0.2) x 1010 M -1 s -1[63]. The rate constant for the reaction of sulfamethoxazole with ozone was reported as 5.5 x 105 M -1 s -1 and the degradation of sulfamethoxazole was found to be dependent on ozone but independent of hydroxyl radicals during ozonation [64]. Electron beam process was concluded to be effective for the degradation of sulfamethoxazole and chlortetracycline, while ozone and UV were used to selectively treat the antibiotics. For detailed analysis of intermediates and products formed, further studies were suggested [65] . Kinetic study and toxicity assessment of ampicillin by ozonation were performed. Experiments were carried out to study the pH effect under different conditions (5, 7.2, and 9) on ozonation of ampicillin and degradation efficiency of ampicillin was also determined. Under the pH conditions, the second-order rate constants (2.2-5.4 x 105 M −1s −1) for the direct reaction of ampicillin with ozone were measured [66]. At pH 5, the acute toxicity and lower biodegradability was observed. It was concluded that higher pH conditions are required for the removal of ampicillin and toxicity of ampicillin and intermediates formed. CONCLUSIONS From the reviewed literature, it was observed ozone treatment alone or in combination with H2O2 and/or UV can remove pharmaceuticals from wastewater in less time compared to other processes but when such processes are used with a catalyst, they affect the mineralization greatly. However, addition of hydrogen peroxide does not result in complete mineralization. The presence of catalyst does not normally enhance the rate of reaction rapidly, although required time reduces when advanced oxidation processes are compared with other treatment processes. Since the hydroxyl radical concentrations depend mainly on the pH of the solution, decomposition of a substrate in ozonation processes proceeds by direct oxidation by ozone or indirect oxidation by hydroxyl radicals. Some of the pharmaceutical compounds were reported to follow first order kinetics while majority of pharmaceutical compounds (like benzotriazole, carbamazepine, clofibric acid, chlorophenol mixtures, paraxanthine, caffeine, and acetaminophen), endocrine disrupting compounds and personal care products followed second order kinetics. In case of ozone treatment of some of the pharmaceutical compounds which follow first order kinetics, COD and TOC removal efficiencies increases comparatively. In case of pharmaceutical wastewater ozonation with or without catalyst, in the acidic to neutral pH range, adsorption of intermediates could not reduce dissolved organic carbon during the ozonation reactions in the absence of ozone. In some cases high removal efficiencies of pharmaceuticals were achieved by employing alkaline ozonation and O3/H2O2. Degradation rate of some of the pharmaceuticals (especially antibiotics) is affected greatly by pH i.e. ozonation rate improved at higher pH compared to low pH. In case of endocrine disrupting compounds, pH variations do not affect the kinetics. To assess eco-toxicological behavior of antibiotics, further research is required. Due to the direct reaction of ozone with pharmaceutical compounds, identification and quantification of byproducts formed is still not conclusive and thus further investigations are suggested. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1573http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15731. Gupta, S.K. and Gupta, S.K., Hung, Y.T. “Treatment of Pharmaceutical Wastes”, chapter 5, pp, 167-233.
2. A.Y.C. Lin, C.F.L., J.M. Chiou, P.K. A. Hong, “O3 and O3/H2O2 treatment of sulfonamide and macrolide antibiotics in wastewater”, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2009), 171: 452–458.
3. D.W. Kolpin, E.T. Furlong, M.T. Meyer, E.M. Thurman, S.D. Zaugg, L.B. Barber, H.T. Buxton, “Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in US streams”, 1999–2000: a national reconnaissance, Environ. Sci. Technology (2002), 36: 1202–1211.
4. B. H. Sørensen, S.N. Nielsen, P.F. Lanzky, F. Ingerslev, H.C.H. Lu¨ tzhøft, and S.E. Jørgensen, “Occurrence, Fate and Effects of Pharmaceutical Substances in the Environment-A Review”, Chemosphere (1998), 36(2):357–394.
5 T.A. Ternes, “Occurrence of Drugs in German Sewage Treatment Plants and Rivers”, Water Research (1998), 32(11):3245–3260.
6. T.A. Ternes, M. Stumpf, J. Mueller, K. Haberer, R.D. Wilken, and M. Servos, “Behavior and Occurrence of Estrogens in Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants-I. Investigations in Germany, Canada and Brazil”, Sci. Total Environ. (1999), 225(1– 2):81– 90.
7. T. Heberer, “Occurrence, Fate, and Removal of Pharmaceutical Residues in the Aquatic Environment: A Review of Recent Research Data”, Toxicol. Lett. (2002), 131(1–2): 5–17.
8. P. Drillia, S.N. Dokianakis, M.S. Fountoulakis, M. Kornaros, K. Stamatelatou, and G. Lyberatos, “On the Occasional Biodegradation of Pharmaceuticals in the Activated Sludge Process: The Example of the Antibiotic Sulfamethoxazole”, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2005), 122(3): 259– 265.
9. P. Zhou, C. Su, B. Li, and Y. Qiang, “Treatment of High-Strength Pharmaceutical Wastewater and Removal of Antibiotics in Anaerobic and Aerobic Biological Treatment Processes”, J. Environ. Eng. (2006), 132(1):129-136.
10. M.W. Lam and S.A. Mabury, “Photodegradation of the Pharmaceuticals Atorvastatin, Carbamazepine, Levofloxacin, and Sulfamethoxazole in Natural Waters”, Aquat. Sci. (2005), 177–188.
11. C. Hartig, M. Ernst, and M. Jekel, “Membrane Filtration of Two Sulphonamides in Tertiary Effluents and Subsequent Adsorption on Activated Carbon”, Water Research (2001), 35(16):3998.
12. T. Heberer, D. Feldmann, K. Reddersen, H.J. Altmann, and T. Zimmermann, “Production of Drinking Water from Highly Contaminated Surface Waters: Removal of Organic, Inorganic, and Microbial Contaminants Applying Mobile Membrane Filtration Units”, Acta Hydrochem. Hydrobiol. (2002b), 30(1):24–33.
13. S.A. Snyder, S. Adham, A.M. Redding, F.S. Cannon, J. DeCarolis, J. Oppenheimer, E.C. Wert, and Y. Yoon, “Role of Membranes and Activated Carbon in the Removal of Endocrine Disruptors and Pharmaceuticals”, Desalination (2007), 202(1–3): 156–181.
14. K. Ikehata, N.J. Naghashkar, and M.G. ElDin, “Degradation of Aqueous Pharmaceuticals by Ozonation and Advanced Oxidation Processes: A Review”, Ozone: Science and Engineering (2006), 28(6): 353– 414.
15. V. Yargeau and C. Leclair, “Impact of Operating Conditions on Decomposition of Antibiotics During Ozonation: A Review”, Ozone: Science and Engineering (2008), 30: 175-188.
16. K. Upadhyay and J.K. Shrivastava, “Some studies on the use of ozonation process related to wastewater treatment”, Enviromedia: Pollution Research, (2005), 24 (3), pp. 613-623.
17. M.M. Huber, A. Gobel, A. Joss, N. Hermann, D. Loffler, C.S. McArdell, A. Ried, H. Siegrist, T.A. Ternes, U. von Gunten, “Oxidation of pharmaceuticals during ozonation of municipal wastewater effluents: a pilot study”, Environ. Sci. Technol. (2005), 39: 4290–4299.
18. N. Nakada, H. Shinohara, A. Murata, K. Kiri, S. Managaki, N. Sato, H. Takada, “Removal of selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during sand filtration and ozonation at a municipal sewage treatment plant”, Water Research (2007), 41: 4373– 4382.
19. V. Yargeau, C. Leclair, “Impact of operating conditions on decomposition of antibiotics during ozonation: a review”, Ozone Sci. Eng. (2008), 30: 175–188.
20. R.F. Dantas, S. Contreras, C. Sans, S. Esplugas, “Sulfamethoxazole abatement by means of ozonation”, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2008), 150: 790–794.
21. K. Ikehata, M. Gamal El-Din, S.A. Snyder, “Ozonation and advanced oxidation treatment of emerging organic pollutants in water and wastewater”, Ozone: Science and Engineering (2008), 30: 21–26.
22. S.A. Snyder, E.C. Wert, D.J. Rexing, R.E. Zegers, D.D. Drury, “Ozone oxidation of endocrine disruptors and pharmaceuticals in surface water and wastewater”, Ozone: Science and Engineering (2006), 28: 445– 460.
23. A.W. Garrison, J.D. Pope, and F.R. Allen, “GC/MS analysis of organic compounds in domestic wastewater”. Identification and analysis of organic pollutants in water, ed. L.H. Keith (1976), Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 517-566.
24. O.A.H. Jones, N. Voulvoulis, and J.N. Lester, “Human Pharmaceuticals in Wastewater Treatment Processes”, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology (2005), 35:4, pp. 401-427.
25. R.G. Rice, and M.E. Browning, “Ozone for industrial water and wastewater treatment”, Current status of wastewater disinfections and treatment with ozone (1977), Cincinnati, International ozone association, Vienna.
26. J. Hoigne and H. Badar, “Ozonation of water: Kinetics of oxidation of ammonia by ozone and hydroxyl radicals”, American Chemical Society (1978), 12 (1), pp. 79-84.
27. A. Gome and K. Upadhyay, “An overview of the treatment processes used for pharmaceutical industry wastewater”, Pollution Research-Enviromedia International (2011), 30 (4): 539-547.
28. O. Legrini, E. Oliveros, and A.M. Braun, “Photochemical Processes for WaterTreatment”, Chem. Rev. (1993), 93(2): 671– 698.
29. A.B.C. Alvares, C. Diaper, and S.A. Parsons, “Partial Oxidation by Ozone to Remove Recalcitrance from Wastewaters-A Review”, Environ. Technol. (2001), 22(4): 409–427.
30. H. Zhou and D.W. Smith, “Advanced Technologies in Water and Wastewater Treatment”, Canandian Journal of Civil Engineering (2001), 28: S49–S66.
31. S.H. Fan, Y. Shen, L.P. Chen, X.L. Gu, Y.G. Li and Z.B. Shi, “Photocatalytic Degradation of Cefradine in Water Over Immobilized TiO2 Catalyst in Continuous-Flow Reactor”, Chin. J. Catal. (2002), 23(2): 109–112.
32. F.J. Benitez, J. Beltrán-Heredia, J. L. Acero, F. J. Rubio, “Rate constants for the reactions of ozone with chlorophenols in aqueous solutions”, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2000), 271–285.
33. C. Adams, Y. Wang, K. Loftin, and M. Meyer, “Removal of Antibiotics from Surface and Distilled Water in Conventional Water Treatment Processes”, J. Environ. Eng.-ASCE (2002), 128(3): 253–260.
34. A.L. Boreen, W.A. Arnold, and K. McNeill, “Photochemical Fate of Sulfa Drugs in the Aquatic Environment: Sulfa Drugs Containing Five-Membered Heterocyclic Groups”, Environ. Sci. Technol. (2004), 38(14): 3933–3940.
35. R. Andreozzi, R. Marotta, G. Pinto, A. Pollio, “Carbamazepine in water: persistence in the environment, ozonation treatment and preliminary assessment on algal toxicity”, Water Research (2002), 36: 2869–2877.
36. M.M. Huber, S. Canonica, G.Y. Park, and U. Von Gunten, “Oxidation of Pharmaceuticals during Ozonation and Advanced Oxidation Processes”, Environ. Sci. Technol. (2003), 37(5): 1016–1024.
37. S.H. Lin, C. H. Wang, “Industrial wastewater treatment in a new gas-induced ozone reactor”, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2003), pp. 295-309.
38. Z. Qiang, C. Adams, and R. Surampalli, “Determination of Ozonation Rate Constants for Lincomycin and Spectinomycin”, Ozone Science and Engineering (2004), 26(6): 525– 537.
39. D. Vogna, R. Marotta, A. Napolitano, R. Andreozzi, and M. d’Ischia, “Advanced Oxidation of the Pharmaceutical Drug Diclofenac with UV/H2O2 and Ozone”, Water Research (2004a), 38(2): 414–422.
40. R. Andreozzi, M. Canterino, R. Marotta, N. Paxeus, “Antibiotic removal from wastewaters: The ozonation of amoxicillin”, Journal of Hazardous Material (2005), 122, pp. 243-250.
41. M.M. Huber, S. Korhonen, T.A. Ternes, U. Gunten, “Oxidation of pharmaceuticals duringwater treatment with chlorine dioxide”, Water Research (2005) 39: 3607–3617.
42. A. Joss, S. Zabczynski, A. GÖbel, B. Hoffmann, D. LÖffler, C. S. McArdell, T.A. Ternes, A.Thomsen, H. Siegrist, “Biological degradation of pharmaceuticals in municipal wastewater treatment: Proposing a classification scheme”, Water Research (2006 ), 40: 1686–1696.
43. R.F. Dantas, M. Canterino, R. Marotta, C. Sans, S. Esplugas, R. Andreozzi, “Bezafibrate removal by means of ozonation: Primary intermediates, kinetics, and toxicity assessment”, Water Research (2007), 41: 2525–2532.
44. F.J. Beltran, A. Aguinaco, J.F. Garcia-Araya, A. Oropesa, “Ozone and photocatalytic processes to remove the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole from water”, Water Research (2008), 42: 3799–3808.
45. R. Rosal, A. Rodr?´guez., M.S. Gonzalo, E. Garc?´a-Calvo, “Catalytic ozonation of naproxen and carbamazepine on titanium dioxide”, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental (2008), 84: 48–57.
46. R. Rosal, A. Rodr?´guez, J.A. Perdigo´nMelo´n, M. Mezcua, M.D. Hernando, P. Leto´n, E. Garc?´a-Calvo, A. Agu¨era, A.R. Ferna´ndez-Alba, “Removal of pharmaceuticals and kinetics of mineralization by O3/H2O2 in a biotreated municipal wastewater”, Water Research (2008), 42: 3719–3728.
47. J. Shen, Z. Chen, Z. Xu, X. Li, B. Xu, F. Qi, “Kinetics and mechanism of degradation of p-chloronitrobenzene in water by ozonation”, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2008), 152: 1325–1331.
48. F.J. Beltran, A. Aguinaco, J. F. Garc?´aAraya, “Mechanism and kinetics of sulfamethoxazole photocatalytic ozonation in water”, Water Research (2009), 43: 1359– 1369.
49. F.J. Benitez, J. L. Acero, F. J. Real, G. Roldan, “Ozonation of pharmaceutical compounds: Rate constants and elimination”, Chemosphere (2009), 77, pp. 53-59.
50. R. Brose´us, S. Vincent, K. Aboulfadl, A. Daneshvar, S. Sauve, “Ozone oxidation of pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors and pesticides during drinking water treatment”, Water Research (2009), 43: 4707–4717.
51. J.A. Melero, F. Martinez, J.A. Botas, R. Molina, M.I. Pariente, “Heterogeneous catalytic wet peroxide oxidation systems for the treatment of an industrial pharmaceutical wastewater”, Water Research (2009), 43: 4010–4018.
52. R. Rosal, A. Rodr?guez, J.A. Perdigon-Melon, A. Petre, E. Garc?a-Calvo, M.J. Gomez, A. Aguera, A. R. Fernandez-Alba, “Occurrence of emerging pollutants in urban wastewater and their removal through biological treatment followed by ozonation”, Water Research, xxx (2009), pp. 1-11.
53. E.C. Wert, F.L. Rosario-Ortiz, S.A. Snyder, “Effect of ozone exposure on the oxidation of trace organic contaminants in wastewater”, Water Research (2009), 43, pp. 1005-1014.
54. B.D. Witte, H.V. Langenhove, K. Hemelsoet, K. Demeestere, P.D. Wispelaere, V.V. Speybroeck, J. Dewulf, “Levofloxacin ozonation in water: Rate determining process parameters and reaction pathway elucidation”, Chemosphere (2009), 76: 683– 689.
55. A. Garcia-Ac, R. Broséus, S. Vincent, B. Barbeau, M. Prévost, S. Sauvé, “Oxidation kinetics of cyclophosphamide and methotrexate by ozone in drinking water”, Chemosphere (2010) 79: 1056–1063.
56. R.R. Giri; H. Ozaki; S. Ota; R. Takanami; S. Taniguchi, “Degradation of common pharmaceuticals and personal care products in mixed solutions by advanced oxidation techniques”, Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech. (Springer 2010), 7 (2), 251-260.
57. F.J. Real, J.L. Acero, F.J. Benitez, G. Roldán, L.C. Fernández, “Oxidation of hydrochlorothiazide by UV radiation, hydroxyl radicals and ozone: Kinetics and elimination from water systems”, Chemical Engineering Journal (2010), 160: 72–78.
58. N. K. Vel Leitner, B. Roshani, “Kinetic of benzotriazole oxidation by ozone and hydroxyl radical”, Water Research (2010) 44, pp. 2058-2066.
59. Li-Chin Chuang, C-H. Luo, C-J. Lin, “Degradation Characteristics of Sulfamethoxypyridazine in Water by Ozonation and Photocatalysis”, Procedia Engineering (2011), 15: 5133–5137.
60. P. Pocostales, P. Álvarez, F.J. Beltrán, “Catalytic ozonation promoted by aluminabased catalysts for the removal of some pharmaceutical compounds from water”, Chemical Engineering Journal (2011), 168: 1289–1295.
61. Y. Wang, H. Zhang, J. Zhang, C. Lu, Q. Huang, J. Wu, F. Liu, “Degradation of tetracycline in aqueous media by ozonation in an internal loop-lift reactor”, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2011), 192: 35-43.
62. S.P. Mezyk, T.J. Neubauer, W.J. Cooper, J.R. Peller, “Free-radical-induced oxidative and reductive degradation of sulfa drugs in water: absolute kinetics and efficiencies of hydroxyl radical and hydrated electron reactions”, J. Phys. Chem. A 111 (2007), 9019–9024.
63. J. Jeong, W. Song, W.J. Cooper, J. Jung, J. Greaves, “Degradation of tetracycline antibiotics: mechanisms and kinetic studies for advanced oxidation/reduction processes”, Chemosphere (2010), 78: 533–540.
64. M.-O.B. Michael, C. Dodd, U. von Gunten, “Oxidation of antibacterial molecules by aqueous ozone: moiety-specific reaction kinetics and application to ozone based wastewater treatment”, Environ. Sci. Technol. (2006), 40: 1969–1977.
65. T-H. Kim, S. D. Kim, H. Y. Kim, S. J. Lim, M. Lee, S. Yu, “Degradation and toxicity assessment of sulfamethoxazole and chlortetracycline using electron beam, ozone and UV”, Journal of Hazardous Materials (2012), 237-242.
66. Y.J. Jung, W.G. Kim, Y. Yoon, T.M. Hwang, J.W. Kang, “pH Effect on Ozonation of Ampicillin: Kinetic Study and Toxicity Assessment”, Ozone: Science and Engineering (2012), Vol. 34, issue 3, 156- 162.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24TechnologyTROPOSPHERIC LIGHTNING AS A SOURCE OF HIGH ALTITUDE LIGHTNING (HAL) DISCHARGES
English169174Manoj Kumar ParasEnglish Jagdish RaiEnglishHigh altitude lightning (HAL) discharges are a family of short lived electrical-breakdown phenomena that occur at altitudes ranging from cloud tops to the ionosphere. HAL discharges include mainly blue starters, blue jets, red sprites and elves. In this paper, it is described that the tropospheric cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning discharges pave the way of HAL discharges. The electric field, generated due to CG lightning discharge in the upper atmosphere is calculated. This electric field deposits the heat energy in the ambient space which comes in the form of HAL discharges. An altitude profile of heat energy density, deposited in the body of HAL discharges is also calculated. The HAL generating electric field deposits huge amount of energy at lower altitudes as compared to the higher altitudes. The energy loss at an altitude of 20 km where blue starters/jets initiate comes out to be of the order of 10-4 Jm-3. Similarly the energy loss at sprite initiating altitude (70 km) comes out to be of the order of 10-8 Jm-3. This shows that the blue starters/jets are more luminous as compared to the red sprites, which is in conformity with the experimental observations.
EnglishLightning, Sprites, Blue jets, Blue starters, Elves, IonosphereINTRODUCTION
High altitude lightning (HAL) discharges are the optical emissions which occur from the top of the thunderclouds to the lower ionosphere. HAL discharges include mainly blue starters, blue jets, red sprites, and elves. Although Scottish physicist C. T. R. Wilson had predicted about them in 1920, the direct visual evidences were documented on July 6, 1989 by scientists from the University of Minnesota. These discharges are categorized according to their physical properties, altitudes of occurrence, duration, and the kind of emissions they produce. Blue starters and blue jets are blue colored upward moving luminous phenomena which initiate directly from the top of the active thundercloud. Blue starters initiate from 17.7±0.9 km and propagate upwards up to 25.7 km with a velocity ranges from 27-153 km/s [1]. Blue jets appear to propagate in a conical shape at speeds of 100 km/s and reach the terminal altitudes of 40-50 km [2]. The duration of blue jets ranges from 200-300 ms [2]. It has been seen that sometime streamers initiate as a blue starters and get converted into blue jets at higher altitudes [2]. Blue starters appear to be brighter than blue jets. Red sprites are the mesospheric phenomena which occur at altitudes ranging from 40 to 80 km [3]. These are the most frequent candidates among the HAL discharges. Sprites are classified into two types-“columniform” and “carrot” sprites [4]. Columniform sprites are smaller in size whereas carrot shaped sprites are very large, highly energetic, and always occur in clusters [5]. Sprites are primarily red in color and turn in blue kind of tendril structures at lower altitudes. These are associated with strong positive cloud-toground (CG) lightning discharges [6]. The duration of these discharges are short, ranging from one millisecond to tens of milliseconds [7]. They usually occur at the dying stage of the thunderstorm. Red sprites are the strong source of extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation [8,9]. Sprites consist of streamers [10]. Such streamers are initiated in the lower ionosphere by electron patches caused by the electromagnetic radiation from horizontal intracloud (IC) lightning and then develop downwards in the static electric field due to the thundercloud. Hu et al. [11] reported that the ambient electric field “E” for the initiation of sprite streamers can be well below the local air breakdown electric field “Ek ” . They observed the value of E about 0.2 Ek, 0.3-0.5 Ek and above 0.5 Ek to initiate dim, typical and bright sprites respectively. Sprite streamers can propagate upwards as well as downwards from their point of origination. Their speed of propagation ranges from (1-3) ×107 ms-1 [12]. Elves are lower ionospheric discharges which occur at altitudes of 75-105 km. They have very short duration typically < 1 ms, and appear as a dim flattened and expanding glow of 100-300 km in diameter [13]. Their speed of propagation ranges from one-tenth to the one-third of the speed of light. Experimental observations have been shown that elves are associated with VLF radiation. They generally require large peak current (>70 kA) of CG lightning for initiation [13]. In this paper, a process has been described which can generate the HAL discharges. The HAL discharges generating electric field has been calculated. This electric field deposits the heat energy in the atmosphere which can excites the neutral atoms and molecules of the ambient atmosphere resulting in different kind of discharges. HAL DISCHARGES GENERATING ELECTRIC FIELD: Blue jets and blue starters are formed by an attachment-controlled ionizing wave which move upwards in the presence of downward directed quasi-electrostatic field, caused by the extraordinary large thundercloud charge (Q>100 C) transfer by the strong positive CG lightning discharges [14]. The thundercloud charge is carried out by the stepped leader, propagating from cloud to ground in discrete steps. As the stepped leader nears the ground, a highly luminous ground potential wave called “returnstroke” is generated. Return stroke contain the maximum amount of current. A typical CG lightning discharge is associated with both return stroke current and continuing current. Return stroke current is momentary (~100 μs) while continuing currents flows over a longer period of time (several tens of ms). Red sprites are produced due to the large continuing current moment (>11 kA.km) and charge moment change (>600 C.km) associated with parent CG lightning discharges [15]. There are evidences of continuing currents in sprite producing CG and horizontal IC lightning discharges [16, 17]. Experimental observations indicate that elves are also associated with large CG lightning discharges, but preceding the onset of sprites [13]. Since almost all the HAL are associated with the strong CG lightning discharges, so we consider only the positive CG lightning discharges for our calculation. The total current associated with a positive CG lightning discharge can be written by [18]
The equation (1) contains both the return stroke current and continuing current. The first two terms are associated with return-stroke current. The return stroke current is not long lasting. The ime period for this is about 100 μs. On the other hand the duration of continuing current is from one millisecond to a few tens of milliseconds. So, the continuing current can carry large amount of charge roughly from several tens to hundreds of coulombs. Continuing currents carry the charge slowly and help to build up the electrostatic field in the upper atmosphere. The positive CG lightning deposits a negative charge in the cloud and produces an external electric field at altitudes z>>h given by [10]
Eq. (6) represents the HAL discharges generating electric field. This shows that higher the ambient conductivity lower will be the E(t,z) to produce discharges. The electric field E(t,z) decays at higher altitudes quickly, but sometime if the h=10 km, the height of the charge removal; hi=80 km, the height of the ionosphere; ε0=dielectric constant of air. The total charge removed by the positive CG lightning comes out to be 200 C. This can ranges from 20-1000 C [19]. The external electric field exerts a force on the atmosphere which responds with the electric field E. The evolution of E can be described by the linear differential equation given by [20]
charge transfer by CG lightning is very high then it can penetrates up to the ionospheric region where the breakdown electric field is very low to produce red sprites.
Heating of the upper atmosphere The HAL discharges generating electric field E(t,z) deposits the electrical energy in the upper atmosphere. The heat energy density deposited in the atmosphere can be written by The altitude profile of “εd” has been shown in Fig. 1. The calculated energy density has been compared with the previous reported value (equation no. 12) using point charge (Q=200 C) model [19]. The calculated energy density is overestimated at the altitudes below 40 km and at the same time it is also underestimated at altitudes of above 70 km as compared to the previous results [19]. It is revealed that the HAL discharges generating electric field deposits the maximum energy at the lower altitudes. So, the discharges like blue starters and blue jets are more favorable in our case. At the same time this electric field deposits the energy at upper altitudes also, so it may also be responsible for red sprites type of discharges. Further, it has been seen that the lower altitude discharges are brighter than higher altitude lightning discharges, so our altitude distribution of energy density is well in conformity with the same. The calculated electric field “E(t,z)” endures for several milliseconds, so the ionospheric lightning discharges known as elves having very short time duration of around 0.1 ms may or may not be associated with this electric field. However, it is believed that the powerful return stroke having very short duration of around several hundreds of microseconds can generate strong electromagnetic pulses which ionize the lower ionosphere and result in elves.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The electric field E(t,z) developed in the upper atmosphere for the generation of HAL discharges especially blue starters, blue jets and red sprites is calculated. At a particular time, the calculated electric field decreases with height. This electric field deposits heat energy in the ambient space to form HAL discharges. The maximum heat energy is deposited in the stratospheric region where blue starters and blue jets are initiated. An altitude profile of dissipated energy density is shown in Fig. 1. The energy density deposited at 20 km altitude comes out to be around 3.63×10-4 Jm-3 . Similarly, the energy deposited at the higher altitudes is responsible for the occurrence of red sprites. The energy density at 70 km altitude where most of the red sprites initiate comes out to be around 1.82×10-8 Jm-3 . It is found that the energy density deposited at the higher altitudes is very low as compared to the lower altitudes. It is obvious, because the electric field also decreases with height. Experimental studies have shown that the electric discharges are more favorable at low pressures. Since atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with height, so it is assumed that this much energy may produce sufficient heating and ionization at mesospheric region to produce red sprites. Present results have been compared with the previous results and it is found well in conformity with them. One can compare the total heat energy loss in HAL with the tropospheric cloud-to-ground lightning discharges [22]. Several authors have observed the current in the body of HAL discharges especially in red sprites and blue jets [23, 24]. The vertical current moment produces the electromagnetic radiation in ELF/VLF region which can affect the ionospheric parameters like electron density, electron temperature, ion temperature and ion composition etc. HAL discharges may play the important role for the enhancement of ionospheric temperature reported by some researchers [25]. Since sprites and jets contain significant amount of current within their body so it is suspected that the HAL discharges may modify the global atmospheric electric circuit. Recently, Peterson et al. [26] reported the NOx (NO and NO2) production from sprites and jets in the middle atmosphere. They used a pressure-controlled chamber and high-voltage power supply to simulate the HAL discharges. Production of NOx may enhance the level of ozone in the tropospheric and stratospheric regions which points the critical issue of “Global Warming”. CONCLUSION The principal objective of the above study was to investigate the association of tropospheric lightning with HAL discharges. The electric field generated due to strong positive CG lightning discharges in the upper atmosphere has been calculated. Further, the heat energy density deposited due to the electric field at different altitudes has also been calculated. The deposited heat energy decreases with altitude, which describes that the lower altitude discharges like blue starters/jets are more luminous than the higher altitude discharges like red sprites. We hope this study will be useful to solve the future aeronautics and space related problems. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Author Manoj Kumar Paras is thankful to CSIR New Delhi, India for their financial support to carry out this research work. Further, authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1574http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15741. Pasko VP and George JJ (2002). Threedimensional modeling of blue jets and blue starters. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (A12) 1458.
2. Wescott EM, Sentman D, Osborne D, Hampton D and Heavner M (1995). Preliminary results from the sprites94 aircraft campaign: 2. Blue jets. Geophysical Research Letters 22 (10) 1209-1212.
3. Sentman DD, Wescott EM, Osborne DL, Hampton DL and Heavner MJ (1995). Preliminary results from the sprites94 aircraft campaign: 1. Red sprites. Geophysical Research Letters, 22 (10) 1205-1208.
4. Fukunishi H, Takahashi Y, Sato M, Shono A, Fujito M and Watanabe Y (1997). Groundbased observations of ULF transients excited by strong lightning discharges producing elves and sprites. Geophysical Research Letters 24 (23) 2973-2976.
5. Williams ER (2001). Sprites, elves, and glow discharge tubes (Nov 2001). Physics Today 1-7.
6. Boccippio DJ, Williams ER, Heckman SJ, Lyons WA, Baker IT and Boldi R (1995). Sprites, ELF transients and positive ground strokes. Science 269 (5227) 1088-1091.
7. Reising SC, Inan US and Bell TF (1999). ELF sferic energy as a proxy indicator for sprite occurrence. Geophysical Research Letters 26 (7) 987-990.
8. Paras MK and Rai J (2011). Electric and magnetic fields from return stroke-lateral corona system and red sprites. Journal of Electromagnetic Analysis and Applications 3 (12) 479-489.
9. Paras MK and Rai J (2012). Electrical parameters of red sprites. Atmosfera 25 (4) 371-380.
10. Raizer Yu P, Milikh GM, Shneider MN and Novakovski SV (1998). Long streamers in the upper atmosphere above thundercloud. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 31 3255-3264.
11. Hu W, Cummer S A and Lyons W A (2007). Testing sprite initiation theory using lightning measurements and modeled electromagnetic fields, J. Geophys. Res. 112 D13115.
12. Li J and Cummer SA (2009). Measurement of sprite streamer acceleration and deceleration. Geophysical Research Letters 36 (L10812) 1-5.
13. Fukunishi H, Takahashi Y, Kubota M, Sakanoi K, Inan US and Lyons WA (1996). Elves: Lightning-induced transient luminous events in the lower ionosphere. Geophysical Research Letters 23 (16) 2157-2160.
14. Sukhorukov AI, Mishin EV, Stubbe P and Rycroft MJ (1996). On blue jet dynamics. Geophysics Research Letters 23 (13) 1625- 1628.
15. Li J, Cummer SA, Lyons WA and Nelson TE (2008). Coordinated analysis of delayed sprites with high-speed images and remote electromagnetic fields. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113 (D20206), 1-11.
16. Reising SC, Inan US, Bell TF and Lyons WA (1996). Evidence for continuing current in sprite-producing cloud-to-ground lightning. Geophysics Research Letters 23 (24) 3639- 3642.
17. Bell T F, Reising SC and Inan US (1998). Intense continuing currents following positive cloud-to-ground lightning associated with red sprites. Geophysical Research Letters 25 (8) 1285-1288.
18. Nickolaenko A P and Hayakawa M (1998). Electric fields produced by lightning discharges. Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (D14) 17175-17189.
19. Fullekrug M (2006). Elementary model of sprite igniting electric fields. American Journal of Physics 74 (9) 804-805.
20. Luque A and Gordillo-Vázquez FJ (2011). Mesospheric electric breakdown and delayed sprite ignition caused by electron detachment. Nature Geoscience 5 22-25.
21. Bell TF, Pasko VP and Inan US (1995). Runaway electrons as a source of red sprites in the mesosphere. Geophysics Research Letters 22 (16) 2127-2130.
22. Paras MK and Rai J (2012). On the energy estimation of lightning discharge. Research Journal of Recent Sciences 1 (9) 36-40.
23. Cummer SA, Inan US, Bell TF and Barrington-Leigh CP (1998). ELF radiation produced by electrical currents in sprites. Geophysics Research Letters 25 (8)1281- 1283.
24. Sukhorukov AI and Stubbe P (1998). Problems of blue jet theories. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 60 (7-9) 725-732.
25. Sharma DK, Sharma PK, Chand R and Rai J (2009). Ionospheric response to the phenomena occurring below and above it: a summary. Atmosfera 22 (1) 51-67.
26. Peterson H, Bailey M, Hallett J and Beasley W (2009). “NOx production in laboratory discharges simulating blue jets and red sprites”, J. Geophys. Res. 114 A00E07.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24TechnologySTUDY OF PRESENCE OF MINERALS AS INDICATORS TO HYBRIDIZATION IN GRANITE
English175179R.K. YadavEnglish Kamini RajputEnglish V.K. ShrivastavaEnglish R.P. TiwariEnglishIt is normally understood that the granite rocks represent the original crystal rocks of the earth’s lithosphere. During the cooling of magma the formation of granite rocks takes place towards the end of the differentiation of magma. The Presence of quartz, orthoclase feldspar and muscovite mica are indicative of the formation of granite and allied rocks as the Bowen’s reaction series developed during the last phase in the magma chamber. Because of lower specific gravity, although the granite rocks are generated as last units of magma cooling but occupy the topmost position and form the crust of the earth. During the geologic periods after the formation of the crust the granites have also been subjected to many tectonic activities and orogenic activities which have brought many changes in the original mineral composition ,texture and structure and therefore in their appearance and properties. These modified, altered or metamorphosed members of the granite family have developed stress minerals , shown presence of second generation minerals, crushing, pulverization and alteration including assimilation resulting in hybrid verities .This paper envisages to present some of these features which were found during the optical study of granites at different places of Jabalpur city.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1575http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1575Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24TechnologyBAND WIDTH ENHANCEMENT OF RECTANGULAR MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA BY INCREASING SUBSTRATE HEIGHT FOR C- BAND ADVANCE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
English180184Sarman Kumar AhirwarEnglish Jayprakash UpdhyayEnglishA wideband rectangular patch antenna [1] is designed for wireless local area network (WLANs) applications. These antennas operate for 4-7 GHz ISM band, and wideband applications. The antenna has the dimensions of 20 mm by 15 mm by 1.8 mm on FR4 substrate with dielectric constant 4.4. The substrate height is increased in each antenna to enhance the bandwidth. All dimensions are same in each antenna. The antenna is simulated by Ansoft Higher Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) software which is finite element method based simulator. After simulation the antenna performance characteristics such as, input impedance, return loss, Impedance band width, percentage bandwidth and polar plot are obtained.
EnglishWideband antenna, WLANs, ISM band, microstrip patch antenna.INTRODUCTION
The future generation wireless networks require systems with broad-band capabilities in high mobility environments [2], to satisfy several applications as personal communications, home, car, and office networking. The wireless communication market has been greatly expanded and the demands of Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band are increasing [3]. The current fastest and robust WLANs operate in the 5–6 GHz band (e.g., IEEE 802.11)[4] which can provide reliable high-speed connectivity between notebook computers, PCs, personal organizers and other wireless digital appliances. The proposed antenna can operate from 4.12 to 5.68 GHz making it suitable for wideband applications. The frequency band of this antenna covers the entire 5.15-5.825 GHz ISM band [5][6]. This small printed monopole antenna can be used in the biomedical engineering domain, and to be mounted on the medical devices. In the last decades printed antennas have been largely studied due to their advantages over other radiating systems, which include: light weight, reduced size, low cost, conformability and the ease of integration with active device. A Microstrip Patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one side of dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on the other side as Shown in Figure 1. The patch is generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold. The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate. Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground plane. Therefore, the antenna can be fed by a variety of methods. These methods can be Classified into two categories- contacting and non-contacting. In the contacting method, the RF power is fed directly to the radiating patch using a connecting element such as a microstrip line or probe feed. In the non-contacting scheme, electromagnetic field coupling is done to transfer power between the microstrip line and the radiating patch this includes proximity feeding and aperture feeding [7].
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In my research, it is shown that the substrate height can be increased to enhance the bandwidth.
Antenna Design and Simulated Results
A. Geometry of Antenna
The structure of the proposed antenna is shown in Figure 1. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the patch is usually 0.333 λ0< L < 0.5 λ0, where λ0 is the free-space wave length. The patch is selected to be very thin such that t Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1576http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15761. M. Ali, T. Sittironnarit, H.S. Hwang, R. A. Sadler,and G. J. Hayes, “Wide-Band/DualBand Packaged Antenna for 5–6 GHz WLAN Application,”IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat.,vol.52, N.2. pp. 610-615, February. 2004.
2. J. L. Pan, S. S. Rappaport, and P. M. Djuric, “Amultibeam medium access scheme for multiple services in wireless cellular communications,” in Proc. IEEE 1999 Int. Conf. Communication, vol.3, 1999, pp. 1673–1677.
3. L. Jofre, B. A. Cetiner, and F. Flaviis, “Miniature Multi-Element Antenna for Wireless Communications,” IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol.50, N. 5. pp. 658– 669, May 2002.
4. I-F. Chen, C. M. Peng, and S-C. Liang, “Single Layer Printed Monopole Antenna for Dual ISMBand Operation,” IEEE Trans. 1273, April.2005.
5. R. Jordan and C.T. Abdallah, “Wireless communications and networking: An overview,” IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag., vol. 44,pp.185–193, Feb. 2002.
6. Availablein:http://standards.ieee.org/catalog/ olis/lanman.html.
7. A. Balanis, “Antenna Theory analysis and design”, Microstrip Antenna, Chapter 14, pp.720-784
8. Pozar D.M., and Schaubert D.H (1995) Microstrip Antennas, the Analysis and Design of Microstrip Antennas and Arrays, IEEE Press, New York, USA
9. Ansoft High Frequency Structure Simulatorcorporation, V 9.2, 2004, http://www.ansoft.com/hfss
10. Ramesh G, Prakash B, Inder B, and Ittipiboon A. (2001) Microstrip antenna design handbook, Artech House.
11. Zeadally, S. and L. Zhang, “Enabling gigabit network access to end users,” Proc. IEEE, Vol. 92, No. 2, 340–353, 2004.
12. Tsai, M. J., F. D. Flaviis, O. Fordham, and N. G. Alexopoulos, “Modeling planar arbitrarily shaped microstrip elements in multilayered media,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech.,Vol. 45, 330–337, 1997.
13. Sharma, A. and G. Singh, “Design of single pin shorted three dielectric layered substrate rectangular patch microstrip antenna communication systems,” Progress In Electromagnetics Research Lett., Vol. 2, 157–165, 2008.
14. Waterhouse, R. B., S. D. Targonski, and D. M. Kokoto, “Design and performance of small printed antennas,” IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop., Vol. 46, 1629–1633, 1998
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24TechnologyINVESTIGATIONS ON DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH SESAME OIL METHYL ESTER BLEND USING IGNITION IMPROVER
English185190G.G. SrinivasEnglish D. JawaharlalEnglish G. SulochanaEnglishBiodiesel is a methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acids made from vegetable oils and animal fat. It can be used in diesel engines with very little or no engine modifications. In this present work the experimental investigations are carried out on the test engine operated with methyl esters of sesame oil and diesel blends and also by using ignition improver as an additive. Comparative measures of performance parameters, smoke opacity, unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions were calculated. In the initial stage the tests were conducted on the four stroke single cylinder water cooled direct injection diesel engine by using diesel at various loads and base line data was generated. In the second stage, tests were carried out using methyl esters of sesame oil with diesel blends at same operating parameters and compared with the base line data obtained earlier. Engine performance in terms of higher brake thermal efficiency and lower brake specific fuel consumption and lower emissions (HC, NOx) were observed for 20% sesame oil and 80% diesel and it is chosen as optimum blend. Then after for above optimum blend in the third stage the tests were conducted again on the engine to find out the performance and emission parameters by adding ignition improver DEE (Diethyl Ether) in the proportions of 0.5% and 1%. Finally the performance and emission parameters obtained by adding DEE were compared with the optimum blend and it has been observed that no change in BTH and further reduction in emissions like HC, smoke opacity, NOx are observed.
Englishbio diesel, BSFC, emissions, Sesame methyl estersINTRODUCTION
In present days the utilization of diesel engines are more compared with petrol engines for domestic purposes because of their higher performance and low cost of fuel. Since the petroleum crises in 1970s has revived more and more interests in the use of vegetable oils as a substitute of fossil fuel. In diesel engines several alternative fuels can be used without any engine modifications to compensate the petroleum based fuel crises. N.R. Banapurmath et al [1] carried out investigations on diesel engine operated with methyl esters of Honge oil (HOME), Jatropha oil (JOME) and sesame oil (SOME) engine performance in terms of higher brake thermal efficiency and lower emissions (HC, CO, NOx) with sesame oil methyl ester operation was observed compared to methyl esters of Honge and Jatropha oil operation. M. Pugazhvadivu et al [2] used pongamia oil as an alternative fuel for diesel engine using ignition improver DEE. The engine NOx emissions were noted to be higher without using DEE for all the blends, the addition of DEE leads to reduction of NOx and smoke emissions at low and medium loads. Sehmus Altun et al [7] used a blend of 50% sesame oil and 50% diesel fuel as an alternative fuel in a direct injection diesel engine. The experimental results show that the engine power and torque of the mixture of sesame oil–diesel fuel are close to the values obtained from diesel fuel and the amounts of exhaust emissions are lower than those of diesel fuel. Considering the literature it is concluded that bio fuels can be used as alternate fuels by evaluating its properties and blending them with diesel in small proportions can improve performance parameters and reduce emissions without modifying the engine design, adding ignition improver like DEE to optimum blend leads to further reduction of emissions. The properties of DEE permit it to use as fuel additive for diesel engines because of its higher cetane value, volatility and latent heat of vaporization compared to diesel and also for its non corrosive nature and lower auto ignition temperature. In this present work the effect of adding DEE in the proportions of 0.5% and 1% (S20D79.5DEE0.5, S20D79DEE1) to the optimum blend (S20) is studied.
Preparation of sesame oil methyl ester
The formation of methyl esters by transesterification of vegetable oil requires raw Sesame oil, 15% of methanol and 5% of sodium hydroxide on mass basis. However, transesterification is an equilibrium reaction in which excess alcohol is required to drive the reaction very close to completion. The vegetable oil was chemically reacted with an alcohol in presence of a catalyst to produce methyl esters. Glycerol was produced as a by-product of transesterification reaction. The mixture was stirred continuously and then allowed to settle under gravity in a separating funnel. Two distinct layers form after gravity settling for 24 hours. The upper layer was of ester and lower layer was of glycerol. The lower layer was separated out. The methyl ester was then blended with diesel in various concentrations for preparing biodiesel blends to be used in diesel engine for conducting various engine tests.
Properties of the bio-diesel
The properties of sesame methyl ester were found in the fuels laboratory are shown in Table 1.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimental set up shown in Figure 4.1 is a single cylinder, four-stroke, naturally aspirated, DI diesel engine. The set up is provided with necessary instruments like Rope brake dynamometer, Smoke meter (Netel’s-NPMDSM), Gas analyzer (Netel’s-NPM-MGA-2) etc., for performance and emission analysis. Specifications of test engine are shown in Table 2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The performance and emission characteristics of the test engine at various loads from no load to full load fuelled with sesame oil methyl ester using DEE compared with diesel, diesel with SME blend are discussed below as per the results obtained.
Specific Fuel Consumption
The BSFC obtained from calculations was plotted against brake power and compared the results for S20D79.5DEE0.5, S20D79DEE1, S20 and D100 are shown in Figure 1. From the plot it is observed that the BSFC’s for D100, S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5 and S20D79DEE1 blends at full load conditions are 0.26 Kg/KW-hr, 0.25 Kg/KW-hr, 0.25 Kg/KW-hr and 0.25 Kg/KW-hr respectively. As the percentage of DEE was increased, mass flow rate was not affected; considerable change in BSFC has not been observed for both the ignition improver blends compared to S20, D100. The BSFC of the engine slightly decreased because of better combustion due to the availability of excess oxygen in these blends.
Brake Thermal Efficiency
The brake thermal efficiencies which were obtained from calculations were plotted against brake power and compared the results for different blends as shown in Figure 2. From the plot it is observed that the BTH for D100, S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5 and S20D79DEE1 blends at full load conditions are 32.84%, 34.6%, 34.8% and 34.6% respectively. The reduction in viscosity because of increase in cylinder temperatures at maximum loads leads to better evaporation and mixing with air resulted in more complete fuel combustion caused the maximum thermal efficiency for SME blends and addition of DEE could not influence the BTH because of lower heating value of it.
Oxides of Nitrogen
NOx emissions are very important in polluted air. The most important factor for the emissions of NOx is the combustion temperature in the engine cylinder and the local stoichiometry of the mixture. The reduction of NOx emissions is possibly due to the smaller calorific value of the blends. Cetane number also plays significant role in reduction of NOx. Since DEE is a cetane improver and at highest concentration it improves the cetane number leads to reduction in NOx content and also high latent heat of vaporization of DEE causes lower temperatures inside the cylinder which in turn leads to reduction in NOx emissions in the exhaust gases. The variation of ppm of NOx with B.P for D100, S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5 and S20D79DEE1 blends are shown in Figure 3. There is no considerable change has been observed at full load when compared with S20 blend with S20D79.5DEE0.5, slight decrease has been observed at 75% load conditions because at higher loads high operating temperatures leads to increase of NOx. The NOx content reduced drastically with the blend S20D79DEE1 at full load conditions. It is observed that for D100 and S20 the NOx content is 1236ppm and 1040ppm and for S20D79DEE1 it is reduced to 990ppm means it is reduced by 20% compared with Diesel and by 4.8% compared to S20.
Smoke
The variation of smoke density with brake power test engine for D100, S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5 and S20D79DEE1 is shown in Figure 4. The smoke density of S20D79.5DEE0.5 compared to S20, D100 is reduced further more and there is no change with S20D79DEE1 when compared with S20. The oxygen enrichment contained by S20 and further addition of oxygen by DEE because of presence of oxygen in it, improves combustion which subsequently reduces the smoke density. The smoke densities at full load conditions using diesel and S20 blends are 79.6 HSU, 60 HSU and for S20D79.5DEE0.5 it is 53.5 HSU means it is reduced by 24.5% using S20 and 32.7% using S20D79.5DEE0.5 compared with diesel.
Carbon Monoxide
CO emission depends on many parameters such as air–fuel ratio and the engine temperature. It is one of the toxic products of combustion due to the improper burning of hydrocarbons (HC). The variation of CO with brake power of the engine for D100, S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5 and S20D79DEE1 are shown in Figure 5. From the plot it has been observed that the CO content for D100, S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5 and S20D79DEE1 blends at full load conditions are 0.08%, 0.08%, 0.1% and 0.1% respectively. There is slight increase has been observed by using DEE blends compared with S20 and D100.
Unburned Hydrocarbons
The variation of HC with brake power of the engine for D100 and S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5, S20D79DEE1 blends are shown in Figure 6. From the plot it has been observed that there is maximum decrease of unburned hydrocarbons taken place for both DEE blends. It has been observed that for D100, S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5 and S20D79DEE1 blends HC contents are 58ppm, 56ppm, 14ppm and 18ppm respectively means it is reduced by 75% and 69% when compared with D100 by S20D79.5DEE0.5 and S20D79DEE1 blends respectively. It is decreased by 75% using S20D79.5DEE0.5 compared to S20 and 68% using S20D79DEE1 compared to S20. The presence of oxygen and increased cetane number using ignition improver were caused to promote complete combustion.
Carbon Dioxide
Figure 7 shows the variation of CO2 percentage with brake power of the engine for D100 and S20, S20D79.5DEE0.5, S20D79DEE1 blends as 8.5%, 8.3%, 11.5%, and 11.3% respectively. It has been observed that slight increase in CO2 content occurred by using DEE blends. Furthermore content of O2 in these blends leads to convert more amount of CO into CO2.
CONCLUSIONS
Exhaust emissions of the sesame oil–diesel mixture were lower than that of using diesel and it can be used as an alternative fuel in view of reduced environmental pollution by reduction in HC, NOx emissions and also in increased brake thermal efficiency and also for decreased brake specific fuel consumption. By adding ignition improver DEE further reduction of HC, NOx emissions are experienced without effecting performance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1577http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15771. N.R.Banapurmath, P.G.Tewari, R.S.Hosmat “Performance and Emission Characteristics of A DI Compression Ignition Engine Operated on Honge, Jatropha and Sesame Oil Methyl Esters” Renewable Energy 33 (2008), pp.1982–1988.
2. M.Pugazhvadivu and G.Sankaranarayanan “Investigations on a Diesel Engine fuelled with biodiesel blends and diethyl ether as an additive”, Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 2 No. 5 (May2009), pp 31- 35.
3. Bello E.I and Makanju, “Production, Characterization and Evaluation of Castor oil Biodiesel as Alternative Fuel for Diesel Engines”, Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences, 2011, pp 525-530.
4. Athanasios Balafoutis, Spyros Fountas, Athanasios Natsis and George Papadakis “Performance and Emissions of Sunflower, Rapeseed, and Cottonseed Oils as Fuels in an Agricultural Tractor Engine Athanasios” International Scholarly Research Network ISRN Renewable Energy, 2011, Article ID 531510, 12 pages.
5. Y.V.V.Satyanarayana Murthy, “Performance of Tobacco Oil-Based Bio-Diesel Fuel in A Single Cylinder Direct Injection Engine” International Journal of the Physical Sciences Vol. 5(13), 18 October, 2010, pp. 2066-2074.
6. Md. Nurun Nabi and S. M. Najmul Hoque “Biodiesel Production From Linseed Oil and Performance Study of a Diesel Engine With Diesel Bio-Diesel Fuels” Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. ME39, No.1, June 2008, pp.40-44.
7. S-ehmus Altun, Hu¨ samettin Bulut, Cengiz O¨ner “The Comparison of Engine Performance and Exhaust Emission Characteristics of Sesame Oil–Diesel Fuel Mixture with Diesel Fuel in a Direct Injection Diesel Engine”, Renewable Energy 33 (2008), pp1791–1795.
8. V.R. Sivakumar, V.Gunaraj, P.Rajendran “Statistical Analysis on The Performance of Engine With Jatropha Oil as an Alternate Fuel” International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 2(12), 2010, pp.7740-7757.
9. K. Anbumani and Ajit Pal Singh. “Performance of Mustard and Neem Oil Blends with Diesel Fuel in C.I Engine” APRN journal of engineering and applied sciences, vol. 5, no. 4, April 2010, pp 14-20.
10. Niraj S. Topare, V.C. Renge, Satish V. Khedkar, Y.P. Chavan and S.L. Bhaga “Biodiesel From Algae Oil as an Alternative Fuel For Diesel Engine” International Journal of Chemical, Environmental and Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 2, No.2-3, May-December-2011,pp 116-120.
11. M.Mani, C.Subash, G.Nagarajan “Performance, Emission and Combustion Characteristics of a DI Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Oil” Applied Thermal Engineering, volume 29, Issue 13, September 2009, Pages 2738-2744.
12. S.Jaichandar, K.Annamalai “The Status of Biodiesel as an Alternate Fuel for Diesel Engine – An Overview” Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment 2(2011) Pages 71-75.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241422EnglishN2012November24TechnologyEXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF A NOVEL MANTLE NOZZLE SYSTEM TO STEP UP THE WIND VELOCITY REACHING A HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE
English191195N. Yogi Manash ReddyEnglishIncreasing the efficiency of a wind turbine is certainly a superior area of research. There is a great need of increasing the velocity of wind that is reaching a wind turbine particularly a horizontal axis wind turbine which in turn helps increasing the efficiency of the wind turbine. In getting a best solution for the problem that is to increase the wind velocity reaching a wind turbine in any direction, we need to fabricate a nozzle particularly a convergent nozzle to step-up the velocity of wind (ambient air that is about to reach the rotor). The wind velocity reaching the wind turbine is studied with and without the nozzle (novel mantle nozzle) for a laboratory model wind turbine as part of study.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
Experiment is carried to increase the wind velocity that is about to reach wind turbine using nozzle system. Design is developed under „Ducted Wind Turbine?, „Mantle Wind Turbine?, „Vertical Axis Wind Turbine with Convergent Nozzle?, „Diffuser Augmented Wind Turbine? and „Swift Wind Turbine etc. First ever, the duct type wind turbine is introduced by Lilley et al. [1]. The efficiency can be increased by at least 65% from conventional wind turbine. An experiment using mantle nozzle to increase the efficiency of wind turbine is conducted by Frankovi et al. [2]. The profit due to mantle wind turbine is equal to five times to the conventional wind turbine. Few investigations are conducted by Touryan et al. [3], Macpherson et al. [4] and New man [5] on vertical axis wind turbine to increase the power coefficient using nozzle system. Under the guidance of Dave Anderson Renewable Devices Company, Edinburg produced on novel design of „Swift Wind Turbine? using Cascade engineering. Such swift turbine supplies energy suitable to produce 1.5 kW of electric power with the cut in speed, in the range of 8.33 m/sec. The design of a solar stack to be used in rural areas of developing countries is presented by Grant et al. [6]. For a solar chimney, 36 meters high and 4 meters diameter, the air velocity of 3.53 m/s, the maximum theoretical power output was founded to be 49.24 watts. According to Kogan et al. [7], power output is a function of the, diffuser inlet and exit pressure. In their analysis, the diffuser was characterized by the exit to the entrance area ratio of 3.5. The investigation concludes that the power output of DAWT is 2.9 times more than the power produced by conventional wind turbine.
NACA Airfoils
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) has developed airfoils under 4 digit series and 5 digit series. For 4 digit series, the camber as a percentage of the chord is represented by the first digit. The second digit represents the maximum camber from the end of leading edge of airfoil in ten?s of percentage of the chord. The last two digits represent maximum thickness of airfoil as a percentage of the chord. The airfoils used in the present study resemble NACA 0012. Wind power generator, as long as the tower can with stand the drag, only lift force is paramount. According to the investigations of Sheldal [8] and Tangler [9] lift coefficient is high at 450 of attack for flat airfoils. The lift coefficient is determined from 0 0 to 1800 of angles of attack.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1. Convergent nozzle system fabrication in such a way that wind velocity can be increased in any direction.
2. Studying the wind velocity variation on laboratory model horizontal axis wind turbine. This can be done in two different modules, They are (i) without nozzle system (Module M0) (ii) with nozzle system (Module M1)
Instrumentation and Experimental Set Up
Rotating disc type anemometer is used to determine air velocity. A Non-contacting type tachometer is used to measure speed of driver and driven pulleys. All instruments used in the study are calibrated. Experimental setup consists wind tunnel, lab model wind turbine and nozzle system. Wind tunnel produces wind at speed of 8.5 m/sec. In the present investigation, a three bladed laboratory model horizontal axis wind turbine is used. The wind turbine has length 0.24 m, height 1.45 m and mass of 500 gm for each rotor blade.
Nozzle System
As a part of manufacture of nozzle system, the convergent nozzle is fabricated. It is fabricated with its outlet diameter equal to the wind turbines rotor.
Line Diagrams of Experiment Modules M0 and M1
Line diagram of module M0 is illustrated in figure 1. The direction of wind from wind tunnel to wind turbine is shown. No nozzle system is used at this stage of the experiment. Line diagram of module M1 is shown in figure 2. The convergent nozzle is assembled separately. Air from wind tunnel is allowed to pass through the outer convergent nozzle from wind tunnel. Wind turbine may suffer severe stresses if the nozzle system is assembled to it.
Experimental Procedure
In various modules of experiments stated above, the wind velocity reaching wind turbine is determined at various blade orientations. In each module, of investigation the chord of all blades is oriented at 00 , 450 and 900 . The air at high speed from wind tunnel is focused on to rotor of the turbine. In these modules, the efficiency of lab model wind turbine is determined using with and without nozzle system at different positions of blade. Laboratory model wind turbine is placed at a distance of one and half foot from wind tunnel. Air from the wind tunnel causes turbine to rotate. If wind turbine is located close to wind tunnel, air may not focus on to the rotor with enough momentum. But, if it is placed far from the wind tunnel, the air domain between wind tunnel and wind turbine may absorb a portion of the velocity. On the trial and error, it is founded that the turbine rotates at more speed if it is at a distance of one and half foot from tunnel. Where, Vi and Ve indicate velocity of air at entry and exit of wind turbine. The density of air determined used gas equation treating the air at atmospheric pressure.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Experiment is conducted at 00 , 450 and 900 of blade positions in the quarter segment of a circle. In the modules, it is founded that wind velocity is high after installing nozzle to the wind mill. Here, 45 degrees of attack is taken for comparison.
DISCUSSION
Graphical representation in figures 3 and 4 illustrates the rise in wind velocity with nozzle system. The effective utilization of kinetic energy of air is occurred at 450 of attack.
CONCLUSION
From the investigation, it was found that at 450 angle of attack wind velocity at entry has increased up to 11.2 m/s from 8.5 m/s after installing a novel mantle nozzle system, eventually the efficiency of the wind turbine also increases.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author is thankful to the management of G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College (Autonomous) for providing facilities to conduct experiments. Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The author is also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature of this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1578http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15781. Lilley et al. “A Preliminary Report on the Design and Performance of a Ducted Wind Mill”, College of Aeronautics, Report 102, 1956.
2. Bernard Frankovi et al. “New High Profitable Wind Turbines”, Renewable Energy, Vol. 24, pp. 491-499.
3. K.J. Touryan et al. “Electric Power from Vertical - Axis Wind Turbines”. Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 3, No. 6, 1987, pp. 481-493.
4. MacPherson, “Design, Development and Testing of Low-Head High-Efficiency Kinetic Energy Machines - An Alternative for the Future”, M.Sc. thesis. University of Massachusetts.
5. B.G. Newman, “Actuator-Disc Theory for Vertical Axis Wind Turbines“. Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics” Vol. 15, pp. 347-355.
6. Grant AD et al. “Investigations of a Building - Integrated Wind Turbine Module” Wind Energy, 2002.
7. A.Kogan et al. “Shrouded Aerogenerator Design Study II, Axis Symmetric Shroud Performance”, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, Technion, 1963.
8. Sheldahl et al. “Aerodynamic Characteristics Of Seven Symmetrical Aerofoil Sections Through 180-Degree Angle Of Attack For Use In Aerodynamic Analysis Of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines”, A Report of Sandia National Laboratories.
9. J.Tangler, “The Evolution of Rotor and Blade Design”, Presented at the American Wind Energy Association Wind Power, Palm Springs, California, April 30, May 4 2000.