Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Notice: Undefined index: issue_status in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 142
Notice: Undefined index: affilation in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 195
Notice: Undefined index: doiurl in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 198
Warning: Cannot modify header information - headers already sent by (output started at /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php:195) in /home/u845032518/domains/ijcrr.com/public_html/downloadarchiveissuexml.php on line 234
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15General SciencesAN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATE RISK EXPOSURE AND THE PERFORMANCE OF NIGERIAN COMPANIES: 2002-2011
English0108Akabom ITA AsuquoEnglish Arzizeh Tiesieh TapangEnglishThe study investigated foreign exchange rate risk exposure and the performance of 30 ampled Nigerian companies for the period of 2002-2011. The study further investigated the difference in exposure by financial and non-financial firms. The study made use of descriptive and analytical research design and samples were drawn out of the population using random sampling method. A simple linear regression approach of measuring economic exposure as slope co-efficient of the regression of stock returns on exchange rates movements was used. The study utilized three alternative currency exchange rates, viz; the US Dollar, UK pound sterling and Euro effective record exchange rates. The study revealed that Nigerian listed companies are generally exposed to adverse exchange rate risk of the three currencies under consideration, with a higher magnitude of exposure to the US dollar. The study concluded that exchange rate instability is a significant hindrance to corporate performance. Hence, it was recommended that Nigerian companies should try and identify the kind of risk they are exposed to (translational exposure), then employ devices such as hedging, monetary balance, matching receipt and payment, Naira invoicing, currency swap among others in dealing with these risks.
EnglishExchange rate risk exposure, Hedging, Monetary balance, Matching receipt and payment, Naira invoicing, Currency swapINTRODUCTION
In Nigeria, foreign exchange management policies have traversed the extremes of fixed and flexible regimes with a view to preserve the value of the domestic currency, the naira; maintain a favourable external reserve position and ensure price stability. It shifted from a fixed regime in the 1960s to a pegged arrangement between the 1970s and the mid 1980s. The fixed exchange rate regime induced an over valuation of the naira, necessitating it being supported by exchange control regulations that engendered significant distortion in the economy that gave vent to massive importation of finished goods with adverse consequences for domestic production; balance of payment position and the nation's external reserves level. Moreover, the period was bedeviled with sharp practices perpetrated by dealers and end-users of foreign exchange. These and many other problems led to the adoption of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986, aimed at revamping the ailing economy, eliminating distortion in the economy and creation of stable growth in the economy. Since 1986, exchange rate management has passed through many flexible regimes of managed float, without any strong commitment to defending any particular parity, being the predominant characteristic of the floating regime in Nigeria. The resultant of the foregoing has been unstable movements in exchange rate occasioned by incessant regime changes over the years. Variability in exchange rate is a major source of macroeconomic uncertainty affecting firms. The implication of considerable exchange rate fluctuations over the last three decades, which is of policy and research relevance in Nigeria, is its risk exposure to domestic agents. More specifically it is widely believed that changes in exchange rates have important implication for financial decision-making and for the profitability (Asuquo, 2012). Again, as explained by Asuquo (2012), exchange rate is the price of foreign currency in terms of the domestic currency. Like other prices in a market economy, it sends signals that affect consumption and investment decisions and, therefore, influences the composition and value of aggregate demand and supply, as well as the performances of those firms that are engaged in these activities. Adler and Dumas (1984) define a firm exposure to exchange rate risks when its share value is influenced by Changes in currency values. There are theoretically various channels through which the exchange rate might affect profitability of a firm. Firms that export to foreign markets may benefit from a depreciation of the local currency if its products become more affordable to foreign consumers. On the other hand, firms that rely on imported intermediate products may see their profits shrink as a consequence of increasing cost of production. The price of currency can either rise or fall, therefore leading to an appreciation or depreciation of exchange rate. These continuous changes do have either positive or negative effect on firms. The problem the study is analyzing is “the extent to which changes in exchange rate affect the performance of Nigerian companies”. This study was aimed at determining the relationship between exchange rate risk exposure and the performance of Nigerian companies. In view of the objectives of the study, this null research hypothesis was tested: There is no significant relationship between exchange rate exposure and profitability of Nigerian companies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A brief review of exchange rate policy in Nigeria
Nigeria adopted Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in September, 1986 due to previous failures in macroeconomic policies on the pursuant of a realistic exchange rate. With the introduction of SAP, the second -tier Foreign Exchange Market (SFEM) was established and was expected to produce a market-determined exchange rate that would remove the overvaluation of the naira which persisted in the pre-SAP era. A fixed rate of 22/$1 was reintroduced after various policies ranging from dual exchange rate to unified exchange rate system were adopted in 1987. Due to inherent abuses and bureaucratic bottlenecks associated with regulation the system short-lived. In 1995, the Autonomous Foreign exchange Market (AFEM) was introduced following the promulgation of foreign exchange decrees 17 of 1995 (monitoring and miscellaneous provisions) and the abolition of exchange control Act of 1962. Under the Autonomous Foreign exchange market, the CBN was to intervene in the market as short notice. Failure of AFEM led to the formation of Inter-bank foreign market (IFEM) whose aim among others, was depending on interbank foreign market as well as having a stable naira exchange rate. Negative developments in IFEM led to its abandonment and the re-introduction of DAS in July 2002 to address the failure of IFEM. DAS was specifically geared towards achieving the following: determination of exchange rate of naira, conserve external reserve position, ensure stability in naira rate etc. Having operated DAS for about three and half years, CBN in 2005 introduced the wholesale Dutch auction system (WDAS) which has since being in existence (Udoayang, Akpanuko and Asuquo, 2009).
Exchange rate risk exposure: Empirical Review
Economic theory postulates that under a floating exchange rate regime, exchange rate affects the competitiveness of firms, especially those engaged in international trade. Home currency depreciation promotes the competitiveness of firms in home country by allowing them to undercut prices charged for goods manufactured abroad (Luehrman, 1991). On the other hand, exchange rate appreciation reduces the competitiveness of export markets; it has a negative effect on the domestic stock market. Conversely, if the country is denominated, exchange rate appreciation may have effect on the stock market by lowering input costs. Thus, an increase in the value of the home country firm in response to a real drop in the value of the home currency. A considerable number of studies aimed at testing the foregoing postulates have been conducted to determine the exposure of firms to exchange rate movements. Below are some reviews of the extent literature on exchange rate risk exposure undertaken. Luehrman (1991) tested the hypothesis that an exogenous real home currency depreciation enhance the competitiveness of home country manufacturers vis a vis foreign competitors. His findings did not support the hypothesis. Firms did not benefit from a depreciation of the home currency. On the contrary a significant decline in the market share of the industry was found in a depreciation of the home currency. The only study to my knowledge that explains exchange rate risk exposure of firms from African perspective is that of Zubeiru, kofi and Adjasi (2007) for the Ghanaian firms. They examined the foreign exchange exposure of listed companies on the Ghana stock exchange over a period of January 1999 to December 2004. The researchers used different exchange rate measures namely; the cedi to US dollar, the cedi to UK pounds sterling, the cedi to euro and a tradeweighted exchange rate index to determine the degree of exposure. The Jorion (1990) two-factor model which regresses the returns on a firm against changes in the exchange rate and return on the market was used to estimate the exchange rate exposure for the sample of twenty firm used in the study. About 55 percent of firms in the sample have a statistical significant exposure to the US dollar, 35 percent were statistically exposed to the UK pounds sterling and the rest euro. The sector specific exposure showed that manufacturing and retail sector were significantly exposed to the US dollar exchange rate risk. Though the financial sector did not show any effect to any of the international currencies.
Determinants of Exchange
Rate Differentials in inflation:
As a general rule, a country with a constantly lower inflation rate exhibits a rising currency value, as its purchasing power increases relation to other currencies. Countries with higher inflation typically see depreciation in their currency in relation to the currencies of their trading partners.
Differentials in interest rates:
Interest rate, exchange rate and inflation are all highly correlated. By manipulating interest rates, central banks exert influence over both inflation and exchange rate, and changing interest rates impact on inflation and currency values. High interest rates attract foreign capital and cause the exchange rate to rise while low interest rate tends to decrease exchange rate. However, the monetary theories attempt to explain changes in exchange rates in terms of changes in the demand and supply of money between two countries (Asuquo, 2012).
Current - Account Deficits:
The current account is the balance of trade between countries, reflecting all payment between countries for goods, services, interest and dividends. A deficit in the current account shows the country is spending more on foreign trade than it is earning and that it is borrowing capital from foreign sources to make up the deficit. The excess demand for foreign currency lowers the country's exchange rate.
Public Debt: Countries will engage in large scale deficit financing to pay for public sector projects and governmental funding. A large debt encourages inflation and if inflation is high change in exchange rate.
Terms of trade: A ratio comparing export price to import prices the terms of trade is related to the current account and balance of payment. A favourably term of trade shows greater demand for country's export. And, this union results in rising revenues from exports, which provides increase in value and demand of country's currency. It should be noted that the international transfer price plays important role in determining the ratio of export price to import price in Tran border trade as well as international taxation (Udoayang, Akpanuko and Asuquo, 2009).
Political stability and economic performance:
Foreign investors inevitably seek out stable countries with strong economic performance in which to invest their capital. Countries with positive attribute will draw investment funds away from others perceived to have more political and economic risk and the international transfer price would in turn affect the economic performance subsidiary firms that depend on the parent for operational requirement (Udoayang, Akpanuko and Asuquo, 2009).
RESEARCH METHOD
In this research work, the descriptive and analytical research designs were employed. The descriptive method transformed raw data into a form that makes them easy to understand, analyzed and interpreted. The analytical method on the other hand made use of analytical tools for data processing and attempted to measure the statistical significance of the various independent variables on the dependent variable. These methods were chosen because our basic objective was to empirically determine the relationship between exchange rate risk exposure and the performance of Nigerian companies. This study employed secondary data sourced from Annual reports, Accounts of sampled companies and Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) Fact-books on quoted companies. The financial data on EPS of the 30 sampled companies were also extracted from secondary sources.
Model specification
The specified model for the study read thus:
Rit = ai + biExit + eit
Where:
Rit = Stock return for companies
ai = Constant term
Ext = Percentage change in exchange rate.
bi = The sensitivity of a company I's
stock returns to exchange rate movements.
The model Rit = ai + biExit + eit was estimated by ordinary least square regression method. First we regressed real effective exchange rate change of the three foreign currencies respectively on all sampled values. Then samples were divided into two groups as financial and non-financial firms and exchange rate sensitivity of each group was examined. Table 1 to table 3 above respectively present summary statistics of sampled firms’ sensitivity to movements of the Nigerian naira to the US dollar, the Naira to UK pound and the Naira to the euro. Table 1 above presents estimate of exchange rate sensitivity of Nigerian listed firms to movement in Naira/US dollar real effective exchange rate. Column 2 of the table presents results for all sampled firms, while column 3 and 4 respectively indicated results for the sub-sample divisions into financial and non-financial firm. Exchange rate risk exposure co-efficient for all firms range between -0.012 and 0.644 with mean value of 0.222 as indicated in the table a total of 27 out of 30 sampled firms indicated a statistically significant dollar exchange rate exposure representing 88% of total sampled firms. Further, 11 (40.7%) were positively exposed while 16 (59.3%) were adversely exposed to the dollar. For the financial sector firms, exposure coefficients range between -0.316 and 0.827 with mean value 0.221.41. (78.8%) of 14 financial firms were statistically sensitive to dollar exchange rate movements. 5 firms positively exposed while the remaining 7 were adversely exposed. The non-financial firms indicated a mean exchange rate exposure coefficient of 0.3332.62 (95.3%) of the 16 sampled nonfinancial firms was significantly exposed to US dollar exchange rate. Out of these 6 (38.7%) were favourably exposed while 9(61.3%) were adversely exposed to the dollar exchange rates. The summary of results presented above indicated that majority of Nigerian listed firms' returns are sensitive to dollar exchange rate with the largest proportion being adversely exposed. The result failed to indicate any significant differences in pattern of exposure between the financial and non-financial firms, thus providing no evidence to support the thesis that financial firms possess requisites to hedge exchange rates risks. However, non-financial firms have a higher value of mean exposure coefficient compared to the financial sector. Table 2 and Table 3 respectively present results of Nigeria firms’ sensitivity to changes in UK sterling and Euro real effective exchange rates. Similar to the result represented above, Nigeria’s listed firms are generally exposed to risk of exchange rates movement. 23 (75.2%) of total sampled firms were significantly exposed to risk in UK pound sterling exchange rate movement while 16(53.8%) were significantly exposed to the Euro. In general terms, large proportion of exposure incidence were adverse exposure, indicating that exchange rate instability is significant hindrance to corporate performance in Nigerian listed firms. Overall regression equations have good statistical fit with the t values significant for most variables. The adjusted R2 and R were sufficiently high indicating that the independent variables explained sufficient quantity of the variations in the dependent variables. Durbin Watson statistic (DW) also revealed the absence of serious auto correlation for all the equations. These test results showed the reliability of our estimate equations in modeling the problem under investigation.
CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS
This study concluded that exchange rate instability is significant hindrance to corporate performance in Nigerian listed companies. For policy monitoring, exchange rates management should emphasize achieving sustainable stability in exchange rate movement. The presence of risk in business is something that cannot be avoided; it only becomes a problem when it cannot be controlled. Our recommendation for companies whose rate of profitability is negatively affected by exchange rate risk exposure is that, they should try and identify the kind of risk they are exposed to (translational exposure), then employ devices such as hedging, monetary balance, matching receipt and payment, Naira invoicing, currency swap among other in controlling these risks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and in references of the manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1529http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15291. Adler, M. and Duma, G. (1984). Mark ups and exposure. Review of Financial Studies, 14(3), 805-835.
2. Asuquo, A. I. (2012). Impact Analysis of Interest Rate on the Net Assets of Multinational Businesses in Nigeria. IISTE: International Institute for Science, Technology and Education 3(7). www.iistejournals.org
3. Asuquo, A. I (2012). Inflation accounting and control through monetary policy measures in Nigeria: Multi-regression analysis (1973- 2010). IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSRJBM), 1(2), 53-62. www.iosrjournals.org
4. Jorion, P. (1990). The pricing of Exchange Rate Risk in Stock Market. Journal and Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 363- 376.
5. Luehrman, T. A. (1991). Exchange rate changes and the distribution of industry value. Journal of International Business Studies, 2(8), 25-45.
6. Udoayang, J. O., Akpanuko, E. E. and Asuquo, A. I. (2009). Multinational transfer pricing and international taxation: What, why, how and reporting challenges. Africa Research Review: An International MultiDisciplinary Journal. 3 (5), 165-181.
7. Zubeiru, k. and Adjasi, F. (2007). International competition and exchange rate shocks: A cross-country industry analysis of stock returns. Review of Financial Studies, 14(3), 145-147.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15General SciencesANALYSIS OF FATTY ACID COMPOSITION AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF NYCTANTHES ARBORTRISTIS AGED GREEN SEED AND RIPE SEED BY GAS LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
English0915Mohammad Mizanur RahmanEnglish Mohammad ShahjahanEnglishThe fatty acid composition of oils extracted from two types (aged green seed and ripe seed) of seed of Nyctanthes arbortristis Linn were obtained by gas liquid chromatography. The aged green seed and ripe seed to each individually were successively extracted by light petroleum ether–n-hexane–chloroform (PHCL), which analyze for fatty acid composition. The major saturated and unsaturated fatty acids methyl ester (FAME) of aged green seed PHCL extract were determined palmitic acid (C16:0, 16.3109%), stearic acid (C18:0, 6.6109%) and oleic acid (C18:1, 44.3101%) eicosadienoic acid (C20:2, 13.5202%) respectively. On the other hand the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid of ripe seed PHCL revealed that contain mainly palmitic acid (C16:0, 17.3494%), stearic acid (C18:0, 19.3639%) and oleic acid (C18:1, 36.5009%), eicosadienoic acid (C20:2, 14.8814%) respectively.
EnglishSeuli, aged green seed, ripe seed, saturated fatty acid, unsaturated fatty acid, Nyctanthes arbortristis LinnINTRODUCTION
Bangladesh has been liberally gifted by nature with diversity in climates, seasons, soils and other ecological factors so very essential for a favorable growth of a large variety of aromatic and medicinal plants. Nyctanthes arbortristis Linn (Seuli) is a large shrub which is widely cultivated throughout Bangladesh as a garden plant. It is a C3 plant1 . The interests in our country for this plant are mach greater because of the possibility of exportation. Every part of the Seuli tree is used by the local Kobiraj (physicians) as medicinal plants to cure different diseases. The most common use of this plant is as an antihelminthic, cholagogue and laxative2 . It is used by tribe’s people for the treatment of snake bite, bites of wild animals, cachexyia, sores, ulcers dysentery and menorrhagia3 . The compound of arbortristoside B of seed of N. arbortristis was found to have anticancer activity against methylcholanthrene induced fibrosarcoma in rats4 . The powdered seeds are used to cure scurfy infections of the scalp. The inflorescence and young fruits (seed) powdered in water is used for relieving cough by tribal people of Bangladesh5 . A 50% alcoholic extract of the Seuli seeds showed a wide spectrum of biological activity, i.e. antiviral, antileishmanial, immunostimulant and hepatoprotective activities6 . 7Rahman et al. (2011) reported fourteen fatty acids were identified (include three unknown fatty acid) in pet-ether extract of Nyctanthes arbortristis ripe seed. Presently we used twenty seven fatty acids as a standard and studied two type of Seuli seed (aged green seed and ripe seed) for batter investigation and also find out the dissimilar of fatty acid composition between aged green seed and ripe seed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seed materials
The aged green seeds and ripe seeds were collected from the matured Seuli plants during the months of November, 2002 to March, 2003, at the place of Maymensingh, Bangladesh. The plant was identified by Bangladesh National Herbarium (BNH), Dhaka, Bangladesh. A voucher specimen (DACB Accession Number35121) of this plant was deposited in the Bangladesh National Herbarium (BNH), Dhaka, Bangladesh. The collected seeds were cleaned, air dried and crushed mechanically.
Physico-chemical studies
Physico-chemical characteristics of Seuli aged green seed and ripe seed viz. moisture, ash, lignin, crude fibre, refractive index, acid value and iodine value were determined by following the standard procedures8-10 .
Isolation of fatty acids and preparation of methyl ester
The neutral lipids from the air-dry powder about 400g of aged green seed and 450g of ripe seeds to each individually were successively extracted with light petroleum ether (40-600C), n-hexane and chloroform in a Soxhlet apparatus each for 22h, respectively. Solvents were distilled off and the extracts were concentrated and dried under reduced pressure. The extracts were preserved at 2-4 0C in refrigerator. The pet-ether, n-hexane and chloroform extracts were mixed equally weighted (each 5mg) of two types of Seuli seed (aged green seed and ripe seeds) individually to examine for fatty acid analysis. The aged green seed and ripe seed of PHCL extracts was analyzed by Griftin11 (1960) for esterification and FAME extraction.
Preparation of standard fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)
Twenty seven of standard free fatty acids (C6:0, caproic acid; C9:0, nonanoic acid; C10:0, capric acid; C11:0, undecanoic acid; C12:0, lauric acid; C13:0, tridecanoic acid; C14:0, myristic acid; C14:1, myristoleic acid; C15:0, pentadecanoic acid; C16:0, palmitic acid; C16:1, palmitoleic acid; C17:0, heptadecanoic acid; C18:0, stearic acid; C18:1, oleic acid; C18:2, linoleic acid; C18:3, alpha-linolenic acid; C20:0, arachidic acid; C20:1, eicosenoic acid; C18:4, octadecatetraenoic acid; C20:2, eicosadienoic acid; C20:4, arachidonic acid; C22:0, behenic acid; C22:1, erucic acid; C20:5, timnodonic acid; C24:0, lignoceric acid; C24:1, nervonic acid and C22:6, clupanodonic acid) were individually weighed. About 5mg of each was taken in a reaction tube and BF3CH3OH reagent (5ml) was added11 to it. The mixture was boiled for 5 min. Hexane (5 ml) was added to it and boiled for further 1 min. After cooling the tube a solution of saturated salt was added and vortexed. Then the upper layer containing methyl esters was transferred to a vial with anhydrous sodium sulfate at the bottom. Then the ester was filtered through syringe filter and transferred to a small vial (2ml). The solvent was concentrated by blowing nitrogen gas and stored in a refrigerator before analysis by GLC.
Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC)
The fatty acid methyl esters were identified and quantified by gas-liquid chromatography method using a capillary glass column (60m × 0.25mm ID) wall coated with 100% cyanopropyl polysiloxane open tubular (WCOT) fused silica (SP2340, Suplco, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, USA) and flame ionization detector in GC-14A series (shimadzu Co, Tokyo, Japan). Helium gas used as the carrier gas at a flow rate of 30ml/min, air pressure is 2.5kg/cm2 and hydrogen flow rate 350ml/min. The detector and injector temperatures were chosen as 2400C and 2350C, respectively. The oven temperature was set to 1350C for 14 min and heated to 2300C with a heating rate of 30C/min and maintained at this temperature for 6 min. Data were analyzed with peak simple chromatography software (Data Apex, ClarityTM software). Each fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) in aged green seed and ripe seed PHCL was identified by comparing retention times with those of known standard FAME (LIPID STANDARD, Sigma Chemical Co, St Louis, Mo, USA). The results were expressed as percentage composition method. All of the other chemicals used in the experiments were analytical grade (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The amounts of extractive were 6.2298, 0.6878, 4.0714 and 7.9789, 0.6146, 3.8253 percent from pet-ether, n-hexane and chloroform extract of Seuli aged green seed and ripe seed, respectively. From Seuli seed kernels Vasishtha12 (1938), Tyagi and Vassishtha13 (1983) and 14Tumbull et al. (1957) were reported 14%, 14% and 12-16% of oil, respectively. On the other hand 7Rahman et al.
(2011) was reported 7.29% oil found in Nyctanthes arbortristis ripe seed. It has been seen in Table 1 that the higher moisture was found in aged green seed (73.54%) and lower in ripe seed (52.62%) as a fresh matter basis. On the other hand, higher amount of ash (5.16%), lignin (20.83%) and crude fibre (27.46%) was found in ripe seed than aged green seed. The refractive index of the oil depends to some extent on their unsaturation. The higher unsaturation, the greater is the refractive index. In this investigation higher refractive index of petether extract at 290C was found in aged green seed (1.4765) and lower in ripe seed (1.4734), which are consistent with the unsaturated oil. The higher acid value of pet-ether extract was found in ripe seed (55.48) than aged green seed (54.97). These values indicated the proportion of free fatty acid is negligible and these oils are inedible.
The iodine values (Henus) of aged green seed of pet-ether extract was detected higher value (48.59) than ripe seed (41.10). Both seeds of higher iodine values specify that the both seed oils are highly unsaturated and inedible. 7Rahman et al. (2011) reported the refractive index, acid value and iodine value of pet-ether extract of Seuli ripe seed oil 1.4737, 55.44 and 41.04 respectively, which was comparable and a negligible variation occur different geographical location. In Table 2, Oleic acid (C18:1) was the dominant unsaturated fatty acid in both type of seed. Major fatty acids of aged green seed were found palmitic acid (16.3109%), oleic acid (44.3101%) and eicosadienoic acid (13.5202%). On the other hand, ripe seed of fatty acid was identified mainly palmitic acid (17.3494%), stearic acid (19.3639%), oleic acid (36.5009%) and eicosadienoic acid (14.8814%). 7Rahman et al. (2011) reported7 the major fatty acid of Seuli ripe seed of pet-ether extract was stearic acid, 39.06%. The lower amount of stearic acid (6.6109%), linoleic acid (8.551%), arachidic acid (2.3694%), behenic acid (1.9339%) and nervonic acid (1.8267%) was detected in the aged green seed.
However the Seuli ripe seed was detected as lower amount of linoleic acid (4.1796%), eicosenoic acid (1.6015%), behenic acid (1.7086%) and lignoceric acid (1.0163%). Trace amount of C9:0, C12:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C16:1, C17:0, C18:3, C20:1 and C22:6 were identified in the aged green seed PHCL extract. On the other hand, trace amount of C6:0, C9:0, C10:0, C11:0, C12:0, C13:0, C14:0, C14:1, C15:0, C17:0, C18:3, C18:4, C20:4, C22:1, C20:5, C24:1 and C22:6 were detected in the Seuli ripe seed PHCL. However, nine fatty acids (C6:0, C10:0, C11:0, C13:0, C18:4, C20:4, C22:1, C20:5 and C24:0) were not identified in aged green seed. On the other hand, C16:1 and C20:0 fatty acid methyl ester was not identified in Seuli ripe seed. 7Rahman et al. (2011) reported fourteen fatty acids (caprylic acid, 2.16%; nonanoic acid, 2.83%; undecanoic acid, 1.71%; lauric acid, 4.46%; myristic acid, 0.39%; palmitic acid, 1.79%; linoleic acid, 7.89%; stearic aicd, 39.06%; oleic acid, 7.97%; arachidic acid, 3.72%; behenic acid, 2.5% and three unknown fatty acids) were found in Seuli ripe seed of pet-ether extract. On the other hand 12Vasishtha (1938) reported the fatty acid viz. linoleic, oleic, lignoceric, stearic, palmitic and myristic acid were found from Seuli seed kernel.
aCarbon number with ‘zero’ double bonds are saturated fatty acids, with ‘one’ double bonds are monounsaturated and with ‘two’ and ‘three’ double bonds are polyunsaturated fatty acid; ?NFnot found.
(TMUFA), 47.6872% and total polyunsaturated fatty acid (TPUFA), 23.791% was found in aged green seed than ripe seed (TMUFA, 38.4236% and TPUFA, 20.391%). However, FAME showed the higher unsaturated/saturated ratio (USR) in aged green seed PHCL (2.5061) than ripe seed (1.4280). It’s indicated that the amount of total unsaturated fatty acid of aged green seed was higher than ripe seed. This result showed the order of TSFA increased the aged green seed to ripe seed. In contrast the order of TMUFA and PUFA decreased the aged green seed to ripe seed. This investigation also supported both seed oils of iodine value, occur the more iodine value, the more unsaturated oil. Contents of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids of aged green seed and ripe seed are shown in Figure 2 and 3. The Polyunsaturated fatty acids showed the most observable differences in the content of essential fatty acid, linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3). Another polyunsaturated fatty acids showed the secondarily observable differences in the content of fatty acid, eicosadienoic acid (C20:2 n-6) and clupanodonic acid (C22:6 n-3). The n-6 and n-3 fatty acid of arachidonic acid (C20:4 n-6), octadecatetraenoic acid (C18:4 n-3) and timnodonic acid (C20:5 n-3) were found only ripe seed. The ration of n-6/n-3 was higher (16.2908) in ripe seed than aged green seed (12.8336). It indicated n-6 fatty acid was higher in aged green seed than ripe seed. This result indicated, in order of polyunsaturated fatty acids of linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6), alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3) and clupanodonic acid (C22:6 n-3) were decreased in aged green seed to ripe seed and increased only eicosadienoic acid (C20:2 n-6) in aged green seed to ripe seed of Nyctanthes arbortristis Linn.
CONCLUSION This study revealed the fatty acid composition of Seuli aged green seed and ripe seed PHCL extracts, which have not previously been studied. Seuli ripe seed was detected 13 saturated fatty acids (SFA) and 12 unsaturated fatty acids (UFA). On the other hand 9 SFA and 9 UFA were found in aged green seed. In this study, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, eicosadienoic acid was indicated as a main source of fatty acid both of the Seuli aged green and ripe seed. Interesting finding in our study, the highest total saturated fatty acid (41.1854%) was identified in the Seuli ripe seed. In contrast, the highest total unsaturated fatty acid (71.4782%) was found in the Seuli aged green seed. So, it identically observable that the total unsaturated fatty acid was decreased from aged green seed to ripe seed. In contrast, the saturated fatty acid was increased from aged green seed to ripe seed. α- linoenic acid (n-3) and linolenic acid (n-6) are an essential fatty acid for human. Fatty acids contents and their composition depended on the kinds of the plant seeds. Nyctanthes arbortristis seeds are found the potential source of n-3 and n6. We suggest the Nyctanthes arbortristis seeds powder to be used as a supplementary food or drug for deficiency of essential fatty acids.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are grateful to the Chairman of Bangladesh council of scientific and industrial Research (BCSIR), Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh for giving the permission to conduct the research work.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1530http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15301. Rao, PG., Kodandaramaiah, J. Association of Chlorophyll content, phyllotaxy, photosynthesis and B group vitamins in some C3 and C4 plants. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.(Plant Sci.) 1982; 91(6): 495-500.
2. Chopra, RN., Nayar, SL., Chopra, IC. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, CSIR Publication, India; 1956. p. 177.
3. Jain, SK., Tarafder, CR. Medicinal Plantlore of the ‘Santals’. Econ. Bot. 1970; 24:241.
4. Mathuram, V., Patra, A., Kundu, AB. A Phenyl Propanoid Glycoside from Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. J. Indian Chem. Soc. 1997; 74: 653-655.
5. Rathore, A., Juneja, RK., Tandon, JS. An Iridoid glucoside from Nyctanthes arbortriestis. Phytochemistry 1989; 28(7): 1913- 1917.
6. Rathore, A., Srivastava, V., Srivastava, KC., Tandon, JS. Iridoid Glucosides from Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Phytochemistry 1990; 29(6): 1917-1920.
7. Rahman, MM., Roy, SK., Shahjahan, M. Fatty acid composition of ripe seed oil of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Journal of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences 2011; 35(1): 121-124.
8. Bagby, MO., Nelson, GH., Helman, EG., Clark, TF. Determination of Lignin in NonWood Plant Fiber Sources. Tappi 1971; 54 (77): 1876-1878.
9. Mowlah, G., Sheikh, NM., Kamal, ASM. A Hand Book on Edible Oils and Fats, With Special Reference To Bangladesh, 1 st ED.; City press, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh; 1990. p. 44.
10. Srikantia, SG. A Manual of Laboratory Techniques. National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research, Hyderabad-500007, India; 1976. pp. 1-3, 35.
11. Griftin, RC. A. M. S. M. Technical Method of Analysis. 2 nd ED., Mc Graw-Hill Co. Inc., New York and London; 1960. p. 299.
12. Vasishtha, SK. Chemical examination of the fixed oil from the seed of Nyctanthes arbortristis Linn. J.Benars Hindu Univ. 1938; 2: 343-348.
13. Tyagi, P., Vassishtha, AK. Component glycerides in Nyctanthes arbortristis seed oil. J. Oil Technol. Assoc. 1983; 15(2): 27-8.
14. Tumbull, JH., Vasistha, SK., Wilson, W., Woodger, R. Nyctanthic acid, a constituent of Nyctanthes arbortristis Linn. Jour. Chemical Society 1957; 569-573.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15General SciencesACCESSIBILITY TO RICE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES BY FARMERS UNDER BORNO STATE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME, NIGERIA
English1621Ibrahim A.A.English Mustapha S.B.English Idris Y.L.EnglishThe study assessed the accessibility of farmers to rice production technologies in Borno State, Nigeria. Stratified random sampling method was used to select 534 upland, lowland and Fadama rice farmers in the study area. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools. The descriptive tools include; frequencies, percentages, Means, and standard deviation. The results indicated that most of the respondents (31.5%), claimed to have been contacted by the extension agents on fortnightly basis, while 17.2% indicated that they have never been contacted by the extension agents in the study area. The study shows that all the rice production technologies apart from farm labour were affordable and most of the respondents reported that rice variety was very affordable. The accessibility to the rice production technologies by respondents had a mean score of 35 in the study area. The results further showed that majority (81.5%) of the respondents claimed that the husbands alone made decision on which rice field to use. The study recommended that Input supply units of extension agencies should be strengthened to make available and at affordable rates of rice production inputs in the study area.
EnglishAccessibility, Rice Technologies, Development Programme, NigeriaINTRODUCTION Rice plays an important role in both producers’ and consumers’ life in Nigeria. The technology adoption aims to increase production not only for national food security but also for export. Though there have been trainings and campaigns to trigger farmer using of the technologies, the adoption extent was still low. Idiong (2005) reported that rice variety has special role in increasing agricultural production. The increase of total agricultural production of Nigeria in the past was due to the introduction of new varieties (Bzugu, 2002). The Borno State Agricultural Development Programme has varieties of rice; ITA 212and ITA 257, Exchaina, Faro -37 and Faro-38 BU 90/2 and DA 29 and Faro – 14 and Faro - 27, with recommended production technologies, which were disseminated to farmers with a view to increasing rice production in the State. However, the rate of farmers’ use of rice production technologies in Nigeria was low (Imolehin, and Wada, 2000) the primary reasons for such low rice productivity could be among others inaccessibility of farmers to improved technologies. Researches have been carried out on the adoption of rice production technologies in Nigeria (Imolehin and Wada, 2000; Umar, Ndanisa and Olaleye,2009). However, various studies indicated that there is a wide gap between available technology and its accessibility, especially in rice cultivation among farming communities in Nigeria. Furthermore, there has not been any study on the accessibility to rice production technologies of farmers implied in Borno State, Nigeria. Therefore, this study was undertaken to fill this gap of scientific knowledge in the study area.
Objectives of the study
The main objective of the study was to assess the accessibility of farmers to rice production technologies in Borno State, Nigeria. The specific objectives were to:
i) identify respondents’ access to extension contact in the study area;
ii) investigate level of affordability to rice production technology by respondents;
iii) examine accessibility to improved rice production technologies by respondents; and
iv) assess household decision on rice farming activities by respondents;
METHODOLOGY
The Study area
The study was carried out in Borno State which lies between longitudes 11o 05 and 11o 451 and latitudes 09o 10 and 14o 20 (BOSADP, 2003). The state has the largest land mass among the states in the Federation. It is bordered internationally by Cameroon to the East, Niger to the North and Chad to the Northeast. Borno state shares internal boarders with Adamawa State to the South, Bauchi to the Southeast and Yobe to the West (Daura, 2001). According to the National Population Commission (2006), the State has a population of 4, 151, 193 million people with an annual growth rate of about 3.2 percent. The state has a mean annual rainfall of 250mm in the extreme North and a maximum of 1000mm in the South. The State has a tropical climate marked by alternating dry and rainy seasons, and the average temperature is 38.6o C (BOSADP, 2003).
Sampling Procedure and Sample
Size Sampling for administering questionnaires was done using the three Agricultural zones. Thus, three (3) Local Government Areas (LGAs) were randomly selected from each of the three zones giving a total of nine (9) LGAs namely; Dikwa, Marte, Mobbar, Jere, Konduga, Bama, Bayo, Askira-Uba and Shani for the study. Three (3) rice producing villages were randomly selected from each of the nine (9) LGAs, bringing a total of 27 villages from all the three zones. A stratified random sampling method was used to select the upland, lowland and Fadama rice farmers in the study area. Due to the heterogonous nature of the rice producing farmers in the state, the respondents were divided into three stratified into three sub-groups. The first stratum (sub-group) consists of farmers whose activity was primarily upland rice farming, the second stratum (sub-group) consists of producers from lowland areas and the third stratum (sub-group) was the Fadama rice farmers. The BOSADP provided the sampling frame for the proportionate selection of the respondents in each stratum bringing a total of 534 rice farmers used in the study. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools. The descriptive tools include; frequencies (f), percentages (%), Means (?), and standard deviation (sd).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Access to Extension Contact by Respondents
Table 1 shows that most of the respondents (31.5%), claimed to have been contacted by the extension agents on fortnightly basis, 22.1% of the respondents had been contacted by the extension agents every other month, 18.9% of them opined that they have been contacted by the extension agents weekly, 17.2% indicated that they have never been contacted by the extension agents and 4.5% of the respondents opined to have been contacted by the extension agents daily. The rest (5.8%) of the respondents did not indicate their opinion on level of contact with extension agents. The 31.5% affirmed to have been contacted by extension agents fortnightly. This response of farmers in the study area might be in line with BOSADP official schedules of field extension agents to meet with farmers once every two weeks (fortnightly).The result of this findings shows that the more frequent period of contact by extension agents to rice farmers were fortnightly and this makes it easier for extension agents to reach more rice farm families at different times.
Affordability to Rice Production Technology by Respondents
Table 2 shows that the highest unaffordable factor was labour (56%), but all the rest fell below 20%, suggesting that all technologies apart from farm labour were affordable. Most of the respondents reported that rice variety was very affordable, while 27.9% of them said pesticides application was very affordable. Only 20% reported tractor hiring was very affordable, 14.6% indicated herbicide application, 22.5% use of threshing, 17.0% of the respondents were of the opinion that modern storage system was very affordable, though 22.5% of the respondent said disease control, 17.0% of them claimed that modern irrigation methods were very affordable. Similar finding was reported by Bzugu (2002) that there was a significant relationship between adoption of farm technology and level of production. He asserted that those farmers who are likely to adopt farm technologies have high income and large farm size. This assertion may not be true with farmers in the study whose farm sizes were small and may lead to low income from rice marketing, but adoption of rice technologies could be due to the increased yield for high profit gain. The availability of improved rice varieties with their rice production technologies constitutes a major factor of adoption by farmers (Ogunwale, Ayoade and Ayansina, 2006). Respondents’ opinion on their their levels of affordability of the rice production technologies were presented in Table 2. Respondents who reported rice varieties and rice production technologies were very unaffordable constituted about 15 on the average with a standard derivation of 3. Respondents who opined rice varieties constitute about 35% on the average and had a standard deviation of 20%. This implies that BOSADP had influenced the level of accessibility and motivation for farmers to afford the purchase of the rice varieties and its production technologies. The study was in agreement with that of Umar, Ndanisa and Olaleye (2009) who stated that, adoption of rice production technology could be based on its profitability, cost effectiveness, accessibility and availability of such technologies. They further stressed that farmers will first of all select technologies in a package that exhibit the required attributes and only add other technologies after having experienced positively the technologies already adopted. However, the result of this finding can be related to recommend improved rice varieties promoted by IITA to Nigerian farmers through ADPs nationwide.
Accessibility to Improved Rice Production
Technologies by Respondents
Table 3 shows those respondents who reported inaccessibility to had good access to all farm rice production technologies, rated below 32%. The accessibility to the rice production technologies by respondents had a mean score of 35 in the study area. This result was in accordance with Chinaka, Ogbokiri, and Chinaka (2007) who reported that one viable and conceivable means of raising agricultural productivity in Nigeria is to make farm inputs readily available, accessible and at affordable prices to the farmers.
Household Decision for Rice Farming
Activities by Respondents
Table 4 shows that 18.5% of the respondents claimed that the husbands alone made decision on which rice field to use(81.5%), which rice variety to grow (62.5), purchasing fertilizer (77.2%), hiring of labour (66.5%), application of herbicide (57.1%), allocation of family labour (31.6%), rice processing (27.3%), rice storage (45.3%), rice marketing (51.9%), use of income from rice (46.4%) and rice consumption (7.3%), with a mean score of 50% and standard deviation SD 22. The respondents reported that their wives alone affirmed to have made decisions on which rice field to use (1.7%), which rice variety to grow (8.9%), purchasing fertilizer (4.5%), hiring farm labour (3.9%) herbicide application, (2.6%), allocation of family labour (2.4%), rice processing (7.5%), rice marketing (6.6%), use of income from rice (21.3%) and rice consumption (10.3%). The mean of the respondents was 9% with a standard deviation (SD) of 8. The findings revealed that less number of women participated in rice farming decision which is contrary to the findings of Imolehin and Wada (2000) who reported that female labour is regarded as supplementary to that of male and consequently the benefits of development programme are only expected to filter drawn to women through their men folks.
CONCLUSION
The study indicated that the highest unaffordable factor in adoption of rice production technology by respondents was labour, while all the other factors were affordable. The respondents indicated that the most important inaccessible factors was wash borehole in the study area. The results further showed that household decision on rice farming activities were significantly under taken by husbands alone in the study area.
RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made; -
1. Input supply units of extension agencies should be strengthened to make available and at affordable rates of rice production inputs in the study area.
2. Extension agencies should create more awareness among farmers in promoting the rice production technologies in the study area.
3. Farmers should form cooperatives to take advantage of accessibility of rice production technologies from government and development agencies in the study area.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1531http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15311. BOSADP. Borno State Agricultural Development programme (BOSADP). AnnualReport, Bomo State of Nigeria; 2003.
2. Bzugu P. M. Factors Influencing Adoption of Farm Technological Innovations among Cereal Crop Farmers in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria; 2002.
3. Chinaka C.C, Ogbokiri L. C. and Chinaka E. C. Adoption of Improved Agricultural Technologies by Farmers in Aba Agricultural Zone of Abia State. Proceedings of the 41st conference of the Agricultural Society of Nigeria, IAR/ABU Zaria, Nigeria, 2007; Pp. 531-534.
4. Daura M.M. The physical environment and development: A study of Borno region in environment and development issues in Sub – Sahara Africa. Seminar Series, vol.1. Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, University of Maiduguri,Nigeria,2001. PP34– 47.
5. Idiong I. C. Evaluation of Technical, Allocative and Economic Efficiencies in Rice Production in Cross Rivers State. Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation Presented To The Department of Agricultural Economics, Michael Okpara University of Technology, Umudike, Nigeria;2005.
6. Imolehin E. D. and Wada A. C. Meeting Rice Production and Consumption Demand of Nigeria with improved Technologies, International Rice Commission Newsletters; 2000, Vol.49 FAO, Rome
7. National Population Commission (NPC). National Planning Commission, Federal Office of Statistics, Abuja Nigeria, 2006.
8. Ogunwale A. B, Ayoade A. R. and Ayansina S. O. Extension Service of Farmers’ Production Activities in Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone of Oyo State. Nigeria, Journal of Agricultural Extension, 2006 Vol. 9 Pp 150 – 155.
9. Umar S, Ndanisa M.A. and Olaleye S.R.. Adoption of Improved Rice Production Technologies Youth Farmers in Gbako Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, 2009; 13(1), pp1-8.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15General SciencesCHEMICAL SYNTHESIS OF HISTIDINE RICH PROTEIN (HRP-2) ANTIGEN PEPTIDE FROM PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM AND DETECTION OF ITS IMMUNOGENICITY
English2229Renu SharmaEnglish Suman JainEnglish Ranvir SinghEnglish A. M. varadkarEnglishMalaria is the one of the most prevalent human infections in the world. It causes significant morbidity & mortality worldwide, including countries with mainly imported malaria. Malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is the most common cause of severe & life threatening malaria & accounts over 1 million deaths every year. Microscopy of Giemsa-stained thick & thin films remains the current gold standard for diagnosis. Although it has good sensitivity & allows species diagnosis, it is time consuming, required equipments & skilled personnel. Antigen tests based on antigen capture assay are capable of detecting fewer parasites and of producing the results more quickly. Such antigen which is shown promising results is plasmodium falciparum histidine rich protein-2 (PfHRP-2). HRP-2 is contained tendem repeats of the sequences AHH & AHHAAD and has B-cells epitopes that allows its detection. In this study chemically HRP-2 antigen peptides were synthesized by solid phase technique & purified by HPLC gel chromatography. Microsphere (PLGA &PVA) entrapped peptides are injected to mice & rabbits subsequent booster doses. The high titre/affinity antibodies raised against these peptide antigens were estimated by indirect ELISA technique. The peptide specific peak absorbance varied from 0.6 to 2.6. The variation in the titre of antibody generated in mice & rabbits depend upon the individual immune responsive capacity. Incremental increase in antibody titre with microscope delivery may result in sustained release of the antigen. Our studies show that chemically synthesized peptides of PfHRP-2 delivered in microsphere were able to generate immune response that can be quantified. This paves for development of tools for early diagnosis of malaria.
EnglishHRP-2, LDH, Malaria, Microsphere, Poly lactic co glycolic acid (PLGA), Poly vinyl alcohol (PVA), plasmodium falciparum.INTRODUCTION
Malaria is one of the most prevalent human infections world-wide. Over 40% of the world’s population lives in the malaria endemic areas. An estimated 300-500 million cases and 2-3 million deaths are reported every year (Tomar D. et al). The estimated economic loss due to malaria in India from 1990-1993 is Rs. 286 million to Rs. 28594 million (Lema O.E. et al). Malaria is caused by the parasite Plasmodium, P.falciparum; P.ovalae; P.malariae and P. vivax. P. falciparum causes malignant tertian malaria, which kills people through cerebral malaria or renal failure. Plasmodium falciparum is the most common cause of severe and life-threatening malaria and accounts for over one million deaths every year. The mortality rates in adults being higher than in children (Tomar D. et al). Since the discovery of the malaria parasite over 100 years ago, the diagnosis of malaria still depends on examination of stained blood film. This allows species diagnosis, estimation of parasitaemia, identification of stages of parasite development (Silamut and White, 1993), and assessment of prognosis (Field, 1949; Payne,1988). The detection of parasite antigens or nucleic acid has been investigated for many years as a possible alternative to microscopy. Fast and simple immunochromatographic tests are commercially available for the diagnosis of malaria. Laboratory trials of the Parasight –F test have shown an overall average sensitivity of 77- 98% and specificity of 83-98% when >100 parasites /µl are present compared with microscopy (Beadle e t al,1994;Breier et al,2000;Kilian et al, 1997). Several diagnostic techniques have been developed for the detection of malaria antigens (WHO, 1988; Tharavanji, 1990; Kawamoto,1991) but none has been used widely because of their complexity, low sensitivity and the requirement for expensive equipment, reagents and skilled personnel. In the last few years ,efforts to replace the traditional and tedious reading of blood smears have brought to techniques for the detection of malaria parasites which yield sensitivity equivalent to or better than microscopy. Antigen tests are gaining popularity for diagnosing tropical diseases because antigen capture assay tests are capable of detecting fewer parasites and of producing the results more quickly. They do not require extensive training or equipment to perform or to interpret the results. Two such antigens, which have shown promising results both in the laboratory and in the field, are plasmodium falciparum histidine rich protein-2 (HRP-2) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). HRP2 contains 34% histidine, 37% alanine and 10% aspartic acid as deducted from cloned genomic DNA (Wellems & Howard et al, 1986) and is characterized by many tandem repeats of the sequences AHH and AHHAAD. As a result, HRP-2 has repetitive B cell epitopes that allow its detection using antigen capture assay (Torii & Ikawa, 1998). HRP-2 is water soluble protein synthesized throughout the asexual cycle and young gametocytes of P. falciparum (Rock et al, 1987).
HRP-2 is expressed the RBC and is transported in concentration “ packets” through the red cells cytoplasm and released from intact infected cell into the culture medium (Howard et al,1986). It circulates in the blood of human host for up to 14 days post infection and its C-terminal half induces a partially protective response (Parra et al, 1991) in culture of P. falciparum, HRP-2 can be detected in the supernatant medium just 2-8 hrs after merozoite invasion, indicating its active secretion from infected erythrocytes (Howard et al, 1986). After shizont rupture in vitro, the amount of HRP-2 increases in the supernatant medium. HRP2 is also found in immature gametocytes and pLDH (and probably aldolase) is found in mature gametocytes (Howard et al, 1986). In the present study, the two HRP-2 peptide sequences were chosen, which occur as tandem repetitive immunodominant epitopes in the HRP2 protein. The microsphere delivery of immunization was attempted to generate high titre and high affinity antibodies. The aim of present study was to gain expertise in solid phase peptide synthesis and detecting its immunogenicity in rabbits and mice.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in the department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical sciences, New Delhi, India.
Peptide Synthesis and Purification-
The following peptide sequences were selected from the HRP-2 of P. falciparum. Solid phase peptide synthesis strategy (Merrifield R.B.et al) was used for the synthesis of following sequences using Fmoc chemistry on C-terminal amino acid substituted on PAM resin (Caprino L.A. et al). The sequences were AHH(AHHAAD)3 (HRP-2 peptide-I), (AHHAA)3 (HRP-2 peptide-II). Kaiser test was done to confirm coupling of amino acids. The peptides prepared were passed through gel chromatography with sephadex G-25 column. The spectrophotometer reading was taken and those fractions showing high absorbance were pooled and lyophilized, secondly those fractions showing identical Rf value during paper chromatography were also taken into criteria. Authenticity for the N terminal analysis, the peptide and the appropriate standard amino acid were first labeled with 1-Fluoro-2,4 dinitro benzene (FDNB) hydrolysed with HCl and the resultant hydrolysed samples were then spotted onto whatman paper 1. C-terminal amino acid identification of the peptide was done by carboxypeptidase A. This method is described by Bradshaw (Tomar D. et al,2006 & Sharma V.P. et al,1996)
Microsphere Protocol-
Microparticles with entrapped peptides were prepared using poly lactic co glycolic acid (PLGA) & Poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) by water-in-oil-in-water (w/o/w) solvent evaporation technique (Smith et al, 1985). Antigen load in microspheres was estimated by double solvent method. The percentage peptide entrapment in the microparticles was determined by BCA (bicinchoninic acid) method (Sigma, st. Louis USA) following SDS alkaline dissolution of the microparticles (Tomar D. et al).
Animal species & Immunization-
Outbred species of mice (4-6 weeks old) and rabbit (2-3 months old) were produced from the Experimental Animal Facilty, AIIMS, New Delhi, India. All the animals were provided food and water ad libitum. Each experimental group consisted of 3 mice in the group of three & 2 rabbit in group of three. These animals were used for developing of IgG antibodies against synthetic HRP-2 peptides (HRP-I & HRP-II). All experiments were conducted in accordance with the guideline of Committee for Prevention and Supervision of Experiments on animals, for the care and use of laboratory animals (CPSEA), Ministry of Social justice, Government of India and adopted by the Ethics Committee on Animal Experimentation, AIIMS, New Delhi. Mice (3 in a group of three) and rabbits (2 in a group of three) were immunized with the microspheres with entrapped antigen. The mice were given a dose of 30µg of microsphere/mice in HRP peptide I (via subcutaneous & intramuscular route) and 100µg for rabbits in HRP II (only subcutaneous route), on day zero. Then the booster doses of 30µg of microsphere /mice on 22nd day and 100 µg of microsphere/rabbit on 36th day were given on subsequent intervals. Mice & rabbits were bled from retro-orbital plexus and bleeds were collected on day 15, 28, 42. The sera were separated and kept at -20ºC until use. Elisa- Peptide specific antibody levels and peak titres were estimating using indirect ELISA protocol. Briefly 100ng/100µl of the peptide was coated per well (Peptide stock: 1mg/ml) and incubated with test sample (mice/rabbit sera) at a fixed dilution (1:100, serum:PBS 1X) for serum IgG levels. Absorbance was read at 492 nm.
RESULTS
HRP-2 is a water soluble protein synthesized throughout the asexual cycle and young gametocytes of the plasmodium falciparum. It is expressed on the RBC membrane and is released from intact infected cells. The peptides were prepared by solid phase peptide synthesis, were passed through gel chromatography with sephadex G-25 column. The purity of each peptide was assessed by HPLC and gel column chromatography and was found to be >90%. Authenticity of the peptide were analysed by N and C terminal identification of peptide. Rf values of the DNP standard amino acid were compared with that of standard amino acid as shown in table 1. Amino acids sequence analysis were verified by method described by Bradshaw (Tomar D. et al,2006 & Sharma V.P. et al,1996) The microsphere were prepared and checked for its antigen entrapment efficiency by BCA method – their entrapment comes around 70-75% which was adequate for immunogenicity. Prepared microspheres were sized using a diffraction spectrophotometer (size range- 5-10 µm). The microparticles morphology was studied by scanning electron microscopy (Phillips, CM10) (figure 2A and 2B). After Immunization the bleeds were collected and indirect ELISA was done for the estimation of IgG levels the serum. The peptide specific IgG levels were tested in each individual peptide antiserum of all the bleeds. Peptides entrapped in microsphere generated high peptide specific IgG levels in all the bleeds and the antibody levels were maintained till 42 days postimmunization with all the peptides of HRP-2 antigens. In mice via subcutaneous route, there was not much difference in the first, second and third bleed sera but all these show much higher values as compared with preimmunized sera (Absorbance: 0.7) shown in table-2A (figure: 3A). There was marked increase in the IgG level on second bleed sera in mice via Intramuscular route on day 28th, after giving booster doses when it was compared with preimmunized sera (Absorbance: 0.7) and first bleed sera on day 15th . The second bleed was still higher when it was compared with last bleed sera on day 42nd as shown in table-2B(figure: 3B). In rabbits, the mode of immunization was only subcutaneous. The booster dose was given on day 36th so the third bleed sera response was much higher than the first, second and preimmunized sera (Absorbance: 0.7) as shown in table:2C/figure: 3C. There was a significant rise in the peptide specific IgG level with maximum at third bleed in Rabbits and second bleed in mice.
DISCUSSION
The aim of the present study was synthesis of solid phase peptide and to generate the high titre/affinity antibody in the mice and rabbits using antigen capture assay and detect its immunogenicity. Delivery of HRP-2 in microspheres not only generated high titre/affinity antibodies in mice and rabbits, but also maintained the peak titre over long duration without booster immunization. Sera that showed high titre and affinity were selected for developing the immunoassay (Tomar D. et al). Antigen capture assay is sensitive and specific easy to perform, does not require specialized equipment and requires a small amount of unprocessed whole blood. Minimal training is required to perform the assay (Braunwald et al) .Our studies show that the mice immunized with antigen entrapped microsphere through subcutaneous route of administration gives better response in comparison to that of intramuscular route as it shows high titre antibody early and late response following the initial and booster doses. In rabbits only subcutaneous route was used for administration of antigen which gives high titre values. Incremental increase in antibody titre seen with microsphere delivery may result in sustained release of the antigen. Microsphere presents the small amount of antigen continuously to the immune system to stimulate the correct repertoire of B cells (i.e. secreting antibodies of the high affinity), also a very critical point in view of the antibodies generation was that only a single dose of the peptide antigen in microsphere was enough to generate long lasting and high titre.(Tomar D. et al,2006)
In future, on the basis of the present study, for developing an efficient vaccine or immunoassay, not only the titre, but also the affinities of the antibody do have remarkable influences for its sensitivity. Thus high affinity antibodies are important in control of parasitaemia so that even very small amounts can be detected and neutralized. This paves way for development of tools for early diagnosis of malaria.
CONCLUSION
The aim of the present study was to gain expertise in solid phase peptide synthesis and immunological techniques. To achieve the above goal, initially unique peptide sequence of 22 and 15 amino acid long of HRP antigen from Plasmodium falciparum is synthesized using Fmoc Chemistry. After synthesis, the peptides were purified using Gel filtration chromatography and were found to about 90% pure. The N and C terminal of the peptide was analyzed for the authenticity of the peptide. Antipeptide antibodies were raised in the mice using microspheres as the novel delivery vector for the peptide HRP. Peptide specific IgG levels and peak titre were measured by indirect ELISA. Humoral Response: - Peptide in microsphere elicited high specific IgG level. A very critical point in view of the antibody generation was that, only a single dose of the peptide antigen in microsphere was enough to generate long lasting high titre.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge thanks to All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi & Jawaharlal Nehru for centre for Advance Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bangalore giving facilities and financial support under summer research fellowship programme. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars- whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors /editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1532http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15321. Tomar D., Biswas S., Tripathi V., Rao D.N., “Development of diagnostic reagents: raising antibodies against synthetic peptide of PfHRP-2 and LDH using microsphere delivery”. Immunobiology, 2006 May; 211:797-805.
2. Beadle C., Long G.W., Weiss W.R., McElroy P.D., Maret S.M., Oloo A.J., Hoffman S.L., “Diagnosis of malaria by detection of plasmodium falciparum HRP-2 antigen with a rapid dipstick antigen capture assay”. Lancet, 1994; 343:564-568.
3. Biswas S., Tomar D., Rao D.N. “Investigation of the kinetics of histidine-rich protein 2 and of the antibody responses to this antigen, in a group of malaria patients from India”. Int Immunopharmacol, 2004 Jan; 4 (1):1-14.
4. Braunwald E., Fauci A., Kasper D., Hauser S., Longo D., “Harrison’s principles of internal medicine”. Volume-1, 16th Edition, pp 1203-1213.
5. Brenier-Pinchart M.P., Pinel C., Croisonnier A., Brion J.P., Faure O., Ponard D., Ambroise-Thomas P., “Diagnosis of malaria in non-endemic countries by the Parasight-F test”. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 2000; 63:150- 152.
6. Caprino L.A. “1-Hydroxy-7-azabenzotiazoleAn efficient peptide coupling additive”. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1993; 115 (10): 4397-4398
7. Field J.W. “Blood examination and prognosis in acute falciparum malaria”. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 1949; 43, 33-48.
8. Howard. R. J., Uni S., Aikawa M., Aley S.B., Leech J.H., lew A.M., Wellems T.E., Renner J., Taylor D.W., “Secretion of a malarial histidine-rich protein (HRP-II) from plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes”. J.Cell. Biol., 1986; 103:1269- 1277.
9. Kawamoto F. “Rapid diagnosis of malaria by fluorescence microscopy with light microscope and interference filter”. Lancet, 1991; 337:200-202.
10. Kilian A.H., Mughusu E.B., Kabagambe G., Von Sonnen-burg F., “Comparison of two rapid, HRP-2 based diagnostic tests for plasmodium falciparum”. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 1997; 91: 666-667.
11. Lema O.E., Carter J.Y., Nagelkerke N, Wangai M.W., Kitenge P, Gikunda S.M., Arube P.A., Munafu C.G., Materu S.F., Adhiambo C.A., Mukunza H.K., “Comparison of five methods of malaria detection in the outpatient setting”. Am. J. Trop. Med. and Hyg., Vol 60, Issue 2: 177- 182.
12. Merrifield R.B., “Solid phase peptide synthesis-I. The synthesis of Tetrapeptide”. J. am. Chem. Soc., 1963; 85 (14): 2149-2154.
13. Parra M.E., Evans C.B., Taylor D.W., “Identification of Plasmodium falciparum histidine rich protein 2 in the plasma of humans with malaria”. J. Clin. Microbio., 1994; 29:1629-1634.
14. Payne D., “Use and limitations of light microscopy for diagnosing malaria at the primary health care level”. Bull. WHO, 1988; 66: 621-626.
15. Rock E. P., Marsh K., Saul A.J., Wellems T.E., Taylor D.W., Maloy W.L., Howard R .J., “Comparative analysis of the Plasmodium falciparum histidine rich proteins HRP-I, HRP-II and HRP-III in malaria parasites of diverse origin”. Parasitolog, 1987; 95:209- 227.
16. Sharma V.P., “Re-emergence of malaria in India”. Indian J. Med. Res., 1996 Jan; 103:26-45.
17. Silamut K., White N.J., “Relation of the stage of parasite development in the peripheral blood to prognosis in severe falciparum malaria”. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 1993; 87:436-443.
18. Smith P.K., Krohn R.I., Hermanson G.T., Malia A.K., Gartner F.H., Provenzano M.D., Fujimoto E.K., Goeke N.M., Olson B.J., Klenk D.C., “Measurement of protein using bicinchoninic acid”. Anal. Biochem., 1985; 150:76-85.
19. Talman A,, Domarle O., McKenzie F., Ariey F., Robert V., "Gametocytogenesis: The puberty of Plasmodium falciparum". Malar. J; 3: 24.
20. Tharavanji S., “New development of malaria diagnostic techniques”. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public health, 1990; 21:3-16.
21. Torii and Ikawa. “The cytoskeleton of erythrocytes infected with Plasmodium falciparum”. 1998; H. Noedl http://malaria.farch.net .
22. Wellems T. E., Howard R.J. “Homologous genes encode two distinct histidine-rich proteins in a cloned isolate of plasmodium falciparum”. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 1986; 83:6065-6069.
23. WHO. “Malaria diagnosis: memorandum from a WHO meeting”. Bull.WHO, 1988; 66:575-594.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15General SciencesULTRASONIC AND SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION OF THIOUREA IN NON-AQUEOUS MEDIA
English3041Ragamathunnisa M.English Jasmine Vasantha Rani E.English Padmavathy R.English Radha N.EnglishAcoustical and thermo chemical behavior of thiourea in formamide is studied using ultrasonic technique. The Ultrasonic velocity (u), density (ρ) and viscosity (η) measurements have been carried out for the solution at 278, 288, 298, 308, 318 and 328K and at different concentrations. The results arrived from ultrasonic technique yield the various intermolecular interactions occur in the solution. Spectroscopic techniques have been used to identify the various functional groups. The results obtained from spectroscopic studies were correlated with acoustical and thermo chemical properties of the solution.
EnglishThiourea(TU), Formamide, Acoustical parameter, Thermo chemical parameter, Tautomeric form, Dimeric structure.INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic study on the solution of Thiourea in non-aqueous media provides useful information in understanding the behavior of liquid systems, intramolecular, intermolecular associations and related structural changes. Thioureas are important sulfur and nitrogen containing compounds and they are useful substances in drug research. Some thiourea derivatives possess valuable biological pharmacological activities such as, anti-HIV [1-4] and anticancer properties [5- 7]. In addition, urea and thioureas [8-10] have emerged as structurally novel anticonvulsant. Thiourea is mainly used in textile processing [11] and also in the reductive work up of Ozonolysis [12] to give carbonyl compound. Another common application of thiourea is a common sulfur source for making semiconductor calcium sulfide nanoparticle. Use of thiourea is also a measure of change in body water [13]. The role played by the solvent is not a minor one. The presence of a solvent can speed up or slow down a reaction by a factor of 1020 [14]. Solvent effects can be more powerful than the effects exerted by any other factor. The solvent formamide is also a constituent of cryoprotectant vitrification mixtures used for cryopreservation of tissues and organs. The current work is to emphasis the solvation effect of thiourea in formamide is studied by calculating various parameters such as Solvation Number(nh), Apparent Molal Volume(φv), Apparent Molal Compressibility(φk) Internal Pressure [πi], Free Volume [Vf ] and Intermolecular free Length (Lf). The results obtained from the ultrasonic study as well as spectroscopic study used to analyse various reactions occurring in the solution.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Ultrasonic Analysis
The chemicals used in the present work are analytical (AR) reagent grade and spectroscopic (SR) reagent grade of minimum assay of 99.9% obtained from E-Merck. An electrically maintained constant temperature bath has been used to circulate water through the double walled measuring cell made up of steel containing the experimental solution at the desired temperatures. The accuracy in the temperature measurement is ±0.1K. The density of the solution is measured using specific gravity bottle. The viscosity of the solution is measured by the Ostwald’s viscometer. Density, viscosity and ultrasonic velocity are determined for thiourea in formamide from 278K to 328K at different molalities using compressibility method. From these obtained data thermo chemical and acoustical parameters are calculated using the following formulae
Solvation Number
Spectrum analysis
FTIR spectrum was recorded between 4000 cm-1 to 400 cm-1 using PERKIN ELEMER SPECTRUM RX1 spectrometer. The UV absorption spectrum of solvent, solute and the solution are also taken.
RESULTS
From the ultrasonic study, the calculated values of various parameters are given in the Table (1) and Table (2). The variations of the parameters with respect to molalities are represented in Figure (1a -1f). The observed spectrum of thiourea, formamide and thiourea in formamide are shown in figure (2a-2c) and observed frequencies are tabulated in table (3). The UV absorption spectrum of solvent, solute and the solution are shown in figure (3a-3c). The observed peaks are tabulated in table (4).
DISCUSSIONS
Ultrasonic study
The solvation number is positive at high temperatures. At .001m the solution exhibits positive solvation number for almost all the temperatures. Zero value of solvation number only indicates that no change occurs in the compressibility value of the solvent when the solution is formed. Negative values of solvation number at lower temperatures emphasize that solutions are more compressible than solvent. Positive solvation number of solution suggests that compressibility of the solution at high temperature and at low molalities will be less than that of the solvent. The apparent molal volume ( ) of thiourea is negative, for all molalities and temperatures. The apparent molal volume ( ) decreases, as concentration increases, at all temperatures. This supports that there is a weak ion-ion interaction occurring in solution. In thio urea, the apparent molal compressibility ( ) is found to be negative at 308.15K and 318.15K almost all molalities. The apparent molal volume and apparent molal compressibility have been proven to be a very useful tool in elucidating the structural interaction occurring in solutions. The acoustical parameters explain the nature and strength of the interaction taking place in the solutions. In the solution, the internal pressure increases up to 0.01m for almost all the temperature. Beyond the 0.01m the internal pressure decreases with respect to molality. This behavior indicates breaking nature of solute in the solvent. The variations in the free volume (Vf) with respect to molalities and temperature of the solutions of thiourea behave in an opposite manner to that of internal pressure as expected. The results obtained from the present study suggest that the solute- solvent interactions occurring in the solution. This may be due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding present in this system. Intermolecular free length (Lf) is one of the important acoustic parameter in determining the nature of the interaction between the components of the solution. The rise and fall observed in intermolecular free length for all temperatures and molalities in thiourea solution. This supports the dissociation of molecules occurring in the solution. Thiourea occurs in tautomeric form which is shown in figure (4). In aqueous solution the thione form predominates. Dimeric structure of Formamide is shown in figure (5). Enolic form of formamide is shown in figure (6). Spectral studies FT-IR spectroscopy is by far the best way to detect the presence of functional groups in a molecule. The C?O is a strong bond in a carbonyl group. The strong bond due to C?O stretching appears at about 1700cm-1 , where it is a seldom obscured by other strong absorptions. In the solvent this strong peak is appeared at 1685 cm-1 and in the solution it is right shifted by 2 cm1 i.e. at 1683 cm-1 . In the solvent a peak is appeared at 2771 cm-1 and in the solution at 2767 cm-1 . It is due to C? H stretching band this in conjugation with carbonyl band is fairly certain evidence for an aldhyde. In the solution at 2391cm-1 a peak is observed which is due to asymmetrical stretching mode, since it produces a change in the dipole moment, is IR active. In the solute at 3376 cm-1 and at 3177 cm-1 peak are observed which represent the different types of N? H stretching band. These peaks classify the types of amide. Tautomeric nature of the solute is confirmed by observing the symmetric and asymmetric N? H stretching vibrations at 3376 cm-1 and in 3177 cm-1 . In the solution a peak is observed at 1589 cm-1 .
This involves coupling of the N?H bending and C?N stretching vibration. Resonance effect occurs in carbonyl absorptions due to replacement. In solvent resonance effect predominates than the inductive effect. This effect increases C?O bond length and reduces the frequency of absorption, which effect is confirmed by observing a peak at 1685 cm-1 in the solvent and in the solution which is further decreased by 2cm-1 i.e. at 1683cm-1 . A new band occurs at 1598 cm-1 . This is due to H- bonding via >C=O of solvent and NH2 of solute destroying the dimeric structure of pure solvent. When a carbonyl group of amide is involved in hydrogen bonding its stretching frequency is lowered [15], which is observed in the solution at 1683cm-1 by lowered 2cm-1 from 1685cm-1 in the solvent. Rao and Vengataraghavan [16] correlated data on their spectra of thiocarbonyl derivatives in the literature and concluded that strong vibrational coupling was operative in the case of nitrogen containing thiocarbonyl derivatives and that the C? S vibrations are not located. From that observation it is confirmed that thiourea in non-aqueous media the thiol form predominates. These bands appear consistently in the region of 1570cm-1 to 1397cm-1 , 1420cm-1 to 1260cm-1 and 1140cm-1 to 940cm-1 in the IR spectrum because of mixed vibrations of ?N? C? S moiety. These bands are appeared in the solution at 1468cm-1 , 1390 cm-1 , 1050cm-1 respectively. All these spectral changes may be attributed to the presence of hydrogen bonding patterns, which are shown in figure (7a) and (7b).
UV Spectroscopic study
In the solvent, transition occurs between nonbonding atomic orbital and antibonding orbitals.The non-bonding electrons are held more loosely than σ bonding electrons and consequently undergo transitions at comparatively longer wavelengths. These transitions occur with compounds containing double bonds involving hetro-atoms bearing unshared pair(s) of electrons. This type of transition is important feature of the spectra of aldehydes and ketones and is sensitive to substitution on the chromophore structure. In the solvent, peak observed at 201nm shows the π → π* type of transition and 243nm shows the n→π*type of transition. This type of transition is always less intense because the electron in the n orbital are situated perpendicular to the plane of π bond and consequently the probability of the jump of an electron from n to π* orbital is very low. In the solute the peaks are observed from 190nm onwards. Number of peaks observed in the range of 270nm, 273nm, 277nm, 286nm. It shows the n→π* transition occurs in the solute. The position of π → π* transitions in carbonyl compounds vary with the nature of the solvent used. As the polarity of the solvent increases, the π → π* bands undergo a bathochromic (red) shift and the n→π* undergo a gradual hypsochromic shift. The π → π* band shifts to longer wavelength in a more polar solvent because the π → π* transition have a polar excited state which would normally be stabilized by hydrogen bonding in more polar solvents. This lowers the energy gap between π and π* levels and consequently increases the wavelength of π →π* band. In the case of n→π* band lowers the energy of n orbital because of hydrogen bonding.
CONCLUSION
Thiourea occurs in tautomeric forms. In the present study, from the acoustic properties of the solution of thiourea shows that there is a linear variation occurring in the solution. These changes reveal the fact that there is a weak interaction exists between the solute and solvent and breaking nature of the solute in solvent. The variations observed in intermolecular free length also confirm the dissociation of molecules occurring in the solution. From the spectral analysis various functional groups were identified. Tautomeric nature of solute is conformed. The dimeric structure of formamide is changed due to solvation with thiourea. Results obtained from the acoustical studies such as (i) breaking nature of solute in solvent (ii) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding are also confirmed by the spectroscopic studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are citied and included in references of this manuscript. The authors also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1533http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15331. FW Bell, AS Cantrell, M Högberg, SR Jaskunas, NG Johansson, CL Jordan, MD Kinnick, P Lind, JM Morin, R Noreen, B Öberg, JA Palkowitz, CA Parrish, P Pranc, C Sahlberg, RJ Ternansky, RT Vasileff, L Vrong, SJ West, H Zhang, XX Zhou. Phenethylthiazolethiourea (PETT) compounds, a new class of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. 1. Synthesis and basic structure-activity relationship studies of PETT analogs. J Med Chem 1995; 38(25): 4929-4936.
2. FM Uçkun, S Pendergrass, D Maher, D Zhu, L Tuel-Ahlgren, C Mao, TK Venkatachalam. N’-[2-(2-thiophene) ethyl]-N’-[2-(5- bromopyridyl)] thio-urea as a potent inhibitor of NNI-resistant and multidrug-resistant HIV-1.Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1999; 9(24): 3411-3416.
3. I Küçükgüzel, E Tatar, ?G Küçükgüzel, S Rollas, E De Clercq. Synthesis of some novel thiourea derivatives obtai ned from 5-[(4- aminophenoxy)methyl]-4-alkyl aryl-2,4- dihydro-3H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thiones and evaluation as antiviral/ anti-HIV and antituberculosis agents.Eur J Med Chem 2008; 43(2):381-392.
4. OG Todoulou, Papadaki- AE Valiraki, EC Filippatos, S Ikeda, , E De Clercq. Synthesis and anti-myxovirus activity of some novel N,N′-disubstituted thioureas. Eur J Med Chem 1994; 29(2): 127-131.
5. A Mahajan, S Yeh, M Nell, Van CJ Rensburg, K Chibale. Synthesis of new 7- chloroquinolinyl thioureas and their biological investigation as potential antimalarial and anticancer agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2007; 17: 5683– 5685.
6. S Karakus, SG Küçükgüzel, I Küçükgüzel, E De Clercq, C Pannecouque, G Andrei, R Snoeck, F ?ahin, Ö F Bayrak. Synthesis, ant iviral and anticancer activity of s ome novel thioureas derived from N-(4-nitro-2-phenox yphenyl)-methanesulfonamide. Eur J Med Chem 2009; 44(9): 3591- 3595.
7. J Liu, B Song, H Fan, PS Bhadury, W Wan, S Yang, W Xu, Wu J, L Jin, X Wei, D Hu, S Zeng. Synthesis and in vitro study of pseudopeptide thioureas containing α- aminophosphonate moiety as potential antitumor agents. Eur J Med Chem 2010; 45(11): 5108-5112.
8. G Heinisch, B Matuszczak, D Rakowitz, B Tantisina. Synthesis of N-aryl-N’-heteroarylsubstituted urea and thiourea derivatives and evaluation of their anticonvulsant activity. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 1997; 330(7): 207- 210.
9. B Masereel, DM Lambert, JM Dogne, JH Poupaert, J Delarge. Anticonvulsant activity of 3-pyrid-3-yl-sulfonyl ureas and thioureas. Epilepsia 1997; 38(3): 334-337.
10. N Pandeya, H Manjula, JP Stables. Design of semicarbazones and their bioisosteric analoques as potential anticonvulsants. Pharmazie 2001; 56(2): 121-124.
11. B Mertschenk., F Beck, W Bauer. “Thiourea and Thiourea Derivatives” in llmann’s Encyclopedia of industrial chemistry by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.Allrights reserved. DOI:10.1002/14356007.a26-803, 2002.
12. D Gupta, G Soman and S Dev. “Thiourea, a convenient reagent for the reductive cleavage of olefin ozonolysis products”. Tetrahedron 38:3013, Doi: 1016/0040-4020 (82) 80187-7, 1982.
13. S Thaddeus, Danowski, Department of Internal medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, October21, 1943.
14. Robert Thornton Morrison, Robert Neilson Boyd. Organic Chemistry, 6th edition.
15. P S Kalsi. Spectroscopy of organic compounds, 4th edition.
16. CNR Rao, R Vengataraghavan. Spectrochim Acta 1962 (!8) 541
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15General SciencesCONTINUOUS TECHNICAL SUPPORT FOR THE EFFECTIVE WORKING OF E-LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
English4252Allah NawazEnglish Muhammad SiddiqueEnglishThe adoption of information and communication technologies (ICTs) is no more an option for the higher education intuitions (HEIs) rather indispensable to their survival in both developed and developing states. For the later, technologies hold unprecedented opportunities however; successful implementation of educational technologies squarely depends on the ability of developers and users in harnessing modern digital-gadgets to stay available and accessible 24/7. If the required technical infrastructure (tools and professionals) and live help-desks are not there, eLearning solutions in higher education continue underplaying their role as well as discouraging the users from becoming digitally literate. This paper underlines the role and significance of sustained technical support for successful implementation of eLearning projects in HEIs of the developing states.
EnglishICTs, Educational Technologies, eTeaching, ePedagogy, eLearning, eEducation, eReadiness, eMaturity, LMS, LCMS, ERP, CMS.INTRODUCTION
ICTs have created a new global economy “powered by technology, fueled by information and driven by knowledge.”1 The emergence of this new global economy has serious implications for the nature and purpose of educational institutions (Tinio, 2002). However, the success of the project depends on the skills and quality of technical support available to the users (Gray et al., 2003). Immediate, extensive, and sustained support should be offered to teachers in order to make the best out of e-learning (Abrami et al., 2006). They need to get technical and human resource support for continuous technology integration after having training (Zhao and LeAnnaBryant, 2006). It is however notable that global availability of educational technologies have staged a platform of opportunities for all the HEIs in the world (Tinio, 2002) and these are more profitable for the developing countries in terms of solving their long standing education issues along with other economic and political problems. eLearning is helping the developing nations to solve their problems of mass-education, which has not been possible through physical education facilities at that large scale (Hvorecký et al., 2005). Similarly, ICTs are helping developing states in reducing their isolation from rest of the world by connecting online through internet and thereby learn, enjoy, do business or politics (Sife et al., 2007). It is argued that without proper technology support even the most current and sophisticated hardware and software cannot help teachers and students to access and use technology effectively (Valdez et al., 2004). Similarly, research reveals that there is communication and knowledge-gap between developers and users in adopting the new systems (Nawaz et al., 2007). Other researchers report that the successful development of online programs means providing adequate levels of pedagogical guidance and technical support (Phillips et al., 2008). Unfortunately, educational technologies do not „go-live? as and when they are purchased by the users or organizations. They have to be harnessed and tamed (Stephenson, 2006) in accordance with the requirements of the user and workenvironment. There is a long list of digital technologies and all are not good for every institution rather there needs to be a rational choice of relevant hardware, software and networking facilities (Nyvang, 2006). The universities in developing states face a lot of challenges in undertaking such a process like lack of systemic approach to ICT implementation, awareness and attitude towards ICTs, administrative support, technical support etc., (Sife et al., 2007). Furthermore, there are documented differences between the success and failure factors in the developed and developing countries with regard to the development and use of eLearning in HEIs (Nawaz and Kundi, 2010). In the developing states, educational technologies are not the problem in themselves rather their availability and then their taming for the individual and organizational requirements is challenge for both the developers and users. The biggest technological issue for the countries like Pakistan is the creation of country-wide digital infrastructure, facilities and services at every HEI level (ADB, 2002; Hameed, 2007). At the institutional level, the widely reported technological problems relate to the existence and support of technical unit in the institute. Users need continuous and timely help from the technical department, which is reportedly mostly unavailable (Moolman and Blignaut, 2008). Thus the dependence on the technical department and staff is a big issue for the eLearning users.
EDUCATOINAL TECHNOLGIES IN HEIS
Education is the major user of software applications therefore teachers must join and contribute to the efforts for making eLearning projects a success (Buzhardt and Heitzman-Powell, 2005). High-quality ICT-literacy teaching requires the administration to provide support for faculty by adequately funding the staffing of IT services personnel to levels that can accommodate the demands placed upon them (Ezziane, 2007). Information Technology is currently being used effectively in management education for information access and delivery in libraries, research and development, as a communication medium, and for teaching and learning. Increased access to and use of the Internet is making a unique contribution to the teaching and learning process and will be an important part of future strategies to provide services to increased number of students in very diverse locations (Mehra and Mital, 2007). An eLearning solution for a HEI is made of three basic components: Content, Technology and Services (Dinevski and Kokol, 2005).
1. Content:
In the eLearning environment, new forms of educational content (radio programs, web-based courses, interactive multimedia, etc.) are developed, existing contents are adapted and print-based content are converted into digital media (Tinio, 2002). The trend of the learning content development is its interactivity and to serve the learners with different background knowledge (Dinevski and Kokol, 2005). In the eLearning environments, learning-contents are delivered via internet, intranet, extranet, satellite TV, and CDs, using web-based learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration (Manochehr, 2007).
2. Technology:
Technology comprises the:
1 Infrastructure (Internet, Intranet or hybrid delivery platforms), facilities for offline and remote access, user interfaces and personalization;
2 Learning content management systems (LCMS) (delivery, tracking, management and reporting of online content);
3 Learning management systems (LMS) (mapping, performance management, employee development plans, financial and activity tracking/reporting, system integration);
4 Learning technologies (mentoring, chatting and discussion forums, Web seminars, online meeting and classroom sessions (Pfeffer, 2004; Dinevski and Kokol, 2005; Dalsgaard, 2006; Barnes et al., 2007).
3. Services:
Services include:
a. Consulting (developing the strategy and design of the eLearning program);
b. Support (assistance with implementation of the eLearning program (technology platforms and infrastructure, management feedback and reporting, technical and implementation support);
c. Design and build services (building custom contents for a specific education, transfer existing materials to online format, tailoring and customization of the eLearning platform and delivery environment, and integration with other applications (Dinevski and Kokol, 2005).
ROLE OF TECHNICAL SUPPORT
Technical support is essential both for the teachers and students (Sirkemaa, 2001). For teachers, technical support is needed to ensure that they have the resources and skills necessary for technology-integration into the class practices. For students, technical support helps in the acquisition of knowledge and skills necessary to fulfill their unique curriculum requirements (Valdez et al., 2004). Technical support includes “installation, operation, maintenance, network administration and security (Sife et al., 2007).” The ICT support covers resolving hardware problems, implementing software installations and helping users in common applications of ICTs in eTeaching, eLearning and eEducation (Mokhtar et al., 2007). Technological sustainability involves choosing technology that will be effective over the long term (Tinio, 2002). Gray et al., (2003) report, after studying a group of universities running successful eLearning projects, that “the success of the project was often dependent on the skills and quality of technical support provided to end-users.” Similarly, researchers suggest that the university constituents “need to get technical and human resource support for continuous technology integration after the training (Zhao and Bryant, 2006).” This support includes the technicalinfrastructure manned with technical talent such as network managers, web administrators, security specialists etc., but universities are facing challenges in preparing IT-workers for new digital environments (Ezziane, 2007). Despite help from the IT centre most problems need to be solved at teachers or students level. Interestingly, student survival in the digital age seems to depend on how well one knows people who can help with different problems (Sirkemaa, 2001). Because, support to eLearning does not simply refer to bridging the hardware-divide rather the access to infrastructure and services should help users in getting knowledge, skills, and consistent support of organizational structures to achieve broader social and community objectives (Macleod, 2005; Ågerfalk et al., 2006). Technical support is an important part of the implementation and integration of ICT in education however, often technical support is not available requiring the teachers and students to command some basic troubleshooting skills to overcome technical problems when using ICTs (Sife et al., 2007).
Development, Maintenance and Up-gradation of Infrastructure
A strategic plan for educational technology includes the technological infrastructure and the roadmap according to which new technologies will be adopted in the teaching and learning practices (Stockley, 2004). For this purpose, it is necessary to establish an infrastructure, which is reliable and loaded with interoperable repositories, publishing support services and quality control mechanisms (Pfeffer, 2004). Likewise, there is need to invest significantly in the central support like helpdesk, training, documentation, registration,authentication etc (Valcke, 2004). Because highquality digital literacy requires the HEIs to provide support to the faculty by adequately funding the IT department and professionals so that they can accommodate the demands placed upon them (Ezziane, 2007) thereby showing eMaturity in using ICT tools and techniques (Moolman and Blignaut, 2008). In the digital age technology is changing fast. The result is that compatibility and flexibility to adapt to different devices and platforms are important issues in infrastructure (Sirkemaa, 2001) because reliability of equipment means that technical support staff can spend less time on maintenance and much more time for training teachers and students in the use of software (Lewis and Goodison, 2004). Furthermore, the adoption and maintenance of educational technologies is also expensive. The capital cost of the entire infrastructure needed to initiate the process is quite obvious. A little less obvious is the high level of recurrent costs associated with the effective use of ICT (Ezziane, 2007).
IT-Department and Personnel
Whether provided by inside technical staff or external service providers, or both, technical support specialists are essential to the continued viability of ICT use in a given school. General competencies that are required for eLearning technical experts are installation, operation, and maintenance of technical equipment (including software), network administration, and network security. Without on-site technical support, much time and money may be lost due to technical breakdowns (Tinio, 2002). The success of an eLearning project is often dependent on the skills and quality of technical support provided to endusers (Gray et al., 2003) by “IT division (Juniu, 2005).” In the universities, eLearning environment requires technical staff like network managers, web administrators, e-commerce developers, and security specialists. The number of graduates in computer science and information systems is inadequate to meet worldwide demand of professionals (Ezziane, 2007). Technical staff builds and maintains the system architecture as well as assists the teachers and students in using this system (Sirkemaa, 2001). The effectiveness of technology support is measured by the degree to which end-users feel their availability. In other words, when systems and resources operate seamlessly, users tend to take the staff supporting their technology use for granted. In many cases, the only interaction between technical staff and users occurs when technology gives problems (Valdez et al., 2004). It is argued that current eTeachers deserve better technical support of technology experts and integration specialists who can help in classroom technology integration through a kind of mentoring (Zhao and Bryant, 2006).
Bottlenecks of sustained technical support
Bringing computers into the classroom is relatively easy but keeping them working is a greater challenge (Hawkins, 2002) because developing and implementing a strategic plan that includes educational technology is often a difficult and complex process (Stockley, 2004). HEIs are also very preoccupied with the rate of technological change and its increasing cost over time (Sasseville, 2004). In most of the developing countries there is insufficient technical support (Mokhtar et al., 2007) with very few technical experts (Sife et al., 2007). Across the literature, certain issues surface over and over in all the surveys of HEIs in developed and developing countries such as, changing technologies, leading-edge syndrome, and users? digital literacy (Hawkins, 2002; Klonoski, 2005; Mokhtar et al., 2007). An information system is not just built and thereafter operates without any interruption rather research has unfolded several technology-centric attitudes, human problems, cultural conflicts, and political maneuvering specific to the success and failure of an eLearning system (Nawaz et al., 2007).
System Compatibility
In the digital age technology is changing fast therefore compatibility and flexibility to adapt with changing gadgets and platforms are important issues in the infrastructure of eLearning (Sirkemaa, 2001). Given the rapid changes in ICTs, this becomes indispensable for professionals to fight the “threat of technological obsolescence (Tinio, 2002).” Likewise, in a developing country, a list of problems (relating to spikes, viruses, dust, heat, and wear-and-tear) can bring “the computer lab to a screeching halt (Hawkins, 2002).” Having said that, in developing countries HEIs have to be in the forefront of ensuring ICT revolution, but they are unable and ill-prepared to play such a leadership role because of having poorly developed infrastructure (Sife et al., 2007). A system needs to be capable of being changed throughout its life (Nawaz et al., 2007; Nawaz and Kundi, 2010b).
Issues of Latest Technologies
The problem of „leading-edge-syndrome? is negatively affecting the organizations around the globe (Tinio, 2002). It is the selection of cuttingedge technologies for eLearning projects. Although research warns again and again that „tested technologies? are better than the new and untested ones, most of the institutions still opt for latest technologies, which are not only sophisticatedand complicated but also expensive. The research suggests that most of the time these „leading-edge? technologies turn into „bleedingedge? technologies because of costs overruns, delays and issues of their integration with the existing systems (Ezziane, 2007). An effective technical support also means that users are not only trained in using technologies but continuously updated about the user and possibilities created by these gadgets (Kopyc, 2007).
Digital Literacy of the eLearning Users
The demand for a universal computer-literacy stems from the ways in which ICTs are dominating different aspects of the contemporary life and work (Oliver, 2002). The advocates of social inclusion through ICTs propose a focus on electronic literacy as a key to overcoming the digital divide (Macleod, 2005). Different groups of people: students, teachers, and employers have different ideas about what computer literacy means (Johnson et al., 2006). Now, digital literacy skills are considered necessary for effective and mindful learning in the emerging digital environments (Aviram and Eshet-Alkalai, 2006). Commonly, people get their digital literacy either formally through school programs or at the workplace and/or informally, whether at home, from friends, or by themselves (Ezziane, 2007). The implementation of ICT can also be interpreted as redesign of an infrastructure with significant impact on both the work of the individual teacher and his or her surroundings (Nyvang, 2003). In this environment and in order to perform new teaching functions, the teachers? “eTraining” should focus on the development of specific abilities and skills: 1 Professional: knowing the material, contents, activities, didactic methods and teaching plan, etc; 2 Technical: basic skills which allow them to carry out their functions appropriately, and 3 Personal: interacting, receptive capacity, giving feedback, initiative, and creativity (Blázquez and Díaz, 2006). During the last 25 years, several models and approaches of computer and information literacy have started to merge (Ezziane, 2007; Nawaz and Kundi, 2010c).
In Figure 1 „sustained technical support? is the independent variable which determines (explains) the dependent variable of „successful eLearning projects in HEIs?. However, this relationship is interrupted by an intervening variable of „issues of uninterrupted technical support.?
DISCUSSIONS
Without proper support and maintenance of even the most current and sophisticated hardware and software, the ability of teachers and students to access and use technology is limited (Valdez et al., 2004). The level of dependence on technical support is determined by the degree of users? digital literacy. Research shows that there is too much dependence of eLearning users on the support and services of technical help-desk and which is sometimes frustrating for the teachers and students therefore the issue has to be resolved both at the users IT department/professional and user levels. “University constituents: teachers, students and staff (Juniu, 2005)” or “campus constituents (Carey and Gleason, 2006)” have to be trained again and again to become self-sufficient in handling the digital devices. Furthermore, although the prices of computers are falling and the developing countries are finding a variety of technologies with low budgets however, new and advanced technologies and their availability in abundance requires a lot of finances. At the same time, governments are reducing the funding of public universities therefore affording an expensive eLearning infrastructure is becoming an uphill task for the HEIs in public sector. To resolve this issue, Carey and Gleason (2006) argue that since it is not possible for the individual universities to duplicate leading edge technologies at every institute level, therefore, universities are relying on third-party solutions to meet student demands more economically. Thus, outsourcing is the collaboration with the outsiders who are specialized in a particular eLearning technology or service, for example:
1. Applications:
HEIs have to control costs, reduce the burden on their technical staff, and improve services. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) and campus management systems (CMS) applications and more importantly, the existence of free and open source systems (FOSS), an open architecture can enable partial outsourcing of the application-base, and HEIs will easily be able to switch from one thirdparty service provider to another if they are dissatisfied with the services.
2. Integration-services:
A big issue for HEIs in adopting eLearning solutions is the integration or interfaces of a multitude of software applications. This integration layer can be outsourced to a third-party service provider. The interfaces within and outside the institutions must conform to the higher education industry standards for messaging, security and privacy.
3. Outsourcing the processing layer:
Every HEI generally performs the same administrative functions and similar processes to support those functions. This work can be outsourced easily and cheaply to an agency that performs the same tasks for multiple institutions. Effective technology support is concerned with planning, development, and maintenance of technology systems and resources; providing immediate support for the use of those systems on an as-needed basis; and enhancing teacher and student competency in technology integration through long-term development courses and programs (Valdez et al., 2004). So far most of the HEIs in developing countries have basic ICT infrastructure such as Local Area Network (LAN), internet, computers, video, audio, CDs and DVDs, and mobile technology facilities that form the basis for the establishment of e-learning (Sife et al., 2007). Normally it is expected that as the institute builds up its infrastructure over the years and the faculty gains experience the pedagogy followed shifts from pure lecture method to instructional technology (Mehra and Mital, 2007). There is also great uncertainty among decisionmakers and managers as well as among developers, trainers and learners: instructors find themselves confronted with a new role in which they are tutors and facilitators for learning processes (Ehlers, 2005). Technology training alone cannot necessarily ensure that these teachers would infuse technology into their routine instruction and a radical change in their instructional practices would occur. However, they need to get technical and human resource support for continuous technology integration after the training (Zhao and Bryant, 2006). Given the premise that IS development is a learning process, it requires an open environment wherein all the participants have the opportunity to make sense of the new technological work environment (Nawaz et al., 2007; Nawaz and Kundi, 2010b).
CONCLUSIONS
The research shows that ICT professionals in universities have no knowledge of what is common practice elsewhere (Gray et al., 2003) and most of the university administrators and information technology departments provide services to the classroom in isolation from the educators (Juniu, 2005). Similarly, developers rarely report errors to the users apprehending that it may emphasize the shortcomings of their products (Buzhardt and Heitzman-Powell, 2005).The weaknesses in communication between developers and users can run into many problems like confusions, misunderstandings and conflicts leading the projects towards information system failure (Nawaz et al., 2007; Nawaz and Kundi, 2010b). Although the digital era has bridged some of the digital divide but it has also created unequal distribution and access to technological knowledge. For example, use of sophisticated technologies brings the need to rely on IT department technological expertise support (Juniu, 2005). Researchers are identifying problems “such as user dissatisfaction with newly introduced systems, mismatches between new technologies and existing work practices, underestimating the technological complexity for employees, and inefficient end-user support (Bondarouk, 2006).” ICTs have penetrated education, but its more impact is on administrative services like admissions, registration, fee payment, purchasing rather than on pedagogy in the classroom (Dalsgaard, 2006). Thus, there needs to be a level of “eReadiness” to go for “eMaturity” of HEIs, which means the ability to utilize ICTs (Moolman and Blignaut, 2008). Without proper support and maintenance of even the most current and sophisticated hardware and software, the ability of teachers and students to (Kopyc, 2007)
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1534http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15341. ADB (2005). Sector Assistance Program Evaluation for the Social Sectors in Pakistan SAP:PAK 2005-08 (July). Operations Evaluation Department. Asian Development Bank. Retrieved May 11, 2007, from http://www.adb.org/Evaluation/methods.asp.
2. Ågerfalk, P. J., Goldkuhl, G., Fitzgerald, B., andBannon, L. (2006). Reflecting on action in language, organisations and information systems. European Journal of Information Systems, 15, 4–8. Retrieved May 11, 2007, from http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ejis/.
3. Aviram, A. andEshet-Alkalai, Y. (2006). Towards a Theory of Digital Literacy: Three Scenarios for the Next Steps. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, Retrieved May 11, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/.
4. Barnes, K., Marateo, R. C., andFerris, S. P. (2007). Teaching and Learning with the Net Generation. Innovate Journal of Online Education. 3(4). Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
5. Blázquez, F. E. andDíaz, L. A. (2006). A Training Proposal for e-Learning Teachers. European Journal of Open, Distance and ELearning. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/.
6. Bondarouk, T. V. (2006). Action-oriented group learning in the implementation of information technologies: results from three case studies. European Journal of Information Systems, 15, 42–53. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ejis/.
7. Buzhardt, J. andHeitzman-Powell, L. (2005). Stop blaming the teachers: The role of usability testing in bridging the gap between educators and technology. Electronic Journal for the Integration of Technology in Education, 4, 13. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://ejite.isu.edu/Volume3No1/.
8. Carey, P. andGleason, B. (2006). Vision 2010: The Future of Higher Education Business and Learning Applications. Innovate Journal of Online Education, 3(1). Oct/Nov. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
9. Dalsgaard, C. (2006). Social software: Elearning beyond learning management systems. European Journal of Open, Distance and ELearning. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/.
10. Dinevski, D. andKokol, D. P. (2005). ICT and Lifelong Learning. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/.
11. Ehlers, U. (2005). Quality in e-learning from a learner's perspective. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/.
12. Ezziane, Z. (2007) Information Technology Literacy: Implications on Teaching and Learning. Journal of Educational Technology andSociety, 10 (3), 175-191. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.ask4research.info/.
13. Gray, D. E., Ryan, M. andCoulon, A. (2003). The Training of Teachers and Trainers: Innovative Practices, Skills and Competencies in the use of eLearning. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/.
14. Hameed, T. (2007). ICT as an enabler of socioeconomic development. Retrieved June, 24 2007, from http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/digitalbridges/materia ls/hameed-paper.pdf.
15. Hawkins, R. J. (2002) Ten Lessons for ICT and Education in the Developing World. Retrieved July 14. 2007 from http://www.cid.harvard.edu/cr/pdf/gitrr2002_ch0 4.pdf.
16. Hvorecký, J., Manažmentu, V. S. andCesta, P. (2005). Can E-learning break the Digital Divide? European Journal of Open, Distance and ELearning. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/.
17. Jewels, T. andFord, M. (2006). The Development of a Taxonomy of Desired Personal Qualities for IT Project Team Members and Its Use in an Educational Setting. Journal of Information Technology Education, 5. Retrieved July 14, 2007, from http://jite.org/documents/Vol5/.
18. Jewels, T. andFord, M. (2006). The Development of a Taxonomy of Desired Personal Qualities for IT Project Team Members and Its Use in an Educational Setting. Journal of Information Technology Education, 5. Retrieved July 14, 2007, from http://jite.org/documents/Vol5/.
19. Juniu, S. (2005). Digital Democracy in Higher Education Bridging the Digital Divide. Innovate Journal of Online Education, 2(1), October/November. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
20. Klonoski, E. (2005). Cost-Saving Collaboration: Purchasing and Deploying a Statewide Learning Management System. Innovate Journal of Online Education, 1(4), April/May. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
21. Kopyc, S. (2007). Enhancing Teaching with Technology: Are We There Yet? Innovate Journal of Online Education. December 2006/January 2007, 3(2). Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
22. LaCour, S. (2005). The future of integration, personalization, and ePortfolio technologies. Innovate Journal of Online Education, 1(4), April/May. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
23. Lewis, D. andGoodison, R. (2004). Enhancing learning with Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Higher Education. Research Report RR533, Department for Education and Skills. © University of Wolverhampton 2004, ISBN 1 84478 225 5. Retrieved July 14, 2007, from http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfile s/RR533.pdf.
24. Lynch, J., Sheard, J., Carbone, A. andCollins, F. (2005). Individual and Organisational Factors Influencing Academics? Decisions to Pursue the Scholarship of Teaching ICT. Journal of Information Technology Education, 4. Retrieved July 14, 2007, from http://jite.org/documents/Vol4/.
25. Macleod, H. (2005). What role can educational multimedia play in narrowing the digital divide? International Journal of Education and Development using ICT. 1(4). Retrieved May 11, 2007, from http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu//.
26. Manochehr, N. (2007). The Influence of Learning Styles on Learners in E-Learning Environments: An Empirical Study. Computers in Higher Education and Economics Review, 18. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/cheer.htm.
27. Mehra, P. andMital, M. (2007). Integrating technology into the teaching-learning transaction: Pedagogical and technological perceptions of management faculty. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT, 3(1). Retrieved October 11, 2007, from http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu//.
28. Mokhtar, S. A., Alias, R. A. andAbdul-Rahman, A. (2007). Academic computing at Malaysian colleges. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT, 3(2). Retrieved May 11, 2007, from http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu//.
29. Moolman, H. B., andBlignaut, S. (2008). Get set! e-Ready, … e-Learn! The e-Readiness of Warehouse Workers. Journal of Educational. Technology andSociety, 11 (1), 168-182. http://www.ask4research.info/ accessed April 10, 2007.
30. Nawaz, A., Kundi, G. M. andShah, D. B. (2007). Metaphorical interpretations of information systems failure. Peshawar University Teachers? Association Journal, 14, 15-26.
31. Nawaz, A. andKundi, GM. (2010) Demographic implications for the user perceptions of eLearning in HEIs of NWFP, Pakistan. Electronic Journal of Information Systems for Developing Countries. 41(5), 1-17. (a)
32. Nawaz, A. andKundi, GM. (2010) Predictor of elearning development and use practices in higher education institutions (HEIs) of NWFP, Pakistan. Journal of Science and Technology Education Research. 1(3):44-54. Available at: http://www.academicjournals.org/JSTER (b)
33. Nawaz, A. andKundi, G.M. (2010). Digital literacy: An analysis of the contemporary paradigms. Journal of Science and Technology Education Research. 1(2):19-29. Available at: http://www.academicjournals.org/JSTER (c)
34. Kundi, GM andNawaz, A. (2010) From objectivism to social constructivism: The impacts of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on higher education. Journal of Science and Technology Education Research, 1(2), 30-36.
35. Nyvang, T. (2003). Implementation of ICT in higher education: A case study of teachers implementing ICT into their teaching practice. Retrieved June 24, 2007 from http://www.intermedia.uib.no/cscl/doc/files/Nyv ang.pdf.
36. Nyvang, T. (2006). Implementation of ICT in Higher Education as Interacting Activity Systems. Retrieved June 24, 2007 from http://www. networkedlearningconference.org.uk/abstracts/p dfs/P27%20Nyvang.pdf
37. Oliver, R. (2002). The role of ICT in higher education for the 21st century: ICT as a change agent for education. Retrieved April 14, 2007 from http://elrond.scam.ecu.edu.au/oliver/2002/he21.p df.
38. Pfeffer, T. (2004). Open sources for higher education. Do information technologies change the definition of public and private goods? CHER 17th Annual Conference, Enschede, The Netherlands, 17-19 September 2004. Retrieved April 7, 2007 from http://www.iff.ac.at/hofo/pfeffer/2004_Pfeffer _open_sources_CHER.doc.
39. Phillips, P., Wells, J., Ice, P., Curtis, R. andKennedy, R. (2008). A Case Study of the Relationship Between Socio-Epistemological Teaching Orientations and Instructor Perceptions of Pedagogy in Online Environments. Electronic Journal for the Integration of Technology in Education, 6, 3-27. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://ejite.isu.edu/Volume6No1/.
40. Sasseville, B. (2004). Integrating Information and Communication Technology in the Classroom: A Comparative Discourse Analysis. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 30(2), Spring. Retrieved May 14, 2007, from http://www.cjlt.ca/.
41. Sife, A. S., Lwoga, E. T. andSanga, C. (2007). New technologies for teaching and learning: Challenges for higher learning institutions in developing countries. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT, 3(1). Retrieved July 21, from http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu//.
42. Sirkemaa, S. (2001). Information technology in developing a meta-learning environment. European Journal of Open, Distance and ELearning. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/.
43. Stephenson, R. (2006). Open Source/Open Course: Learning Lessons for Educators from Free and Open Source Software. Innovate Journal of Online Education, 3(1), Oct/Nov. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
44. Stockley, D. (2004). Strategic Planning for Technological Innovation in Canadian Post Secondary Education. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 30(2), Spring. Retrieved May 14, 2007, from http://www.cjlt.ca/.
45. Tinio, V. L. (2002). ICT in education. Presented by UNDP for the benefit of participants to the World Summit on the Information Society. UNDP?s regional project, the Asia-Pacific Development Information Program (APDIP), in association with the secretariat of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Retrieved July 14, 2007 from http://www.apdip.net/publications/ iespprimers/eprimer-edu.pdf.
46. Tran, T., Baker, R. andPensavalle, M. (2005). Designing e-Portfolios to Support Professional Teacher Preparation. Innovate Journal of Online Education, 2(2), December 2005/January 2006. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
47. Valcke , M. (2004). ICT in higher education: An uncomfortable zone for institutes and their policies. In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, D. JonasDwyer andR. Phillips (Eds), Beyond the comfort zone: Proceedings of the 21st ASCILITE Conference (pp. 20-35). Perth, 5-8 December. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth04/p rocs/valcke-keynote.html.
48. Valdez, G., Fulton, K., Glenn, A., Wimmer, N. A. andBlomeyer, R. (2004). Effective Technology Integration in Teacher Education: A Comparative Study of Six Programs. Innovate Journal of Online Education, 1(1). Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://Innovateonline.info.
49. Zhao, Y. andLeAnna Bryant, F. (2006). Can Teacher Technology Integration Training Alone Lead to High Levels of Technology Integration? A Qualitative Look at Teachers? Technology Integration after State Mandated Technology Training. Electronic Journal for the Integration of Technology in Education, 5, 53-62. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://ejite.isu.edu/Volume5No1/.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15General SciencesEVALUATION OF HICROME AGAR - CANDIDA, A NEW DIFFERENTIAL MEDIUM FOR ISOLATION OF CANDIDA SPECIES FROM ORAL TRUSH IN HIV SEROPOSITIVE PATIENTS
English5361Shyamala R.English P. K. ParandekarEnglish Aparna Y. TakpereEnglishBackground of study: Oral candidiasis is the most common opportunistic infection in HIV seropositive patients, also predictive of immunosuppression. Though Candida albicans is the predominant isolate in oral candidiasis, there is rise in non albicans Candida infection coupled with high levels of antifungal resistance. There is urgent need for rapid, simple and reliable method to identify yeast isolates. Hicrome agar- Candida is a selective and differential medium for identification of yeasts directly from clinical samples. This medium allows selective isolation of yeasts and simultaneously identifies certain species of Candida. Aim / Objective: To evaluate the utility of Hicrome agar-Candida in identification of C. albicans and non albicans Candida.
Research Methodology: Two oral swabs obtained from 100 HIV seropositive patients having oral candidiasis were subjected to identification and characterization by standard conventional methods. Simultaneously direct inoculation was done on Hicrome agar- Candida plate. Conclusion: Of the total 100 samples 103 species were obtained. C. tropicalis was the most common species isolated followed by C. guilliermondi, C. parapsilosis, C. kefyr, C. albicans, C. krusei, C. glabrata, C. fomata and C. pelliculosa. Hicrome agar showed selective growth of all Candida species with distinguishing color for each species. C. tropicalis showed blue color with sensitivity (68%) and specificity (98.72%). C. albicans showed green colored colonies with 100% sensitivity and specificity respectively. C. kefyr showed pink color with sensitivity (61%) and specificity (92%). C. guilliermondi showed 95% sensitivity and 59% specificity. Hicrome agar differentiated mixed culture with all samples.
EnglishHicrome agar-Candida, C. albicans, C. tropicalis.INTRODUCTION
Oropharyngeal candidiasis continues to be a common opportunistic infection in patients infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and it is the predictive of increasing immunosuppression.1 Though Candida albicans is the predominant isolate, rise in frequency of isolation of non albicans Candida species is observed. Rapid and reliable identification of these Candida species is essential as they differ in their virulence and sensitivity to antifungal drugs. Routine identification of Candida species in the clinical microbiology laboratory is based upon the morphological characteristics such as the formation of pseudohyphae and terminal chlamydospores, clusters of blastoconidia at septa when grown on Corn meal agar at room temperature and the formation of germ tube in serum at 37 0C. In addition, carbon source assimilation and fermentation tests or commercially available kits are also used as additional diagnostic tests.2 Despite the availability of these tests, the identification of Candida species is laborious, time consuming and sometimes difficult to interpret. These tests at times may be inadequate or less sensitive and may yield inaccurate identification especially when atypical strains defying classical identification characteristics are encountered. Mixed growth having C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis and other non albicans Candida are associated with increasing frequency in these patients. There is not only difficulty in their identification, but also clinical therapeutic failure to azoles as these organisms shows increased resistance to azole group of drugs. This is due to selective pressure or increased usage of Fluconazole as prophylactic drug.3, 4 Although Automated systems are available to accurately identify the isolates to species level and derive their antifungal susceptibility pattern. These automated systems proved to be considerably expensive and are limited to few sophisticated laboratories. Several CHROMagar-Candida, a chromogen based culture medium has been commercially developed for rapid and reliable identification of C. albicans, as these strains produce β-Nacetylgalactosaminidase enzyme interacting on chromophore substrate incorporated in the media and gives green colored colonies.3, 5 This media also allows identification of mixed yeast isolates from clinical samples, permitting presumptive identification of C. albicans from other Candida species. Hicrome agar- Candida (Himedia, Mumbai, India) is one such chromogenic medium employs the same principle and helps in identifying Candida isolates based on colony color and morphology. Hicrome agar identifies C. albicans by imparting green color to the colonies, C. tropicalis shows blue color, C. glabrata showing green-purple color, C. parapsilosis shows pink colored colonies.5, 6 Although the manufacturer claim that this media shows better performance with good accuracy in identifying Candida species, there is need to establish its ability in selective isolation and presumptive identification of Candida species, before replacing conventional methods. Thus the present study was carried out with the objective to prove the utility of Hicrome agar in identification of C. albicans and non albicans Candida in quicker time as compared to identification by conventional methods.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The present study was carried out at the Department of Microbiology, BLDEU’S Sri B M Patil Medical college and Research centre, Bijapur, Karnataka. The study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Ethical Committee. Patients were included in the study if they were HIV seropositive irrespective of duration of infection of either sex and of all age group with oral lesion characterized by cream- white, curdy patches or erythematous lesions on dorsum of tongue / buccal mucosa/ pharyngeal wall.7
Those patients who received antifungal treatment within one month duration were excluded. After taking written informed consent, specimens were collected by firmly swabbing the lesion with two sterile cotton swabs. One swab was used for identification of yeasts by conventional methods and the other swabbed directly on the Hicrome agar plate. Hicrome agar was prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Total 100 swabs showing positive for yeasts on microscopy were subjected to culture on Emmon’s modified Sabourauds Dextrose Agar (SDA) supplemented with antibiotics (gentamicin 5µg and chloramphenicol 50µg) and on Hicrome agar plate, incubated at 370C. Cream colored pasty yeast colonies on SDA were subjected to Germ Tube Test for two hours, morphology on Corn meal agar (Dalmau Plate Culture method) read after 48 hours and Auxonographic sugar assimilation test incubated for 7 days for identification of yeasts up to species level.8 Hicrome agar plates were visualized daily at 24hrs, 72 hrs and followed up to 7 days to check for colonial growth, characteristic color, color intensification and for variation in colony morphology .6 Statistical analysis: Parameters like sensitivity (true positive/true positive + false positive), specificity (true negative/true negative+ false positive) were determined.
RESULTS
The study group consists of 100 HIV seropositive patients, comprised 71% male and 29% females. Majority of the patients belong to age group between 31-45 years(50%) followed by age group16- 30 years(26%) and age group 46-60 years(20%). Mean age of the study group is 36 years. In our study, Non albicans Candida was the most common species isolated accounting for 88.35% and Candida albicans accounting for 11.65%. Species distribution is given in table 1. Out of 100 samples 103 Candida species were obtained. All the isolates showed growth on Hicrome within 24-36 hours, of size 1-3mm and it was difficult to identify Candida species based on color as the exact color and colony morphology was not able to recognize easily within 24-36 hours. Increased Colony size and well differentiated color and colony morphology were well appreciated between 36-48 hours. But in some rare species like C. pelliculosa , C. fomata and one strain of C. tropicalis were observed with well differentiated color after 72 hours, hence there was statistical difference (PEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1535http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15351. Shobha D Nadiger, Sneha K Chunchanur, LH Halesh, K Yasmeen, MR Chandrashekar and Patil BS. Significance of isolation and drug susceptibility testing of non- Candida albicans species causing oropharyngeal candidiasis in HIV patients. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 39(3):492-495.
2. Fotedar R and Al-Hedaithy S. S. A. Identification of chlamydospore-negative Candida albicans using CHROMagar Candida medium. Mycoses 2003;46:96-103
3. Ainscough S and Kibbler CC. An evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of using CHROMagar for yeast identification in a routine microbiology laboratory. J Med Microbiol 1998; 47: 623-628.
4. Hiroshi Isogai, Mulu A, Diro E, H Tekleselassie, Kassu A, Kimura K et al. Identification of Candida species from Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected Patients in Ethiopia by Combination of CHROMagar, Tobacco agar and PCR of Amplified Internally Transcribed rRNA Spacer Region. J Applied Research 2010; 10 (1):2-8.
5. Baradkar V P, Mathur M, Kumar S. Hicrome Candida agar for identification of Candida species. Ind J Patho and Microbiol 2010; 53(1): 93-95.
6. Duane R Hospenthal, Miriam L Beckius, Karon L Floyd, Lynn L Horvath and Clinton K Murrar. Presumptive identification of Candida species other than C. albicans, C. krusei and C. tropicalis with the chromogenic medium CHROMagar Candida. Ann of Clin Microbiol and Antimicrobials 2006; 5:1-5.
7. Omar JM Hamza, Mecky IN Matee, Mainen J Moshi, Elison NM Simon, Ferdinand Mugusi, Frans HM Mikx et al. Species distribution and invitro antifungal susceptibility of oral yeast isolates from Tanzanian HIV-infected patients with primary and recurrent oropharyngeal candidiasis. BMC Microbiology 2008; 8:135.
8. Esther Segal and Daniel Eland. Topley and Wilson’s Microbiology and Microbial infection, Medical Mycology. In: William GM, Roderick J Hay, editors. Candidiasis. 10th ed. Arnold publishers; p.577-578.
9. Vargas LOS and Lopez MGU. Oral isolates colonizing of infecting Human Immunodeficiency Virus infected and healthy persons on Mexico. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43(8):4159-62.
10. Anupriya A, Ravinder Kaur, Satish Kumar Agarwal, Shyama Jain and Preena Bhalla. AIDS related opportunistic mycoses seen in a tertiary career hospital in North India. J Med Microbiol 2007; 56:1101-6.
11. Mario Tumberllo, Germana Caldarola, Evelina Tacconelli, Giulia Morace, Brunella P, Robert Cauda et al. Analysis of the factors associated with the emergence of azole resistant oral candidiasis in the course of HIV infection. J Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 1996; 38: 691- 699.
12. Ranganathan K, Narasimhan P and Vidya P. Oral Candida species in Healthy and HIV infected subjects in Chennai. Trop Med and Health 2008; 3(2):101.
13. Lattif AA and Banerjee U. Susceptibility pattern and molecular type of species, specific Candida in oropharyngeal candidiasis of Indian HIV positive patient. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42(3):1260-2.
14. Enwuru CA, Ogunledin A, Idika N and Ogbonna F. Fluconazole resistant opportunistic oropharyngeal and non-Candida yeast like isolates from HIV infected patient attending to ART clinic in Lagos. African Health Services 2008; 8(3):142-3.
15. Sweet SP, Challocombe SJ and Cookson S. Candida albicans isolates from H IV-infected and AlDS patients exhibit enhanced adherence to epithelial cells. J Gen Microbiol 1995; 43:27-29.
16. Odds F C and R Bernaerts, CHROMagar Candida, a new differential isolation medium for presumptive identification of clinically important Candida species. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32(8):1923.
17. Lynn L. Horvath, Duane R. Hospenthal, Clinton K Murray and David PD. Direct Isolation of Candida spp. from Blood Cultures on the Chromogenic Medium CHROMagar Candida. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41(6): 2629– 2632.
18. Pfaller MA, Houstan A and Coffman S. Application of CHROM agar Candida for rapid screening of clinical specimens for Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida krusei and Candida glabrata. J Clin Microbiol 1996; 34(1):58-61.
Table I: shows C. albicans 11.65%, among non albicans Candida it is the Candida tropicalis (24.27%) was frequently isolated species followed by Candida guilliermondi (20.39%), Candida parapsilosis (12.62%). Candida kefyr (12.62%), Candida krusei (7.77%) were isolated. Rare species like Candida glabrata (5.83%), Candida fomata (2.91%) and Candida pelliculosa (0.97%) were also isolated.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareEXPOSURE OF DENTAL STAFF TO NITROUS OXIDE
English6267Omar MustafaEnglishBackground of study: Using nitrous oxide for sedation in paediatric dentistry is effective. Pollution from nitous oxide traces is an occupational hazard which should be monitored. Aim / Objective: to compare the nitrous oxide traces between different dental procedures and to monitor the nitrous oxide traces in the working environment. Research Methodology: Nitrous oxide was measured in 27 dental procedures according to two methods. First method, measurements were recorded every two minutes during the inhalational sessions. Second method measurements were recorded from different distances from the operation site. Results: Twenty one sessions used for the first method. No statistical difference was found between the means of the nitrous oxide traces through the extraction and conservative sessions. Age group from 6 to 8 years had the highest measured traces. High traces recorded during stressful events. Six sessions were selected for the second method. The distance obeys the inverse square law. Conclusion: lack of cooperation would lead to excessive pollution. Encouraging patient to breathe through the nose was found be very helpful in reducing pollution. It is recommended to check the equipment for leaks, to make sure that the mask is of the appropriate size and tight fitting, and to ensure that scavenging and surgery ventilation is adequate.
Englishnitrous oxide, pollution, dentistryINTRODUCTION
Dental anxiety in children is a well known problem that prevents many children from receiving dental treatment. Managing dental anxiety in children incorporates a variety of behavioural management techniques.1 These techniques should be tailored according to anxiety severity, the age of the patient, the degree of cooperation and the patient’s medical history.2 For some patients sedation will be necessary and using inhalation sedation using nitrous oxide/oxygen is well established in paediatric dentistry. Use of inhalation sedation with low to moderate concentrations of nitrous oxide with oxygen is considered safe, and there is no any reported mortality over 45 years of use.3 Inhalation of nitrous oxide is administered via a special nosepiece. There will be a continuous uptake of the gases and once the nitrous oxide is stopped, it`s effect will stop immediately. Recovery from sedation occurs in a very short period of time (few minutes) after administration of 100% oxygen.4 There are reports about nitrous oxide pollution which highlighted the potential health hazard,5 though the available evidence is weak.6 In some of these reports, authors mentioned a variety of problems such as haematological abnormalities, neurological deficits or increased risk of spontaneous abortions in women.7,8 Taking these potential occupational hazards into consideration, it rises the risk to dentists and dental nurses who are regularly exposed to nitrous oxide when undertaking inhalation sedation. The British Health and Safety Commission advises that the maximum exposure of clinical staff to nitrous oxide gas should be 100 ppm over an 8 hour time weighted average period.9 In the 1990s practitioners were educated in ways to effectively scavenge trace gas contamination, with the primary method being the evacuation system and the scavenging nasal hood/mask in addition to regular monitoring programs.10 Leakage of gas from the mask delivery system and inefficient scavenging of waste gas from the surgery atmosphere can lead to significant pollution of the dental surgery.9 There are many nitrous oxide analysers and dosimeters like the infrared nitrous oxide analyser which is used in many studies. Several types of dosimeters are available which can be worn as label badges during working hours.11 In order for dentists to feel comfortable that they are attaining safe levels of nitrous oxide within their surgeries they need to understand the risk of pollution from different procedures and also the risk to individuals within the surgery dependent on where they are placed relative to the source of pollution.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this study was to compare the measured nitrous oxide traces between the different dental procedures and to monitor the nitrous oxide traces in the working environment of the dental staff at variable distances at the paediatric dentistry department of Liverpool Dental Hospital.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This was a cross sectional study, ethical approval was not required as regular monitoring is part of the safety routine. Measurement of nitrous oxide was done in a convenience sample of 27 child patients attending the Paediatric department of the Liverpool Dental Hospital for dental treatment. The Department of Paediatric Dentistry is an open clinic design in that the dental units are separated by short partitions. The nitrous oxide machine used was the MDM Quantiflex which is a continuous flow type. The machine matches the universal safety measures of the sedation machines. It has the main parts which are the flowmeter, circuit bag, air entrainment valve, scavenging nasal hood and expiratory valve, and the conducting tubes. It uses continuous gas flow and the rate can be adjusted. One examiner monitored the nitrous oxide traces; he was trained in the use of the nitrous oxide analyser (the Medigas PM3010 N2O Analyser). The Medigas PM3010 N2O Analyser is a handheld infrared nitrous oxide monitor which can measure nitrous oxide concentrations in the range of 0-1,000 ppm with a resolution of 5 ppm. Readings can be displayed in real time or as an 8 hour TWA (Time Weighted Average). The analyser was calibrated and checked by the Medical Engineering Department at the Royal Liverpool Hospital.
The Procedure
Before the start of each inhalation session, permission was taken from the operators. Also parents and patients were informed about the study and assured that there would be no disruption of the dental treatment. Nitrous oxide traces were measured for two procedures:
First Procedure
In the first procedure, measurements were recorded every two minutes during 21 inhalational sessions as close as possible to the operation site within a circle of 20 cm diameter. A stopwatch was used from the time the mask was placed over the patient’s nose to the time it was removed, during this time nitrous oxide traces were recorded by the Medigas analyser. The following information was recorded:
1- The patient’s age and sex.
2- Nitrous oxide flow (litre per minute) and concentration (in percentage).
3- The nature of the dental treatment such as extraction, conservative, etc.
4- General comments as to whether windows were opened or closed, fan was working or not, etc.
5- In each 2 minute reading, a note was recorded about the current dental procedure and the patient behaviour such as giving local anaesthesia, cavity preparation, extraction, patient is talking, crying, etc.
The Second Procedure
In this procedure measurements were recorded in 6 sedation sessions from different distances from the operation site at zero, one, two, three, four and five metres.
Data Processing
The Analyser measured nitrous oxide traces in numbers in ppm (part per million). Outcomes were assessed using descriptive statistics and by t-test.
RESULTS
Data was collected from 27 paediatric inhalational sessions. It was assumed that nitrous oxide traces will be more fluctuant and variable in the first measurement method than that in the second method, and therefore, 21 sessions were selected for the first procedure whereas only 6 sessions for the second procedure. In the 21 sessions, nitrous oxide traces were measured every 2 minutes throughout the session. In 6 sessions, nitrous oxide traces were measured from different distances from the operation site: at zero, one, two, three, four, and five meters. In all the nitrous oxide inhalation sessions a scavenging nasal mask was used and the fan was working.
A- Measurements taken every 2 minutes during inhalational sessions
In the 21 sessions the treatments were 12 extractions (57%), 7 conservative treatments (33%), 1 fluoride application (5%) and 1 acclimatization (5%). The treatments were carried for 6 males (29%) and 15 female (71%) patients with age ranges from 6 to 17 years, mean is 9.9 years (SD 3.7). The mean nitrous oxide concentration was 30.7% (SD 5.1, ranged from 20% to 40%) and the mean flow rate was 6.6 l/min (SD 1.3, ranged from 5 l/min to 10 l/min). In all the sessions, sampling of the atmosphere was made at 20 cm from the patient in the horizontal plane. The mean of measured nitrous oxide traces was compared in the extraction (91.7 ppm, SD 133.7) and conservative (32.4 ppm, SD 58.8) sessions and found to be not significant statistically (p>0.05, table 1). There was no relationship between age and measured nitrous oxide (p>0.05). In general, levels of nitrous oxide varied widely between treatment sessions. In one fluoride application session it reached 2725 ppm (the patient was talking at the time); 4460 ppm in an extraction session (at the time the patient started to cry after being given local anaesthesia); and 1975 ppm in an extraction session (at the time of tooth extraction), figure 1.
B- Measurements taken at various distances
Nitrous oxide traces were measured in 6 sessions, 4 sessions were conservative treatment and 2 sessions were extraction, 4 females and 2 males. The mean age of the patients was 10 years (SD 3.5, age range 6 to 14 years). The mean nitrous oxide concentration used during the sessions was 3.8% (SD 2.0) with a range from 30% to 35%, and the mean flow was 6.2 l/min (SD 1.1) ranges from 5 l/min to 8 l/min. The mean measured nitrous oxide traces were 602 ppm (SD 514) at zero distance, then decreased by increase in distance from the operating site (at 5 metre: 9 ppm, SD 17.5), figure 2.
DISCUSSION
The importance of keeping pollution of nitrous oxide to the absolute minimum levels cannot be understated. The problem is of great concern to staff who have to work in such an environment constantly, rather than patients where exposure, although at a high level to produce the desired clinical effects, is only occasional. There may also be concerns in respect of accompanying adults, e.g. pregnant mothers who may be at the chairside with their child. Problems of chronic exposure to nitrous oxide have been cited in the literature review but the most important ones are haematological changes. Chronic occupational exposure to nitrous oxide may cause depression of vitamin B12 activity11 and altered DNA synthesis in the bone marrow and mild megaloblastic changes. 12, 13 The aim of this study was to monitor as accurately as possible, the levels of nitrous oxide in the surgery under different conditions. These included continuous monitoring in the immediate vicinity of the operator and also at varying distances. There was no significant difference between the mean of the measured nitrous oxide traces in the extraction sessions from that in the conservative sessions. There was also no relationship between age and nitrous oxide pollution, gender or with the concentration of nitrous oxide used and nitrous oxide air levels. There were a few sessions where nitrous oxide levels reached a very high level, sometimes exceeding 1000 ppm (0.01%). Donaldson and Meechan 10 suggested that when this occurred it was related to leakage of the nitrous oxide sedation machine or cylinders, poorly fitting masks, inadequate scavenging, patient mouth breathing, and poor surgery ventilation. In this study, where large variations in nitrous oxide levels were seen, this was associated with patients who were talking, crying etc. throughout the procedure. It may therefore be associated with pollution from expired air as a result of crying, talking, etc, or from leakage around the mask due to patient movement, etc. These findings are similar to those of Henry et al. 14 who stated that patient behaviour can result in significant increase in nitrous oxide levels in the ambient air. Particular attention to these aspects is required to ensure pollution is significantly reduced to acceptable levels. Given that the results showed that the higher nitrous oxide levels were recorded at the time when patients were talking, laughing, crying, local analgesia administration, extraction, and rubber dam application, good sedation and behaviour management is important. Relaxed and comfortable patients are less likely to talk, cry etc. The lack of observable differences found related to type of treatment or age could also be attributed to errors in the sampling such as the sample size, randomization, etc. It is obvious by looking at the results of the second part that the distance obeys the inverse square law: the nitrous oxide concentration decreases as the distance from working site increases. The greatest nitrous oxide concentrations was at zero metre from the working zone which was also described by Cleaton-Jonset et al. 15 This is reassuring for other personnel in the surgery including accompanying parents who are approximately 2 metres away with levels of 50 ppm. Conversely, concerns are raised in respect of the operator and assisting dental nurse who are in the working zone during these administrations.
CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that for many patients, nitrous oxide sedation provides a good quality of sedation for them to be able to cope with treatment. This study has highlighted potential problems in respect of nitrous oxide pollution which is of concern to all personnel in surgery during the sedation sessions.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. In this study the sample size was very limited. A future study with a larger cohort would be much more meaningful and would, hopefully, confirm the trends which we have found.
2. Patient selection is of utmost importance as a struggling, crying child would lead to very excessive pollution.
3. Patient conditioning to breathing through his/her nose at all times would be very helpful. Talking to patients through (with the help of normal behavioural management techniques) stressful events e.g. local analgesia administration, extractions, etc. would limit the amount of disruption and the pollution at these times.
4. Ensure equipment is checked for leaks and that the mask is of the appropriate size and tight fitting.
5. Ensure that scavenging and surgery ventilation is adequate.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author acknowledges the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The author is also grateful to editors and publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1536http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15361. Yamada MKM, Tanabe Y, Sano T, Noda T. Cooperation during dental treatment: the children’s fear survey schedule in Japanese children. Int J Paed Dent 2002; 12: 404-409.
2. Coulthard P, Craig D. Conscious sedation. Dent Update. 1997 Nov;24(9):376-81.
3. Roberts GJ. Inhalation sedation (relative analgesia) with oxygen/nitrous oxide gas mixtures: 1. Principles. Dent Update. 1990 May;17(4):139-42, 145-6.
4. Szymanska J. Environmental Health Risk of Chronic Exposure to Nitrous Oxide in Dental Practice. Ann Agric Environ Med 2001,8,119-122.
5. Carlson P, Hallen B, Hallonsten AL, Ljungqvist B. Thermocamera Studies of Nitrous Oxide Dispersion in the Dental Surgery. Scan J Dent Res 1983 June; 91(3): 224-30.
6. Burm AG. Occupational Hazards of Inhalational Anaesthetics. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2003 Mar; 17(1): 147-61.
7. Smith DA. Hazards of Nitrous Oxide Exposure in Healthcare personnel. AANA J 1998 Aug; 66(4): 390-3.
8. Shortridge-McCauley LA. Reproductive Hazards: an overview of exposures to health workers. AAOHN J 1995 Dec; 43(12): 614- 21.
9. Sterling PA, Girdler NM. Investigation of Nitrous Oxide Pollution Arising from Inhalational Sedation for the Extraction of teeth in Child Patients. Int J Ped Dent 1998;8: 93-102.
10. Clark MS and Brunick AL. Handbook of Nitrous Oxide and Oxygen Sedation, 1999.
11. Donaldson D, Meechan JG. The Hazards of Chronic Exposure to Nitrous Oxide: an update. BDJ 1995 Feb;11: 95-100.
12. Sweeny B, Bingham RM, Amos RJ, Petty AC, Cole PV. Toxicity of bone marrow in dentists exposed to nitrous oxide. BMJ 1985, 291 (6495): 567-9.
13. Guidelines for the Safety of Employees Exposed to Anaesthetic Gases and Vapours, University of Wales, College of Medicine, 2002.
14. Henry RJ, Primosch RE and Courts FJ. The effects of various dental procedures and patient behaviour upon nitrous oxide scavenger effectiveness. Pediatric Dent 1992; 14 (1): 19-25.
15. Cleaton-Jones P, Austin JC, Moyes DG, Shaw R, Cichton R. Nitrous oxide contamination in dental surgeries using relative analgesia. Br J Anaesth 1978; 50(10): 1019-24.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareCADAVERIC STUDY OF VARIANT FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS MUSCLE
English6872Sharadkumar Pralhad SawantEnglish Shaguphta T. ShaikhEnglish S. D. LeleEnglish Shaheen RizviEnglish S.R.MenonEnglish R. UmaEnglishAim : To study the variations in the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. Materials and Methods : 50 embalmed donated cadavers (45 males and 5 females) are dissected to study the variations in the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle in the department of Anatomy of K. J. Somaiya Medical College, Sion, Mumbai, India. 100 specimens were meticulously dissected. All the superficial flexor muscles were exposed. The humeral and ulnar heads of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle was dissected carefully. The course of ulnar artery and ulnar nerve were also dissected. The photographs of the variations were taken for proper documentation. Observations : Out of 100 specimens, 28 specimens showed the additional muscle slip of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. The additional belly originated from the lower part of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle and crossed the ulnar nerve, ulnar vessels and median nerve. The additional belly merged with the flexor retinaculum and the palmaris longus muscle. In two specimens the separate ulnar and humeral heads of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle was observed. The ulnar head of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle separated ulnar artery and nerve. The humeral and ulnar heads were separated from each other by ulnar nerve. The tendons of both the heads of flexor carpi ulnaris fused with each other just before their insertion. The ulnar artery comes in contact wih ulnar nerve in the lower part of the forearm near the wrist where the two heads of flexor carpi ulnaris fused with each other. Conclusion : The awareness of additional muscle slip of the flexor carpi ulnaris is clinically important for surgeons dealing with entrapment or compressive neuropathies, orthopaedicians operating on the fractures of radius or ulna or both and plastic surgeons who are using the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle pedicle flap to improve blood supply and soft tissue coverage at the non union site of the proximal ulna for restoration of elbow function. A lack of knowledge of such type of variations might complicate surgical repair.
EnglishFlexor Carpi Ulnaris, Additional Muscle Slip, Ulnar Head, Humeral head, Ulnar Nerve, Ulnar Artery, Median Nerve, Surgeons, Entrapment, Orthopaedicians, Fractures of Radius or Ulna, Plastic Surgeons, Muscle, Pedicle Flap.INTRODUCTION
Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is the most medial superficial flexor muscle of forearm. It arises by two heads, humeral and ulnar, connected by a tendinous arch. The small humeral head arises from the medial epicondyle via the common superficial flexor origin. The ulnar head has an extensive origin from the medial margin of the olecranon process and proximal two-thirds of the posterior border of the ulna, an aponeurosis (which it shares with the extensor carpi ulnaris and flexor digitorum profundus) and from the intermuscular septum between it and the flexor digitorum superficialis. A thick tendon forms along its anterolateral border in its distal half. The tendon is attached to the pisiform, and thence prolonged to the hamate and the fifth metacarpal bone by pisohamate and pisometacarpal ligaments. The blood is supplied to the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle by the ulnar collateral arteries, the anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent arteries, and small branches from the ulnar artery. Acting with the flexor carpi radialis, it flexes the wrist and acting with the extensor carpi ulnaris it adducts the wrist (1). The flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is innervated by the ulnar nerve having root value C7, C8, T1. The line between the medial humeral epicondyle and the pisiform, along the anterior palmar margin of the muscle, is used as a reference point for locating the ulnar neurovascular bundle (2). The ulnar artery reaches the muscle in its middle third, whereas the ulnar nerve is covered by the muscle throughout its entire course running under the tendon in the wrist region. The ulnar artery, the deeper and the larger of the two terminal branches of the brachial artery, begins a little below the bend of the elbow, and, passing obliquely downward, reaches the ulnar side of the forearm at a point about midway between the elbow and the wrist. It then runs along the ulnar border to the wrist, crosses the transverse carpal ligament on the radial side of the pisiform bone, and immediately beyond this bone divides into two branches, which enter into the formation of the superficial and deep palmar arches. Like the median nerve, the ulnar nerve has no branches in the arm, but it also supplies articular branches to the elbow joint (3). It enters the forearm between two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris superficial to the posterior and obligue parts of the ulnar collateral ligament (1). The ulnar nerve, after descending in the forearm between the flexor digitorum profundus and the flexor carpi ulnaris muscles, pierces the deep fascia and enters the wrist through the Guyon’s canal. In the distal canal, the ulnar nerve bifurcates into a superficial sensory branch and a deep motor branch, which supplies the hypothenar muscles and then passes across the palm, distributing to other intrinsic hand muscles (2).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
50 embalmed donated cadavers (45 males and 5 females) are dissected to study the variations in the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle in the department of Anatomy of K. J. Somaiya Medical College, Sion, Mumbai, India. 100 specimens were meticulously dissected. All the superficial flexor muscles were exposed. The humeral and ulnar heads of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle was dissected carefully. The course of ulnar artery and ulnar nerve were also dissected. The photographs of the variations were taken for proper documentation.
OBSERVATIONS
Out of 100 specimens, 28 specimens showed the additional muscle slip of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. The additional belly originated from the lower part of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle and crossed the ulnar nerve, ulnar vessels and median nerve. The additional belly merged with the flexor retinaculum and the palmaris longus muscle. In two specimens the separate ulnar and humeral heads of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle was observed. The ulnar head of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle separated ulnar artery and nerve. The humeral and ulnar heads were separated from each other by ulnar nerve. The tendons of both the heads of flexor carpi ulnaris fused with each other just before their insertion. The ulnar artery comes in contact wih ulnar nerve in the lower part of the forearm near the wrist where the two heads of flexor carpi ulnaris fused with each other.
Figure - 1 : The photographic presentation of the additional belly (3 x 2 x 0.2 cm) originated from the lower part of the flexor carpi ulnaris and crossed ulnar nerve, ulnar vessels and median nerve and merged with the flexor retinaculum and palmaris longus tendon.
Figure - 2 : Photographic presentation of the right forearm showing separate ulnar and humeral heads of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. The ulnar artery running in between ulnar and humeral heads of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.
DISCUSSION
The flexor carpi ulnaris muscle acts as an anatomical guideline for finding the neurovascular bundle i.e.ulnar nerve, ulnar artery and accompanying venae comitantes, it can be easily palpated in its distal course if the wrist is flexed and adducted. The line between the medial humeral epicondyle and the pisiform, along the anterior palmar margin of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, is used as a reference point (3). Anatomical variations in musculotendinous junction of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle were found in literature (4). The variant flexor carpi ulnaris causing ulnar nerve compression was also documented (5). A small additional slip of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle was reported in literature (6). In the present study, the separate ulnar and humeral heads of flexor carpi ulnaris muscle was observed and the ulnar head of flexor carpi ulnaris separating ulnar artery and ulnar nerve. Such type of variations seen in two specimens is not yet reported in literature. The variations of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is important for the radiologist in interpreting the ultrasound and the magnetic resonance images and also for the surgeons operating on the ulnar neurovascular bundle by using flexor carpi ulnaris muscle as a guideline. The ulnar nerve entrapment may occur due to the aponeurosis of the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle leading to compression or irritation of the ulnar nerve. The surgeons should have the knowledge of an additional slip of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle while operating on the compression or irritation of the ulnar nerve and the cubital tunnel syndrome. A test called electromyography i.e. EMG and / or nerve conduction study i.e. NCS may be done to confirm the diagnosis of the ulnar nerve entrapment and its severity. During the surgical correction on cubital tunnel syndrome the ulnar nerve is moved from its place behind the medial epicondyle to a new place in front of it. This is called an anterior transposition of the ulnar nerve. The nerve can be moved to lie under the skin and fat, on top of the muscle (subcutaneous transposition), within the muscle (intermuscular transposition) or under the muscle (submuscular transposition). Therefore the knowledge of the variations of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is important in cubital tunnel release operation. This knowledge is also important for the plastic surgeons using a proximally based, pedicled flexor carpi ulnaris muscle turnover flap for the soft tissue reconstruction at the posterior elbow (7). The whole and split flexor carpi ulnaris pedicle flaps provide predictable coverage of posterior elbow soft-tissue defects (8). The flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is a useful local muscle flap in the forearm and elbow. The flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is an important palmar flexor and ulnar deviator of the wrist, and hence the action may be affected if the entire muscle is used as a local muscle flap. The flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is made up of two distinct neuromuscular compartments. This arrangement allows for splitting of the muscle and the potential use of the larger ulnar compartment as a local muscle flap while maintaining the humeral compartment to flex and adduct the hand (9). The flexor carpi ulnaris muscle pedicle flap is used to improve blood supply and soft tissue coverage at the infected nonunion site of the proximal ulna for restoration of elbow function (10). Entrapment or compressive neuropathies are important and wide spread debilitating clinical problems. They are caused frequently as the nerve passes through a fibrous tunnel, or an opening in fibrous or muscular tissue. The most common is the entrapment of the median nerve in the wrist leading to the carpal tunnel syndrome. In the present study, the accessory belly of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle was observed in 18 upper limb specimens. The accessory belly of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle crossed over the ulnar nerve and the median nerve. The accessory belly of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle may compress the ulnar nerve and the median nerve which might lead to numbness and tingling in the hand. The knowledge of this variation may be clinically important because the symptoms are similar to those of the carpal tunnel syndrome (11). In the era of modern medicine due to the technical advances and interventional methods of diagnosis and treatment it is very importance to record and discuss the anatomical anomalies (12). The ulnar tunnel is located at the proximal part of the hand lateral to the pisiform bone and to the proximal part of the carpal tunnel. The ulnar tunnel contains the ulnar nerve and artery. Compression of the ulnar nerve in this tunnel is often reported due to cysts, occupational trauma, fractures and muscle variations (13, 14). The flexor carpi ulnaris is made up of two distinct neuromuscular compartments. This arrangement allows for splitting of the muscle and the potential use of the larger ulnar compartment as a local muscle flap while maintaining the humeral compartment as an ulnar deviator and palmar flexor of the wrist (9). After multiple efforts to heal an infected nonunion of the proximal ulna, a flexor carpi ulnaris muscle pedicle flap was used to improve blood supply and softtissue coverage at the nonunion site. It was observed that it promoted bone healing and restoration of useful elbow function (10). The course and distribution of ulnar nerve and ulnar artery can assist the surgeon in the diagnosis and effective management of the more common pain syndromes conditions associated with the ulnar aspect of the hand (13, 14). As the two heads of flexor carpi ulnaris muscles were separate the tendinous arch between them was absent. The possibility of entrapment of ulnar nerve in cubital tunnel in such cases is rare.
Clinical significance
The crossing of accessory belly of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle over the ulnar nerve and the median nerve might compress them leading to numbness and tingling in the hand. The knowledge of this variation may be clinically important because the symptoms are similar to those of the carpal tunnel syndrome.
CONCLUSION
The awareness of the variations in the flexor carpi ulnaris is clinically important for surgeons dealing with entrapment or compressive neuropathies, orthopaedicians operating on the fractures of radius or ulna or both and plastic surgeons who are using the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle pedicle flap to improve blood supply and soft tissue coverage at the non union site of the proximal ulna for restoration of elbow function. A lack of knowledge of such type of variations might complicate surgical repair.
Competing Interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
SPS wrote the case report, performed the literature review and obtained the photograph for the study. SDL, UR performed the literature search, SR assisted with writing the paper. STS conceived the study and SRM helped to draft the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version manuscript.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All the authors are thankful to Dr. Arif A. Faruqui for his support. We are also thankful to Mr. M. Murugan for his help. Authors also acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1537http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15371. Williams PL, Dyson M, Standring S, Ellis H, Healy JC, Johnson D, Gray’s Anatomy, 39 th ed. London ELBS with Churchill Livingstone, 2005, p. 877.
2. Hollinshead, WH. Functional anatomy of the limbs and back. 4th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1976. p.184-185.
3. Moore KL, Dalley AF, Clinically oriented anatomy. 5 Ed., Baltimore, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2006; p.794, 819–822.
4. Grechenig W, Clement H, Egner S, Tesch NP, Weiglein A. and Peicha G, Musculo-tendinous junction of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle : An anatomical study. Surg. Radiol. Anat, 2000, 22:255-60.
5. Al-Qattan MM and Duerksen FA, variant of flexor carpi ulnaris causing ulnar nerve compression. J. Anat. 1992, 180:189-190. 6.
6. Bergman RA, Thomson SA, Afifi AK and Saadesh FA, Compendium of human anatomic variations. Urban and Schwarzenberg , Baltimore - Munich, 1988, p.13.
7. Payne DE, Kaufman AM, Wysocki RW, Richard MJ, Ruch DS, Leversedge FJ, Vascular perfusion of a flexor carpi ulnaris muscle turnover pedicle flap for posterior elbow soft tissue reconstruction: a cadaveric study, J Hand Surg Am. 2011 Feb;36(2):246-51.
8. Wysocki RW, Gray RL, Fernandez JJ, Cohen MS, Posterior elbow coverage using whole and split flexor carpi ulnaris flaps: a cadaveric study, J Hand Surg Am. 2008 Dec; 33(10):1807-12.
9. Lingaraj K, Lim AY, Puhaindran ME and Kumar PV, The split flexor carpi ulnaris as a local muscle flap. Clin Orthop. Relat. Res. 2007, 455:262-6.
10. Meals RA, The use of a flexor carpi ulnaris muscle flap in the treatment of an infected nonunion of the proximal ulna. A case report. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 1989, 240:168- 72.
11. Olave E, Del Sol M, Gabrielli C, Prates JC and Rodrigues CFS, The ulnar tunnel: a rare disposition of its contents. Journal of Anatomy, 1997, vol. 191, p. 615-616.
12. Hicks J. and Newell R, Supernumerary muscles in the pectoral and axillary region, and the nature of the axillary arches. Clinical Anatomy, 1997, vol. 10, p. 211-212.
13. Kleinert H. and Hayes J, The ulnar tunnel syndrome. Plastic Reconstructive Surgery, 1971, vol. 47, p. 21-24.
14. Schjelderup H, Aberrant muscle in the hand causing ulnar nerve compression. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 1964, vol. 46B, p. 361.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcarePHYTOCHEMICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES ON OCIMUM BASILICUM LINN - A REVIEW
English7383Alia BilalEnglish Nasreen JahanEnglish Ajij AhmedEnglish Saima Naaz BilalEnglish Shahida HabibEnglish Syeda HajraEnglishPlants are one of the most important sources of medicines. Basil (Ocimum basilicum Linn.) is one such plant which symbolizes all that is wondrous in nature because, the whole plant has been used as traditional medicine for household remedy against various human ailments from antiquity. The objective of this paper is to review the literature regarding Ocimum basilicum, specifically for its chemical properties, therapeutic benefits and scientific studies. This review consists of all publications relevant to Ocimum basilicum that were identified by the authors through a systemic search of major computerized medical database. Studies indicate Ocimum basilicum to possess analgesic, anti inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti ulcerogenic, cardiac stimulant, chemomodulatory, CNS depressant, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, immunomodulator and larvicidal activities. The drug was also searched for its folkloric claims. It is used in traditional medicine as a tonic and vermifuge, and Basil tea taken hot is good for treating nausea, flatulence, and dysentery. The oil of the plant has been found to be beneficial for the alleviation of mental fatigue, cold, spasm, rhinitis, and as a first aid treatment for wasp stings and snakebites. Preliminary studies have found various constituents of Ocimum basilicum to exhibit a variety of therapeutic effects. These results are very encouraging and indicate that this drug should be studied more extensively to confirm these results and to find other potential therapeutic effects.
EnglishBasil; Pharmacological studies; Phytochemical studies; Ethnobotanical reports.INTRODUCTION
The medicinal plants are rich in secondary metabolites and essential oils of therapeutic importance. The important advantages claimed for therapeutic uses of medicinal plants in various ailments are their safety besides being economical, effective and their easy availability. Because of these advantages the medicinal plants have been widely used by the traditional medical practitioners in their day to day practice. Among the plants known for medicinal value, the plants of genus Ocimum are rich in phenolic compounds and are very useful for their therapeutic potentials.1 Ocimum basilicum Linn. popularly known as “Sweet basil” is used in both Unani and Ayurvedic system of medicine2 . Moreover, among more than 150 species of the genus Ocimum, Basil is the major essential oil crop which is cultivated commercially in many countries3 It is a popular herb, valued for its rich and spicy, mildly peppery flavour with a trace of mint and clove and has been used widely as a food ingredient for flavouring confectionary, baked foods and meat products.4 It is used both as a culinary and an ornamental herb.(5)
Historical Background
The history of use of Basil as a medicine can be traced back to the age of Dioscorides as he mentioned it in one of the earliest book on medicinal plants, De Materia medica, as a potent antidote for scorpion sting. Several interesting believes are ascribed to the historical use of Basil. Europeans considered it to be funereal and to dream of it, unlucky whereas, in Italy, women wear it in hair and the youths stick a spring of it above the ear when they go courting.(6). In India, Hindus believed that a leaf of Basil buried with them would serve as their passport to the heaven. In early 1600, the English used it in their food and in doorways to ward off uninvited pests, such as flies as well as evil spirits.
Taxonomic Classification8
Kingdom : Plantae
Subkingdom : Tracheobionta
Superdivision : Spermatophyta
Division : Magnoliophyta
Class : Magnoliopsida
Subclass : Asteridae
Order : Lamiales
Family : Lamiaceae
Genus : Ocimum
Species : basilicum
Binomial Name : Ocimum basilicum9
Etymology of Basil
The name basil is thought to be derived from the Greek word “Basileus”, meaning “Royal or King”. It is often referred as King of the Herbs.7
Synonyms10
O. caryophyllatum Roxb.
O. minimum
O. pilosum
Varieties11
Ocimum basilicum var. purpurscens is popularly known as Purple Basil. The leaves are as same as that of sweet basil. It is known for its culinary properties and excellent ornamental foliage.
Ocimum basilicum var. genovese is also called Genovese Basil This basil has dark green leaves that grows upto 2 inches long. It is used on a large scale in pesto and garlic dishes.
Ocimum basilicum var. crispum is used largely as garnishing in salad or in sauce, it does not taste much as compared to other green basils and popularly known as Lettuce Leaf Basil. Its leaves are quite wide and large.
Description of Plant
Vernaculars
Ocimum basilicum is known by different names in different languages around the world including the Indian sub continent. In English, it is known as Basil, Common Basil or Sweet Basil12 whereas, in Hindi13 and Bengali6 , it is called Babui Tulsi. The plant is known as Badrooj, Hebak or Rihan in Arabic; as Nasabo or Sabje in Gujrati and as Jangli Tulsi in Urdu. Tohrakhurasani and Okimon are the ascribed names of the plant in Persian and Unani languages9
Habitat and Distribution
Sweet basil is indigenous to Persia and Sindh and lower hills of Punjab in India.(13) The plant is widely grown as an ornamental and field crop throughout the greater part of India, Burma, Cylone9 and several Mediterranean countries including Turkey.
Botanical description of the plant
An erect branching herb, 0.6 to 0.9 m high, glabrous, more or less hispidly pubescent. Stems and branches are green or sometimes purplish. Leaves of Ocimum basilicum are simple, opposite,(12) 2.5-5 cm or more long, ovate, acute, entire or more or less toothed or lobed with a cuneate and entire base. The petiole is 1.3-2.5 cm long. The leaves have numerous dot like oil glands which secrete strongly scented volatile oil. Whorls densely racemose, where the terminal receme is usually much longer than the lateral ones. The bracts are stalked, shorter than the calyx, ovate and acute. Calyx is five mm long, enlarging in fruit and very shortly pedicelled. Its lower lip with the two central teeth is longer than the rounded upper lip. Corolla being 8-13 mm long are white, pink or purplish in colour, glabrous or variously pubescent. The upper filaments of slightly exerted stamen are toothed at the base. Nutlets are about two mm long, ellipsoid, black and pitted.9 Sepals of flower are five and remain fused into a 2-lipped calyx. Ovary is superior and there is a 2-carpellary, 4- locular and a 4-partite fruit of four achenes.12
Ethnobotanical Description
Basil is well-known as a plant of folk medicinal value and as such is accepted officially in a number of countries. The leaves of the Basil are used in folk medicine as a tonic and vermifuge, and Basil tea taken hot is good for treating nausea, flatulence, and dysentery. The oil of the plant has been found to be beneficial for the alleviation of mental fatigue, cold, spasm, rhinitis, and as a first aid treatment for wasp stings and snakebites.14
Pharmacological Actions
The plant is stomachic, alexipharmic and antipyretic. It also possesses diuretic and emmenagogue properties. In Annam, an infusion of the plant is considered to be antihelminthic, diaphoretic, anti emetic and anti diarrhoeaic.9 Diuretic, aphrodisiac and anti dysenteric actions have also been ascribed to the seeds of this plant. The juice of the plant shows carminative, stimulant12,13 and anti bacterial actions; its essential oil possesses anti bacterial, anti fungal and insecticidal effects10 . The flowers of this plant are stimulant, diuretic and demulcent in action.15 The flowers are also considered to be carminative, anti-spasmodic and digestive stimulant.12
Therapeutic Uses Plant:
Basil is useful in diseases of heart and blood, biliousness kapha and Vata, leucoderma etc. The juice relieves joints pain, gives luster to eyes, is good for toothache, earache and cures epistaxis when used with camphor.9 The juice of plant is dropped into ears to cure dullness of hearing.10,13 The infusion of the plant is given to treat cephalgia and gouty joints and used as gargle for foul breath. Basil cures headache, aids digestion9 and acts as a mild laxative. The plant is also reported to keep away the flies and snakes.16 A 12% decoction of the plant used as irrigation in nasal myosis, produces anesthesia and acts as a parasiticide and antiseptic, so that the larvae which causes the disease rendered inactive and expelled. The plant is useful in treatment of stomach complaints, fever, cough and gout.13 It cures Kustha (obstinate skin disease including leprosy) and scorpion bite. According to Ainslie, it is used in India to assuage the pain of childbirth.17 The warm leaves juice of this plant along with honey is used to treat croup.15 It also forms an excellent nostrum for the cure of ringworm. It is used as a lotion for sore eyes too. In Guinea, the decoction of leaves and stem are given to treat fever, neuralgia, catarrh, renal troubles and burning micturation.9 In Ethiopia, leaves are used against malaria, headache and diarrhea. In homeopathy, the fresh mature leaves are used to treat spermatorrhoea, blood dysentery, haematuria, inflammation and congestion of kidney. Aqueous extract of the leaves is used in southern Nigeria to relieve the severe pain associated with post natal uterine contraction. The juice of leaves is used as insecticide and applied on the nostrils of camels to kill the worms, which infest them during winter13,16 The juice of the leaves is also used to treat otitis. The roots of this plant are used to treat bowel complaints of children.9,12,15 The seeds washed and pounded are used in poultices for unhealthy sores and sinuses. An infusion of seeds is given in fever. The seeds are chewed in case of snake-bite, one portion is swallowed and the other portion is applied to the bitten part.9 A cold infusion of it is said to relieve the after pain of parturition. They are also given internally to treat cystitis, nephritis and in internal piles.13 Due to the mucilaginous and cooling effect, an infusion of basil seed is given to treat gonorrhoea, diarrhoea and chronic dysentery.16
Scientific studies
Physicochemical Study
Bihari et al.,18 carried out the physicochemical evaluation of Ocimum basilicum. The total ash value of the plant is found to be 8.7% whereas, the acid insoluble, water soluble and the sulphated ash values are recorded as 0.3%, 3.7% and 0.6 % respectively. Extractive values of Basil are reported as 6.24%, 4.0% and 3.7% (w/w) in water, alcohol and ether, respectively. As much as 0.1% foreign organic matter is also contained in O. basilicum. The following table shows the Fluorescence characteristics of the test drug with different reagents as observed under day light and UV light.
bitten part.9 A cold infusion of it is said to relieve the after pain of parturition. They are also given internally to treat cystitis, nephritis and in internal piles.13 Due to the mucilaginous and cooling effect, an infusion of basil seed is given to treat gonorrhoea, diarrhoea and chronic dysentery.16 Scientific studies Physicochemical Study Bihari et al.,18 carried out the physicochemical evaluation of Ocimum basilicum. The total ash value of the plant is found to be 8.7% whereas, the acid insoluble, water soluble and the sulphated ash values are recorded as 0.3%, 3.7% and 0.6 % respectively. Extractive values of Basil are reported as 6.24%, 4.0% and 3.7% (w/w) in water, alcohol and ether, respectively. As much as 0.1% foreign organic matter is also contained in O. basilicum. The following table shows the Fluorescence characteristics of the test drug with different reagents as observed under day light and UV light.
Phytochemical Studies
Fresh flowering herb yield essential oil containing small amount of estragol, eucalyptol, ocimene, linalool acetate, eugenol, 1- epibicyclosesquiphellandrene, menthol, menthone, cyclohexanol, cyclohexanone, myrcenol and nerol.19 The leaves distilled with water yield about 1.56% of yellowish green oil, lighter than water which when kept in air, solidifies almost wholly, as crystallized from alcohol forms 4-sided prism, having a faint smell and taste. Crystallized from water, it forms white, transparent, nearly tasteless tetrahedrons.6 The green leaves contain high concentration of vitamins minerals and oils.10,16 Bihari et al.,18 reports that the phytochemical screening of O.basilicum revealed the presence of glycoside, gums, mucilage, proteins, amino acids, tannins, phenolic compound, triterpenoids steroids, sterols, saponins, flavones and flavonoids in it. A total of 29 compounds representing 98.0+99.7% of the oils are identified by Hussain et al.,3 in the plant of Ocimum basilicum. Linalool is the main constituent of essential oil (56.7-60.6%). Analyzed essential oils mainly consists oxygenated monoterpenes (60.7-68.9%) followed by sesquiterpenes hydrocarbons (16.0-24.3%) and oxygenated sesquiterpenes (12.0-14.4%). The major oxygenated monoterpenes are: linalool, camphor, cis-geraniol and 1,8-cineole. While, abergamotene, b-caryophyllene, germacrene D, ccadinene and bicyclogermacrene are the main sesquiterpene hydrocarbons whereas, epi-acadinol and viridiflorol are the important oxygenated sesquiterpene.
Seasonal variations in chemical composition of drug
The herb, depending upon the stage of its life and the place of its cultivation, contains varying amount of essential oil. The chemical composition of Basil as affected by the four seasons namely, summer, autumn, winter and spring was investigated by Hussain et al.,3 . He found that the content of the essential oils is distributed unevenly among seasons. The highest amount of the oil in the O. basilicum is found during winter (0.8%) which decreases significantly (pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1538http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15381. Ramesh B, Satakopan VN. In vitro antioxidant activities Of Ocimum species: Ocimum basilicum and Ocimum sanctum. Journal of Cell and Tissue Research 2010; 10(1): 2145-50
2. Muralidharan A, Dhananjayan R. Cardiac stimulant activity of Ocimum basilicum Linn. extracts. Indian J Pharmacol 2004; 36: 163-6.
3. Hussain AI, Anwar AF, Sherazi STH, Przybylski R. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of basil (Ocimum basilicum) essential oils depends on seasonal variations. http://www.aseanfood.info/Articles/1102321 9.pdf 986 - 96
4. Chang X, Alderson PG, Wright CJ. Variation in the essential oils in different leaves of Basil (O. basilicum L.) at day time, The Open Horticulture Journal 2009; 2: 13-16.
5. Javanmardi J, Khalighi A, Kashi A, Bais HP, Vivanco JM. Chemical characterization of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) found in local accessions and used in traditional medicines in Iran. J. Agric. Food Chem 2002; 50: 5878- 83
6. Dymock W, Warden CJH, Hooper D. Pharmacographica Indica. A history of the principal drugs of vegetable origin. Vol III. New Delhi: Shrishti book distributors; 2005. 82-5
7. Neelam LD, Nilofer SN. Preliminary immunomodulatory activity of aqueous and ethanolic leaves extracts of Ocimum basilicum Linn in mice. International Journal of PharmTech Research 2010; 2(2): 1342-9
8. Natural resources conservation service. United States department of agriculture, www.plants.usda.gov/java/profile [cited on 07/03/12].
9. Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. Indian Medicinal Plants with Illustrations. 2 nd ed. Vol VIII. Uttaranchal: Oriental Enterprises; 2003. 2701-2705
10. Khare CP. Indian Medicinal Plannts, An Illustrated Dictionary. New Delhi: Springer India (P) Ltd; 2007. 442-4.
11. Agro Products, official website, [Cited on November 4th 2010] http://www.agriculturalproductsindia.com/see ds/seeds-basil-seed.html
12. Jayaweera DMA. Medicinal Plants, (Indigenous and Exotic) Used in Ceylon. Part III. Colombo: The National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka; 1981. 101-3.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareSTUDIES ON DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH PROTEIN-LOW CALORIE COOKIES
English8487Dayanand PeterEnglish Pagar Nitin YashwantEnglish M.RevathyEnglishCookies rich in protein and low in calories were developed by substituting wheat flour (Maida) with defatted soy flour (DSF) and cane sugar with Stevia leaves powder (SLP). Standardisation of Maida: DSF ratio was done by evaluating the physicochemical parameters and sensory quality of the cookies prepared from the various blends. Once standardisation of blends was completed, the standardised flour mix was used to manufacture cookies by replacing cane sugar with SLP at levels of 0,10,15,20 and 25%. These cookies were then packed in LDPE, HDPE and PP films and stored for a period of 90 days under ambient conditions to assess the quality of the cookies based on sensory and storage parameters. Cookies containing 20% DSF and 20% SLP resulted in 109.36 % increase in proteins and 10.18 % decrease in calories. Storage studies revealed that cookies stored in HDPE package to have good sensory acceptability. In conclusion, DSF and SLP can be incorporated at 20% level in formulation of high protein and low calorie cookies without affecting the overall acceptability of cookie.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
In recent years, there has been a considerable shift in the consumers’ perception of foods due to changing lifestyle, modernization, increased women employment, increased per capita income and newer marketing strategies employed by major food manufacturers. Most consumers demand convenience food, ready to eat snacks or food which add bulk and satisfy appetites without taking up preparation times. On the other hand consumers have increasingly shown interest in a trend of healthy life-styles which has created demand for health oriented convenience foods and products. Global Industry Analysts, Inc., (GIA), in a recently concluded off-the-shelf market research stated that the global baking industry is currently facing opportunities as well as challenges created by the economic crisis. Demand for bakery products have always been growing over the years worldwide. Cookies are ready to eat, convenient, inexpensive and one of the most popular and widely consumed processed food products in India. The cookies industry has been growing at an average rate of 6-7 percent during the past 5-6 years and this is expected to maintain in the coming years (Alagh, 1990). Cookies contain wheat flour and sugar as the major ingredients. Wheat is an important part of cookie manufacture because it has the inherited property to form dough and retain gases. However, the protein content of wheat varies from as low as 8 to 15% therefore supplementation of wheat flour with protein rich sources are been explored in recent times. Sugar, the other major ingredient of cookies has high calorie content making it a source of concern for inclusion in the diets of diabetic and obese persons. Therefore there is need of a natural substitute for sugar.
Stevia has been reported to have several beneficial characteristics as a natural sugar substitute because it is natural, contains zero percentage calories, do not affect blood sugar levels like common sugar, is 250-300 times sweeter than table sugar, is heat stable up to 2000C, non-fermentable, prevents cavities and can be easily used in cooked or baked food (Panpatil and Polasa, 2008). The present study investigates the use of DSF as the protein rich supplement for wheat and stevia leaves powder as a substitute for sugar. The investigation had the following objectives:
1. Standardising Maida : DSF blend and Sugar : SLP ratios without affecting the quality of cookies based on chemical and sensory parameters.
2. To study the effect of DSF and SLP in incorporating on protein and reducing the calorific contents of cookies.
3. To study the changes in the sensory quality of the developed cookies during storage.
METHODOLOGY
Preparation of DSF and Maida: DSF blends:
The deoiled cake of soy (DOC) was cleaned manually and milled in a flour mill. The flour thus obtained was sieved through 80 mesh size sieve to obtain fine DSF. The DSF was mixed with Maida at the substitution levels of 0,10,15,20 and 25 % (w/w). In the standardized Maida: DSF blend, the sugar was replaced with SLP at the substitution levels of 0,10,15,20 and 25 percent (% sweetness basis).
Preparation of Cookies
Fat and sugar were creamed until light and fluffy. Flour was sieved with sodium bicarbonate and ammonium bicarbonate. The cream was mixed with flour and sufficient quantity of water was added with vanilla essence to form dough. The sheet of dough was prepared having thickness of 0.5cm and the pieces were cut using cookie cutter. The pieces were placed in the baking tray smeared with fat and baked at 180-2000C for 15 min. The cookies were allowed to cool, packed in various packages and stored at ambient temperature (Kure et al., 1998).
Chemical Evaluation of Cookies
Moisture
About 5g of sample was weighed and transferred to pre-dried, covered dish. Weighed sample was then dried in hot air oven at 105 + 10C for 4hrs. The dish dried sample was transferred to the desiccators and cooled to room temperature. The dish was then weighed. Moisture content in percent was calculated from loss in weight (IS 1011:2002).
Protein
The protein content was determined by MicroKjeldahl’s process. About 0.2g defatted powder sample was taken and transferred to the digestion flask. The catalyst mixture (1g) and 5ml each of H2O2 and conc. H2SO4 were added carefully. The sample was digested until it became colourless by frequent rotating the flask. The flask was cooled and a 5ml portion of water was slowly added with mixing. After cooling, the content was transferred to 50 ml volumetric flask with 2-3 rinsing, and the volume was made up with distilled water and mixed thoroughly. Blank digestion was carried out simultaneously. The distillation unit was cleaned by starting and sucking back the water. A beaker of 10 ml capacity containing 10ml boric acid was taken. 4 drops of indicator was added and placed under condenser with its tip dipped in solution. The digest (5 ml) with rinsing was transferred to distillation flask, 5ml NaOH was added and closed with stop cork. The digest was allowed to boil and about 50ml distillate of ammonia liberated in boric acid was collected. The distillate was titrated with hydrochloric acid until blue colour disappeared. Blank titration was carried out simultaneously. Protein content was calculated using following formula.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates were calculated by difference method Carbohydrates = 100 - (Moisture % + Protein %)
Calorific Value
The calorific value of cookies was estimated using the sum of the product of respective physiological fuel values and contents of protein, carbohydrate and fat. It was expressed in Kcal/100g.
Storage Studies
The cookies were packed in LDPE, HDPE and PP packages and stored at ambient temperature. The sensory quality of cookies such as colour, flavour was evaluated at an interval of 15 days for a period of 3 months.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present investigation was carried out with the objective to study the effect of substitution of Maida and sugar with DSF and SLF respectively, on the nutritional and organoleptic characteristics of cookies.
It was observed that highest moisture content was noticed in Maida (11.5%) followed by SLP (8.67%) whereas lowest moisture content was observed in DSF (6.16%). The highest protein content was recorded for DSF (43.22%) followed by Maida (12.22%), whereas lowest protein content was observed in SLP (5.95%). Highest carbohydrate content was observed in SLP (78.77%) followed by Maida (73.04%) whereas lowest carbohydrate content was observed in DSF (43.31%)
Chemical parameters of cookies
(Maida : DSF substitution)
It was noticed that with increase in DSF there was increase in proteins and decrease in carbohydrate content. The increase in proteins and decrease in carbohydrate content of cookies supplemented with DSF might be due to appreciably higher contents in DSF than Maida.
The effect of substitution of Maida with 20% DSF and sugar with 20% SLP on the protein and calories contents of the cookies. The protein content was found to increase from 6.09 to 12.75%.The incorporation of DSF and SLP in cookies was found to have great influence on the protein and calorie contents of cookies. Thus the % of increase in protein content of above standardized cookies was found to be 109.36% compared to control sample prepared with Maida and sugar alone. The calorific value of cookies was found to be decreased from 505.73 to 454.23 kcal/100g with the substitution of Maida with DSF and Sugar with SLP.
Sensory qualities of cookies during storage:
Gradual decrease in colour and appearance of the cookies in HDPE followed by LDPE and PP packages for 90 days of storage. Cookies packed in PP showed more moisture gain during storage and became soft compared to LDPE and HDPE. The flavour retention was higher in case of HDPE package as compared to LDPE and PP packages. Slight change occurred in the taste of cookies packed in HDPE package. While cookies packed in PP packages showed highest change in taste. Cookies packed in HDPE package stored for 3 months at ambient temperature have better organoleptic properties compared to other packages.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The results of the study can be summarized as below;
1. Composition of DSF and SLP used for supplementation of Maida and cane sugar respectively were found to be satisfactory to enrich cookies nutritionally.
2. Cookies prepared from Maida: DSF and sugar: SLP blends were organoleptically accepted and DSF and SLP levels were standardized up to 20 percent substitution, respectively.
3. The substitution of Maida with DSF (20%) and sugar with SLP (20%) in cookies resulted in 109.36 % increase in proteins while 10.18 decrease in calories of the cookies.
4. The storage studies revealed that cookies HDPE package was most acceptable on basis of retention of sensory quality of cookies.
CONCLUSION
Thus from the results, it may be concluded that cookies high in proteins (about 109.36% increase) and low in calories (about 10.18% decrease) could be prepared by substituting Maida with DSF (20%) and cane sugar with SLP (20%) without affecting their overall quality. Also from the storage studies, it may be concluded that cookies could be stored for more than 90 days at ambient conditions without any effect to sensory quality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1539http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15391. Alagh, 1990. Biscuit industry in India-future scenario. Indian Food Ind.9 (3):18-19.
2. Kennelly, E.J.2002. Sweet and non-sweet constituents of Stevia rebaundiana (Bertoni).In: Stevia, the genus Stevia. Kinghorn AD (Edn.), Medicinal and Aromatic Plants- Industrial Profiles. Taylor and Francis, London. 19:68-85.
3. Kure OA, Bahago E.J, Daniel E.A (1998). Studies on the Proximate Composition and Effect of Flour Particle Size on Acceptability of Biscuit Produced from Blends of Soyabeans and Plantain flours. Namida TechScope J. 3: 17-21
4. Panpatil V.V, Polasa K (2008). Assessment of stevia (Stevia rebaudiana)-natural sweetener: a review. J Food Sci Technol 45:467–473
5. IS 1011:2002 (fourth revision). Scheme of testing and inspection for certification of biscuits.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareEFFECTS OF ANTI-PROGESTERONE ON PROGESTERONE AND OESTROGEN RECEPTORS PRESENT IN STROMAL CELLS OF RAT UTERUS
English8894Khadija QamarEnglish Iram IqbalEnglish Umbreen NoorEnglish Ifra SaeedEnglish Humaira ArshadEnglish Farheen MasoodEnglishObjective: To investigates the effect of mifepristone (anti-progesterone) on stromal cells of the uterus of rats. Study Design: Laboratory based randomized controlled trials Method: Sixty adult female rats were divided randomly into two groups, comprising of 30 animals in each group. In-group A 1ml of normal saline was given orally daily for three months while in group B mifepristone was given orally in a dose of 1mg/kg body weight daily for three months. All the animals were sacrificed next day after the last oral dose. 2ml blood was taken directly from the heart for measurement of progesterone levels. Sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin for light microscopic study. Immunohistochemical staining procedure was done for demonstration of progesterone receptors Results: The stromal cells were flattened and irregular in outline present around the glands. Some appeared fusiform or spindle shaped. In the experimental group the stromal cells were tightly packed. There was an increase in the number of infiltration of granulocytes and eosinophils in the stroma. Progesterone antagonist application lowered the plasma concentration of progesterone. The number of progesterone receptors in all uterine compartments of the experimental group were decreased and found statistically significant. Conclusion: In conclusion, mifepristone affects stromal, glandular and epithelial morphology in the rat uterus.
EnglishMifepristone, receptors, oestrogen, progesterone, stromal cellsINTRODUCTION
Oestrogen effects predominate during the follicular phase of the estrous cycle, whereas progesterone dominates during the proliferative phase in non-pregnant uterus1 . Oestrogen & progesterone have specific intracellular receptors members of the nuclear receptor super family of transcription factors2 . Estraneprogestins are the precursors of Mifepristone, {17(,hydroxyl 11-(-(4- dimethylaminophenyl)-17(-(prop-1-ynyl)-estra-4, 9-dien-3-one,}3 . Mifepristone binds strongly to the progesterone and glucocorticoid receptors, and to a lesser extent to the androgen receptor, thus mediating its effects at the receptor level4 . This study was conducted to investigate the effect of mifepristone (anti-progesterone) on stromal cells of the uterus of rat.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
These laboratory based randomized controlled trials were conducted at the department of Anatomy, Army Medical College Rawalpindi from Jan 2007 to March 2007. Institutional Ethical Committee of Army Medical College Rawalpindi approved all the procedures. Sixty healthy adult female Sprague Dawley rats weighing 200-300g were procured from the National Institute of Health Sciences Islamabad. The animals were randomly divided into two groups having 30 rats in each.
Group A (Control)
Thirty female rats were given 1ml of normal saline orally daily for three months.
Group B (Experimental)
Thirty female rats were given the drug (Mifepristone) orally in a dose of 1mg/kg body weight daily for three months. All the animals were sacrificed next day after the last oral dose. 2ml blood was taken directly from the heart for measurement of progesterone level. About ½cm piece of tissue was taken from the middle of the right uterine horn. Approximately five microns thick sections were cut and stained with hematoxylin and eosin for light microscopic study. Immunohistochemical staining procedure was done for demonstration of progesterone receptors.
Microscopic observations
Qualitative Parameters
Morphology of the distribution of stroma was noted.
Statistical analysis
Data had been analyzed using SPSS version 15. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the data. Quantitative variables were compared through independent samples’ t-test while qualitative variables were compared through chisquare test between cases and controls. P-value < 0.05 was considered as significant.
RESULT
Total 60 animals were included in the study, 30 in each group. In the control group the tubular sections showed three distinct layers (inner, middle and outer) of endometrium. The luminal side of inner layer was lined by single regular row of cylindrical cells. The stroma consisted of stromal cells, network of collagen fibers stained with eosin, intermingled with amorphous ground substance, and several blood vessels (Fig 1). The stromal cells were flattened and irregular in outline present around the glands. Some appeared fusiform or spindle shaped. They had ovoid nuclei with acidophilic cytoplasm. The eosinophils were recognized by their specific pink stained granules. The lymphocytes with deep staining indented nucleus were also present. While in experimental group at low magnification, inner layer was folded giving it an overall ruffled appearance as a result lumen was much reduced as compared to normal group. Epithelium was low columnar. The superficial part of inner layer consisted of few glands and abundant stroma and a deeper layer had many glands and relatively less stroma. The stromal cells were tightly packed, having basophilic cytoplasm. The infiltration of the stroma with the eosinophils was observed. (Fig.2). Glands varied in size, some of them were dilated and cystic. The mean progesterone level in experimental group was 2.8 + 0.09 ng/ml, which was lower than that of the control group i.e. 5.5 ± 0.8. The difference was found statistically significant when compared with control group (p =0.001). The mild, moderate and marked progesterone receptors were counted in the luminal epithelial cells, glandular epithelial cells, stromal cells and myometrial cells. The number of progesterone receptors in all the compartments of the uterus was reduced in the experimental group as compared with the control group and found statistically significant (Fig.3) (Table-l).
DISCUSSION
The direct effect of the hormone is usually responsible for all the changes seen in the luminal epithelium in response to antiprogesterone5 .
The changes in the uterine wall are likely due to changes in the epithelial – stromal cell interactions and growth factor actions that are required for uterine development6 . Mifepristone suppresses endometrial cell proliferation and thus, causes reduction in overall endometrial thickness7 . Cyclical endometrial proliferation, differentiation and secretion during the human menstrual cycle are strictly controlled by oestrogen and progesterone. A balance is required between oestrogen and progesterone production to ensure normal endometrial growth and proliferation8 . The absence of progesterone removes the ‘progesterone brake’ leading to persistent estrogenicity and constant endometrial proliferation. Although the ratio of stroma to glands remains normal. The endometrium can become disordered and vascular abnormalities such as dilated capillaries may become apparent9 . T he effects of unopposed estrogen may lead to endometrial hyperplasia and possible malignancy, a fact to be kept in mind with long-term use of PR antagonists. In rats receiving long-term PR antagonist treatment estrogenic stimulation of the endometrium has been recorded10 .The nonhuman primate endometrium, however, demonstrates endometrial atrophy and evidence of antiestrogenic. High doses of mifepristone (25mg/d and 50mg/d) cause variable effects, such as atypical cystic changes in eutopic endometrium11 . Serum progesterone levels declined in experimental groups after mifepristone administration. No statistically significant changes in the progesterone levels were observed in the 2-day following the administration of 200mg mifepristone12 . However, with 600mg of mifepristone administered progesterone levels increase on day 1 and then decrease significantly13 . The paradoxical effects (Mifepristone both raises and lowers progesterone levels) have also been explained by the hypothesis, that mifepristone can act either by preventing the progesterone effect or in a way that is similar to that of progesterone, which always stimulates its own secretion by autoregulation. The effects may be variable depending on the duration of pregnancy14. The highest density of stromal cells nuclei was observed in all the uteri of the experimental group. The stromal cells were tightly packed with scanty basophilic cytoplasm. The infiltration of the stroma with the eosinophils was observed. The increased level of leukocytes may not be a direct effect of antiprogestin. Mifepristone treatment may up-regulate potential chemokines that cause leukocyte traffic and interleukin-8 and an increase in MCP-1 and influence leukocyte influx in human decidua15 . Dependent stromal compaction could be identified as one of the key morphological features of the antiprogestrogenic action of mifepristone. It is well established that the proliferation of endometrial stroma is progesterone - dependent in rat. Considering that both the oestrogen and progesterone receptor proteins are oestrogen-dependent, in the present study any change in the concentration or localization of endometrial ER and PR was determined to evaluate whether the antiprogestininduced anti-oestrogenic effects are reflected in these receptors16. The most obvious change in steroid receptor distribution in the uterus was the reduction in staining intensity PR in the glandular epithelium and stromal cells. An increase in the number of endometrial ER and PR has been observed after chronic administration of antiprogestin17. Progesterone receptor concentration could be expected to be highly associated with successful implantation since many of the relevant local factors such as cytokines and growth factors are progesteroneregulated. Endometrial receptivity is strongly related to the down regulation of the progesterone receptor.
CONCLUSION
In the experimental group the stromal cells were tightly packed. There was an increase in the number of infiltration of granulocytes and eosinophils in the stroma. Progesterone antagonist application lowered the plasma concentration of progesterone. The number of progesterone receptors in all uterine compartments of the experimental group were decreased and found statistically significant. In conclusion, mifepristone affects stromal, glandular and epithelial morphology in the rat uterus.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1540http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15401. Connelly OM. Female Steroid Hormone Action. Endocrinology 2001; 142(6): 2194- 99.
2. Benakanakere C, Besch-Williford M, Ellersieck R, Hyder SM. Regression of progestin-accelerated7, 12- dimethylbenz [a] anthracene-induced mammary tumors in Sprague-Dawley rats by p53 reactivation and induction of massive apoptosis, a pilot study. Endocr Relat Cancer; March 1, 2009; 16(1): 85-98.
3. Sukjum LS. Studies of oestrogen and progesterone receptors in the sow uterus with special emphasis on the oestrous cycle and early pregnancy [PhD dissertation], Vpp sala. Swedish university of Agricultural Sciences 2005; p 12-17.
4. Antoniou G, Kalogirou D, Karakitsos P. Transdermal estrogen with a levonorgestrelreleasing intrauterine device for climacteric complaints versus estradiol releasing vaginal ring with a vaginal progesterone suppository, Clinical and endometrial responses. Maturities 1997; 26: 103-11.
5. De Vivo I, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ. A functional polymorphism in the progesterone receptor gene is associated with an increase in breast cancer risk. Cancer Res 2003; 63: 5236–8.
6. Gopalkrishnan K, Katkam RR, Sachdeva G, KholKute SD, Padwal V, Puri CP. Effects of an Antiprogestin Onapristone on the Endometrium of Bonnet Monkeys, Morphometric and Ultra Structural Studies. Biol Reprod 1959; 68(6): 779-87.
7. Brenner RM, Slayden OD. Estrogen action in the endometrium and oviduct of rhesus monkeys during RU 486 treatment. In: Beier HM, Spitz IM, and editors. Progesterone antagonists in reproductive medicine and oncology. Cary, NC. Oxford University Press 1994; p.82-97.
8. Jeffrey R, Goldberg, MD, Marcus G, Plescia MD, MPH, Geraldine D Anastasio. Mifepristone (RU 486) Current Knowledge and Future Prospects. Arch Fam Med 1998; 7: 219-222.
9. Van Look PFA, Ven herizen H. Postovulatory methods of fertility regulation: the emergence of antiprogestens. In Van Look PFA, Perez – Polacies G, editors. Contraceptive research and development. New Delhi, Oxford University Press 1994; P. 151-201.
10. Baird DT, Glasier AF. Science, medicine and the future contraception. Br Med J 1999; 319: 969-72.
11. Hargrove JT, Maxson WS, Wentz AC, Burnett LS. Menopausal hormone replacement therapy with continuous daily oral micronized estradiol and progesterone. Obstet Gynecol 1989; 73: 606-12.
12. O.D. Slayden, M.B. Zelinski, K. Chwalisz, H. Hess-Stumpp, R.M. Brenner Chronic progesterone antagonist–estradiol therapy suppresses breakthrough bleeding and endometrial proliferation in a menopausal macaque model .Hum. Reprod. 2006; 12: 3081-3090.
13. S. Schäfer-Somi, O.A. Aksoy, H.B. Beceriklisoy, A. Einspanier, H.O. Hoppen , S. Aslan. Repeated induction of abortion in bitches and the effect on plasma concentrations of relaxin, progesterone and estradiol-17β. 2007; 68: 889-895.
14. Murphy AA, Castellano PZ: RU 486: pharmacology and potential use in the treatment of endometriosis and leiomyomata uteri. Curr Opin obstet Gynecol 1994; 6(3): 269-78.
15. Astrid Petersen, et al: The antiprogesterone Org 31710 inhibits human blastocystendometrial interactions in vitro. Fertility and Sterility 2005; 83: 1255-1263.
16. Shwad PC, Katkam RR, Hinduja IN, Chwalisz K, Elger W, Puri CP. Treatment with a progesterone antagonist ZR>98.299 delays endometrial development without blocking ovulation in bonnet monkeys. Contraception 1993; 48: 57-70.
17. Itruk-Ware R. Approval of Mifepristone (RU486) in Europe. Zentraibl Gynakol 2000; 122(5): 241-7
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareEFFECT OF FENUGREEK SEEDS FLOUR BLENDING ON SENSORY AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMOLINA IDLI
English9599Kumari PoojaEnglish Dubey P. RituEnglishThe present study was carried out to prepare value added semolina Idli by incorporation of different treatments of fenugreek seeds flour i.e raw, soaked and germinated and to assess their sensory acceptability and nutrient contents. Fenugreek seeds flour was blended at 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% for T1, T2, T3 and T4 treatment respectively. Findings revealed (T1) was most acceptable for its colour, flavour, texture, taste and overall acceptability. It was true for all Raw, Soaked and Germinated treatments. Statistical analysis at P?0.05 showed that there was significant difference among all the treatments. Nutrient composition was improved for Protein, Ash, Dietary fibre and Mineral whereas Fat, Carbohydrate, Moisture and Energy level was decreased after value addition of fenugreek seeds flour at different levels. Germinated fenugreek seeds flour blends were found superior in nutritional quality compared to other flours blends.
EnglishSemolina, fenugreek, Raw seeds, Soaked seeds, Germinated seedsINTRODUCTION
Wheat (traticum) is a worldwide cultivated crop from the arid areas of Middle East to alluvial plains of Asia, America and Australia. Semolina is the purified middling of hard wheat and is used in making pasta, breakfast cereals and puddings. In North India semolina is known as “Suji” and in South India, “Rava” or “Ravey”. (Gisslen et al, 2001) Semolina is a good source of carbohydrate and protein and is an average source of dietary fibre. Fenugreek (trigonella faenum graccum) is an erect annual herb native to Southern Europe and Asia. It is commonly known as “Methi” in India (Wikipedia, 2008). Fenugreek seeds are rich source of protein (25%), lysine, tryptophan and dietary fiber (24%). They are also rich in polysaccharide galactomannan and are a good source of calcium, iron and β-carotene. (Gopalan et al, 2007) Owing to their many properties fenugreek seeds are one of the most valuable spices for controlling glucose metabolism and for the prevention and treatment of type II diabetes (Scott, 2007). Fenugreek seeds are one of the richest sources of phytoestrogens and selenium and thus are a very useful spice for women who have low estrogens levels (Sri et al, 2008). Fenugreek seeds may have anti-tumourigenic effects too. Although semolina is widely used in India cuisines, it is considered nutritionally poor due to deficiency of essential amino acids such as lysine and theonine. Since fenugreek seeds are very rich in essential amino acids, the blending of fenugreek seeds flour in suitable proportion with a poor source of protein like semolina can increase the protein contents of blended products (Hooda et al, 2004). Due to several medicinal and nutritional properties of fenugreek seeds, the inclusion of fenugreek seeds flour with common foods like wheat flour and semolina can be exploited to prepare good alternative food products for people having certain diseases (Jood et al, 2007) and for common people as well.
OBJECTIVES
1. To standardize the level of fenugreek seeds (raw, soaked and germinated) flour for blending with semolina idli on the basis of sensory analysis.
2. To find out sensory characteristics of semolina idli prepared by incorporating fenugreek seeds flour.
3. To determine chemical composition of semolina idli blended with fenugreek seeds flour.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was carried out in the research laboratory of Foods & Nutrition, Department of Ethelind School of Home Science, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences, (Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute-Deemed University), Allahabad. Three major treatments i.e raw, soaked and germinated fenugreek seeds flour was taken along with control group each treatment was standardised at 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% level of blending.
The treatments were replicated four times. For sensory evaluation „9? point hedonic scale was used by 6 panel judges to get the sensory acceptability of the product. Nutrient content was analysed by using AOAC (1980) procedures and the data were further statistically compared for 3x5 factorial design and critical difference techniques. (Fisher, 1955).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The findings are shown in Table I & II. Table I shows the average scores for sensory characteristics of semolina Idli blended with fenugreek seeds flour. Among different treatments raw fenugreek seeds flour blending at 5% (T1) shows highest scores for colour, flavour and texture. Taste and overall acceptability scores show that T1 (5%) gets highest scores among all treatments. It can be concluded that as the level of fenugreek seeds flour increases its amber yellowish colour dominate which makes the semolina Idli less acceptable. Therefore T1 is considered the best among treatments as for as sensory characteristics are concerned. Statistical analysis shows that there is significant difference among them. Table II shows the nutrient composition of semolina Idli. Nutrient analysis indicates that semolina idli blended with raw fenugreek seeds flour has highest Energy content i.e 181 kcal/100g followed by soaked fenugreek seeds flour (177kcal/100g) and germinated fenugreek seeds flour (172 kcal/100g) while control (T0) contains 193 kcal/100g of Energy. Control (T0) sample shows the highest level (28.3g) of Carbohydrate, while it decreases to 26.1g, 25.8g and 25.4g for raw, soaked and germinated fenugreek seeds flour blended semolina Idli, respectively. In case of Protein, control (T0) sample shows lower value (14. 5g) in comparison to treatments i.e 15.6g, 15.2g, 15.0g for raw, soaked and geminated fenugreek seeds flour blended semolina Idlis respectively. Among the treatments raw fenugreek seeds flour blended semolina Idli shows the highest level of Fat i.e 1.9g followed by 1.4g for soaked and 1.1g for germinated fenugreek seeds flour blended idlis. This is more or less similar to the findings obtained by (Shirani & Ravindran (2008). In case of Moisture, control (T0) sample shows the highest value (54g) in comparison to treatments i.e 51.3g, 53.2g, 50.7g for raw, soaked and geminated fenugreek seeds flour blended semolina Idlis respectively. In case of Ash, control (T0) sample showed lower value in comparison to treatments. Germinated fenugreek seeds flour has highest Dietary fibre content (5.2g) followed by soaked fenugreek seeds flour (5.1g) and raw fenugreek seeds flour (4.9g) while control (T0) contains 3.9g of Dietary fibre. In case of Iron, control (T0) sample shows lower value in comparison to treatments. Similarly in case of Calcium, control (T0) sample shows lower value in comparison to treatments.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of sensory evaluation and nutrient analysis of the treatments T1 (5 % fenugreek seeds flour) is found to be the best. It can be concluded that value addition of semolina Idli with fenugreek seeds flour increases Protein, Ash, Dietary fibre, Iron and Calcium contents while decreases the Moisture, Fat, Carbohydrate and Energy contents. Among all the treatment combinations of the product, the treatment T1 with germinated fenugreek Seeds flour is the most beneficial in terms of nutrients.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are thank full to the Head, Department of Foods and Nutrition, Ethelind School of Home Science, SHIATS, Allahabad, for her constant guidance and help during the research
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1541http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15411. Gisslen (2001). Professional baking; revised Ecn 2001, p.79-80.
2. Gopalan, C. ;Bala Subramanian, S.C. (2007) : Nutritive values of Indian foods; revised edition , p. 59-67, 81- 85.
3. Hooda, S. and Jood, S. (2007): Effect of Soaking and germination on nutrient and anti nutritient contents of fenugreek. Journal of food Bio chemistry. 27( 2) : p. 165-176.
4. Hooda, S. and Jood, S. (2004): Nutritional evaluation of wheat – fenugreek blends for product making, Journal of plant foods for human nutrition; 59(4) : p. 149-154.
5. Scott (2001). Fenugreek fights diabetes and obesity. „Journal of Natural Home Pharmacy?; 21(2): p. 48-52.
6. Shirani, G. and Ravindran, G. (2008): Extruded products with fenugreek, Chickpea and rice: Physical properties, sensory acceptability and glycaemic index. Journal of food engineering. 90 (1) : p. 44-52.
7. Sri (2008). Medicinal Properties of Fenugreek, Journal of Canadian Pharmacology; 42(4): p.25-29.
8. Wikipedia (2008), Online edition; www.wikipedia.com/herb/fenugreek.h tml
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareLIPID PEROXIDE AND ANTIOXIDANT LEVELS IN HEALTHY INDIAN AND HUNGARIAN SUBJECTS
English100103Jain SumanEnglish Sharma RenuEnglish Sharma SumanEnglish Varadkar A. M.EnglishThe present comparative and prospective study includes 400 normal subjects, out of which 200 were Indian and 200 were Hungarians. The latter population distinctly differed from Indian population in four respects. First is race wise, second living in relatively unpolluted environment, third liberal use of alcohol and fourth moderate to heavy smokers. The thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels in Hungarians were 300% higher (males, 8.60 ± 2.70 nmol/ml, females, 7.10 ± 0.62 nmol/ml) than Indians (males, 2.55 ± 0.71 nmol/ml, females, 2.25 ± 0.56 nmol/ml).
EnglishMDA(Malondialdehyde)/ TBARS, SOD(Superoxide dismutase), Catalase, GSH(Glutathione), GPX (glutathione peroxidase)INTRODUCTION
Lipid Peroxidation, a primary reactive free radical formed by O2 - and OH, which interacts with poly unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), initiates a complex series of reactions that results in a variety of degradation products (1, 2). It is assumed that lipid peroxidation can be set into motion whenever prooxidant conditions occur in the cell. Lipid peroxidation can cause deleterious effects on cellular functions both directly by producing loss of membrane structure and indirectly by causing the evolution of toxicity produced metabolites, especially reactive aldehyde as alkenals, capable of reaching molecular target at a distance (3, 4, and 5). Some of the aldehydes are highly reactive and are now designated as second toxic messengers which degenerate and augment initial free radical reactions. Among the many different aldehydes formed, the most intensively studied is MDA (malondialdehyde), which is new widely used as biochemical markers for the assessment of lipid peroxidation. MDA is reactive towards sulphydryl and amino groups of proteins. It produces intra molecular and intermolecular linkage which can lead to inactivation and polymerisation of enzymes such as ribonuclease. Besides self inflicting damage on lipids its reactivity towards amino groups can result in interactions with the nitrogenous bases of DNA and inhibition of DNA, RNA and protein synthesis (6, 7, and 8). Increased formation of free radicals and enhanced lipid peroxidation has been observed after active and chronic ethanol consumption (9, 10). Heavy smokers are also reported to face higher peroxidation level and lower antioxidant status (10). The Hungarian population in general is a liberal consumer of alcohol and fond of smoking. At the same time their nutritional status is better. This impelled us to evaluate their blood peroxide and antioxidant levels in healthy Indian and Hungarians to determine the differences, if any, in aforesaid parameters.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Indian subjects:- Two hundred healthy subjects were selected for this part of the study. Detailed present and past history of subjects was recorded on a separate proforma regarding their general information i.e. Age, sex, height, weight, caste, religion, dietary habits and education. The normal Indian subjects were healthy medical students, staff members and attendant of patients, donors of blood bank of Maharana Bhupal Hospital/RNT Medical College Udaipur.
Hungarian subjects: - Two hundred healthy Hungarians comprised this group. All were healthy student and staff of JATE University in Szeged (Hungary). This Hungarian group had different dietary habits and culture. They were non-vegetarians and had liberal use of alcohol and smoking habit.
Biochemical parameters assayed:- Blood samples were collected in EDTA (2mg/ml) sodium salt as anticoagulant. Peroxidation was assayed by determining TBAR levels (a) in plasma. SOD (12), Catalase (13), GSH (14) and GPX (15) were assayed by standard procedures.
Statistical Analysis:- The biochemical parameters are expressed as mean ± SD(Standard deviation) for each group. A statistically significant deviations in the Hungarian compared with the Indian subjects were arrived at using analysis of variance.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
We had opportunity to examine normal Hungarian subjects in addition to Indians. Therefore we though it germane to take up study in them for several reasons for example though Caucasoid is a common factor but Hungarians do have some genetic differences from Indians. The other features which make them different from Indians are (a) they are living under relatively less populated atmosphere. (b) Better nutrient intake (c) common use of tinned food. (d) Usually regular habits of drinking alcoholic beverages and (e) smoking habits. All this factors are known to influence oxidant status. Smoking (10) and alcohol (9, 16) increases peroxidative stress. The TBARS level in normal Hungarian males and females were 8.60 ± 2.70 nmol/ml and 7.10 ± 0.62 nmol/ml and 2.25 ± 0.56 nmol/ml. Thus TBARS levels in Hungarians were about 3 times higher than Indians. This is very significant observation as much as it explicitly points out higher oxidant burden in Hungarians (17).
Since MDA is direct adduct of PUFA this are essential constituents of cellular membrane lipids and many other cellular components, three deductions can be made. (a) Membrane lipids may be more damaged in Hungarians than Indians (b) PUFA located in other cellular or extra cellular compartment are more damaged and (c) else both are partly damaged. We would like to emphasize that damage need not to be necessarily expressed in form of pathology because tissues are always in state of dynamic equilibrium and possess an effective repair system. The data however assumes greater significance if viewed in context to antioxidant status which is better in them. We measured four antioxidants namely GSH, SOD, Catalase, GSHPX. Interestingly, SOD and GSH levels were significantly higher and other tended to be higher in them than Indians. Obviously the reason could be need for better defence battery. It is now well know that all the three enzymes are inducible enzymes. Their activity in Hungarians innately implies that their induction should be to meet enhanced generation of superoxide anion and free hydroxyl radical. Similarly the increased level of GSH should meet increased demand of GSH-PX. It has repeatedly been pointed out in literature that reduced GSH is a major endogenous antioxidant (18). In the western population the reported normal range is 47-80 mg/100ml. in Hungarians males and females its level was 67.10 ± 7.30 and 69.00 ± 7.31 respectively. These levels clearly indicate an adequate status. In Indian subjects its level is reported to very widely. Our study found values comparable (21) but in others it was found to be lower (19, 20). Green and Paller (18) showed that potent exogenous sources of free radicals include oxidized drugs, smoke, radiations and other substances and that endogenous antioxidation GSH is preferentially oxidized to save tissues from disasters of oxidant injury. It is also known that free radicals are by products of metabolic processes and originate from environmental pollutant (22). Here again GSH comes to rescue along with other antioxidants. Lower level of GSH in Indians, therefore, represents a discouraging picture about antioxidant status which is usually weak due to weaker nutrient antioxidant status. (23, 24) Strikingly SOD (superoxide dismutase) levels are higher in both Hungarian males (1.32 ± 0.40 units/ml haemolysate) and females (1.91 ± 0.36 units/ml haemolysate). This is 3.4 and 5.82 times higher than corresponding subjects. This higher level may be a genetic consequences or an adaptive mechanism to meet increased flux of superoxide anion. The latter one appears are more plausible.
CONCLUSION
Comparative prospective study was undertaken between Indian and Hungarian subjects with respect to lipid peroxidation and antioxidant level. MDA (malondialdehyde) levels (8.60±2.70) in males and 7.10±0.62 in females were 3-4 times higher than Indians. SOD (superoxide dismutase) levels were lower than Indians and were higher in females as compared to males. Hungarian males had higher Catalase levels than Indian males while females had lower levels than Indian females. GSH (glutathione) and GSH-px (Glutathione peroxidase) levels were higher than Indians.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
We sincerely thank R.N.T. medical college & associated hospital, Udaipur & JATE University in Szeged (Hungary) for extending all the facilities for conducting the work. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1542http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15421. Halliwell, B. (1997): Antioxidant and human disease: General introduction. Nutr. Rev. 55: 544.
2. Slater, T.P. (1984): Free radical mechanism in tissue injury. Biochem J. 222: 1.
3. Comporti, M. (1985): Lipid peroxidation and cellular damage in toxic liver injury. Lab. Invest. 53: 599.
4. Rajnesh CP, Manimaran A, Shashikala KR and Adaikappam P. Lipidperoxidation and antioxidant status in patients with breast cancer. Singapore Med. J. 2008 49(8): 640- 643.
5. Cross C.E, Vandervliet A, O’ Neill C.A. and Eisterich, J.P. (1994): Reactive oxygen species under lung. The Lancet. 344: 930.
6. Kang DH. Oxidative stress, DNA damage and breast cancer. AACN Clin. 2002; 13: 540-49.
7. Bird J. (1989): Early events in ischemic renal failure in the rat: Effect of antioxidant therapy. Kidney Int. 35: 1282.
8. Chick J, Pikkarainen J and Pant M. (1987): Serum ferritin as a marker of alcohol consumption in working men. Alc slcohol. 22:155.
9. Fink R.; Clemens M.R. and Dormandy T.L. (1985): Increased free-radical activity in alcoholics. Lancet 2: 291.
10. Hughes D.A, Wright A.J and Finglas P.M. (1997): The effect of β-carotene supplementation on the immune function of blood monocytes from healthy male nonsmokers. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 129.
11. Buege JA and Aust SD (1978): The thiobarbituric acid assay method in enzymology. 52: 306.
12. Misra H.P and Fridovich I. (1972): The role of superoxide anion in the autoxidation of epinephrine and a simple assay for SOD. J Biol Chem. 247:3170.
13. Sinha, A.K. (1972) : colorimetric assay of catalase. Anal. Biochem., 47 : 389
14. Beutler, E. and Kelly, B.M. (1963): Improved method for the determination of blood glutathione. J. Lab. Clin. Med., 61: 882.
15. Hopkins, J. and Tudhope, g.r. (1973): GSH in human red cells in health and disease. Br. J. haematol. 25: 563.
16. Lecomte, E.; Herberth, B.:Pirollet, P.; Chancerelle, Y.; Arnaud, J.; Musse, N.; Paille, F.; Siest, G.and Artur, Y. (1994) : Effect of alcohol consumption on blood antioxidant nutrients and oxidative stress indicators. Am J. Clin. Nutr. 60: 255.
17. Feher, J.; Csomos, G. and Vereckei, A. (1992): Role of free radical reactions in liver diseases: Free Radicals and the Liver. Cosmos, G and Feher, J. pl-17. Hungary.
18. Green, E.L. and Paller, S.M. (1991): Oxy free radicals in acute renal failure. Miner Electrolyte Metabolism. 17: 124.
19. Singh, G. (1997): Assessment of nephrotoxicity in health and diseases with special reference to environment. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to M.L.S. University, Udaipur.
20. Kothari, S. (1999): A clinical and experimental study of reactive oxygen species mediated injury by drugs and redox cycling chemical species in biological system. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to M.L.S.University, Udaipur.
21. Vashistha, C. (1998): A study of some herbs of medicinal and nutritive value in health nad some selected animals with special reference to tribal population. P.h.D. Thesis submitted to M.L.S.University, Udaipur.
22. Jacob. R.A. and Burri, B.J. (1996): Oxidative damage and defense. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 63: 985.
23. Wagner B.A, Buettner G R, Burns P. Vitamin slows the rate of free radical mediated lipid in cells. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1996; 334: 261-267.
24. Eastwood, M.A. Interaction of dietary antioxidants in vivo: how fruits and vegetables prevent disease? QIM.1999; 92: 527-530.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareVISUAL OUTCOME AFTER MICROCOAXIAL PHACOEMULSIFICATION WITH MICRIOL PLUS LENS IMPLANTATION
English104110Mohd Dilawar MirEnglish Tufela ShafiEnglish Manzoor Qadir KengEnglish Asifa JehanEnglish Tasneem MuzaffarEnglish Raashid MaqboolWaniEnglishBackground: Study carried out in a tertiary care eye institute in North India with the aim of evaluating the visual outcome after Microcoaxial Phacoemulsification with MICRIOL PLUS lens implantation as well as to study the intraoperative and postoperative complications associated with the procedure. Methods: Prospective study conducted in one hundred cases over a period of one year. Patients with grade 1 to 3 nuclear and corticonuclear cataracts were included in the study after undergoing complete ophthalmic evaluation. Each patient underwent Microcoaxial Phacoemulsification using incision size of 2.2 mm and MICRIOL PLUS lens was implanted in each case using ‘D’ cartridge. Patients were followed up for a period of 6 months and visual acuity, slit lamp biomicroscopy, IOL centration, capsule opacification were noted during follow up. Results: Microcoaxial Phacoemulsification was successfully performed in all 100 eyes. 93 % patients achieved a BCVA of 6/9 or better over a 6 month followup, the procedure being associated with low intraoperative and postoperative complications. Conclusions: Microcoaxial Phacoemulsification with MICRIOL PLUS lens is a safe and cost effective alternative surgical procedure for management of cataracts with excellent postoperative visual acuity and few intraoperative and postoperative complications.
EnglishCataract, Visual Outcome, Microcoaxial Phacoemulsification, Bimanual Phacoemulsification, MICRIOL PLUS lens, D cartridge.INTRODUCTION
Cataract surgery has undergone remarkable technical refinement, with simplified postoperative care and faster visual recovery as consequences.1,2 . With improved instrumentation, small incision Phacoemulsification became possible in the late 1980s, leading to the current state of the art of sutureless phacoemulsification surgery with foldable intraocular lens implantation3,4 . Phacoemulsification introduced by Dr. Charles Kelman in 1967, utilizes a small incision. The incision size for routine phacoemulsification is approximately 3 to 3.5mm in width. This small 3.5 mm incision required for standard phacoemulsification is self sealing and generally does not require any suturing, as it is watertight. The smaller the incision, the less the pressure changes, the more stable the anterior chamber, the more the control during capsulorrhexis and hydrodissection. Smaller wounds heal more rapidly, with less risk of leakage and endophthalmitis. Besides, the surgically induced astigmatism is also much less with a smaller incision. However at present, the incision size is limited not only by the diameter of the phacoemulsification tip but also by the irrigation sleeve around the phacotip, which provides irrigation fluid into the anterior chamber besides adequate fluid to cool the phacoemulsification needle5 . If a rigid intraocular lens implant is used, the incision has to be enlarged upto 5.0mm to 5.5mm. If the lens implant that can be folded is used, this may not have to be enlarged. With the introduction of microincisional cataract surgery, phacoemulsification can be done through incisions of 2.2 mm or less, using either the Bimanual or Microcoaxial technique. Surgeons who perform bimanual phacoemulsification, create two 1.5mm to 1.2 mm incisions, one to insert an irrigation hand piece and the other to introduce a sleeveless phaco tip to remove the cataract. Apart from the various advantages of a small incision, microincisions further reduce surgically induced astigmatism. However, smaller incisions come with their own problems. Generally sleeveless phacotips need to be used through these incisions,with fluid inflow into the anterior chamber being maintained separately through the irrigation handpiece . The low flow rates from the small irrigating tips placed through these incisions may compromise anterior chamber stability. Besides once the inflow into the anterior chamber is reduced, the aspiration rate also gets limited6 . In such a situation, high vacuum levels and post occlusion surge potentially can threaten the safety of the procedure. In addition, the sleeveless phaco tips can overheat, thereby raising the risk of thermal damage to the cornea. Microcoaxial Phacoemulsification Microcoaxial phacoemulsification also known as coaxial micro-incision cataract surgery (C-MICS) requires an incision less than or equal to 2.2mm and accommodates a sleeve over the phacotip. Therefore aspiration and irrigation can be carried through the same incision and implantation of a foldable IOL can be done without enlarging the incision3 . The instrument and surgical technique is the same, only the incision size is variable. The machine parameters need to be reset and higher vacuum (400-450 vaccum) needs to be used and the surgeon needs to get used to the more controlled procedure7 . For C-MICS a microincision sleeve, micro-coaxial phaco needle, an appropriate keratome and micro-coaxial irrigation / aspiration are needed. A standard sleeve has a 1.8mm diameter, whereas a coaxial sleeve has a smaller diameter of 1.6mm which tapers to 1mm at the tip8. With bimanual micro phacoemulsification, unsleeved rigid round tips are used which induce distortion of the small slit incisions and at times result in the fish mouthing of these incisions. In contrast, the sleeve around the phacotip in CMICS acts as a buffer and does not distort or ‘fish mouth’ the incision. These microincisions are snug fitting, self seal and do not leak post or intraoperatively. There is at times poor chamber control with bimanual microphacoemusification due to imbalance between aspiration and irrigation flow, particularly if aspiration is continued when there are no nuclear particles which need to be captured by the aspiration port 9 ; however, with the coaxial microphacoemulsification, the fluidics are basically the same as those seen with standard phaco. Surge testing has also demonstrated that there is less surge and greater chamber stability during coaxial microphacoemulsification using the thin sleeve than during the bare tip bimanual technique10 . The attractive feature of coaxial microphaco is that the phaco tip is covered with a sleeve and yet it is sub 2mm, therefore all the above mentioned disadvantages of bimanual microphaco are obviated. Standard technique of coaxial phaco is used and no extra instrumentation or steep learning curve is required. The whole procedure can be performed through sub 2mm wound size and the IOL can be introduced through the same using wound assisted insertion without the need to enlarge the wound. However, there is a limited availability of the small size IOLS which can be implanted through these microincisions and most of them are quite expensive, limiting the population in which this procedure can be carried out. Cost factor plays a major role in deciding the type of lens and hence the type of surgery which can be carried out in the majority of the patient groups from developing countries like ours. MICRIOL PLUS lens from Care Group meets all the needs of the lenses required for microincisions besides being low in cost, hence we selected this for our study with the view of popularizing this surgical procedure to all sections of the society particularly to the patients from low socioeconomic strata.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Patients in the age group between 10 years to 70 years, having Grade 1 to 3 nuclear and corticonuclear cataracts (LOCS-III classification system), a transparent central cornea, pupil dilatation at the preoperative examination of at least 6 mm, absence of Bio-microscopical signs of pseudoexfoliation and with no active fundus pathology were included in the study. Patients with high density lens opacity (LOCS-III : NO5- NO6, C4-C5, P4-P5), relevant corneal opacities, Pseudoexfoliation syndrome, pupil anomalies, synechia, zonulolysis or defective zonules, abnormal fundus, history of ocular trauma, intra ocular surgery as well as history of serious coexistent ocular diseases such as uveitis, glaucoma, optic atrophy or ocular tumors, Diabetes Mellitus or other metabolic diseases were excluded from the study. Only 100 patients who fulfilled the criteria and completed the followup schedule were included in the study. Preoperative assessment included Visual acuity, complete slitlamp and fundus examination, keratometry and A- Scan.
Procedure and Instrumentation (Fig 1&2)
Microcoaxial phacoemulsification.
In all patients, maximum mydriasis was achieved with 1 drop each of a combination of tropicamide (0.8%) and phenylephrine (5%) and cyclopentolate (1%) applied 4 times 1 hour before surgery. Peribulbar block was used to achieve anesthesia and akinesia. All the cases were operated upon by a single surgeon. Following disinfection and draping, a clear corneal stab incision was created at 12 O’clock position using a 2.0 mm keratome. Two side port stab incisions (1mm) were made at 10 O’clock and 2 O’clock position. An air bubble was then injected through the side port, followed by application of 0.1 to 0.2ml of trypan blue solution over the anterior capsule for capsular staining. After 20 seconds, the trypan blue solution was aspirated. The anterior chamber was then filled with viscoelastic fluid. Continuous curvilinear capsulorhexis was then performed with a bent 26 gauge disposable needle mounted on a syringe. In case of difficulty in completing the CCC it was completed using the micro CCC forceps. Hydrodissection was performed and rotation of nucleus done followed by reformation of anterior chamber with a viscoelastic agent. Endocapsular phacoemulsification and aspiration of nucleus was done using the divide and conquer technique. The machine parameters were varied according to the hardness of the cataract. The infusion bottle height was adjusted according to the anterior chamber stability. The residual cortex was removed using the bimanual irrigation and aspiration handpiece. The capsular bag was then filled with a dispersive ophthalmic visco-surgical device. The incision size was enlarged to 2.2mm to fit the outer diameter of the cartridge tip (D cartridge) of microincision IOL injectors. The 360 degree square edge acrylic lens (MICRIOL PLUS Lens) was taken from its container and loaded into the IOL injector with D cartridge and inserted into the main incision and the IOL was delivered inside the eye. MICRIOL PLUS lens is a single piece ultrathin lens with 4 haptics which are designed to provide wider angle of equatorial contact and more reliable centration. The ophthalmic viscosurgical device was aspirated using irrigation / aspiration cannula through the same incisions and at the end of the procedure the internal diameter of the main incision was measured using the 2.2mm measuring guage. Stromal hydration of the corneal wound and side ports were performed postoperatively. The operating surgeon did not report any difficulty in negotiating the phaco probe or any other instrument through the incision. Post operative pad and bandage was done. On next day slit lamp examination was performed. The patients received topical antibiotic steroid drops for 6 weeks and cycloplegics for 2 weeks. Examinations were done at 1 and 7 days and at the end of 1, 3 and 6 months postoperatively. Observations were done with pupil fully dilated. At every visit, slit lamp biomicroscopy, capsule opacification, and IOL centration were evaluated. Visual acuity, IOP measurements and fundus evaluation was also done.
RESULTS
The major outcomes measured were the postoperative visual acuity as well as intraoperative and postoperative complications. There were 55 males (55%) and 45 females (45%). Patients were included irrespective of sex. The age of the patients varied between 10 to 70 years. Maximum patients (72%) were in the 51- 70 years age group. Lowest number of patients (7%) were in the age group of 10-30 years. The mean age in our study was 54.47 years (Table 1). Combined cataract was the most frequent type of cataract encountered (26%) in our study followed by nuclear cataracts (25%) and posterior subcapsular cataracts (21%).(Table 2). Preoperative visual acuity ranged between 6/24 and hand movements with a median value of 6/60. The most common operative complication that we encountered was striate keratopathy in 21 patients (21%) but that was not seen to interfere with the final visual outcome. 2 patients who had posterior capsular rent with vitreous loss had persistent macular edema with visual status of 6/36 and 6/60 at follow up. Residual superior cortex was seen in 2 patients (2%) but both had good visual outcome since the pupillary axis remained clear. 2 patients (2%) had corneal oedema, 1 patient (1%) had extension of capsulorrhexis, and 1 patient (1%) had IOL decentration but the final visual acuity was 6/9 or better in all the four cases. Only 2 patients had a visual acuity less than 6/60 (1 each due to persistent macular edema and CNVM). (Table 3). Post operatively, at 6 months, majority i.e. 93 patients (93%) had best corrected visual acuity of 6/9 or better, whereas 7 patients had visual acuity of 6/12 or less. (Table 4). The causes of decreased visual acuity (less than 6/12) were posterior capsular opacification in 4%, persistent macular edema in 2 % and CNVM in 1% patient who had soft drusens preoperatively.(Table 5).
DISCUSSION
The major advantage of microcoaxial phacoemulsification is an improvement in control of most endocapsular surgery steps. Because visocoelastic material does not leave the eye easily through these small incisions, the anterior chamber is more stable during capsulorrhexis construction and there is a less likelihood for an errant capsulorrhexis to develop. Hydrodelineation and hydrodissection can be performed more efficiently because of a higher level of pressure buildup in the anterior chamber before eventual prolapse of viscoelastic material through the microincisions. Stable anterior chamber is also advantageous when weak zonules are present. The surgical technique for C-MICS is the basically the same as for conventional phacoemulsification , hence no learning curve is required . Besides with the availability of IOLs in the market to suit these microincisions ,the surgeon does not need to compromise on the quality of IOL nor is there any need to enlarge the incision, rendering the procedure a truly microincision procedure.
In our study the visual outcome after microcoaxial phacoemulsification was evaluated by recording the visual acuity of the patients operated for cataracts in the follow up period.72% patients in our study belonged to the age group of 51 to 70 years (72%), lowest being in the age group of 10 to 30 years (7%). The mean age in our study was 54.47 years. In the study done by Abhay Vasavada et al11, the mean age group was 54.23 years (range 39 to 73 years) and in the study done by Arup Chakraborti12 , mean age group was 62 years (range 46 years to 72 years). This is because most common types of cataracts are age related. Combined cataract was the most frequent type of cataract encountered (26%) in our study. Nuclear cataracts and posterior subcapsular cataracts were the next commonest types. In our study endocapsular phacoemulsification using the divide and conquer technique was used to emulsify the nucleus. The endocapsular phacoemulsification technique decreases the endothelial cell loss and postoperative corneal oedema which is more common when the phacoemulsification is performed in the anterior chamber. This finding is supported by the study conducted by Victoria W. Y. Wong et al13 . Striate keratopathy was the most frequent complication encountered in our study (21%) followed by residual cortex (3%) and posterior capsular rent (PCR) with vitreous loss (2%). The findings were consistent with other studies done earlier. In the study done by Amar Agarwal et al14, 18 patients (5.9%) developed corneal oedema, 5 patients (1.6%) developed posterior capsule rupture, 3 patients (0.9%) developed cystoid macular oedema and 1 patient developed age related macular degeneration. Because the anterior chamber is stable during MICS, management of PCR becomes much easier. Best corrected visual acuity at 6 months follow up was 6/9 or better in 93% of cases. Posterior capsular opacification (4%) was the most common cause of vision less than 6/9 (target vision) followed by persistent macular oedema (2%). These findings are consistent with the other studies conducted by Amar Agarwal et al14, Arup Chakraborti et al12, Jorge L. Alio15 et al and Victoria W. Y. Wong et al13. Rapid visual rehabilitation is considered to be one of the advantages of this procedure. The information available to date on results from surgery with the coaxial microphacoemulsification procedure shows that it is a relatively safe and effective operation. All reported cases reflect decreasing complications, better visual outcome and early rehabilitation. With this method comparison of the complications with those of standard phacoemulsification technique is difficult due to relative paucity of reported data, the lack of standard techniques and the fact that improved surgical technique and instrumentation have apparently decreased complications in all types of cataract surgery.
CONCLUSION
The ability of coaxial microphacoemulsification to:
1) To allow the surgery using the same technique as that of conventional phacoemulsification, without warranting the need for a learning curve.
2) Limit the hospital stay to 24 hours and therefore reduce the expenses.
3) Permit the patient unrestricted activity after discharge and
4) Reduce the intra operative time as well as postoperative recuperative times gives it distinctive advantages.
It should definitely be the procedure of choice for both patients as well as surgeons for the removal of cataracts .With the change in the trend from small incision (>2.0mm) to minimal incision (Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1543http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15431. Jaffe NS (1996) History of cataract surgery. Ophthalmology ; 103: S5-16.
2. Olson RJ, Mamalis N, Werner L, Apple DJ (2003) Cataract treatment in the beginning of the 21st century. Am J Ophthalmol ; 136: 146-154.
3. Leaming DV (2005) Practice styles and preferences of ASCRS members – 2003 survey. J Cataract Refract Surg; 30: 892- 8900.
4. Leaming DV (2003 ) Practice styles and preferences of ASCRS members – 2002 survey. J Cataract Refract Surg; 29: 1412- 1420.
5. From the Editor (2003) Is smaller better. J Cataract Refract Surg ; 29: 1049-1050.
6. Vasavada V, Vasavada V, Raj SM, Vasavada AR (2007) Intraoperative performance and postoperative outcome of microcoaxial phacoemulsification. J Cataract Refract Surg ; 33: 1019-1024.
7. Singh MS (2008) Coaxial MICS: sub 2mm made easy. Ophthalmology World Report; July: 17-22
8. Barrett G (2007) Minimizing incision size without compromise. Ophthalmology World Report ; December Supplement: 3-5.
9. Tsuneoka H, Takahama M (2003) Ultra small incision bimanual phacoemulsification and AcroSof SA30AL implantation through a 2.2mm incision. J Cataract Refract Surg; 29: 1070-1076.
10. Kapur KB, Sud S (2008) C-MICS the future is here to stay. DOS Times; 13: 23-27.
11. Vasavada A, Singh R, Desai J (1998) Phacoemulsification of white cataracts. J Refract Surg ; 24:270-277.
12. Chakrabarti A, Stephen V, Chakrabarti M (2006) Microincision cataract surgery in white mature/ hypermature cataracts in South India. AIOC Proceedings.
13. Wong VW, Lai TY, Lee GK, Lam PT, Lam DS (2007) Safety and efficacy of microincisional cataract surgery with bimanual phacoemulsification for white mature cataract. Ophthalmologica; 221: 24- 28.
14. Agarwal A, Agarwal A, Agarwal S, Narang P, Narang S (2001) Phakonit: Phacoemulsification through a 0.9 mm corneal incision. J Cataract Refract Surg; 27:1548-1552.
15. Alio JL, Rodriguez-Prats JL, Vianello A, Galal A (2005) Visual outcome of microincision cataract surgery with implantation of an Acri.Smart lens. J Cataract Refract Surg ; 31:1549-1556.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcarePATTERNS OF MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY IN PERFORATED DUODENAL ULCERS IN SOUTH RAJASTHAN
English111117Vishwas JohriEnglish Minaxi SharmaEnglish Ramnath TakiarEnglish Chandra Prakash JoshiEnglishThe Incidence of duodenal ulcer perforation is decreasing in many parts of the world [1]. However in tropical countries it still is a leading cause of abdominal sepsis. Since 1950, the number of patients with ulcer disease has decreased all over the world. The number of perforated ulcers, on the other hand, has changed very little, and the death rate from perforated duodenal ulcers in older patients has increased, particularly in those that were older than 65 years [2].The present study is an endeavour to document various trends viz. demography, mortality and associated factors, morbidity, average hospital stay and associated co-morbid diseases observed in a tertiary hospital in south Rajasthan.
EnglishDuodenal ulcer perforationINTRODUCTION
World over perforation complicates duodenal ulcer about half as often as bleeding and most perforated ulcers are on the anterior surface of the duodenum. The patient population tends to be elderly (mean age 60–70), chronically ill patients often (40–50%) taking ulcerogenic medication. The incidence of perforated duCONCLUSIONodenal ulcer in the West is relatively stable, the age of presentation increasing, and the sex incidence becoming more even [3] . The continuing problem with perforated duodenal ulcer stands in contrast to the fall in admissions for uncomplicated duCONCLUSIONodenal ulcers noted since the 1970's and largely attributed to the introduction of H2 antagonists. In the developing world the clinical picture is different with a high male: female ratio (approximately 8: 1), younger age, and a strong link with cigarette smoking [3] . In addition in the developing world there is a high incidence of patients who present late and this may partly account for the high mortality (16- 20%) reported in some studies [3,6] . Helicobacter pylori is implicated in 70–92% of all perforated duodenal ulcers even if those secondary to Non-Steroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs are included [3, 12]. The second most common cause of perforated duodenal ulcer is the ingestion of Non-Steroidal Antiinflammatory drugs. The number of perforated duodenal ulcers related to Non-Steroidal Antiinflammatory drugs has increased greatly in developed countries such that 40–50% of perforated duodenal ulcers are caused by them. The least common cause is pathologic hypersecretory states, such as Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, although these should be considered in all cases of recurrent ulcer after adequate treatment [3] .
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This prospective study was conducted at the Department of Surgery, RNT medical college and MB government hospital, Udaipur.
The study included 161 consecutive patients (150 males; 11 females) with perforated prepyloric/duodenal ulcer spread over a period of 18 months who presented to us in emergency. The diagnosis was made by a combination of history, clinical examination, gas under the diaphragm on radiological scout film and emergency explorative laparotomy.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The data collected was entered into a database. Statistical processing and various calculations were performed with SPSS software (14th Version).Distribution of subjects according to their age, sex, personal history, co-morbid conditions, post operative complications, duration of stay were obtained. Relative risk was calculated by age and co-morbid illness.
RESULTS
The statistically classified and tabulated data revealed some important characteristics about the patients, the disease and the prognosis. The percentage distribution of patients according to their age and sex is shown in table 1. 150 male and 11 female cases were registered during the study period. The minimum age was 15 years and maximum age was 93 years. Maximum numbers of patients were found to be between 30-69 years. Relationship between enlisted personal habits and their association with perforation and mortality is shown in table 2. It was found that almost half of the patients (47.2%) had no previous history of alcohol, smoking, corticosteroid, NSAID or antineoplastic drug intake. Significant numbers (31.1%) of patients were found to be smokers. NSAID intake was found in only 6.8% patients. None of these personal habits was found to significantly affect the prognosis of the patient in terms of mortality. About 88.6% of the patients had no co-morbid illness associated with the problem of perforation. Polytrauma (3.8%) emerged as the major co-morbid condition associated with the problem of perforation followed by cardiovascular disease (2.5%), COPD (1.3%) and others (2.4%).112 patients (69.6%) had no post-operative complications.
The remaining 49 patients had 83 post-operative complications (Table 3) with respiratory infections 23(14.3%) and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome 21(13%) being the most common. Among these 49 patients, 25(51%) had one post-operative complication, 14(28.6%) had two complications and 10(20.4%) had 3 complications. Table 4 shows that about 22.1% of the patients had their stay in hospital below 8 days while a great majority (47.75%) had stayed for 8-10 days. Rest of all the patients had stayed for more than 10 days. The mean duration of hospital stay was 10.7 days and range being 1-57 days. Among the patients, 133 patients (82.6%) recovered completely. Significantly 21 (13.0%) patients’ died. 7 patients (4.3%) left the hospital by other means such as against medical advice (3), on request (2) or even by absconding (2). Table 5 shows distribution of deaths according to age groups and relative risks. An increasing trend of mortality was found with increasing age. The patients with age above 65 years almost had 6.2 times higher risk of dying as compared to those who are below 45 years of age. In table 6 distributions of deaths according to their comorbid illness was sought. The patients with any co-morbid illness being present, showed almost 2.6 times higher risks of dying as compared to those patients who were not having any comorbid illness.
DISCUSSION
The oldest evidence for the type of perforated peptic ulcer reported till date was in a 60 year old Chinese man who died in 167 B.C. Autopsy revealed he died of a perforated prepyloric ulcer[4].Simple closure of the ulcer using an omental patch, as popularized by Graham in 1938, is the method most widely used today[5] . Overall, perforated peptic ulcer account for 10% of all hospital admissions related to ulcer disease and occurs in 7 to 10 patients per 100,000 population per year [5]. The post surgical mortality in a case of perforated duodenal ulcer varies from 4.2%4 to 16.0% [6].As against the conventional wisdom, no seasonal variation has been observed in the incidence of peptic ulcer [7] . In the present study, majority of patients (80.1%) were between 30-69 years. A significant percentage (28.0%) of patients was from the age group of above 60 years while in general population this percentage is around 10% .The overall mean age of the patients was 47.7±15.55 (SD) years, range being 15-93 years. The mean age of the male patients was 47.4±15.54 while that of female patients was 52.4±15.68 years. There were 150 male (93.1%) and 11 female (6.9%) patients registered during the period of study. Male to female ratio was 13.6:1. Mishra et al. (2003) [8] found that mean age of presentation was 38.9 years which is quite a young population. Interestingly, this study was also conducted in India. Most of other studies that were conducted abroad report patients in the higher age group. Boey J et al. (1987) [9] reports a mean age of 51.3±17.8 years with male to female ratio being 3.6:1.Englund R et al. (1990) [10] found that median age for presentation was 70 years. Male to female ratio was 1.2:1. Evans JP et al. (1997)[11] reports a mean age of 69.7 years and male to female ratio of 1:1.07. It shows that mean age of presentation is significantly higher in the studies that were conducted in developed countries. The lower age of affliction in our country can partially be attributed to high incidence of Helicobacter pylori infection in the developing countries [12].In the developed countries Helicobacter pylori infection has been taken care of and the most common predisposing factor in these countries seems to be increased use of NSAID drugs, intake of which is common in elderly population [2, 3] . It is therefore recommended that all patients of peptic perforation apart from surgical management should receive therapy aimed at eradicating the H. pylori infection.
In our study, about half (47.2%) of the patients had no history in terms of smoking, NSAID, corticosteroid and immunosuppressive drug intake. Highest association was seen with smoking which was found in 31.1% of patients. The NSAID intake was found in only 6.8% patients. History of corticosteroid intake was only found in one patient. The personal history of above mentioned variables showed no association with the mortality among the patients. Contrary to what we found, in an epidemiological study, Langman (1989) [13] found doubling or quadrupling of the risk of peptic ulcer complications or death in NSAID users. Dayton MT et al. (1987) [14] reported that in their series of 151 patients, 17% had an association with steroid use. They also reported 85% mortality in such patients when their age was higher than 50 years. Jordan PH et al. (1995) [2] reported that death rate from perforated duodenal ulcers in older patients has increased, particularly in women older than 65 years age. Circumstantial evidence suggests that this increase is the result of increased use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. This seeming contradiction between the various studies can be explained on the basis of very low incidence of NSAID and corticosteroid intake by patients in our study group. In our study, a majority (88.6%) of patients were found not suffering from any co-morbid illness. This was because patient’s structure had a younger age bias. Due to the same reasons instead of other systemic illnesses, polytrauma (3.8%) emerged as the major category of comorbid illness. These patients were receiving NSAIDs and that may have resulted into duodenal ulcer perforations. The patients with any co-morbid illness, showed almost 2.6 times higher risk of dying as compared to those who had no co-morbid illness (P = 0.040). Similarly, Mishra et al. (2003) [8] found significant association between co-morbid illness and mortality (P = 0.0004). Boey J et al. (1982) [15] found significant association between comorbid illness and mortality (P < 0.001).Sillakivi T et al. (2000) [16] also found significant association between co-morbid illness and mortality (P < 0.001). In our study, 82.6% patients showed complete recovery after the treatment. Overall 21 patients (13.0%) died during the course of treatment, 7 patients were lost during the post-operative period. They left the hospital against medical advice (3), on request (2) and absconded (2). The mortality in our study would have been higher had these patients stayed, as all of them were terminally ill. Mortality in male patients was 12.5%. Mortality was higher (27.2%) amongst the female patients (P = 0.158; not significant). As compared to our study Mishra et al [8] reported less (10.7%) mortality. Boey J et al. (1982) [15] reported a very low (4.2%) post-operative mortality rate. Kay PH et al. (1978) [6] have reported a very high mortality of 16.0% in their series of perforated duodenal ulcers.Svanes C et al. (1989) [17] in their study reported a postsurgical lethality rate of 6.6%. They also reported a higher crude mortality rate for females which was due to the fact that the women studied were older than the men. Sillakivi T et al. (2000) [16] in their study reported 5.6% mortality in surgically treated perforated peptic ulcer. Male mortality was 3.2% and female mortality was higher at 13.7%. Female sex was not found to have an independent effect on mortality in multifactorial analysis. Higher mortality rate in them was again attributed to higher age at the time of presentation. In our study, 70% of patients reported no postoperative complications. Respiratory infection (14.3%) and MODS (13%) were the more common complications. MODS was found in 21 patients and was found to be almost uniformly fatal.
In our study, 47.75% patient had a hospital stay of 8-10 days, 22.1% patients had stayed for less than 8 days. The remaining patients had stayed for more than 10 days. The mean duration of hospital stay was 10.7±6.57 (SD) days. The range of hospital stay varied from 1-57 days. The mean duration of hospital stay in the study carried out by Mishra et al.[8] was 13.4 days (range 1-54).Boey J et al(1987)[9] found the median acute hospital stay of 4.9 days. Complications however prolonged hospitalization to a median of 14 days (range2-88).
CONCLUSION
Duodenal ulcer perforation in south Rajasthan is a disease of younger population [47.7±15.55 (SD) years] with overwhelming male preponderance [M:F::13.6:1]. The lower age of patient population is partly attributable to high incidence of H. pylori infection found in them as most of these patients hail from low socio-economic background. And therefore it is strongly recommended that anti H. pylori drug regimen form an essential part in post-operative management of such patients. Almost half of our patient population did not have history of smoking, NSAID, corticosteroid and immunosuppressive drug intake. Owing to younger age bias of study group majority (88.6%) of patients were found not suffering from any comorbid illness, but when present it increased the mortality up to 2.6 times. Overall mortality rate (13%) was on the higher side when compared to other study groups.30% patients had no postoperative complication and those who developed more than one post-operative complication had higher rate of mortality. The average duration of hospital stay was 10.7±6.57 (SD) days which was consistent with other study groups. Conflict of interest The authors report no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1544http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15441. Sanchez-Bueno F, Marin P, Rios A, Aguayo JL, Rohles R, Pinero A et al. Has the incidence of perforated peptic ulcer decreased over the last decade? Diag Surg, 2001; 18:444-8.
2. Jordan PH, Thornby J. Perforated Pyloroduodenal ulcers: Long – terms results with omental patch closure and parietal Cell Vagotomy. Ann Surg, 1995; 221(5) 479-88.
3. Hill AG. Management of perforated duodenal ulcer. In: Holzheimer RG, Mannick JA, editors. Surgical Treatment: Evidence-Based and Problem-Oriented. Munich: Zuckschwerdt; 2001. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK692 6/
4. Cheng TO. Glimpses of the past from the recently unearthed ancient corpses in china. Ann Int Med, 1984; 101:714-15.
5. Jordan PH, Morrow C. Perforated peptic ulcer. Surgical clinics of North America, 1988; 62(2): 315-29.
6. Kay PH, Moore KTH, Clark RG. The treatment of perforated duodenal ulcer. Br J Surg, 1978; 65:801-3.
7. Negre J. Seasonal periodicity of peptic ulcer: A myth LANCET, 1985; 1: 1504-5.
8. Mishra A, Sharma D, Raina VK. A simplified scoring system for peptic ulcer perforation in developing countries. Indian J Gastroeterol, 2003; 22:49-53.
9. Boey J, Choi SKY, Alagaratnam TT, Poon A. Risk stratification in perforated duodenal ulcers. Ann Surg, 1987; 2005:22-6.
10. Englund R, Fischer R. Survival following perforation of peptic ulcer. Aust NZ J Surg, 1990; 60:795-800.
11. Evans JP, Smith R. Predicting poor outcome in perforated peptic ulcer disease. Aust NZ J Surg, 1997; 67:792-5.
12. Sebastian M, Prem Chandran VP, Elashaal YIM, Sim AJW. Helicobacter pylori infection in perforated peptic ulcer disease. Br J Surg, 1995; 82:360-62.
13. Langman MJS. Epidemiologic evidence on the association between peptic ulceration and antiinflammatory drug use. Gastroenterology, 1989; 96: 640-46
14. Dayton MT, Kleckner SC, Brown DK. Peptic ulcer perforation associated with steroid use. Arch Surg, 1987; 122: 376-80.
15. Boey J, Wong J, Ong GB. A prospective study of operative risk factors in perforated duodenal ulcers. Ann Surg, 1982; 195:265-9.
16. Sillakivi T, Lang A, Tein A, Peetsalu A. Evaluation of risk factors for mortality in surgically treated perforated peptic ulcer. Hepatogastroenterology, 2000; 47:1765-8.
17. Svanes C, Salvesen H, Espehaug B, SΦreide O, Svanes K. A multifactorial analysis of factors related to lethality after treatment of perforated Gastroduodenal ulcer. Ann Surg, 1989; 209 (4): 418-23.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareDENTITION STATUS AND TREATMENT NEEDS AMONG SCHOOL GOING CHILDREN OF BIJAPUR CITY, KARNATAKA, INDIA
English118123Roopa ShahapurEnglishDental caries is the most predominant disease affecting children. It has a high degree of morbidity, which has drawn attention of various researchers. Aims: This study was done to determine the prevalence of dental caries among school going children and to assess the treatment needs of the study population. Results. A total of 650 students were studied (280 Female and 370 Male). 12 years and 15 years age group were included in the study. The prevalence of caries was 54.2%. Mean DMFT was 0.3184±1.2807 and 1.1775±1.0819 among 12years and 15years respectively there was no statistically significant difference in this. Single surface filling was most frequent treatment need observed in both age groups. Conclusion: As it was observed that a high prevalence of dental caries exists among the students a provision of oral health education in the schools along with a regular provision of school based preventive programme should be planned.
EnglishDental caries, treatment needs, school going children.INTRODUCTION
Dental caries is the most common disease affecting the oral cavity. It’s a global oral health problem which can be effectively addressed and controlled through preventive measures at the individual and community level. Prevalence of this disease is declining in the developed countries while there is a slow rise in many developing countries1 . The reduction in the prevalence of oral disease in developed countries may be due to improved oral hygiene practices, positive knowledge and attitude about etiology and prevention of dental diseases2 . In order to prevent and control the dental caries, we should know the exact nature of its occurrence and distribution in the community. The distribution of dental caries around the world has shown distinctive variations3 . Prevalence studies on dental caries in India have shown results ranging from 31.5 to 89%4-10 . Prevalence of caries in various parts of country has been reported4-10, but reports on prevalence in the northern part of Karnataka are lacking. This data is important to plan preventive measures to control dental caries hence this study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of dental caries among school going children of Bijapur, Karnataka and to assess the treatment needs of the study population.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
It was a school based cross sectional study conducted to assess the prevalence of dental caries and their treatment needs among the 12 and 15 years old school going children in Bijapur city. These age groups were selected as at the 12 years most of the deciduous teeth are replaced by permanent teeth and at 15 years of age, they are exposed to the oral environment for 3 years and hence help assess the prevalence. Bijapur is a historic city situated in the northern part of Karnataka, with a surface area of about 9700 sq km. Population (2011 census) is 3,26,360 of which 165122 are males and 161238 are females. Literacy rate is 83.43% of which male literates account to 88.92% and female literacy is 77.86%11 . List of all the schools in the city was obtained from concerned authorities, of which a total of eight schools were chosen using the lottery method. Permission was obtained from block education officer, principal/ headmaster of the school to examine the children. All the students aged 12 and 15 years belonging to 6th and 9th standards present on the day of examination were included in the study. Written informed consent was obtained from all the participants after explaining the purpose and the nature of study to them in their mother tongue. Type III clinical examination was carried out by the single calibrated examiner (kappa= 0.05) using mouth mirror and WHO probe under adequate illumination. Data was collected by using a pre tested proforma specially designed for the study. The proforma was prepared with the help of WHO oral health assessment form (1997), which included information regarding oral hygiene habits, dietary habits, frequency of consumption of sugar and consistency of sugar consumed. The data thus collected was tabulated, analysed and subjected to statistical analysis.
RESULTS
The present study was conducted among the school going children of Bijapur. A total of 650 students participated in the study. Of 650, 346 (148 female, 198male) were of 12 years of age and 304 (132 female, 172male) belonged to 15 years of age (table 1). Table 2 shows the distribution of students according to their caries status. Among students of 12 years of age caries prevalence was high among females (56.75%) while in students belonging to 15 years of age males (52.32%) suffered more frequently with caries than females highly significant association was found in this (?2 =5.995, p0.005).
DISCUSSION
This study provides information on dental caries prevalence and treatment needs among 12 and 15 years old school going children of Bijapur, Karnataka, India. The prevalence rate of caries in this study was 54.2%, which is similar to caries prevalence reported (53.8%) in National Oral Health survey of India12. Similar studies were done to assess prevalence of dental caries in different parts of India. In muncipal Karnataka13 it was reported 59.60%, 46.77% in Belgaum city14 , 82.5% in Manglore15, 54.3% in Kerala16, 80% in Chennai city17, 30.1% in Sikkim18, and in Urban Delhi19 it was 52.3%. These wide variations might have been because of differences in various factors like socioeconomic status, oral hygiene practices, availability and utilization of dental care by the study subjects, their knowledge and attitude towards oral health and different age groups studied by the different authors. Higher rate of caries (64.36%) was observed in among 12 years age group as compared to 15 years age group (44.08%) this difference was statistically significant. The difference observed can be attributed to the fact that the deciduous carious teeth i,e first and second deciduous molars get replaced by premolars bringing down the value of D component. This was in agreement with findings of Shivanjali Grover and Anuradha P20 and Dash et al21 while studies of Chawla HS22 , Bajomo AS23, Bjarnason S24 showed higher caries rates among 15 years age group subjects. The probable variation may be because of differences in the methods of oral hygiene maintenance and Dietary habits. We observed higher rate of caries among girls (56.75%) than males (51.51%) in students belonging to 12 years age group. These findings are contrary to the findings of Shivanjali Grover and Anuradha P20. Early eruption rates may be responsible for higher rate of caries in girls. In students belonging to 15 years of age higher rate of caries was seen among males (52.32%) than females (41.66%) these are in agreement with findings of Shivanjali Grover and Anuradha P20 . there may be social or emotional causes related to such findings (Shanti Ghosh)25 . Maximum no i,e 26.15% required single surface fillings followed by two or more surface fillings (8.15%). The figures indicate burden of the disease and unmet treatment needs. These findings are in concurrence with findings of Rodrigues and Damle26 , Dash J K et al21. The most common cause of this type of fillings in this age is pits and fissures. Preventive measures like pit and fissure sealants should be employed to reduce burden of this type of caries. In the present study the students belonged to both public as well as the private schools hence differing in socioeconomic strata. The socioeconomic conditions definitely influence the health care seeking behavior as well as seeking care for preventive purposes.
CONCLUSION
The present study suggests the burden of unmet treatment needs among children. The evaluation of the treatment need revealed that the greatest need was for one surface filling followed by two or more surface fillings. It clearly indicates the need for special attention by government and professionals to meet the oral health needs. Preventive and curative oral health services should be made integral to other health programs.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST: Nil
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also greatful to authors/ editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1545http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15451. 1. Buischi Y. A, P, Axelsson, Oliveira L B, Mayer M P A and Gjermo P. Effect of two preventive programs on oral health knowledge and habits among Brazilian school children. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1994; 22:41-6.
2. Peterson P E, Danila I and Samoila A. Oral health behavior Knowledge and attitudes of children, mothers and school teachers in Romania in 1993. Acta Odontal Scand 1995;53:363-68.
3. Baelum V, van Palenstein Helderman W, Hugoson A, Yee R, Fejerskov O. A global perspective on changes in the burden of caries and periodontitis: implications in dentistry. J Oral Rehabil 2007; 34:872-906.
4. Shourie KL. Dental caries in Indian children. Ind J Medical Res 1941;29:709-21.
5. Damle SC, Patel AR. Caries prevalence and treatment need amongst children of Dharavi, Bombay, India. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1994;22:62-3.
6. Antia FE. The dental caries experience of school going children in the City of Bombay. J Indian Dent Assoc 1962;39:325.
7. Tewari A, Chawla HS. Study of prevalence of dental caries in an urban area of India (Chandigarh). J Indian Dent Assoc 1977;49:231-9.
8. Dash JK, Sahoo PK, Bhuyan SK, Sahoo SK. Prevalence of dental caries and treatment needs among children of Cuttack (Orissa). J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2002;20:139-43.
9. Dhar V, Jain A, Van Dyke TE, Kohli A. Prevalence of dental caries and treatment needs in the school-going children of rural areas in Udaipur district. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2007;25:119-21.
10. Saravanan S, Kalyani V, Vijayarani MP, Jayakodi P, Felix J, Arunmozhi P, et al. Caries prevalence and treatment needs of rural school children in Chidambaram Taluk, Tamil Nadu, South India. Indian J Dent Res 2008;19:186-90.
11. www.census2011.co.in/census/city/432.bijap ur, accessed on 17-10-2012 6.30 pm. 12.
12..http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency /article/001055.htm.
13. Goel P, Sequeria P and Peter S. Prevalence of Dental disease amongst 5-6 and 12-13 year old school children of Puttur Municipality, Karnataka State - India. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2000;18:11-17.
14. Hegde PP, Ashok Kumar B R, Ankola V A, Dental caries experience and salivary levels of streptococcus mutans and lactobacilli in 13- 15yearsears old children of Belgaum city, Karnataka. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent march 2005; 23-6.
15. Sudha P, Bhasin S and Anegundi R T, Prevalence of dental caries among 5-3 year old children of Manglore city. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2005; 23:74-9.
16. Jose J, Joseph MR. Prevalence of dental health problems among school going children in rural Kerala. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2003; 24:3:147-151.
17. Mahesh Kumar P, Joseph T, Varma R.B. Jayanthi M. oral health status of 5 years and 12 years school going children in Chennai city- an epidemiological study J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2005;23:17-22.
18. K P Mandal, A B Tewari, H S Chawla and K D Gauba. Prevalence and severity of dental caries and treatment needs among the population in the eastern States of India J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2001;19:85-91.
19. Harpreet Grewal, Mahesh Verma, Ashok Kumar. Prevalence of dental caries and treatment needs amongst the school children of three educational zones of urban Delhi, India. Ind J Dent Res 2011;22:517-9.
20. Shivanjali Grover, Anuradha P. Prevalence and treatment needs of dental caries among 12 and15 years old school going children in Lucknow city. JIAPHD2011;18:105-11.
21. JK Dash, PK Sahoo, Bhuyan SK and Sahoo SK. Prevalence of dental caries and treatment needs among children of Cuttack (Orissa). J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2002;20:4:139- 43.
22. Chawla H S, Gauba K Goel A. Trend of dental caries in children of Chandigarh over the last 16 years. J Ind Soc Pedod Prev dent 2000;18: 41-45.
23. Bajomo A S, Rudolph M J, Ogunbodede E O. Dental caries in 6,12 and 15 years old Venda children in south Africa. East Afr Med J.2004;81:236-243.
24. Bjarnason S, Koch G, Dental health in Icelandic urban children aged 11 and 12 years. Comm. Dent Oral Epidemiol 1987;16:31-36.
25. Shanti Ghosh. Discrimination begins at birth. Indian Pediatri 1986;23:9-15. 26. Rodrigues JSL, Damle S G. Prevalence of dental caries and treatment need in 12-15 years old municipal school children of Mumbai. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 1998;16:31-6.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15HealthcareRANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL OF SINGLE VERSUS THREE DOSES OF CEFAZOLIN AS PROPHYLAXIS FOR NONPERFORATED ACUTE APPENDICITIS
English124130Sheik AbdullahEnglish Rajan VaithianathanEnglish Kannan RajendiranEnglish Ramachandran SanthanamEnglishBackground: The most common and significant cause for morbidity following emergency appendicectomy is surgical wound infection. There are conflicting reports regarding the optimal duration of antibiotic prophylaxis in nonperforated appendicitis. The efficacy of prolonged prophylactic antibiotic treatment in preventing wound infection for nonperforated appendicitis is poorly defined. Objective: A prospective randomized study was carried out to compare the efficacy of single dose cefazolin with three doses of cefazolin in reducing the incidence of postoperative wound infection for patients with nonperforated acute appendicitis. Methods: One hundred patients with a clinical diagnosis of appendicitis were randomized into two groups. Group 1 received single intravenous dose of 1gm cefazolin at induction of anaesthesia and group 2 received two further doses of cefazolin following surgery. Postoperative wound infection was the primary endpoint. Results: The two groups were similar with regard to demographic data, pathologic condition of the appendix and duration of hospital stay. The postoperative wound infection rate was not significantly different among the two groups, 11% in group 1 and 9% group 2 (p =0.986). Conclusions: Single-dose cefazolin is equally effective to multiple-dose cefazolin in preventing postoperative wound infection in patients undergoing open appendicectomy for nonperforated acute appendicitis. However, because of the greater convenience and economic implications, single pre-operative dose of cefazolin is the choice of prophylaxis for nonperforated appendicitis.
Englishacute appendicitis, antibiotic, single dose, nonperforatedINTRODUCTION
Appendicectomy is one of the most common emergency surgical procedures with a postoperative wound infection rate of 1-10%1-4 . Wound infection following open appendicectomy is a major cause for post-operative morbidity, prolonged hospitalization and increased costs. The pathologic state of the appendix is the most important determinant of postoperative wound infection following appendicectomy5, 6. The incidence of wound infection in patients with complicated appendicitis (perforated or gangrenous appendix) is nearly four to five times greater than that of nonperforated cases. The efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis in reducing wound infection in patients undergoing open appendicectomy is well established. Many randomized and observational studies have shown that appropriate use of antibiotics reduces the risk of infection by 40–60%4, 7-10 . Based on prospective clinical studies, guidelines have been established regarding the choice of prophylactic antibiotics, it’s timing and route of administration for emergency appendicetomy11. However, the duration of antibiotic usage remains a contentious issue and there is no definite consensus among the surgical community12, 13 . Single dose antibiotic prophylaxis has been recommended for majority of elective general surgical procedures14. In reality, this practice is not universally accepted and multiple dose regimens are still in use at many centres. In the emergency setting, though postoperative antibiotics are universally used for perforated appendicitis, no consensus exists regarding the efficacy of postoperative antibiotics in preventing surgical site infections in nonperforated cases. The main purpose of our study was to compare the efficacy of single dose of cefazolin with multiple doses of cefazolin in reducing the rate of wound infection in nonperforated appendicitis.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A randomized prospective study of 100 patients with a clinical diagnosis of acute appendicitis presenting to the Emergency Department of Mahatma Gandhi Medical College was carried out over a period of two years. Before performing an emergency open appendicectomy, the patients were randomized into two groups by opening a sealed envelope containing details of the prophylactic antibiotic regimen to be used. Group 1 received single dose of cefazolin 1gm i.v. at time of induction of anaesthesia. In group 2, two further doses of cefazolin were given intravenously at 8 hours and 16 hours from the time of index surgery. Appendicectomy was carried out in all the patients by the standard protocol of open surgical technique. The surgical wound was closed in layers.
Exclusion criteria:
1.Gangrenous or perforated appendix
2. Abscess found at time of surgery
3. Allergic to cephalosporins
4. Prior antibiotic treatment
During the post-operative period, the progress of the surgical wound was monitored on a daily basis for all the patients included in the study. Wound infection was graded using the Southampton scoring system15.
Wound healing was taken as normal for grades 0, 1 and 2. Infection of the wound was categorised as minimal for grade 3 and as major for grades 4 and 5. Patients who developed major infection were treated appropriately with daily wound irrigation and antibiotics based on culture reports. Informed consent was obtained from all the patients and the study was carried out with prior clearance from the ethical committee.
Study parameters:
Demographic data –age and sex
Final histopathological report of the appendix
Grade of wound infection
Length of hospital stay
Statistical Method - Comparison of proportions by ‘CHI Square’ test.
RESULTS
In our study, 100 patients were included with a diagnosis of acute appendicitis and randomized to two groups, with fifty patients in each group. The age group varied from 15 to 55 years in both groups, with a mean age of 28.2 years in group 1 and 29.1 years in group 2 (p=0.147) , as shown in table 1 and fig 1. The male to female ratio was 1.63 and 1.94 in group 1 and group 2 respectively (p=0.676) as shown in table 2 and fig 2. The histopathological examination of the removed appendix revealed features of acute inflammation in 44(88%) patients in group 1 and 45(90%) in group 2. Six patients in group 1 and 5 from group 2 were excluded from the study in view of the presence of perforation, gangrenous or normal appendix (table 3 and fig 3). In the postoperative period, the surgical wounds were examined and graded using the Southampton scoring system. Normal wound healing was observed in 34(77%) patients in group 1 and 37(82%) in the other group. Minimal wound infection which resolved spontaneously was present in 5 out of 44 patients (11%) in group 1 and 4 of 45 (9%) patients belonging to group 2. Discharge of pus (grade 4) was observed in 5(11%) patients in group 1 and 4(9%) in group 2. No patients in either group developed grade 5 wound infection. Using Chi square test for analysis, the incidence pattern and the grade of wound infections in both the study groups were found statistically not significant(p=0.986), table 4 and fig 4. The mean hospital stays of the single-dose and three-dose groups were 4.6 days and 5.2 days. The median duration of stay was 5 days in both groups. There was no significant difference in length of hospital stay between the two groups.
DISCUSSION
Usage of appropriate antibiotics is well known to control wound infection rates following open appendicectomy for uncomplicated acute appendicitis. While antibiotic prophylaxis is common in surgical procedures16, inappropriate use of antibiotics occurs in 25–50% of general elective surgeries17-21. A Cochrane systematic review found that antibiotic use in patients having uncomplicated appendicitis was superior to placebo in reducing the rates of postoperative complications but concluded that no recommendations can be made regarding the duration of antibiotic use. At the same time, in patients with severe form of appendicitis, it has advised to continue a comprehensive antibiotic regime, as the risk of infective complications is quite high in this group1 . The choice of antibiotic for prophylaxis varies widely in different centres and even among the different surgical units attached to the same Institute. The American Society of Health System Pharmacists (ASHP) recommends cephalosporins as drug of choice for prophylaxis for nonperforated appendicitis and gentamicin with metronidazole only in cases of penicillin allergy22, 23. The major controversy lies in the optimum duration of prophylaxis in cases of acute nonperforated appendicitis. Many studies have shown that single preoperative dose of antibiotic is as effective as multiple postoperative doses in preventing wound complications following appendicectomy24-26 . A randomized control study by Mui et al have shown that single dose of preoperative antibiotic is adequate for prevention of infective complications of the wound in patients undergoing surgery for uncomplicated appendicitis. Their conclusion was that the prolonged antibiotic administration was cost-ineffective and led to unnecessary complications27 . In our study, we have used a more objective method to assess the progress of the surgical wounds by correlating with the Southampton scoring system. There was no significant difference (p=0.986) between wound infection rates of the single-dose group (11%) and the threedose group (9%). These findings are in full agreement to the similar studies in the literature24- 27 . Moreover, comparing the incidence of wound infection across all the grades in both the groups by using the Chi-square test has shown no significant difference between the two groups(p=0.986). Cefazolin was chosen in our study as it was readily available, cheaper and has very good antibacterial spectrum for pathogens causing post appendicectomy sepsis. This choice of antibiotic is in line with the recommendations given by the ASHP22. We also found from our study that there was no significant difference in the length of the hospital stay between the two groups. The median duration of stay in both groups was 5 days. Many studies have highlighted and repeatedly emphasised the effects of improper choice and inappropriately prolonged duration of prophylactic antibiotics on the rising emergence of antimicrobial resistance among the common pathogens28-33. Coakley et al, in a recent study, have consistently proven that postoperative antibiotic treatment for nonperforated appendicitis did not reduce infectious complications. In fact, their study showed significantly increased rate of adverse effects like Clostridium difficile infection, diarrhea, longer length of hospital stay and higher treatment cost. Patients receiving postoperative antibiotics were also more frequently readmitted and reoperated34 . A possible benefit that can be derived from our study is that by using a single preoperative dose, the surgeon can be certain of having given an effective prophylaxis at induction of anaesthesia without the need to monitor further postoperative doses. Moreover, avoiding further intravenous doses of antibiotics may lead to savings in terms of nursing effort, time and the cost of treatment.
CONCLUSION
It is evident that prophylactic postoperative doses of cefazolin confer no additional benefit over a single preoperative dose of cefazolin. With additional benefits of the greater ease of administration and decreased cost, single-dose cefazolin is the prophylaxis of choice for appendicectomy in patients with nonperforated appendicitis. It is essential for surgeons and surgical departments to update their routine practice of antibiotic prophylaxis to comply with updated guidelines and evidence base.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are citied and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/ editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been review and discussed. The authors also thank all the residents and staff in the Department of Surgery, Dean and Vice Chancellor of Mahatma Gandhi Medical College and Research Institute for their support throughout the study period, without which this study would not have been possible.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1546http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15461. Andersen BR, Kallehave FL, Andersen HK. Antibiotics versus placebo for prevention of postoperative infection after appendicectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 3:CD001439.
2. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am J Infect Control 2004; 32:470-85.
3. Hale DA, Molloy M, Pearl RH, Schutt DC, Jaques DP. Appendectomy: a contemporary appraisal. Ann Surg 1997; 225:252-61.
4. Koch A, Zippel R, Marusch F, Schmidt U, Gastinger I, Lippert H: Prospective multicenter study of antibiotic prophylaxis in operative treatment of appendicitis. Dig Surg 2000; 17:370-78.
5. Bennion RS, Thompson JE, Baron EJ et al. Gangrenous and perforated appendicitis with peritonitis: treatment and bacteriology. Clin Ther 1990; 12 Suppl C:31-44.
6. Browder W, Smith JW et al. Nonperforative appendicitis: a continuing surgical dilemma. J Infect Dis 1989; 159:1088-94.
7. Lau WY, Fan ST, Chu KW, Suen HC, Yiu TF, Wong KK. Randomized, prospective, and double-blind trial of new betalactams in the treatment of appendicitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985; 28:639-42.
8. Nguyen BL, Raynor S, Thompson JS. Selective versus routine antibiotic use in acute appendicitis. Am Surg 1992; 58:280-83.
9. Tonz M, Schmid P, Kaiser G. Antibiotic prophylaxis for appendectomy in children: critical appraisal. World J Surg 2000; 24:995- 98.
10. al Dhohayan A, al Sebayl M, Shibl A, al Eshalwy S, Kattan K, al Saleh M. Comparative study of augmentin versus metronidazole/gentamicin in the prevention of infections after appendicectomy. Eur Surg Res 1993; 25:60-64.
11. Antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery. Med Lett Drugs Ther 1999; 41:75-80.
12. Danziger L, Hassan E. Antimicrobial prophylaxis of gastrointestinal surgical procedures and treatment of intra-abdominal infections. Drug Iniell Clin Pharm 1987; 21:406-16.
13. Fry DE. Antibiotics in surgery. An overview. Amj Surg 1988; 155(5A):11-5.
14. Malcolm Mcdonald, Elizabeth Grabsch, Caroline Marshall, Andrew Forbes. SingleVersus Multiple–Dose Antimicrobial Prophylaxis For Major Surgery. A Systematic Review. ANZ J Surg 1998; 68:388–95. 15.
15.Bailey SI, Karran SE, Toyn K et al. Community surveillance of complications after hernia surgery. Brit Med J 1992; 304:469-71.
16. Dellinger EP, Gross PA, Barrett TL, Krause PJ, Martone WJ,McGowan JE Jr, Sweet RL, Wenzel RP. Quality standard for antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgical procedures. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 18:422-27.
17. Gyssens IC, Geerligs IE, Nannini-Bergman MG, Knape JT, Hekster YA,van der Meer JW. Optimizing the timing of antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery: an intervention study. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 38:301-8.
18. Silver A, Eichorn A, Kral J, Pickett G, Barie P, Pryor V, Dearie MB. Timeliness and use of antibiotic prophylaxis in selected inpatient surgical procedures. The Antibiotic Prophylaxis Study Group. Am J Surg 1996; 171:548-52.
19. Bedouch P, Labarere J, Chirpaz E, Allenet B, Lepape A, Fourny M, Pavese P, Girardet P, Merloz P, Saragaglia D, Calop J, Francois P. Compliance with guidelines on antibiotic prophylaxis in total hip replacement surgery: results of a retrospective study of 416 patients in a teaching hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004; 25:302-7.
20. Pons-Busom M, Aguas-Compaired M, Delas J, Eguileor-Partearroyo B. Compliance with local guidelines for antibiotic prophylaxis in surgery. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004; 25:308-12.
21. Dahms RA, Johnson EM, Statz CL, Lee JT, Dunn DL, Beilman GJ. Third-generation cephalosporins and vancomycin as risk factors for postoperative vancomycinresistant enterococcus infection. Arch Surg 1998; 133:1343-46.
22. ASHP Therapeutic Guidelines on Antimicrobial Prophylaxis in Surgery. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1999; 56:1839-88.
23. Mangram AJ, Horan TC, Pearson ML, Silver LC, Jarvis WR. Guideline for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection, 1999. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Am J Infect Control 1999; 27:97- 132.
24. Liberman MA, Greason KL, Frame S, Ragland JJ. Single dose cefotetan or cefoxitin versus multiple dose cefoxitin as prophylaxis in patients undergoing appendectomy for acute nonperforated appendicitis. J Am Coll Surg 1995;180:77-80
25. Le D, Rusin W, Hill B, Langell J. Postoperative antibiotic use in nonperforated appendicitis. Am J Surg 2009; 198:748-52.
26. Tsang TM, Tam PK, Saing H.Antibiotic prophylaxis in acute nonperforated appendicitis in children: single dose of metronidazole and gentamicin. J R Coll Surg Edinb 1992; 37:110-2.
27. L.M. Mui, E.K.W. Ng,D.W.H. Lee, Y.H. Lam et al. A Prospective Randomized Trial To Compare One Dose Preoperative, ThreeDose Perioperative And 5-Day Full Course Antibiotics For Nonperforated Acute Appendicitis. Ann College Surg Hong Kong 2000; 5:19–20.
28. Paterson DL, Rossi F, Baquero F, Hsueh PR, Woods GL, SatishchandranV, Snyder TA, Harvey CM, Teppler H, Dinubile MJ, Chow JW. In vitro susceptibilities of aerobic and facultative Gram-negative bacilli isolated from patients with intra-abdominal infections worldwide: the 2003 Study for Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance Trends (SMART). J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 55:965-73.
29. Kusum M, Wongwanich S, Dhiraputra C, Pongpech P, Naenna P. Occurrence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae in a University Hospital, Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai 2004; 87:1029-33.
30. Girlich D, Naas T, Leelaporn A, Poirel L, Fennewald M, Nordmann P. Nosocomial spread of the integron-located veb-1-like cassette encoding an extended-spectrum betalactamase in Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Thailand. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34:603-11.
31. Girlich D, Poirel L, Leelaporn A, Karim A, Tribuddharat C, Fennewald M, Nordmann P. Molecular epidemiology of the integronlocated VEB-1 extended-spectrum beta-lactamase in nosocomial enterobacterial isolates in Bangkok, Thailand. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39:175-182.
32. Biedenbach DJ, Johnson DM, Jones RN. In vitro evaluation of cefepime and other broadspectrum beta-lactams in eight medical centers in Thailand. The Thailand Antimicrobial Resistance Study Group. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999; 35:325-31.
33. Teng LJ, Hsueh PR, Tsai JC, Liaw SJ, Ho SW, Luh KT. High incidence of cefoxitin and clindamycin resistance among anaerobes in Taiwan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46:2908-13.
34. Coakley BA, Sussman ES, Wolfson TS, Bhagavath AS, Choi JJ, Ranasinghe NE, Lynn ET, Divino CM. Postoperative antibiotics correlate with worse outcomes after appendectomy for nonperforated appendicitis. J Am Coll Surg 2011; 213:778- 83.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15TechnologyPERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT OF PAN
English131141Samiksha NikamEnglish B.T. JadhavEnglishPerformance evaluation of computer system and network is an essential task. It helps to determine how the system is performing and weather any upgrading are needed to improve the performance. To measure the performance of system three techniques are used i.e. empirical measurement, analytical and simulation technique. Once a system has been built and is running its performance can be evaluated using the empirical measurement techniques. During design and development phase analytical or simulation techniques are used. Result Tool have been design and developed as a case study for this study. Developed Result tool is used for result sheet and mark sheet preparation with various report required at University level and College level. As Result tool is already developed, we used empirical measurement method which consists of three steps i.e. Selection of performance parameters, choice of measurement tool and design of experiment. Design and Development of result tool and empirical measurement technique explained in this paper. Appropriate network and Result tool performance parameters were selected and set with performance tool. Performance was measured using windows XP’s built in performance tool.
Experimental setups
were implemented to execute Result tool in PAN. We found performance of PAN is considerable. Developed tool is user friendly and does not create any additional load in the system.
EnglishNetwork Performance, PAN, Windows Performance Tool, Result tool, Network BandwidthINTRODUCTION
Bluetooth network is low cost, low power wireless communication technology. It uses a fast frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and operates in the unlicensed Industrial ScientificMedical (ISM) band at 2.4 GHz [16]. A personal area network consists of mater slave model. Master slave model provides simplicity for connection. However communication always takes place between slave and master. Slave to slave direct communication is not possible. Two slaves can communicate to each other through master. This adds extra data bit for master to carry out communication. Before data transmission starts connection has to be established between the devices. Bluetooth has the advantage of a standardized way of obtaining the MAC address of new nodes in an ad hoc fashion by using the INQUIRY procedure [16]. The basic structure for communication in a Bluetooth network is the piconet. A piconet contains one master node and up to 7 active slave nodes [2][4]. All transmissions among Bluetooth devices in the same piconet are supervised by the master node operating over a channel-hopping sequence generated from the master’s Bluetooth device address at a rate of 1,600 hops per second [16]. A result tool was developed for college and university exam. Tool was initially tested on standalone machine. We found that the scalability of developed tool is considerable. Resources like processor, memory and hard disk were not used up to optimum level. But as data size is going to increase resources will be used optimally [21]. A variety of simulation tools like Ns-2, Netsim, OPENET are available for the purpose of modulation and simulation but the choice of simulator depends upon the features available and requirement of application [18]. As developed result tool is tested in PAN environment. We used windows XP’s built in performance tool to evaluate the performance. It helps to check various components of computer system and stores output as (text, HTML, excel) data and display information in different ways. It is capable to monitor servers, workstations, and network. Windows XP’s built in performance tool is the cost effective solution to measure network performance.
SYSTEM DEVELOPED
System development life cycle (SDLC) is a process used during the development of any system. SDLC consists of four main phases: analysis, design, implement and testing. During analysis phase, context diagram and data flow diagrams are used to produce the process model of a system. In system development life cycle (SDLC), a system model can be developed by using Data Flow Diagram (DFD). DFD is graphical diagrams for specifying, constructing and visualizing the system. DFD is used in defining the requirements in a graphical view [3], [20]. DFD’s are easily understands by technical and nontechnical users. It shows the flow of data from external entities into the system, showed how the data moved from one process to another, as well as its logical storage. In data flow diagram, the highest-level view of the system is known as context diagram [10], [19]. It is common practice for a designer to draw the context level DFD first, which shows the interaction between the system and external agents which act as data sources and data sinks. Components of a System Context Diagram are shown in Figure 1.1 Context Diagram represents entities such as,
University
Clerk
Principal
Student
Exam Department
Teacher
These entities interact with result system. Entities on the left hand side supply information to the system and after processing that information result is send to specific entities mentioned on the right hand side. It represents highest level view of the system [3]. The context diagram shows the entire result system as a single process, and gives no clues as to its internal organization. The purpose of a result system context diagram is to focus attention on external factors and events that should be considered in developing a complete set of system requirements and constraints. System context diagram can be further expanded to detailed designing of result tool.
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION METHODOLOGY
Performance can be evaluated using the empirical measurement, analytical modelling and simulation techniques. Once a system has been built and is running its performance can be evaluated using the empirical measurement techniques. During design and development phase it is necessary to use analytical or simulation technique [2, 5, 15]. As result tool is already developed we used empirical measurement method. This method consists of following steps:
1. Decide parameters to measure.
2. Choice of measurement tool.
3. Design of measurement experiment.
Performance measurement metrics classification and selection
Network Performance Parameters
Network performance measurement parameters (NPM’s) mean the basic metric for performance. We categories these parameters into four groups [1,8]. ? Availability ? Utilization ? Loss ? Delay Availability of network means connectivity and functionality of network. It evaluates robustness of the network, i.e. percentage of time network running without failure. Specific network element can be observed like link or node to observed amount of time they running without failure. Loss is fraction of packet loss during transition from source to destination within specific time interval. Loss is expressed in percentage. It indicate congestion, transmission error and device malfunctioning. Delay metrics indicate responsiveness of the network. It can be measure as one way delay, roundtrip time and jitter. Utilization metric measure capacity of communication link i.e. amount data can be pass through network in unit time [1, 4, 8].
Result Too Performance Parameters
There are two important dimensions to software performance timeliness; Responsiveness and Scalability. Responsiveness is ability of software to meet its objective for response time or throughput .The response time is the number of events processed in some interval of time. Scalability is the ability of software to continue to meet its response time or throughput objective as the demand for the software function increases [11, 25,27]. The scopes of performance include responsiveness and scalability [21]. In software engineering, performance testing is testing that is performed to determine how fast some aspect of a system performs under a particular workload. It can also serve to validate and verify other quality attributes of the system such as scalability, reliability and resource usage [14, 15, 21,23]. Resource sharing is very common in computer system. Resources are any physical or logical entity that software needs for its execution [25]. Processor, memory and hard disk are the three basic components which affect the performance of a computer system [21]. Developed Result tool’s response time or throughput is considerable. Hence here we concentrate on scalability and resource usage parameters to measure performance of Result Tool. Three major components which affect scalability and resource usage capacity of computer system are Speed and Power of its processor, how much memory that it has, and the performance of its disk subsystem [21].
Measurement Tool
To evaluate performance of PAN following counters were selected. Parameter Availability was not considered for measuring performance. Since tool had to be tested in PAN environment; it was assumed that the network was always available for the user. We had created a counter log file which contained counters shown in Table1 . During experiment counter log file stored performance data at the specified interval for defined counters.
Counter used
1. Current Bandwidth: It is an estimate of the current bandwidth of the network interface in bits per second (BPS). For interfaces that do not vary in bandwidth or for those where no accurate estimation can be made, this value is the nominal bandwidth [25].
2. Packets Received/sec: It is the rate at which packets are received on the network interface [25].
3. Packets Sent/sec: It is the rate at which packets are sent on the network interface [25].
4. Output Queue Length: It is the length of the output packet queue (in packets). If this is longer than two, there are delays and the bottleneck found [25].
5. Available Memory: It is the amount of physical memory available to processes running on the computer, in bytes [25].
6. Pages/ Sec: It is the rate at which pages are read from or written to disk to resolve hard page faults [25].
7. Available Disk Queue Length: It is the average number of both read and writes requests that were queued for the selected disk during the sample interval [25].
8. % Processor Time: It is the percentage of elapsed time that the processor spends to execute a non-Idle thread [25]. Experimental setup Experiments had been carried out in Personal area Network. Experimental setup is shown in fig. 2. Bluetooth USB Dongles V2.0 & V1.2 compliant were used to form Bluetooth network. In Bluetooth network any machine could be master or slave. Communication always takes place between any two machines where one is master and other is slave. During experiment computer with specification Intel Core™2 CPU4400 @2.00 GHz, 1GB of RAM, operating system windows 2003 were treated as master. Computers with specification Intel Core™2 CPU4400 @2.00 GHz, 500 MB of RAM, operating system windows XP were treated as slave. Client copy of developed result tool was installed on slave machine. Various transactions like data fetch and store were performed by users. All transaction were handled through Master Machine database. Counters specified in table 1 were set with Master and slave machine’s performance tool. Various operations like subject registration, exam registration, student registration etc. were performed by users. Throughout the experiment data was collected simultaneously in counter log files .Log file can be manually on or off. Performance data was stored at the location C:/PertLogs. Collected performance data was exported to the Excel file with procedure as shown in figure 3.
Experimental data collection
During experiment counter log file was stored values for network performance at the interval of five second for defined counters. We recorded sixty observations spans for 300 sec duration. Sample readings are shown in Table 2. Experimental performance data for PAN is shown in Table 2. Experimental Performance data for Result tool is shown in Table 3. Counter log file stored data for measuring performance of the tool at the interval of 15 second for defined counters. We recorded data for 300 sec duration.
Performance analysis
Performance analysis of the result tool is divided into three basic steps:
1) Data Collection
2) Data Transformation
3) Data visualization
Data was collected in log file during execution of the result tool for a specified counter shown in Table 1. Log file can be manually on or off. Performance data was stored at the location C:/PertLogs. Collected performance data was exported to the Excel file. Data transformation techniques were used to reduce size of experimental data. For Data visualization Microsoft Excel built in graph tool was used. Experimental performance data is presented in graphical format against sampled interval or time.
Performance Analysis of PAN
Bandwidth specifies data transfer capacity of a network. Throughout the experiments Bandwidth available was 1MB as shown in fig 4. In Bluetooth network before transferring data connection has to be established between master and slave. In other words we can say that data transmission in Bluetooth network is connection oriented. Hence there are very less chances of data delays and losses. We noted from output Queue Length counters values that for all transitions packet queue contains no packet waiting for transmission, hence there are no delays and the traffic jam found while using tool in Bluetooth area network. Fig 5 and fig 6 depicts graphical representation of packet sent and received in a piconet.
Performance Analysis of Result Tool
We selected parameters scalability and Resource usage to measure performance of Result Tool. Graphical representation of fig 7 shows memory available to execute other applications is about 150 MB. Graphical Representation of fig 8 shows pages transfer through main memory while performing various operations with Result Tool. We noted that no heavy pages (data) transfer during the operation. Fig 9 shows Average Disk Queue counter value is less than 0.7. Hence it is noted that no significant transition through hard disk. From graphical representation of fig 10 we illustrate that processor consumption is approximately 4-5%.
CONCLUSION
Developed Result Tool is executed in Personal area Network. Performance of network is considerable. Only two computers can communicate at a time and no packets in waiting queue hence very less chances of delay and data loss. Bluetooth are identified for low power consumption as Processor consumption is only 4- 5%. This is an added advantage compared with other networks.Performance of the Developed Result tool is considerable in Personal area Network. No heavy data transfer through memory and hard disk drive. Sufficient memory is available for other applications to execute. The developed result tool is user friendly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in the reference of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journal and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1547http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15471. Andres Hanemann, Athanassios Liakopoulos, Maurizio Molina,D.Martin Swany, “A Study On Network Performance Metrics and their Composition” http://marco.uminho.pt/~dias/MIECOM/GR/ Projs/P4/TNC_Metric_Comp_FWork-fullv4.pdf
2. Andrew S. Tanenbaum – Computer Networks – Fourth Edition; PHI 2008.
3. Awad Elias M. -Structured System Analysis and Design – Second edition: Galgotia
4. Behrouz A Forouzan – Data Communications and Networking – Fourth Edition; TataMcGraw- Hill.2006.
5. Claus Pahl,Marko Boskovic, Wilhem Hasselbring “Model Driven Performance Evaluation for Service Engineesing”. ceurws.org/Vol-313/paper11.pdf
6. Craig Zacker. – Networking The Complete Reference – Fourteenth rprint; TataMcGrawHill.2001.
7. David D. CLARK member IEEE,proceedings of The IEEE,vol 66,No 11,Nov 1978
8. Hyo –Jin Lee, Myung- Sup Kim and James W.Hong,Gil – Haeng Lee,” Qos Parameters and Network Performance Metric Mapping for SLA Monitoring. http://www.knom.or.kr/knomreview/v5n2/4.pdf
9. Ibrahim K. El-Far and James A. Whittaker,” Model-based Software Testing”, Encyclopedia on Software Engineering (edited by J.J.Marciniak), Wiley, 2001.
10. Jalani Atif A.A, Usman Mohammad , Nadeem Amer,”Comparative Study on DFD to UML Designs Transformations”, world of computer science and information technology,ISSN 2221-0741,vol 1,No 1,10- 16,2011
11. Jiantao Pan,”Software Reliability” Spring 1999.
12. K.S.R Anjareyuly., John.R. Anderson,”The advantage of Data Flow Diagrams for Beginning Programming”, [2008].Paper 19 http://repository.cmu.edu/psychology/
13. Manish Jain, Constantinos Dovrolis,” End to End Available Bandwidth:Measurment Methodology, Dynamics and Relation with TCP Throughput”, In proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM, pages 19-23 ,August 2002.
14. Mohd. Ehmer Khan,” Different Forms of Software Testing Techniques for Finding Errors”, IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science ISSN (Online): 1694- 0784ISSN (Print): 1694-0814, Vol. 7, Issue 3, No 1, May 2010.
15. Omer Nauman Mirza,”Software Performance Evaluation using UML-PSI “,Master Thesis, IT University of Goteborg,2007.
16. P. Johansson, 1 R. Kapoor, 1 M. Kazantzidis, 1 and M. Gerla1,” Personal Area Networks: Bluetooth or IEEE 802.11?”, International Journal of Wireless Information Networks, Vol. 9, No. 2, April 2002 (© 2002).
17. Savan K. Patel, Hiral R. Patel, Ravi S. Patel,”Bluetooth Usage with Architecture View and Security Measures”, International Journal of P2P Network Trends and Technology,volume 1 issue3 ,ISSN 2249- 2615,2011
18. Rahul Malhotra, Vikas Gupta,Dr. R.K.Bansal, “simulation and performance analysis of wired and wireless computer networks”, International Journal of Computer Application(0975-8887),volume 14-no7,Feb 2011.
19. Rosziati Ibrahim, Siow Yen Yen,” An Automatic Tool for Checking Consistency between Data Flow Diagrams DFDs)”, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 69, 2010.
20. Rosziati Ibrahim and Siow Yen Yen,” Formalization of the data flow diagran rules for consistency check”, International Journal of Software Engineering & Applications (IJSEA), Vol.1, No.4, October 2010.
21. Samiksha Nikam, B.T. Jadhav ,”Design and development of result tool for college & university exam and it’s performance study,International journal on computer science and engineering,volume 3 issue 11,2011,pg 2269-2276.
22. Thesis “Network Monitoring and Diagnosis Based on Available Bandwidth Measurement” ,Ningning Hu,CMU-CS -06- 122 ,May 2006, School of computer science computer science department, Carnegie Mellon University , Pittsburgh,PA 15213
23. Thomas Thelin,”Automated Statistical Testing Suite for Software Validation”
24. V.Babka, P. Tuma,”Effect of Memort Sharing on Contemporary Processor Architecture”, MEMICS’07, Znojmo, Czech Republic, 2007.
25. V. Babka. ,“Resource Sharing in QPN-based Performance Models “, WDS’08 Proceedings of Contributed Papers, Part I,202-207,2008
26. Walter Glenn, Tony Northrup Installing, Configuring and administering Microsoft WINDOWSXP PROFESSIONAL – self paced training kit 2005 edition,
27. Xiang Gan,”software Performance Testing”,Seminar Paper ,University of Helsinki,26-9-2006
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15TechnologyFLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM SCHEDULING BY USING A GENETIC ALGORITHAM
English142151Dittakavi TarunEnglish Annamareddy SrikanthEnglish Medikondu Nageswara RaoEnglishThe paper is addresses the how genetic algorithms (GA's) can be applied to scheduling jobs for simple manufacturing shop models, this paper shows how they can be used to schedule jobs for some of the more complex standard models. The simplicity of the methods presented, and the use of proprietary spreadsheet software and GA 'add-in' to implement them, support the conjecture that GA's can provide a highly flexible and user-friendly solution to the general shop scheduling problem.
EnglishGenetic Algoritham, Spreadsheet softwareINTRODUCTION
Since the late 1980s there has been a growing interest in genetic algorithms (GA's) - optimization algorithms based on the principles of natural (Darwinian) evolution. As they are based on evolutionary learning they come under the heading of Artificial Intelligence. They have been used widely for parameter optimization, classification and learning in a wide range of applications. More recently, production scheduling has emerged as an application. In particular, such applications have started to appear in this journal (Jain and Elmaraghy 1997) (Lee, Piramuthu and Tsai 1997). Whilst it is well documented how GA's can be applied to simple job sequencing problems, this paper shows how they can be implemented to sequence jobs/operations for manufacturing shops with precedence constraints among manufacturing tasks, alternative routings (machines), sequence dependent set-up times and scheduled machine downtime. The methods presented are very simple and easy to implement and therefore support the conjecture that GA's can provide a highly flexible and user-friendly solution to the general shop scheduling problem. The work presented here is carried out using standard spreadsheet software and an 'add-in' to provide the basic GA. The use of this proprietary software demonstrates how simple it is to implement the GA approach to schedule optimization - very little software skill is required. Spreadsheets are used widely in manufacturing industry and they are particularly suitable for production scheduling because they store and manipulate data in tables.
The Sequence Optimisation GA
Detailed introductions to GA's are given by Goldberg (1989) and Davis (1991). The flowchart for the particular GA used here is given in Figure 1. First, an initial population of randomly generated sequences of the tasks in the schedule is created. These individual schedules form 'chromosomes' which are to be subjected to a form of Darwinian evolution. The size of the population is user-defined and the fitness of each individual schedule in the population is calculated according to a user-defined fitness function such as: total makespan; mean tardiness; maximum tardiness; number of tardy jobs. The schedules are then ranked according to the value of their fitness function.
Once an initial population has been formed, 'selection', 'crossover' and 'mutation' operations are repeatedly performed until the fittest member of the evolving population converges to an optimal fitness value. Alternatively, the GA may run for a user defined number of iterations. The 'selection' process consists of selecting a pair of parents from the current population using a rank-based mechanism to control the probability of selection. These parents then mate to produce a child by applying (in this particular implementation) the 'uniform order-based' crossover operator (Davis 1991). This is based on using a randomly generated bit string (zero-one) template to determine for each parent which genes are carried forward into their child. The operator is explained by the example in Figure 2
Here, the bit string template contains a one at positions {2, 3, 5, and 6}. The genes (jobs) in these positions in parent-1 are carried straight across into the child. The template contains zeros at positions {1, 4, 7, and 8}. In these positions parent-1 has genes {1, 4, 7, and 8}. These genes are copied into the child in the same order as they appear in parent-2 {8, 4, 7, and 1}. The proportion of the jobs in the child coming from the first parent is defined by the crossover rate which has a value between 0 and 1. Following crossover, the resultant child may be mutated. The particular mutation operation used here is 'order-based' mutation. In this operation two jobs change positions in the chromosome. The probability that a job is mutated is defined by the user defined mutation rate which lies in the range 0 to 1. The purpose of mutation is to ensure that diversity is maintained within the population. It gives random movement about the search space thus preventing the GA becoming trapped in 'blind corners' or 'local optima'. Finally, the new 'child' schedule replaces the weakest (least fit) schedule in the current pool or 'population' of schedules. A population size of 50, a crossover rate of 0.65 and a mutation rate of 0.006 are used in the experiments presented here.
Why use GA's for Shop Scheduling?
It is a characteristic of the schedule optimization process that once fairly good solutions have been formed their features will be carried forward into better solutions and lead ultimately to optimal solutions. It is in the nature of the GA that new solutions are formed from the features of known good solutions. Therefore, it follows that GA's are particularly attractive for scheduling. Compared with other optimization methods, GA's are suitable for traversing large search spaces since they can do this relatively rapidly and because the mutation operator diverts the method away from local minima, which will tend to become more common as the search space increases in size. Being suitable for large search spaces is a useful advantage when dealing with schedules of increasing size since the solution space will grow very rapidly, especially when this is compounded by such features as alternative machines/routes. It is important that these large search spaces are traversed as rapidly as possible to enable the practical and useful implementation of automated schedule optimization. If, the optimization is done quickly then production managers can try out 'what-if' scenarios and detailed sensitivity analysis as well as being able to react to 'crises' as soon as possible. For a simple n jobs and m machines schedule the upper bound on the number of solutions is (n!)m. Without n and m being very large this value soon becomes massive, e.g. for 20 jobs and 5 machines the value is 8.52x1091. Traditional approaches to schedule optimization such as mathematical programming and 'branch and bound' are computationally very slow in such a massive search space.
Example 1: A Flow Shop
Table 1 gives the job data for this example and the objective is to minimize the makespan for the schedule. When the GA is applied to this example the best sequence is 3-6-4-7-2-8-1-5 which yields a makespan of 584 units of time. The result of applying the 'network scheduling technique' to this example was recently reported and the best sequence found was 3-6-4-7-8-2-1-5 which produces a makespan of 595 units of time (Akpan 1996). This was also the best result reported when using a heuristic method (Campbell, Smith and Dudek 1970).
Precedence Constraints
The normal sequence optimizing GA will rearrange freely the jobs in a schedule. However, in most production scheduling situations there will be precedence constraints on the order of operations within a particular job. For example, holes must be drilled before they are tapped. To implement such constraints, a precedence table is introduced as in Table 2 for the example considered in the next section. This table shows that, for example, task 5 must be done before tasks 6 and 7. When the GA creates a child the precedence table is checked. If any precedence constraints are broken then tasks which must be performed earlier in the sequence are moved up the schedule.
Example 2: Alternative Machines
There may be a choice of machines that can be used for a particular operation as illustrated in Table 3.
In this example operation 2 for job A can be performed on machine 1 or 3, operation 2 for job B on machine 1 or 2, and so on. Table 4 presents the same information in the form of a 20 joboperation sequence. Note: five of these operations {tasks 3, 7, 13, 15, 19} will not in fact be performed. They are present in the table solely for the purpose of making the alternatives available to future generations. The first occurrence of a duplicated operation is taken to be an 'actual' occurrence that must be included in the calculation of the fitness function while subsequent occurrences are ignored. However, all occurrences are included in the crossover and mutation operations. Using integer programming, Jiang and Hsiao (1994) produce two optimized schedules for this example - one to minimize the total absolute deviation from the due dates and one to minimize the total finishing times of the individual jobs. They show that the minimum total absolute deviation is four time units and the minimum total finishing time is ten time units. The GA produced the same results. Figures 3 and 4 show the schedules generated to optimize the two fitness functions.
Table 5 illustrates how the GA presents the optimal solution for the minimum total finishing times schedule. As explained before, this is a sequence of 20 operations including 5 duplicated operations that are to be ignored
Example 3: Sequence Dependent Set-up Times
Inter-operation set-up times may depend on the type of operation that has just been completed, as well as on the type of operation to be performed. In such situations it is not valid to absorb the setup time for a job into its processing time. To accommodate sequence dependent set-up times, look-up tables containing the times are introduced. Then, fitness functions such as total makespan (lead-time) can be calculated for a schedule by combining process times with the appropriate setup times in the look-up table. Table 6 presents an example schedule with the corresponding sequence dependent set-up times being given in Tables 7 to 9.
The smallest total makespan found by the GA is 45 time units with the task sequence {1,7,8,9,4,5,10,11,12,2,3,6}. Again, it is a relatively simple matter to implement the fitness function required to enable the GA to optimize this schedule. Example 4: Scheduled Machine Downtime Scheduled machine downtime may be requested for preventive or reactive maintenance. In the model considered here, the downtime must be inserted into the production schedule according to the following two rules. i. If there is no production scheduled for a machine at the start of a requested downtime, then the downtime is allocated as requested. Any production scheduled to start during the downtime is moved to the end of the downtime. ii. If production is already scheduled at the start time of the requested downtime, then the downtime is moved to the end of this operation. Other rules may be used as desired. The important principle being demonstrated here is how these rules are applied with the GA. Consider, the 3-job, 4-machine job shop example in Table 8 taken from Pinedo (1995).
The best makespan found by Pinedo for this example is 28. He uses disjunctive graphs and proves that this solution is optimal. The GA finds the same solution but with a different sequence of operations. The Gantt charts for the two solutions are given in Figure 5.
This increases the makespan to 55 time units. Rerunning the GA to optimize this schedule, the makespan is reduced to 51 as shown in Figure 7.
CONCLUSION
The adaptation of a GA to schedule jobs in manufacturing shops with precedence constraints among tasks, alternative routeings, sequence dependent set-up times and scheduled machine downtime has been demonstrated. The simplicity of the methods used supports the conjecture that GA's can provide a highly flexible and userfriendly solution to the general shop scheduling problem. The use of proprietary spreadsheet software and a proprietary 'add-in' to implement the GA has shown how simple it is to implement this approach to scheduling.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1548http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15481. Campbell H. G., Smith M. L., Dudek R. A., 1970, A heuristic algorithm for the N jobs, machine sequencing problem, Management Science, 16, B630-B637.
2. Goldberg D. E., 1989, Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimisation and Machine Learning, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
3. Davis L., 1991, Handbook of Genetic Algorithms, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
4. Jiang J. and Hsiao W., 1994, Mathematical Programming for the Scheduling Problem with Alternative Process Plans in FMS, Computers & Industrial. Engineering, 27, 15-18.
5. Pinedo, M., 1995, Scheduling: Theory, Algorithms and Systems, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
6. Akpan, E. O. P., 1996, Job-shop sequencing problems via network scheduling technique, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 16, 76-86.
7. Lee C.-Y., Piramuthu S. and Tsai Y. -K., 1997, Job shop scheduling with a genetic algorithm and machine learning, International Journal of Production Research, 35, 1171-1191.
8. Jain A. K., Elmaraghy H.A., 1997, Production scheduling/rescheduling in flexible manufacturing, International Journal of Production Research, 35, 281-309.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-5241423EnglishN2012December15TechnologyINFLUENCE OF IRREGULARITY AND INITIAL STRESS ON LOVE WAVES IN INHOMOGENEOUS ANISOTROPIC POROUS LAYER
English152161Rajneesh KakarEnglish Shikha KakarEnglishThe influence of irregularity, initial stress and porosity on the propagation of Love waves in an inhomogeneous crustal layer over an inhomogeneous half space has been discussed. The irregularity has been taken in the half-space in the form of a parabola. It is observed that Love waves propagate in this assumed medium. The dispersion equation of phase velocity has been derived. It has been found that the phase velocity of Love waves is considerably influenced by porosity and anisotropy of the porous layer, inhomogeneity of the half-space and prestressing present in the media, the layer and the half-space. The effect of the medium characteristics on the propagation of Love waves has been analyised and results of numerical calculations have been presented graphically.
EnglishIrregularity, Love Waves, Anisotropic, Initial StressINTRODUCTION
The study of wave propagation in elastic medium with different irregularities is of great importance to seismologists as well as to geophysicists to understand and pre- dict the seismic behavior at the different margins of earth. The earth has a layered structure, and this exerts a significant influence on the propagation of elastic waves. The simplest cases of influence exerted on the propagation of seismic waves by a single plane boundary which separates two half-spaces with different properties, and by two parallel plane boundaries forming a layer. Earth is being treated as an elastic body in which three types of waves can occur. 1. Dilatational and equivoluminal waves in the interior of the earth. 2. In the neighbourhood of its surface known as Rayleigh waves [1] 3. Third type of waves occur near the surface of contact of two layers of the earth known as Love waves [2] The Rayleigh waves are observed far from the disturbance source near the surface. Since the energy carried by these waves is concentrated over the surface, its dissipation is slower than the dilatational and equivoluminal waves where, the energy is dissipated over the volume of the disturbed region. Therefore, during earth quakes for an observer remote from the source of disturbance, the Rayleigh waves represent the greatest danger. In the case of Love waves, the energy is concentrated near the interface; hence they are dissipated more slowly. In the problem of propagation of Love type seismic waves in inhomogeneous isotropic media of finite depth lying over a infinite half space, it is shown that the distortional wave velocity in the layer is greater than that in the semi infinite half space. The basic literature on the propagation of elastic waves is the monograph written by Ewing et al.[3]. Vrettos [4] and Kennett and Tkal?cic′[5] gave much information on the effect of heterogeneity in the study of surface waves vibration due to line-load. The propagation of Love waves in an in homogeneous layer is of considerable importance in earth quakes engineering and seismology on account of occurrence of inhomogeneities in the crust of the earth as the earth is supposed to be made up of different layers. This problem has been studied by Anderson [6], Biot [7], Scholte [8], and Sinha [9] by considering different models of a layer changing either density or rigidity and established the presence of Love waves in each case. Chattopadhyay et al. [10] employed Ghosh method to study Love waves excited by a source in a layer overlying inhomogeneous half-space. Sinah [11] also considered this problem for variable rigidity in the layer by reducing it to a Bessel’s equation. The analysis, however, in this case becomes a little complicated. Also Gogna [12], Chadwick [13], Zhang [14] also studied the propagation of Love waves through nonhomogeneous media. By the virtue of Biot’s theory, many researchers studied surface waves Love and Rayleigh types, in an inhomogeneous media. Dey and Mahto Dey et al. [15] studied the effect of presence of rigid boundary on the propagation of Love waves in a sandwiched medium. The naturally occurring medium is often porous and liquid filled. The size of pores is assumed to be small and, macroscopically speaking, their average distribution is uniform. The role of pore-water in seismology has been emphasized in many studies. The diffusion of water and readjustment of fluid pressure has been in vague as a triggering mechanism for earthquakes. The present paper discusses the possibility of existence of Love wavse in an initially stressed anisotropic poro-elastic layer over a semi-infinite heterogeneous half space with linearly varying rigidity and density due to irregularity at the interface. The irregularity has been taken in the half- space in the form of a parabola. It is observed that Love waves propagate in this assumed medium. Irregularity and initial stress play an important role in the seismic wave propagation. This paper has been framed out to show the effect of irregularity at the interface in the parabolic form and initial stress on the propagation of Love waves. The presence of initial compressive stress reduces the velocity of Love waves. The numerical values of the phase velocity have been calculated using the values of material constants given by Biot [7] from experiments.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
I. The fluid inside the pores could be viscous. But in order to keep the analysis simple here, the material is assumed to be non-dissipative liquid filled porous solid; for instance, the water saturated rocks or grains.
II. The porous medium is assumed to have kinetic isotropy, but elastic anisotropy of Weiskopf type; the viscosity of water is neglected.
III. For upper layer μ =μ0 (regidity) and p = p0 (density) IV. The inhomogeneity in the half-space has been assumed to be of the form μ= μ1(1 + mz ), p=p1 (1 +nz )
where, m and n are constants having dimensions that are inverse of length, ρ density and μ rigidity vary with space variable z, which is orthogonal to the xaxis i.e. direction of wave propagation.
V. It is assumed that the irregularity is of the form of a parabola with span of length 2 l and depth h. assuming the origin of the Cartesian co-ordinate system at the middle point of the interface irregularity and the z-axis downward positive.
VI. The equation of irregularity has been taken as,
FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
Consider a water saturated porous layer of thickness H with anisotropy of the Weiskopf type under the compressive initial stress along the direction of x over a non-homogeneous elastic half space under the compressive initial stress as shown in Fig.1 The wave is assumed to propagate along the x-direction. Neglecting the viscosity of water, the dynamic equations of motion in the porous layer under the compressive initial stress in the absence of body forces, can be written as;
where, ? ij ( i,j 1,2,3.....), the incremental stress components, x y z u v w = the components of the displacement vector of the solid, U V W x y z = the components of the displacement vector of the liquid, ? ij = the stress vector due to the liquid.
where, ?1 x , ?1 x y and ?1 z are the components of the rotational component ? The dynamic Eq. (1) has been constructed by coupling the Biot’s dynamic equations in initially stressed medium and dynamic equations for a poroelastic medium.
b) Figure 3 gives a variation of velocity of Love waves for the variation of 1 ? the curve confirm that as the initial stress parameter increases, the velocity decreases.
c) Figure 4 gives a variation of velocity of Love waves for the variation of porosity. The curve confirms that as the porosity increases, the velocity decreases.
d) In Figure 5 the effect of tensile initial stresses ( 0) ?? in the half-space, in the absence of initial stresses in the porous layer, is shown. The curves show that the tensile initial stresses in the half-space increase the velocity of Love waves remarkably at low frequency; for compressive initial stresses in the halfspace, the Love waves do not propagate.
CONCLUSIONS
The effect of irregularity and the initial stresses are very prominent on the propagation of Love waves. The presence of initial compressive stress reduces the velocity of Love waves.As the porosity of the layer increases, the phase velocity of Love wave increases. As the anisotropy increases, the velocity of Love waves in the porous medium decreases. An increase in compressive initial stresses in the porous layer decreases the velocity of Love waves.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors convey their sincere thanks to DIPS Polytechnic College, for facilitating us with best facility. The authors are also thankful to the referees for their valuable comments
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1549http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15491. Rayleigh, L. 1885. Waves propagated along the plane surface of an Elastic solid, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., 4-11.
2. Love, A.E.H., (1911), “Some problems of geodynamics”, Combridge university press.
3. Ewing, W. M., Jardetzky, W. S., and Press, F., (1957), “Elastic Waves in Layered Media, McGraw-Hill”, New York
4. Vrettos, C. 1990 In plane vibrations of soil deposits with variable shear modulus, Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech, 14: 209–222.
5. Kennett, B. L. N. and Tkal?cic′, H. 2008. Dynamic Earth: crustal and mantle heterogeneity. Aust. J. Earth Sci., 55: 265– 279
6. Anderson, D.L. 1962. Love waves dispersion in heterogeneous anisotropic media. Geophysics, 1: 445-454.
7. Biot, M.A. 1956. Theory of elastic waves in fluid-saturated porous solid. J.Aconst. Soc. Am., 2: 168-178.
8. Staneley, R. 1924. Elastic waves at the surface of separation of two solids. Proc. Ray. Soc. Lond., 416-428.
9. Scholte, J.G.J. 1961. Propagation of love waves in inhomogeneous media. Geophys. Prosp., 87-116.
10. Chattopadhyay, A. ,Gupta, S., Singh, A. K and Sahu, S. A. 2010. Propagation of SH Waves in an irregular non homogeneous monoclinic crustal layer over a Semi-Infinite Monoclinic Medium Applied Mathematical Sciences, 4(44): 2157 – 2170
11. Sinha. N.K. 1966. Propagation of Love-waves in a non-homogeneous stratum of finite depth sand-witched between two semi-infinite isotropic media. PAGEOPH, 37-42.
12. Gogna, M.L., 1976. “Love waves in heterogeneous layered media”, Geophysc. J.R. Astr. Soc., pp 357-370.
13. Chadwick. P. 1993. The wave propagation in compressible transversely isotropic media. Proc. Roy. Irish. Acad. Sect. A, 93: 231-253.
14. Zhang, Z.M. 1998. Propagation of Love waves in transversely isotropic fluid saturated porous layered half space. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 1: 695-701.
15. Dey, S. and Mahto, P. 1992. The effect of presence of rigid boundary in propagation of Love waves in sandwitched medium. Proceedings of Indian National Science Academy, 58, pp. 63-68.
16. Wilson, J.T. 1942. Surface waves in a heterogeneous medium. Bull. Seismo. Soc. Am., 1: 297-304.