Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22General SciencesASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN HARWAN AREA OF SRINAGAR DISTRICT (J&K), USING LICHENS AS BIO-INDICATORS
English0106Asma HussanEnglish G. A. BhatEnglish Mukhtar Ahmad SheikhEnglishThe present study deals with the monitoring of lichens in a sub-urban area, Harwan, free from any direct polluting source was done with the aim that how air quality of area can be assessed using lichens as indicator and establishing the fact that how cleaner environment supports better diversity and density of lichens. The variety and variability data on Lichen species was collected and correlated with the air analysis data that was obtained using High volume Air Sampler. Analysis of air quality in the air was based on determining fraction of SPM (Suspended Particulate Matter), RSPM (Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter), NRSPM (Non-Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter), SO2 (Sulphur dioxide) and NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide) on seasonal basis i.e spring, summer and winter season on six (6) hourly basis. Quadrats of 25cm x 25 cm size, three on each tree, were laid from base to chest height for recording the data on frequency, density and abundance of lichens growing on the selected trees. Chlorophyll analysis, pH of host trees and water holding capacity was determined The study revealed the occurrence of 14 species of lichens belonging to 11 genera and 5 families. The air quality parameters were generally found within permissible limits with slight variation in different seasons. The data on the quantitative parameters i.e frequency, density and abundance of lichen species showed good values. Analysis of data further revealed that chlorophyll content of species is quite good in the area. The present communication thus serves as baseline record regarding the level of various pollutants including particulate matter and the number of lichen species for conducting biomonitoring studies in future.
EnglishLichens, Biomonitoring, Environmental Quality, Harwan, Kashmir.INTRODUCTION
Lichens comprise a unique group of plant that consists of two unrelated organism, a fungus and an alga, growing together in a close symbiotic association. Lichens, being widespread, perennial, stable, long living organisms and more sensitive species than rest of the plants are nowadays increasingly used as terrestrial biomonitors and bioindicators of air pollution worldwide. They together with mosses form dominant organisms in ecosystem covering over 10% of the earth terrestrial habitats, particularly at higher elevations (Nash and Egan, 1988). Lichens are bio-indicators of air pollution and can be used to test the ecological impacts of emissions from different sources of sources of pollution (Showman, 1975; Will-Wolf, 1980 and Murphy et al. 1999). Lichen diversity is an excellent indicator of pollution by phytotoxic gaseous substances and respond relatively fast to deterioration in air quality, due to lack of cuticle, lichen absorbs both gases and dissolved substances through their surface (Roa and de Blanc, 1965). Lichens with specific biological structures are known as the best bioindicator organisms of air pollution, due to susceptibility of species to pollutants, especially sulphur dioxide (Saxena et al. 2007). Lichens have sensitivity, both physiological and ecological, to pollutants and therefore have been employed almost exclusively to monitor the extent or spread of air pollution particularly SO2 (Gries et al., 1997). Being both physiologically and ecologically sensitive to pollutants these are exclusively employed to monitor the air quality of the area. Lichen diversity is an excellent indicator of pollution and responds fast to deterioration in air quality. Environmental quality assessment using bioindicators approach offers some convincing advantages compared to direct analysis. The use of lichens as biomonitoring studies have gained increased acceptance in recent years. Lichen characters measured for air quality studies include morphological, physiological and population characteristics. Not only this but lichen biodiversity counts can be taken as estimates of environmental quality, with high values corresponding to good situations and low values indicating poor quality (Asta et al., 2002).Therefore a survey of lichen community in the area may provide us insight into the existing air quality in the area. Lichen exploration in the state initiated more exhaustively in fifties of the last century. Awasthi and Singh (1970) published a note on lichens of Jammu and Kashmir. Recently Negi and Upreti (2000); Sheikh et al. (2006 a and b, 2009); Charak et al. (2009) and Sheikh (2009) have worked on lichens and their phytosociological aspects from the different regions of the state. However, not much has been done on the biomonotiring aspect of the lichens except for Charak et al. (2009). The present study was under taken in Harwan area, with geographical coordinates of 34º 09' 34º 8" N latitude 74º 54' 08º 2" E longitude at an elevation of 1669 meters in Srinagar district of Jammu and Kashmir known for topographic position and weather patterns favoring lichen growth .The site is under Prunus persica, Poplus alba and Rubinia pseudocacia plantation with scattered Pear trees and was apparently not under receipt of any pollution from any direct source.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
To assess the air quality of area, High volume Air Sampler was used .Analysis of air quality in the air was based on determining fraction of SPM, RSPM, NRSPM, SO2 and NOx on seasonal basis i.e spring , summer and winter season on six (6) hourly basis. The result of air sampling was related to diversity of lichen flora in the area which was in turn determined by collecting lichens from the entire available substratum in the area. Quadrats of 25cm x 25 cm size, three on each tree, were laid from base to chest height for recording the data on frequency, density and abundance of lichens growing on the selected trees. The specimens were identified by studying the morphology, anatomy and chemistry. The recent literature of Awasthi (1988, 1991, 2000 and 2007), Divakar (2001) and Nayaka (2004) was consulted for identification of the lichen taxa. Thin layer chromatography was performed by the methods of Culberson (1972), Walker and James (1980) for lichen substances. Floristic analysis involved carrying out chlorophyll analysis of some lichen species by Arnon, s method. pH of host trees was determined by using digital pH meter. Similarly water holding capacity was determined by Billing and Drew (1938) method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The study revealed the occurrence of 14 species of lichens belonging to 11 genera and 5 families (Table 1). We found only two growth forms of lichens, namely crustose and foliose; fructicose lichens were not found in the study. The air quality parameters SPM, RSPM, NRSPM, SO2 and NO2 all were generally found within permissible limits with slight variation in different seasons that could be attributed to different weather phenomenon. Pollution free, dense and diverse tree species and stream flowing sideways in the area enables the surrounding area to have slightly higher water vapour content as such provides more shady, moist and humid climate which acts as a boon for lichen growth and thus this area shows lichen diversity amounting to total of 14 species. The lichens equally preferred tree substratum represented by 7 corticolous species i,e i.e Candelaria sp., Melanelia sp , Parmelia sp., Physcia sp. and Punctelia sp and rock substratum, represented by 6 saxicoluos species i.e. Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale, Lecanora muralis var. muralis (schreber) Rabenh., Phaeophyscia orbicularis (Necker) Moberg., Physconia distorta (With.) Laundon., Xanthoparmelia sp., and Xanthoria elegans (Link) Th. Fr., while as one species Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr., shared both the habitats. Analysis of the table reveals all the quantitative parameters i.e frequency, density and abundance of species, all showed good values. Smith et al. (1993) also reported that by estimating lichen cover, the lichen can be used as bioindicator studies. Analysis of data further revealed that chlorophyll content of species is good is quite good in the area and there seems no apparent damage in them which indicates good air quality in the area (also supported by air analysis data).Variation in bark properties can also be reason for such rich diversity and density of lichen species in the area as is quite evident from pH analysis and water holding capacity of the host trees. These findings though region specific can be extrapolated for periodic monitoring of the lichen communities in relation to ongoing changes of the local land use.
CONCLUSION
Thus it was clear from the study, that the occurrence of 14 lichen species along with higher values for other ecological parameters can be attributed to better environmental conditions available that provide feasible conditions for diverse lichen growth and survival. The present communication thus serves as baseline record regarding the level of various pollutants including particulate matter and the number of lichen species for conducting biomonitoring studies in future
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the Head, Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir for providing necessary laboratory facilities. Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1487http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=14871. Asta J, Ehardt W, Ferretti M, Fornasier F, Kirschbaum U, Nimis PL, Purvis OW, Pirintsos SA, Scheidegger C, Van Haluwyn C, Wirth V. Mapping lichen diversity as an indicator of environmental quality. In: Nimis PL, Scheidegger C, Wolseley P, editors. Monitoring with Lichens- Monitoring Lichens. NATO Science Series, Kluwer; 2002. p. 273-279.
2. Awasthi DD, Singh KP. A note on lichens of Kashmir. Curr Sci 1970; 39 : 441-442.
3. Awasthi DD. A key to Microlichens of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Biblioth. Lichenolog 1991; 40:1-337.
4. Awasthi DD. A key to Macrolichens of India and Nepal. J Hattori Bot Lab 1998; 65: 207- 302.
5. Awasthi DD. Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India; 2000.
6. Awasthi DD. A Compendium of the Macrolichens from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India; 2007.
7. Billing WD, Drew WB. Amer Midl Natur 1938;20:302-330.
8. Charak S, Sheikh MA, Raina AK, Upreti DK. Ecological impact of coal mines on lichens: A case study at Mogla coal mines Kalakote (Rajouri), J and K. J Appl Nat Sci 2009;1(1): 24-26.
9. Culberson. Improved conditions and new data for the identification of lichen products by a standardized thin layer chromatographic method. Journal of chromatography 1972;72:113-125.
10. Divakar PK. Revisionary studies on the lichen genus Parmelia sensu Lato in India. Ph.D. Thesis, Lucknow, University Lucknow, India; 2001.
11. Gries C, Sanz MJ, Romagni JG, Goldsmith S, Kuhn U, Kesselmeier J, Nash TH. The uptake of gaseous sulfur dioxide by nongelatinous lichens. New Phytologist 1997; 35:595-602.
12. Murphy KJ, Alpert P, Cosentino D. Local impact of a rural coal burning generating station on lichen abundance in a New England. Environmental pollution 1999; 105:349-354.
13. Nash TH, Egan RS. The biodiversity of lichens and bryophytes. In: Nash TH, Wirth V, editors. Lichen, Bryophytes and air quality. Bibl Carmer in der Gebr Borntra Verlag Berlin, Stuttgart. Lichenol.1988; 30: 11-22.
14. Nayaka S. Revisionary studies on the lichen genus Lecanora sensu Lato in India. Ph.D. Thesis, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University Faizabad, India; 2004.
15. Negi HR, Upreti DK. Species diversity and relative abundance in lichens in Rumbuk Catchment of Hemis National Park in Ladakh. Curr Sci 2000;78(9):1105-1112.
16. Rao, de Blanc. Effect of SO2 on the lichen algae, with special references to chlorophyll. The Bryologist 1965; 69(1):69-74.
17. Saxena S, Upreti DK, Neeta S. Heavy metal accumulation in lichens growing in north side of Lucknow city, India. J Environ Biol 2007; 28: 49-51.
18. Sheikh MA. Taxonomic and ecological studies on lichens of some major forest sites of Jammu and Kashmir. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Jammu, Jammu, India; 2009.
19. Sheikh, MA, Upreti DK, Raina AK. An enumeration of lichens from three districts of Jammu and Kashmir, India. J Appl Biosci, 2006a; 32(2): 189-191.
20. Sheikh, MA, Upreti DK, Raina AK. Lichens diversity in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Geophytology 2006a; 36(1and2): 69-85.
21. Sheikh, MA, Upreti DK, Raina AK. Lichen flora of Surinsar-Mansar Wildlife Sanctuary, Jammu and Kashmir. J Appl Nat Sci 2009; 79- 81.
22. Showman RE. Lichen recolonization in the upper Ohio River Valley. Bryologist 1990; 93: 427-428.
23. Smith C, Geiser L, Mc Cune B, Ryan B, Showman R. Species and communities. In: Huckaby LS editor.Lichens in Bioindicators of air quality, Chicago, Fort Collins, 1993. p.41-66.
24. Walker FJ, James PW.A revised guide to the microchemical technique for the identification of lichen products. Bull Brit Lich Soc. 1980; 46: 13-29.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22General SciencesWATER VAPOR ATTENUATION STUDIES FOR KA AND V BAND FREQUENCIES OVER A TROPICAL REGION
English0716G.Venkata ChalapathiEnglish S. EswaraiahEnglish S. Vijaya Bhaskara RaoEnglish N. Prabhakara RaoEnglishThe recent communication satellite systems tend to employ higher frequency (18-60 GHz) bands to satisfy the growing capacity requirements. Such wide bandwidths are valuable in supporting applications such as high speed data transmission and video distribution. The attenuation of Satellite signals due to water vapor absorption is very essential for high frequency (>10GHz) satellite communication. Using the formulae referred in Recommendations ITU-R, P.676-5, predictions of specific attenuation and path attenuation due to water vapor absorption are calculated and presented and also compared with the water vapor attenuation estimated from Radiosonde data collected from the India Meteorological Department (IMD), for the first time over tropics. The important findings of the current study includes the observation of slant path attenuation value, which is high for frequencies like 20 GHz, 24 GHz, 26 GHz, 47 GHz and () low for frequencies 18 GHz, 16 GHz, 14 GHz, and 12 GHz etc. It is also observed that for low elevation angles the slant path attenuation is maximum and its value decreases with the increase of elevation angle. For the 1200 GMT similar results are obtained indicating that there is significant diurnal change in the observed attenuation.
EnglishSatellite communications, Water Vapor, Attenuation, Communication Satellites, High Frequency bands.INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, new and challenging satellite applications evolved, leading to spectral blocking of the conventional frequency bands allocated for satellite services, they are L, S and C bands operated 1/2 GHz, 2/4 GHz, and 4/6 GHz respectively. At present the recent developments in the space technology, intended for production of VSAT/USAT (Very/Ultra Small Aperture Terminals) systems primarily for data applications, the direct-to-home (DTH) services by Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) systems and also to non- geo-stationary (NGSO) orbit constellations. These are all belonging to the Fixed Satellite Service (FSS), and gradually tend to employ higher frequency bands to satisfy the increasing capacity requirements. Hence the recent satellite systems are operating at Ku (12/14 GHz), Ka (20/30 GHz) and V (40/50 GHz) band frequencies. The wave spectrum at 12-60 GHz is of increasing interest to both service providers and systems designers due to because of the wide bandwidths available for carrying communications at this frequency range. Such wide bandwidths are highly valuable in high speed data transmission and video distribution. In the absence of rain, cloud and atmospheric gases can play an important role in signal attenuation; hence their effects must be assessed in order to determine their impact on satellite communications (César Amaya, 2002). But, higher frequencies (Beyond 10 GHz) giving rise to signal fading due to physical phenomena related to the propagation of radio waves through the atmosphere (Crane, 2003) and hence the higher frequencies at Ka and V band are more vulnerable to propagation effects such as oxygen and water vapor absorption for both fixed and mobile satellite communications. Rain is typically the main cause of attenuation on most propagation paths at frequencies above about 10 GHz and it increases significantly as frequency increases from Ka to the EHF band (30-300 GHz). However, attenuation by clouds and atmospheric gases (oxygen and water vapor) also assumes generally greater significance with increasing frequency, and their persistent effects influence satellite communication systems. Throughout the globe the slant-path attenuation due to atmosphere gases and water vapor has been investigated (Althusher et al, (1978); Asoka Dissanayake et al, (2001); César Amaya (2002); Carlos Catalán et al, (2002); Kifah Al-Ansari and Awadallah Salama (2005); Mandeep and Hassan (2008)) by using different instruments and methods. Studies on attenuation over tropical region are sparse. Uppalet al. (1979) reported water vapor attenuation with passive radiometer operating on 22.235 GHz , Karmakar et al. (2001) using dual frequency microwave radiometers operating at 22.235 and 31.4 GHz and Sarkar et al.(1998;2005) for a frequency range of 1-350GHz at elevation angles 3 and 10 degrees. The studies reported are very limited especially in tropics. There is a need to take up large number of measurements to validate the existing ITU-R models. In the present paper an attempt is made to develop a systematic procedure for the estimation of water vapor attenuation and estimate probability of occurrence of attenuation for different elevation angles and for different frequencies over a tropical region. The procedure involved is very accurate line by line estimation of water vapor attenuation using the radiosonde data. Satellite observations were used for validation.The procedure of estimating water vapor attenuation, the results and discussions are presented in following sub sections.
DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY
Absorption is a function of temperature, pressure and humidity. Therefore, it is necessary that these meteorological parameters be determined along the propagation path in order to calculate the gaseous attenuation for any geographical location. Radiosonde data, over Chennai, were obtained twice daily (at 0500 and 1700 h IST) from the IMD for 5 years (2000-2004). From these available data we computed the attenuation of Satellite signals due to water vapor absorption, using the formulas referred in Recommendations ITU-R, P.676-5(2001). The detailed procedure is given in Appendix-A.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Variability in slant path attenuation using radiosonde data For the present work we analyzed the radiosonde data collected from the India Meteorological Department (IMD), over a period of 5 years (2000-2004). We individually analyzed both the data sets of morning radiosonde ascent starting at 00:00GMT and the evening radiosonde ascent at 12:00 GMT for each day. The maximum altitude considered in this study is 5 km as the water vapor data may not be available after 5 km as the zero degree isotherm is about 5 km over India. The slant path attenuation of water vapor attenuation statistics was calculated for frequencies between 12 GHz to 47 GHz at different elevation angles starting from 50 to 750 . We have analyzed and plotted Cumulative Distributive Frequency (CDF) plots for both morning and evening radiosonde data and found that no significant difference between the morning and the evening water vapor absorption. Hence we combined both the data and presented CDF graphs for various elevation angles and are shown in figures 1 to 8. The above observations clearly revealed that, slant path attenuation of water vapor is high for the frequencies 24 GHz, 47 GHz, 20 GHz, and 28 GHz etc. The corresponding value is less for the lower range frequencies like 18 GHz, 16 GHz, 14 GHz, and 12 GHz etc. It is also clear that for low elevation angles like 5?,15? etc, the slant path attenuation is maximum and about 10 dB. Its value decreases with the increase of elevation angle. For higher elevation angles like 65?,75? etc, the slant path attenuation is about 0.1dB. Comparison of slant path attenuation obtained from radiosonde data and ITU-R reference values: The slant path attenuation values of water vapor computed using radiosonde data for different frequency values and for different elevation angles are compared with ITU– R standard reference values. The maximum value, minimum value and also the difference between the maximum and minimum values is also tabulated. They are shown in Tables 1 to 4. In addition to above comparison we also made comparison for higher frequencies like 28 GHz, 30 GHz and 47 GHz and clearly noticed that; (i) The slant path attenuation values which are calculated by the radiosonde data are in good agreement with the standard ITU-R values, (ii) The slant path attenuation values are decreasing with increase of elevation angles and (iii) With the increase of frequency from 16 GHz to 47 GHz the slant path attenuation value is increased corresponding to each elevation angle. It can also be concluded that the difference value also decreases with the increase of elevation angles. There is a significant difference in the minima and maxima values at low elevation angles which is for serious concern for the operation of VSAT and HAPS.
CONCLUSIONS
The attenuation of Satellite signals due to water vapor absorption is calculated using the formulas referred in Recommendations ITU-R, P.676- 5(2001). Predictions of specific attenuation and path attenuation due to water vapor absorption are also presented and compared with the water vapor attenuation calculated using Radiosonde data collected from the India Meteorological Department (IMD), Chennai station. The important findings of the present work are summarized as follows. (1) The slant path attenuation value is high for frequencies like 20 GHz, 24 GHz, 26 GHz, and 47 GHz. The corresponding value is low for frequencies 18 GHz, 16 GHz, 14 GHz, and 12 GHz etc. (2) For low elevation angles like 50 , 150 etc, the slant path attenuation is maximum (10dB) for morning radiosonde observations. Its value decreases with the increase of elevation angle and for higher elevation angles like 650 , 750 etc, the value is about 0.1dB. For the evening data is also similar results are obtained indicating that there is significant diurnal change in the observed attenuation. (3) The estimated slant path attenuation values from radiosonde data are in good agreement with the standard ITU-R reference values except in few cases. It can be due to the fact that the ITU-R values are averaged over a longer time compared to the present data (5 years), and hence the present observed values may be slightly varying from the ITU-R reference values. (4) The slant path attenuation value gradually decreases with the increase of elevation angle. It can also be concluded that the difference value also decreases with the increase of elevation angles. There is a significant difference in the minima and maximum values at low elevation angles which are of serious concern for the operation of VSAT and HAPS (High Altitude Platform Stations).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We deeply appreciate the Advanced Center for Atmospheric Science (ACAS) funded by Department of Space (DOS) under RESPOND to S. V. University, Tirupati and University Grants Commission (UGC) and other necessary facilities to carry out this work.
APPENDIX-A:
The atmosphere is a layer of gases covering the surface of the earth. There are many gases in the atmosphere. The two that cause almost all of the radio wave attenuation are Oxygen (O2) and Water Vapor (H2O). The two components (O2 and H2O) should be added together for the total specific attenuation. Hence, the gaseous absorption is calculated as the sum of water vapor absorption and oxygen absorption. Recommendation: ITU-R P.676-5 (2001) can be used to estimate the attenuation by atmospheric gases on terrestrial and slant paths, which are based on curve fitting to the line-by-line calculation. The input parameters required for the calculation include frequency, path elevation angle, and height above mean sea level and water vapor density. The oxygen attenuation is considered a background effect with very little temporal variation; variations in gaseous absorption arise from changes in the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Oxygen absorption is not considered in the present study, as the FSS (Fixed Satellite Services) do not employ the frequencies close to the oxygen absorption band (~60 GHz) at present in India. The water vapor absorption at Ku- and Ka-band satellite communication links is only considered in this study. The attenuation of Satellite signals due to water vapor absorption is calculated using the formulas referred in Recommendations ITU-R, P.676-5(2001). Predictions of specific attenuation and path attenuation due to water vapor absorption are presented in this chapter.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1488http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=14881. Altshuler EE, Gallop MA, and Telford LE. Atmospheric attenuation statistics at 15 and 35 GHz for very low elevation angles, Radio Science 1978; 13,5: 839-852.
2. Asoka Dissanayake, Jeremy Allnutt and Fatim Haidara. Cloud attenuation modelling for SHF and EHF applications,Int. J. Satell. Commun 2001, 19:335-345 (DOI: 10.1002/sat.671)
3. César Amaya. Impact of Clouds and Gases on SATCOM Links at Ka and EHF Bands, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Report AIAA-2002-1953.
4. Crane RK. Propagation Handbook for Wireless Communication System Design, CRC Press LLC 2003.
5. ITU-R P.676-5, Recommendation: “Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases (Geneva, 2001a)”.
6. ITU-R P.453-8, Recommendation: “The Radio Refractive Index: It’s Formula and Refractive Data (Geneva, 2001b).
7. Karmakar PK, Rahaman M and Sen AK (2001).Measurement of atmospheric water vapour content over a tropical location by dual frequency microwave radiometry, International Journal of Remote Sensing 2001; 22:17, 3309-3322.
8. Kifah Al-Ansari, Awadallah Salama . Investigation of atmospheric gases attenuation in UAE. 4th IEEE GCC 2005.
9. Mandeep JS, Hassan SIS. Microwave and Millimetre Wave Characteristics and Attenuation of Clouds over some Malaysian Equatorial Stations,Int.Jou.Infrared and Mill Waves 2008 March 29;3:225-231.
10. Sarkar SK, Ahamad I, Das J and De AK. Cloud height, cloud temperature and cloud attenuation in microwave and millimetre wave frequency bands over Indian tropical east coast, Int.J.Infrared Millm Waves (USA) 2005, 26-329.
11. Sarkar SK, Mondal NC, Bhattacharya AB and Bhattacharya R. Some studies on attenuation and atmospheric water vapour measurements in India, International Journal of Remote Sensing1998; 19:3, 473-480
12. Uppal GS, Dubey V, Chada R. Water Vapor studies at 22.235 GHz by microwave radiometer IEEE Jounal 1979 December; 25:498-499.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22General SciencesCLIMATOLOGY AND COMPARISON STUDY OF STRATOSPHERE AND LOWER MESOSPHERE TEMPERATURES USING SATELLITE AND REANALYSIS DATA SETS.
English1742G. N. MadhaviEnglish P. KishoreEnglish S.V.B. RaoEnglish Isabella VelicognaEnglish V. SivakumarEnglishIn this paper, GPS RO stratospheric temperatures are compared with different satellite and different model data sets. The data sets used for comparison include Japanese 25-year Reanalysis (JRA-25), UK Met office (MetO), ERA-Interim, GEOS5, and satellite temperatures are AIRS_Aqua, HIRDLS, Aura_MLS and SABER. Apart from the comparison, we also studied the seasonal variation of temperature during summer and winter in both the hemispheres. The seasonal and latitudinal variation of temperature by GPS (CHAMP+COSMIC) with other reanalysis (JRA-25, GEOS5 and METO) and satellite measurements (AURA_MLS and SABER) for both the hemispheres show reasonably good agreement. The difference of about ±0.5 to ±0.75 K is observed at 20 km, ±1K to ±1.75K at 35 km while the high values of ~3 to 4 K are observed at upper stratosphere and lower mesosphere height regions (50 km to 60 km). The GPS RO temperatures above 35 km are noticed to be warmer than reanalysis and satellite data sets in SH region. This tendency increases with increasing height and reaches its maximum at 60 km, with magnitude of 3 K to 4 K with reanalysis data sets and 2 K to 3.5 K with satellite measurements. The calculated SAO and AO amplitudes based on GPS data are found to be comparable with the earlier results.
EnglishMiddle atmosphere; Global climate, Stratosphere, Temperature Profile.INTRODUCTION
Temperature is one of the important factor which influences the global climate change and dynamics of the middle atmosphere especially in the stratosphere and lower mesosphere region. It is a region which affects the weather systems in the lower atmosphere as well as upper atmosphere. Stratospheric temperature changes are also crucial for understanding its variability and trends, including predicting future changes (World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2006). Due to lack of observational data, this part of the atmosphere provides a long list of challenging scientific problems, which includes variations in stratospheric ozone concentrations and its thermal structure. The middle atmosphere climatologies were first studied in 1964 and 1972 by Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) Reference Atmospheres using interpolation of single station balloon and rocket data (Randel et al., 2004). Later on a wide variety of observational techniques have been used to measure temperature in the stratosphere and their variations in time and space. These techniques include balloon soundings (e.g. Kitamura and Hirota, 1989; Tsuda et al., 1991), rocketsonde measurements (e.g. Dewan et al., 1984; Eckermann et al., 1995; Hamilton, 1991), and LIDAR (e.g. Hauchecorne and Chanin, 1980; Chanin and Hauchecorne, 1991; Wilson et al., 1991; Whiteway and Carswell, 1994; LeBlanc et al., 1998; Sivakumar et al., 2003) etc, with limited period of observations. The rocket data are useful, as they are the only observations of the 30 80 km region prior to the LIDAR observations. However, determining quantitative trends or long term observations from rocket data is complicated as measurements are made through different types of sensors leading to instrumental changes and also due to the corrections made to the data in order to account for aerodynamic heating (Dunkerton et al., 1998). As rocket data are available only at few locations around the globe, there is a difficulty for establishing climatology over a global scale, despite the good results from many of the ground based and space borne instruments (Steiner and Kirchengast, 2000). To overcome the lack of observational data and to establish the climatology over a global scale, the scientific problems regarding middle atmosphere climatological data sets have been studied by World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) under Stratospheric Processes and Their Role in Climate (SPARC) project. An inter comparison study based on different kinds of middle atmosphere tempearature measurements by Randel et al., 2004 suggest that most of the data sets exhibits warm bias of more than ~5K in the stratosphere and these type of studies are useful to identify the biases in particular data sets and to highlight regions where large differences are found among several data sets. Recently, Global Positioning System (GPS) Radio occultation (RO) observations started offering several important and unique features complementary to other methods of observing the Earth’s atmosphere. The GPS RO technique has the advantage of global coverage, high accuracy, high vertical resolution (less than 1 km), long term stability, self calibration and capability to operate in all weather conditions (Kursinski et al., 1997; Wickert et al., 2001; Hajj et al., 2002). It provides a powerful tool for atmospheric sounding, which requires no calibration, not affected by clouds, aerosols or precipitation, and provides an almost uniform global coverage with vertical profiles of atmospheric air density, temperature, and water vapor as well as ionospheric electron density (Hajj et al., 2004; Wickert et al., 2004). Several investigators validated the GPS measurements and have concentrated in the height region between 8 and 30 km (Hajj et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2004; Kishore et al., 2009), though the data was available up to 60 km. Ho et al, 2007 compared lower stratosphere microwave Brightness Temperatures (TB) with the GPSRO data from CHAMP during June 2001 to June 2005 and he found good agreement between the data sets. Recently, Sivakumar et al. (2011), studied and compared temperature profiles only for a southern sub tropical site Reunion (20.8 S; 55.5 E) with HALOE, CHAMP, COSMIC, and SABER temperature measurements for the height range between 30 and 60 Km and results are found to be reasonable agreement with each other with a relative difference in temperature of 6 K is observed. Similar studies of GPS measurements over stratosphere height region were not reported earlier and thus validation of GPS data sets over stratosphere height regions are necessary and more beneficial to the atmospheric researchers to improve the global model accuracy and void the observational gap in the stratosphere and lower mesosphere height region. This paper is organized as follows: In section two, we present the details about GPS (CHAMP + COSMIC) RO data sets which are used to study the monthly, seasonal and zonal mean temperature variations from 20 to 60 km height for the period 2002 to 2009. Results obtained from the present analysis in terms of comparison between COSMIC, satellite and other reanalysis data sets are described in the section 3. We shall describe the latitude height seasonal variations of temperature (both during summer and winter seasons) in both the hemispheres. The monthly mean temperatures in the equatorial, low, middle and high latitude regions in the stratosphere (lower, middle and upper height levels) at 20, 35, 45 km for all the data sets and their differences with respect to COSMIC data are given in a detailed manner. Finally, we investigate the amplitude height structures of semiannual (SAO) and annual oscillations (AO) in the equatorial region using GPS and reference data sets. The arrived conclusions from the present study are summarized in the section 4. Data Analysis: For the present study, we mainly used GPS RO (Rocken et al., 1997) data from CHAMP (Wickert et al., 2001) for the period May 2001 to October 2008 and COSMIC (Anthes et al., 2008) from June 2006 to December 2009. The FORMOSAT 3/COSMIC is a joint Taiwan – US mission and the satellite was launched successfully on 15 April 2006, named COSMIC – Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate. This mission provided an innovative use of GPS RO data for atmospheric and ionospheric research, for improving global weather forecasts and climate change related studies. A distinctive feature of the COSMIC mission, compared to previous RO missions, is tracking both setting and rising neutral atmospheric occultations in the lower troposphere in an open loop (OL) mode (Schreiner et al., 2007). The GPS RO dry temperature data product is used, which is derived from the measured refractivity profile by neglecting humidity and as such is accurate above 10 km in the tropical region. The original GPS data are available at 0.1 km vertical resolution but they have an effective vertical resolution of the order of 1 km in the upper troposphere and stratosphere region. In addition, we also make use of several other data sets for comparison purpose. In the following, we present short descriptions of the reference datasets included in the comparisons. These are intended to be brief, and more details for each dataset can be found in the referred publications and the specifications of the data sets used are given in Table1. The additional data base includes data from other satellites like the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS)/advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU), a sounding system on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Aqua mission, which uses the most advanced temperature humidity sounding system ever deployed (Parkinson, 2003). AIRS data provides the vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature and water vapor with vertical resolution of ~1 2 km, horizontal resolution of 45 km, temporal resolution of twice daily. AIRS level 3 atmospheric temperature profiles from September 2002 to December 2009 are used for this study. The data have horizontal resolution of 1º by 1º for longitude Vs latitude grid, and the vertical levels are available at standard pressure levels from 1000 to 1 hPa and the temperature uncertainties of ± 1 K at 1km (Murthy G. Divakarla et al., 2006; Sica et al., 2007). The High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder (HIRDLS) on the NASA EOS Aura satellite, the vertical projection of the field of view at the limb is ~1 km (Gille et al., 2008; Alexander et al., 2008). Oversampling by a factor of 4 5 gives the potential vertical resolution less than 1 km. The horizontal along track sampling is approximately 1 degree (75 100 km) along the measurement track, but is normally longitude at 24.72, and it is near to the equator. The longitudinal sampling is much higher near the turn around latitudes of the HIRDLS measurement track, which are near 80 N and 64 S. HIRDLS V4 level 2 daily temperature data sets during January 2005 to December 2007 are utilized for this study. Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) on the AURA satellite measures ~3500 vertical profiles per day along the suborbital track. The vertical resolution of MLS v2.0 temperature is ~4 km in the stratosphere and precision is typically ~1 K at the stratosphere height region (Froidevaux et al., 2006; Schwartz et al., 2007). MLS data sets are used for this study from 2004 to 2009 and each profile up to ~160 km along the orbit tracks, to 82 degree in each hemisphere. The SABER temperature data used are version 1.07 of the level 2B product from the year 2002 to 2009 with an effective vertical resolution of ~2 km (Remsberg et al., 2003). SABER is located on NASA TIMED spacecraft and the latitude range of the observations is from 53 in one hemisphere to 83 in the other; about every 60 day, the latitude coverage of SABER flips to the opposite hemisphere. The uncertainty is in the order of 1 3 K in the lower stratosphere, ~1 K near the stratopause and around ~2 K in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere region. ERA Interim uses a 4 D var system based on a spectral GCM (Simmons et al., 2005). ECMWF collect various data sets from organizations worldwide for use in the assimilation activity (Uppala et al., 2005). The atmospheric data are available on 1.5 x 1.5 grids on 37 pressure levels from 1000 to 1 hPa. The main advances in ERA Interim system are: T255 (~80 km) horizontal resolution, better formulation of background error constraint, new humidity analysis, improved model physics, quality control of data drawing on experience from ERA 40, variational bias correction of satellite radiance data (Simmons et al., 2007b; Dee and Uppala, 2009; Uppala et al., 2009). For the present study purpose, we used the ERA Interim temperature data sets from 2001 to 2009. The JRA 25 data sets are constructed using the operational numerical weather prediction (NWP) techniques of the JMA and computational resources in CRIEPI (Onogi et al., 2007). JRA 25 reanalysis is a basic meteorological grid point data set with uniform resolution of 120 km in the horizontal and from the surface to about 50 km in the vertical. JRA 25 provides over 200 meteorological parameters globally with 23 vertical levels from 1000 hPa to 0.4 hPa and the resolution of 2.5 x 2.5 grids in longitude/latitude wise. The temperature data uses from 2001 to 2009 for the present study. Data assimilation system has been developed at the UK Meteorological Office (UKMO) to analyze the various observations available in the troposphere and stratosphere, and it is referred as MetO. The MetO data incorporates the measurements from different satellite, radiosondes, and aircraft data into a numerical forecasting model (Swinbank et al., 1998). Since November 2000, the MetO fields have been produced using a new 3D variational data assimilation system (Lorenc et al., 2000), and one important change is that satellite radiance measurements were assimilated directly rather than using retrieved temperature profiles. The analysis consist of temperature, wind components, and geopotential heights on a global grid of resolution 2.5x3.75 degree (latitude/longitude) at 22 vertical pressure levels from 1000 to 0.32 hPa. GEOS5 model, derived from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Goddard Earth Observing System general circulation model, Version 5 (GEOS5) (Sobel et al., 2007). GEOS5 analyses are produced using the grid point Statistical Analyses method (Kleist et al. 2009; Cullather and Bosilovich, 2011), a three dimensional variational assimilation system, with a 6 hour analyses window. The meteorological parameters are available on 1.25 x 1.25 grid on 42 pressure levels from 1000 hPa to 0.1 hPa, which corresponds to the height range from 0.1 to 65 km. For the present study, we have used the temperature data sets from 2001 to 2009. Here we used several satellite and model datasets. These data sets are different spatial and height resolutions. For all the data sets, monthly mean profiles were interpolated over 500 m with 10 x 10 longitude, latitude resolution thus taking the data analysis and the comparisons between the instruments easier.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Comparison of temperature measurement by GPS with re-analyses and Satellite data sets: Figure 1(a) represents the vertical profiles of temperature from the GPS RO, different satellite measurements and reanalysis data sets from 8 to 60 km. Here, we considered the equatorial region between 20 –20 N for November 2006. The vertical mean temperature profiles of the COSMIC and other measurements were similar except at the stratopause height region. Below 8 km height, we found large difference in the measurements due to the presence of water vapor and the temperature retrieval might be erroneous at these heights. Hence, we have restricted our comparisons to height range between 10 km to 60 km. The relative percentage of differences between GPS and reanalysis/satellite data sets are shown in Figure 1(b). The mean differences between GPS RO and other measurements at most of the individual heights vary between 1 K to 2.5 K (~1 %) in the 20 km to 50 km height region, and the mean differences ~4 K to 5 K (~2 2.5%) found in the upper stratosphere and lower mesosphere region. Such differences observed between GPS and satellite measurements might be due to difference in sampling, technique employed, observational time and atmospheric tidal disturbances. An inter comparison study by Randel et al. (2004) based on different kinds of middle atmosphere temperature measurements also showed that the rocketsonde measurements were warmer (~45 – 70 km) than the ground based and Satellite measurements (NCEP, ERA 40, MetO, CIRA 86, HALOE and MLS). It was also showed (Tsuda et al., 2000) that in the stratosphere, there were significant temperature fluctuations, which were probably caused by atmospheric waves which produce periodic differences between GPS/MET and radiosonde profiles. Recently Sivakumar et al. (2011) compared the Reunion Lidar measurements with COSMIC temperatures and they found the differences of 5 K. Latitude-height variability of temperature: Here, we would like to describe the latitude height cross section of temperatures derived from GPS RO measurements and comparison with the reanalysis data sets; JR 25, MetO, and GEOS 5 along with satellite measurements of MLS and SABER data sets during Northern hemisphere (NH) winter (Dec, Jan and Feb). Figure 2(a f) represents the longitudinal mean temperature (during winter) contours of GPS RO, MLS, SABER, JRA 25, GEOS 5 and MetO data sets respectively. We have restricted to some of the data sets, due to limitations regarding the coverage and height coverage of satellite and model data sets. The data sets used in this study have been obtained at standard pressure levels, and interpolated to 5 degree latitude grids at 0.5 km height resolution. Describing the features, it can be seen that the temperature structure of the GPS RO and other data sets looks similar. It is evident from the figure that a clear noticeable difference for NH high latitude region (70ºN – 90ºN) by the MetO, the stratopause temperature is 3 to 4 K warmer than GPS and is reverse (colder) when compared with GEOS5. As expected, the maximum temperatures are observed at stratopause height (~50 km) in all data sets. The maximum temperature at southern polar region is close to 285 K (+12 C) whereas the temperature at Northern Polar region is about 30 K lower (Note that the southern winter corresponds to the northern summer and vice versa). In figure 2, we have superimposed the tropopause (filled circles) and stratopause (open circles) for all the selected latitude ranges (5º bin). In the case of MLS and SABER, temperature data sets are reliable only above 10 km, so we have not presented the tropopause temperature for these data sets. Tropopause is identified based on lapse rate definition (WMO (1957)), and stratopause is defined as the height at the warmest temperature observed between 40 and 60 km. It is found that the tropopause height reached maximum in between 30 30 N and decreases with latitude and observed minimum in polar region. Kishore et al. (2006) reported the longitude latitude structures of tropopause temperature and height based on GPS CHAMP and SAC C measurements. The winter stratopause at high latitudes exhibits an increase in height and temperature with increasing altitude. Over the NH winter the stratopause height is found ~50 km at equator (5 N). At latitudes greater than 5 S the stratopause height decreases slowly and reaches ~47 km at 30 S and it starts increasing slowly and reaches the stratopause height ~50.5 km at 70 S. A mirror image of this pattern can be seen at NH side. Such type of stratopause height pattern is not always seen clearly by the MetO observations. The meridional temperature structure generated by the GPS RO, satellite and reanalysis values for the NH summer (June, July and August) is shown in Figure 3a f. In the low to middle latitude (60ºS 60ºN), and between 10 km to 45 km, the GPS temperatures are in good agreement with those reference data sets. The global mean differences of GPS with reference data set comparisons are less than 0.5 to 2.0 K, and the standard deviations are estimated as ~1 to 2.5 K. The difference increases with increasing latitude and height. The differences for the GPS, GEOS5, and GPS, METO, is observed to be 2 to 3.5 K between 60S 90S in between 45 to 50 km height region. Wang et al.(2004) compared Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS) data with several other data sets and they found that the temperature bias are higher than ECMWF but lower than MetO, the differences are found to be ~1.5 K in between 30 and 45 km. Between 45 and 50 km, they observed that MIPAS is colder than both ECMWF and MetO by 2 to 3 K and 3 to 5 K, respectively. They also suggested that the large discrepancies between MIPAS and analysis above 30 km likely due to deficiency in the underlying general circulation models. Looking at the temperature in the polar region, we can infer that the Arctic temperature is about 279 K at around 51.5 km, whereas it is close to 276 K at 52 km in the Antarctica region. From the Figure 3, at the summer pole it is evident that the cold Tropopause with minimum temperature is observed while it shows the warm stratopause with maximum temperatures. Between 5ºS 5ºN, the stratopause altitude reaches about 48.5 km, and at the sub tropics the mean height decreases to about 47.5 km in GPS RO measurements. The strongest gradient in stratopause height occurs over latitude range of 70 –90º in both the hemispheres with mean height increasing to 52 km at polar latitudes. The high latitude SH summer stratopause is ~6 K colder than the high latitude NH summer stratopause. It is clear from the figure 3 that the stratopause heights looks similar in all data sets at northern polar latitudes, whereas in the southern polar latitudes, it varies and the maximum stratopause height reaches at around ~60 km in the GEOS5 data sets. Figure 4 compares the monthly and seasonal variations of satellite and model/Reanalysis between 5 N, 20 30 N, 45 55 N, and 70 80 N at three different stratospheric heights (20, 30, and 45 km). Here, we have zonally averaged temperature data over 10 degree latitudinal bands for the NH. The temperature pattern measured by both satellite and model data sets are similar. The equatorial region (5ºS 5ºN) clearly shows semi annual oscillations with maximum peaks during March and October months. Leblanc et al. (1998b) showed semi annual oscillations with maximum at the equinoxes in March/April and September/October at 19.5ºN using long term lidar measurements. Comparing COSMIC with satellite measurements in winter season, we found satellite measurements are higher in 20, and 35 km heights, and is found to be opposite at 45 km, i.e., COSMIC temperatures are higher than satellite measurements. In mid and high latitude regions, from all the measurements the temperature structure shows annual oscillation between 20 and 45 km height level with maximum during May to July. Similarly, several investigators noted strong annual oscillations with a maximum during April to July (Hauchecorne et al., 1991; Gobbi et al., 1995; Gerding et al., 2008; Schoch et al., 2008). Figure 5 shows the monthly and seasonal variations of satellite and model data sets of three different latitude bands (20ºS 30ºS, 45ºS 55ºS, and 70ºS 80ºS) of southern hemisphere at three different (20, 35, and 45 km) height levels. The overall monthly structure is found to be similar in each data set. From the figure, one can infer that the annual oscillation dominates in the Southern hemisphere (SH) winter season. Monthly average temperatures of 20 30 S latitude at 20 km height level shows the annual oscillation peak observed during September month. COSMIC monthly temperatures are colder in winter southern hemisphere at high latitude region (70ºS 80ºS). As we expect, the specific humidity observations show the largest differences at high latitudes. We have also compared the results at different latitude bands of NH and SH (5ºS 5ºN, 20ºN 30ºN, 45ºN 55ºN, 70Nº 80ºN, 20ºS 30ºS, 45ºS 55ºS, and 70ºS 80ºS) at 35 km and 45 km height levels of GPS with reference mean temperature (along with standard deviations) data sets. The differences in values are summarized in Table 2 and 3, respectively for summer and winter season. It is inferred from the tables, that the NH winter standard deviations are found higher than NH summer, especially at high latitude regions. ERA Interim, JRA 25 temperature values for low and mid latitude region (45ºN 45ºS) are better than GEOS5 and MetO data sets. On the other hand, COSMIC monthly mean temperatures looks similar except there are few differences at some polar latitudes and lower mesospheric height levels, for both the hemispheres. For quantitative purpose, we have estimated the relative mean differences (100*(GPS – reference data)/GPS) of temperature of COSMIC with satellite and model data sets which are shown in Figure 6 for NH and Figure 7 for SH. Between 35 and 45 km, GPS temperatures are colder than the ERA Interim but warmer than GEOS5 by 1.5 to 2 K. The larger discrepancies in the peak around 35 km and occur around the 20ºN 30ºN, 20ºS 30ºS and polar region in both hemispheres. The ERA Interim temperatures are generally quite accurate below 10 hPa (~32 km) where bias in the assimilating model is relatively low and the assimilation are based on both radiosonde and satellite radiance data (Simmons et al., 2005). The largest differences occur in the mid and high latitudes in NH winter months. In particular, the ERA Interim, AQUA_AIRS, and AURA_MLS data are the coldest and agree best with COSMIC, where as JRA 25, MetO, GEOS5, HIRDLS, and SABER data have a consistent warm bias of ~2 3%, and GEOS5 shows warmest ~5% at high latitude regions. Figure 7 shows the ratios of seasonal cycle of three different heights (20, 35 and 45 km) at three different SH latitudes (20ºS 30ºS, 45ºS 55ºS, and 70ºS 80ºS). The ratios are less at lower stratospheric height level in SH, and ratios increases with increasing height level. In the case of SH, the ratios are more at winter months than the summer months, especially in the mid and high latitudes. The positive/negative ratio indicates the COSMIC is warmer/colder than the model or satellite data sets. The NH ratios lie within ± 2.5% in all latitude bands, except 70ºN 80ºN at all height levels where the differences are higher (some cases above 5%). The monthly temperature ratios in mid latitude (45ºS 55ºS) at 45 km height level, GEOS5 and AURA_MLS data exhibit cold biases upto ~5% in the mid latitude (45ºS 55ºS) at 45 km, maximizing during winter in SH. Aside from GEOS5, and AURA_MLS, the other climatologies agree to approximately 2%. Most satellite and analyses are colder than COSMIC during SH winter in mid and high latitudes at 35 km and 45 km height levels. Similar comparisons and results for CPC (Climate Prediction Center) ,UKTOVS (Met Office Analyses of TOVS Data) , CIRA86 (COSPAR International Reference Atmosphere, 1986 ), MLS (Micro wave Limb Sounder) and other data sets data have been seen by Manney et al. (1996) and found warm biases (~3 7K) over much of the stratosphere (20 50km). Recently, Randel et al. (2004) compared number of stratospheric climatologies and they have mentioned ECMWF reanalysis data found to be the coldest of all data sets between 35 and 45 km. Similarly, Schollhammer et al. (2003 a, 2003b) also showed that the largest deviations at about 5 K at 10 hPa between ECMWF and MetO analyses data sets. At upper levels at 45 km and above, COSMIC is warmer than reference data sets by 3 4 %, especially at mid and high latitude regions of SH region. The ECMWF temperatures are known generally to be quite accurate below 10 hPa (~30 km) where bias in the assimilating model is relatively low nd both radiosonde and satellite radiance data are assimilated (see e.g., Simmons et al., 2005), although problems at higher levels are prone to spread downward below 10 hPa in polar region. The maximum percentage of ratios are observed at 70ºS 80ºS latitude band at 35 km and 45 km height levels at about 8 to 10% and it indicates that COSMIC values are warmer than the model and satellite measurements. The warm bias above 30 hPa depends on the smoothing of bending angle and the interpolation procedure for the downward integration of the refractivity profile (Wickert et al., 2002). In mid and high latitudes, COSMIC temperatures at stratospheric height regions are well correlated with all the data sets in NH than the SH latitude regions. In general, the relative differences are larger in winter than in summer SH. In particular, differences found to be larger (perhaps 10 to 12 K locally) during dynamically active winter periods such as stratospheric warming (Swinbank and O’Neill, 1994). The agreement between GPS with reference data sets is quite reasonable except at high latitude regions of NH and SH. Data assimilation systems are constructed from conventional meteorological measurements in the troposphere and lower stratosphere, and nadir sounding satellite instruments like ATOVS (Advanced Tiros Operational Vertical Sounder) and HIRS (High resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder) onboard the operational polar orbiting NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) satellites. The radiosonde measurements only cover limited area and even the distribution of the radiosonde stations is rather inhomogeneous. Especially, the atmosphere over the oceans and a wide region in the SH are not covered by the radiosondes. In addition, instrumental changes are a particular source of problems (Seidel et al., 2004), but can often be identified readily by sharp discontinuities in the record (Angell, 2003; Rosenolf and Reid, 2008). The satellite data sets exhibit broad vertical weighting functions in the stratosphere, providing a low vertical resolution of the order of several km only. The vertical resolution is depends on the satellite viewing orbital geometry, along the vertical scan. On the other hand, GPS RO data for temperature measurements which may also be affected by ulti path effects, non spherical symmetry of the Earth’s atmosphere of uncertainties in the ancillary temperature fields used in the retrieval (Rocken et al., 1997). Probability Distribution Function: Monthly variations of temperature at different latitudinal bands at different height levels of all the data sets are discussed in earlier sections. To evaluate consistency between the data sets regardless of co location in space and time, the best way is calculating the probability distribution function (PDF), and is shown in Figure 8. The distributions are represented at three different bands and it covers up to mid latitudes of NH and SH at three different stratospheric heights. In equatorial region (20ºS 20ºN), the distribution peaks are similar in the stratosphere lower height (20 km), and at 35 km height level the peaks are centered in between 236 K to 240 K, and 262 K to 266 K at 45 km height level. SABER measurement illustrates peaks at 20 km height level with the values are bit lower than the satellite and model data sets in all latitude bands. Annual and Semi annual oscillations: Middle atmospheric dynamics is strongly controlled by long period of oscillations, e.g., annual oscillation (AO) and semi annual oscillation (SAO) other than short period gravity waves, planetary waves and atmospheric tides. Seasonal temperature variations in the tropics are dominated by SAO, and the existence of a SAO in the tropical stratosphere was first documented by Reed (1962) based on the tropical temperatures in the lower stratosphere he noted the SAO above 50 mb. Here, we have calculated the temperature amplitudes of AO and SAO at every height level over latitude range of 5 S and are shown in Figure 9(a) and 9(b) for the different satellites and model data sets. Within about 5º of the Equator, our results for both AO and SAO show that there are small changes in the amplitude as function of height. In lower stratosphere, the AO shows a peak near 20 km with the value at about ~4.5 K. The maximum AO amplitude is about ~5 K in AURA_MLS and GEOS5 data sets, and is less for ERA Interim reanalysis data sets. For the equatorial SAO, there are peaks in amplitude near 45 km, with a magnitude range of 3.5 K to 5 K, and another dominant peak at 70 km height level, with a magnitude of 5 K to 6 K. It is well documented by the previous researchers (e.g. Hirota, 1980 ; Randel et al., 1994) that the SAO temperature has a double peak structure in height, with first maxima in stratosphere (~45 km) and second maxima in mesosphere (~70 km). The maximum amplitudes of SAO are observed near at 45 km, which are greater than 4 K in AQUA_AIRS, GPS, GEOS5 and AURA_MLS, and weaker amplitudes at JRA 25, ERA Interim, MetO, HIRDLS and SABER observations. Hirota et al. (1980), observed SAO temperature amplitudes of ~4 K using different data sets near 45 km, and another maximum near about 70 km with a range of amplitudes ~4 K to 7 K, which is comparable to our results. Huang et al. (2006), estimated SAO amplitudes using SABER data sets, and have also observed the amplitude peaks near 40 km and 75 km. Figure 10 shows the amplitude structure of the SAO temperature as a function of latitude as derived from the different data sets. The SAO amplitudes are estimated at 54 km for each data set, except AQUA_AIRS, and ERA Interim data sets upto 48 km height level. From the figure, it can be noticed that the SAO amplitude has a strong latitudinal variation, showing peak at the Equator. The maximum amplitudes are observed at equator at about 5 K in MetO data sets, approximately twice as large as the SABER SAO amplitudes. Huang et al. (2006) derived the SAO amplitudes based on SABER measurements, covering over 3 years (2002 2004). The results are presented from 15 to 95 km and latitude ranges from 48ºS to 40ºN and they observed SAO maximum in the equator at about 5 K. Generally the amplitude of the SAO decreases with increase in the latitude, but can recover in the subtropics depending on height. In this regard, the semi annual oscillation exhibits a latitudinal asymmetry, with higher amplitudes in the Southern Hemisphere subtropics (Belmont and Dartt, 1973; Ray et al., 1998). Reed (1962) also found the existence of a semi annual oscillation in the temperature at some stations nearer to the equator: the oscillation had its maximum amplitude over the equator. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In this paper, we reported the ability of using stratospheric temperatures from GPS RO (CHAMP+COSMIC) and the measurements are compared with several reference data sets, including assimilation analyses of ERA Interim, JRA 25, GEOS5 and MetO, satellite observations of AIRS_AQUA, AURA_MLS, SABER, HIRDLS. The temperature data for the stratosphere and lower mesosphere heights (20 60 km) are considered in the present study. The latitude height temperature structures by GPS (CHAMP+COSMIC) with reanalysis data sets (JRA 25, GEOS5 and METO) and satellite measurements (AURA_MLS and SABER) for the northern summer and winter seasons shows very good similarities in most of the regions. The mean values and standard deviations of different latitude bands at different height levels for summer and winter seasons are summarized in Table 2 and 3 respectively. Between 20 and 30 km, GPS RO temperatures show good agreement with the different reference data sets. The mean differences averaged over the height interval are within ± 0.5 K for comparison with reference data sets. The mean differences are within ±0.5 K to ±0.75 K for 20 km, ±1 K to ±1.75 K at 35 km and ±2 K to ±2.5 K at 45 km for all the measurements. Also, large mean differences of ~3 to 4 K or more are observed in the height region between 50 km and 60 km. The GPS RO temperatures above 35 km are noticed to be warmer than references data sets in SH region. This tendency increases with increasing height and reaches its maximum at 60 km, with magnitude of 3 K to 4 K with reanalysis data sets and 2 K to 3.5 K with satellite measurements. Although good agreement was found between GPS RO and several reference data sets, there are some differences in upper stratosphere and lower mesosphere, especially at polar regions. These differences are could be due to the effect of spatial temporal mismatch between the measurements GPS RO temperature analysis algorithms, the difference in sampling data between space based and reanalysis data sets, as well as the larger uncertainties at the higher heights are the major possible reasons for the differences observed. The different vertical resolutions of the temperature measurements may also have their contributions to the differences calculated by interpolating the data on to a common grid. Monthly temperature variations and differences in ratio of GPS RO with references data sets at different latitude bands in the NH and SH for different height levels 20 km, 35 km, and 45 km are mostly in good agreement. At extra tropical latitude (20ºS 30ºS) the temperature difference are more at 35 km and 45 km height levels than the NH extra tropical latitude region. The annual and semi annual oscillations are studied at equatorial region (5ºS – 5ºN) over height based on satellite and model observations. It was found that the measured AO and SAO amplitudes by satellite and model data sets are in reasonably good agreement with previous results. Thus, we have demonstrated the usefulness of GPS RO data for the study of global distribution of stratospheric analysis. A number of new GPS satellite missions will offer the opportunity for further enhanced space time resolution and long term RO measurements, and enrich the studies of global wave activity in the stratosphere and lower mesosphere. Incorporation of the GPS occultation data may improve the accuracy of the global and regional numerical weather forecasts and climate analysis, especially in regions lacking of observational data sets.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author (GNM) acknowledges to Advanced Centre for Atmospheric Sciences (ACAS), Sri Venkateswara University, sponsored by ISRO under RESPOND for providing Junior Research Fellowship, and lab facility to carry out this work. The authors thankful for the AIRS_AQUA, HIRDLS, AURA_MLS, SABER, GPS (CHAMP+COSMIC), ERA Interim, GEOS5, JRA 25, and MetO data centres for the public access via their website. Thanks to the authorities of S.V.University for providing the necessary facilities to carry out this work. Authors acknowledge the great help received from the scholars whose articles cited and included in the references of this manuscript. The authors are also greatful to the authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this articles has been reviewed and discussed. Authors are grateful to IJCRR editorial board members and IJCRR team of reviewers who have helped to bring quality to this manuscript.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22General SciencesEFFET OF SODIUM CHLORIDE ON GROWTH OF HALOPHYTE BRUGUIERA GYMNORRHIZA (L.) Lamk.
English4352Manimegalai A.English Manikandan T.English Elumalai D.EnglishSoil salinity is the major environmental stress and largely causes yield losses of crops worldwide. For the present study the halophyte seedlings of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza were selected. Seedlings were collected from mangrove forest in pichavaram, Tamilnadu, India. Seedling with uniform size were selected during September month and each seedling planted in 320 polytene bags separately .Before, each bags size with 12×18 cm were filled with sand, humus and red sand in 1:2:1 ratio. Various concentration of Sodium Chloride solution (0,100,200,300,400,500,600 and 700mM) were prepared by using distilled water. Plantation were separated into 8 groups, each group containing 40 number of plants. Each group of plants treated uniformly by different concentration of Sodium Chloride solution. In addition to this, plants were irrigated with distilled water and maintained as control (0). The results of investigation were made to study the effect of different concentrations of sodium chloride on growth of the seedlings of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. The upper limits for the survival of the seedlings were up to 400 mM NaCl. The results indicated that the NaCl salinity stimulated the seedling growth upto the optimal level of salinity (i.e., 100mM and 400mM) and decreased significantly with increased salinity (500 to 700mM). The inhibition of seed growth was proportional to the concentrations of NaCl increased. The highest numbers of shoot length, root length were recorded at 400 mM NaCl concentration. Beyond 400 mM NaCl, the growth parameters increased drastically.
EnglishBruguiera gymnorrhiza, Conentrations, Growth, Halophyte, Increase, DecreaseINTRODUCTION
Soil salinity limits the plant growth and crop yield in many parts of the world, particularly in the arid and semi arid areas. Salinity tolerance of halophytes at germination varies among species (Yokoishi and Tanimoto, 1994; Liu et al. 2006). Salinity stress is a major limiting factor for plants germination and growth in coastal habitats as it is one of the most critical periods in life cycle of halophytes (Rubio Casal et al., 2003). Bruguiera gymnorhiza occurs along the coasts of tropical eastern and southern Africa, Madagascar and other Indian Ocean islands. Leaves decussately opposite, simple, and entire; stipules 4 cm long, reddish petiole 2–4.5 cm long. Bruguiera comprises 6 species, which are all used outside Africa in the same way as Bruguiera gymnorhiza. Medium sized, evergreen tree up to 36 m tall; bole up to 65 cm in diameter, buttressed; bark grey to almost black, roughly fissured, usually with large corky lenticels on buttresses and base of stem; knee roots or pneumatophores present. Saline soil is characterized by the presence of toxic levels of sodium and its chlorides and sulphates. Salinity tolerance is defined as the ability of plants to continuously grow under salt stress conditions (Munns, 2002). Halophytes, plants that survive to reproduce in environments where the salt concentration is around 200 mM NaCl or more, constitute about 1% of the world flora (Flowers and Colmer 2008).Halophytes as a group has one or more of several physiological adaptations that allow for the survival in the saline environment. Halophytes will not only offer great potential as novel crops but also important models for understanding salt tolerance in plants. A halophyte is a plant which is capable of surviving in a highly salty environment. Halophytes actually have increased growth at low salt concentrations (compared to no salt), with decreased growth at much higher concentrations. Plant growth and productivity is severely affected by high salinity. According to Maggio et al., 2010, high levels of soil salinity can cause water deficit, ion toxicity, and nutrient deficiency leading to molecular damage and even plant death. Plants have evolved a variety of protective mechanisms to allow with these unfavorable environmental conditions for survival and growth including the accumulation of ions and osmolytes such as proline.Some grasses could grow in the soil salinity ranges between 300 to 500 mM NaCl ( Peng et al., 2004) while others could not survive in the salt concentration above 300 mM NaCl (La Peyre and Row, 2003).Growth of some halophytes is generally stimulated by various levels of salinity(Pujol et al., 2001).Salt stress severely limits the plant growth and yield; in fact no toxic substance restricts the plant growth more than salt on world scale (Xiong and Zhu, 2002). Growth of S. ioclados is inhibited with an increase in salinity. Most halophytic grasses do not survive in more than 300 mM NaCl (Glenn, 1987). Optimal growth of some monocotyledonous halophytes was observed in 300 mM NaCl (Breen et al., 1977;Lissner and Schierup, 1997).Bruguiera gymnorrhiza is a common mangrove tree which supports as a wall of mangrove forest and is widely distributed in Thailand and southeast Asia, southern and eastern Africa, Australia, Micronesia and Polynesia (Hou, 1970). Halophytes actually have increased growth at low salt concentrations (compared to no salt), with decreased growth at much higher concentrations. Plant growth and productivity is severely affected by high salinity. In the present investigation an attempt has been made to study the effect of Sodium Chloride on germination constituents of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Typically, it is most common in the middle and upper intertidal zones, rather than in the lower intertidal zone or along the seaward edge of mangrove stands. It is a medium to tall tree that may reach 30–35 m (100–115 ft) in height, although it is commonly much shorter. Diameters are commonly about 15–35 cm (6–14 in). Leaf color, size, and shape enable B. gymnorrhiza trees to be distinguished from other Bruguiera spp. As such, planting simply entails gently pushing the distal end of the 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long hypocotyl one third of its length into the sediment, spaced at about 1 m (3.3 ft) intervals. Leaves and roots may begin to develop within a week or two of sowing. Propagation is simple and relies on the special feature of this genus: viviparous propagules
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant material: Halophytic plant Bruguiera gymnorrhiza was selected for the present study, commonly large-leafed mangrove called as Oriental or Black mangrove belongs under Rhizophoraceae family. Collection of Plant Material Study Area: For the present investigation Bruguiera gymnorrhiza has been collected from the mangrove forest in Pichavaram in Tamilnadu. In India there are 7,00,000 ha of area covered by mangroves along the estuaries and major deltas. Indian mangroves comprised of more than 60 species belonging to 41 genera and 29 different families. Pichavaram mangrove forest is located in the southeast coast of India, at about 225 km south of Chennai and 5 km north east of Chidambaram, Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu, between latitude 11°20' to 11°30' north and longitudes 79°45' to 79°55' east. Mangrove is present in the higher land of Vellar - Coleroon estuarine complex. The mangrove extends to an area of 1,100 hectares, representing a heterogeneous mixture of mangrove elements. The mangrove comprises about 51 small and large islands with their sizes ranging from 10 m²to 2 km².Two major rivers viz. Vellar and Coleroon drain into the Bay of Bengal in this area. The area between the two rivers has brackishwater with mangrove vegetation. During 90s, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), Chennai, India established a mangrove Genetic Resource Conservation Centre here by adopting 50 ha forest area. Plant establishment: Equal-sized Seedlings were collected from coastal region of mangrove forest in pichavaram, during the month of September, 2010. The polythene bags size with 12×18 cm filled with homogenous mixture of garden soil containing red earth, sand and farmyard manure (1:2:1). Seedling with uniform size were selected during September month and each seedling planted in 320 polythene bags separately. Plantation were separated into 8 groups and each group containing 40 number of plants. Various concentration of Sodium Chloride (0,100,200,300,400,500,600,700mM) Salt solutions were prepared with NaCl (Laboratory Grade, Glaxo Laboratories, India), by using distilled water and it used for the present study. Each group of plants treated uniformly by different concentration of Sodium Chloride solution. In addition to this, plants were irrigated with Distilled water and maintained as control (0).All the experiments were conducted in the PG and Research, Department of Plant Biology and Biotehnology, Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Villupuram, Tamilnadu. The treatments were continued until the plants received the required concentrations of the salt, after this all the plants were irrigated with tap water. The experimental yard was roofed with transparent polythene sheet at the height of 3 m from the ground in order to protect the plants from rain. Sampling for various studies was taken on the 30th day after NaCl treatment. Plantations of the study area were continuously treated with various concentrations of NaCl solution and growths of plants were recorded in 30, 60, 90 and 120 days after sowing regularly. Growth Study: Shoot length (cm plant-1). Plant height was recorded by measuring the height of the plant from the surface of the soil to the tip of the top most leaf. This was recorded on 30,60,90 and120 days after treatment and expressed in cm plant-1. Root length (cm plant-1) The root length was measured from the point of first cotyledonary node to the tip of longest root and expressed in cm plant-1.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of salinity on growth The effect of different concentrations of NaCl on the shoot length per plant is presented in Chart (1 and 2). The maximum increase in shoot length was observed on the 400mM NaCl. In the optimum concentration, the calculated shoot length was high when compared to that of control. Beyond this optimum concentration, there was a gradual reduction in length of shoot was noticed.Plant height decreased with increasing salinity for halophyte Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Plant Shoot and root length were decreased in the plants supplemented with NaCl and their rate of loss was proportional to the concentration of the NaCl. Saline soils and saline irrigations constitute a serious production problem for vegetable crops as saline conditions are known to suppress plant growth (Shannon, et al., 1999). The results from Chart -1 .on growth of B.gymnorrhiza shows that higher shoot length (± 1.035) in 400mM treatment (±0.715) than control in 700mM treated seedling on 30th day and 400mM (±1.635),control (±1.305) on 60th observations .Other both 90 and 120 days observations increased seedling growth (±1.915),( ±2.185) in 400mM treatment respectively. Present findings supports the other researches.Greipsson and Davy (1996) also reported differences in salt tolerance of Leymus arenarius seedlings grown with seeds from inland and coastal populations. Seedlings of coastal origin had higher number of tillers at 200-400mM NaCl, while dry matter production was less adversely affected at higher salinities. In general, low salinity levels do not appear to have a deleterious effect on the growth of Atriplex spp. and may actually stimulate growth (Matoh,et al.,1986).According to Curtis,et al.,1986, the reduction of shoot growth and leaf area development of A.hortensis with increasing salt concentration in Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) under moderate salt stress was affected primarily through a reduction in elongation of stem and leaf area development. Similarly,the results from Chart -2, increased root growth of seedlings in 400mM (±0.645) 0n 30 days treatment .It gradually increased and the increased values (±1.51) obtained in 120th day than control.The increased values gradually decreased in 500mM upto 700mM treatment both in shoot and root length.Low shoot length values were (±0.565)obtained in 30days,( ±0.7) in 60 days,( ±0.875) in 90 days and Very low growth value (±0.91)in 120 days treated seedlings.At high salinities, growth reduction might be caused by a reduced ability to adjust osmotically, as a result of saturation of solute uptake system or excessive demand on the energy requirement of such systems (Gale,et al.,1985).Growth of S. ioclados is inhibited with an increase in salinity. Most halophytic grasses do not survive in more than 300 mM NaCl (Glenn, 1987). Optimal growth of some monocotyledonous halophytes was observed in 300 mM NaCl (Breen et al., 1977)Very declined growth values of root length (±0.255)in 30th day and (±0.74) in 120th day treated seedlings of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Previous studies in Atriplex amnicola also indicated that this plant increased growth after additions of NaCl to the growth medium up to 25-50 mM, but then growth declined as salt concentration was increased(Aslam,et al.,1986).
DISCUSSION
Halophytes shape the environments they live in, changing the surface of the Earth in the process. Certain halophyte species can also be used as animal fodder, an advantage in some communities. The results from Chart 1 and 2 on the various concentrations of NaCl solution treatment on seedling germination of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza observations revealed both positive and negative effects are obtained on these Bruguiera gymnorrhiza halophytic plant. The shoot and root length of seedlings of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza slowly increasing from 100mM upto 400mM concentrations of NaCl solution. From the results seedling growth of Bruguiera gyhmnorrhiza was maintained up to 400 mM NaCl. According to Manimegalai et.al.,(2012) seedling Germination activity of Bruguiera gyhmnorrhiza was maintained up to 400 mM NaCl. NaCl had increased the number of seedling germination with increasing concentrations up to 400mM. However, the presence of high salt levels does not seem to be required for optimal growth. It is reported that soil salinity suppresses shoot growth more than the root growth (Ramoliya,et al.,2004). The present findings strongly supports by some of the researches. Most of the plants cannot tolerate high salt concentrations of the soil and cannot be grown on a salt affected land (Glenn and Brown, 1999). Kelly et al.(1982), Daoud et al.(2001) and Harrouni et al. (2001) who reported that low NaCl concentrations stimulate growth of some halophytic species, but an excess of salt decreases growth and biomass production. The growth of Sesuvium portulacastrum showed positive effect to NaCl concentrations upto 600 mM and the upper limit for survival of this species was 900 mM (Ashraf, M., 1999.).The optimum growth for seedlings observed in 400mM,while dereasing the shoot and root length above this optimum level of increasing concentrations 500,600 and 700mM of NaCl solution.Similar findings supports present studies that reports the germination percentage is reduced with a high NaCl concentrations (Tobe et al., 2001; Rubio-Casal et al., 2003).Salt stress affects germination percentage, germination rate and seedling growth in different ways depending on the plant species (Ungar, 1996; Gul and Weber, 1999 ). Salinity has been shown to be one of the external factors that influence the process of senescence and the consequent shedding of leaves (Pool et al., 1975). At higher concentrations, the fresh weight of leaf, stem and root was reduced. The increase in fresh weight of the leaf tissues can be attributed to the increase in leaf thickness and the accumulation of ions and water in the tissues (Khan et al., 2005). Physiological disorders such as reduced growth are ultimately due to the cumulative effects of the causal factors on the physiological processes necessary for plant growth and its development (Schutzki and Cregg, 2007). Exposure to high NaCl imposes oxidative stress due to changes in the osmotic and ionic environment in plant (Alakhverdiev et al.2000).Our results indicated that sodium and chloride concentration in shoots and roots increased with salinity. It would appear that the growth response at moderate salinities may be largely the consequence of an increased throughput of solutes required to derive cell expansion—although this does not result in increased turgor pressure.Growth analysis Mean relative growth rate was stimulated by moderate external salinity, reaching a peak at 400mM NaCl that was nearly double the value in the absence of NaCl (Chart-1 and 2). Further increase in salinity caused a reduction in growth to a very low value at 700 mM NaCl. Total growth after 60 d of salinity treatment was also greatest in the 400 mM NaCl treatment and was highly correlated with decreasing concentration. Among the different concentrations of NaCl treatment, the 400mM NaCl alone showed a promontory effect while the other concentrations exhibited inhibitory effect on the germination of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza seedlings. The intensity of inhibition was proportional to the concentration of the NaCl concentration increased.
CONCLUSION
Results from investigation shows the inhibition of seedling shoot and root length in Bruguiera gymnorrhiza was caused by the NaCl solution . The plants that can be naturally established in saline soils called halophytes. When increasing the concentration from 100 upto 300mM the seedling growth was influenced. The concentration of 400 mM NaCl solution alone highly promoted the seedling growth .While increasing the other concentrations 500,600,700mM inhibited and delayed seedling germination of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza over control intensity of inhibition. Saline soil is characterized by the presence of toxic levels of sodium and its chlorides and sulphates. Increasing the concentration of NaCl with increasing the rate of shoot and root length of seedlings ,while decreasing the concentrations of NaCl with decreasing the rate of seedling shoot ,root length of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Maximum growth rate shows in 400mM and very low and negative growth rate obtained in 700mM of NaCl. Maas (1987) reported that in most halophytic species growth decreases gradually with the increase of salt rate in the culture medium above a critical threshold specific to each species. It was reported that maximum germination of the seeds of halophytic plants occurred in distilled water or under reduced salinity ( Carter and Ungar, 2003).The intensity of inhibition of growth was proportional to increasing the concentrations of NaCl solution employed.Positive growth proportional to low concentration and negative growth proportional to higher concentrations.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22General SciencesINFECTION OF ACANTHOCEPHALAN PARASITE NEOECHINORHYNCHUS AGILIS SP IN THE GREY MULLET, (MUGIL CEPHALUS) A CANDIDATE SPECIES FROM - CORENTYNE COAST, BERBICE, GUYANA.
English5362S.RajeshkumarEnglish S.GomathinayagamEnglish A. AnsariEnglish N.MunuswamyEnglishThe study describes the infection of the acanthocephalan, Neoechinorhynchus agilis sp. The (grey mullet) Mugil cephalus is highly valued food along the Corentyne coast, Berbice, Guyana. The fish Mugil cephalus were collected from Bush Lot, Whim, 43 Village 63 Beach and 79 Village, Corentyne coast. The infections with the parasites were observed in posterior region of the intestine, liver and muscle, almost blocking the lumen during the examination of M. cephalus. At thee site of the parasite attachment, the surface of the intestine appeared thickened along the mucosal epithelium. A description of the parasites and its clinicopathology is discussed. Though the worm substantially damaged the architecture of the intestinal tissues, no apparent ill effects on the general health condition of the fish were observed. This is the first report of Mugil cephalus of Berbice River, Corentyne coast from Guyana.
EnglishAcanthocephalans, Spiny headed worm, Neoechinorhynchus agilis sp, Mugil cephalusOccurrence of disease conditions particularly due to parasites has become a major constraint in aquaculture (Bondad-Reantaso et al., 2005). Besides the direct losses caused by mortality, parasites have considerable impact on growth, resistance to other stressing factors, susceptibility to predation, marketability and pave way for secondary infections (Woo, 2006). Acanthocephalans, known as thorny-headed worms or spiny-headed worms, are characterized by the presence of proboscis, armed with spines, which they use to pierce and hold the gut wall of their gnathostome in the definitive host. Acanthocephalans are obligate endoparasites which infect in host’s intestine (Taraschewski, 1989a and b). They typically have complex life cycles, involving a number of hosts, including arthropods as the intermediate hosts, fishes, amphibians, birds, and mammals as the definitive host (Dudinak and Snabel, 2001). Cases of serious illness or high mortality induced by acanthocephalan infections in fish were seldom reported due to the much lower infection intensity compared with other helminth parasites (Hsiu-HuiShih et al., 2010). Acanthocephalans display the sort of interspecific body size variation that requires explanation among the approximately 1100 described species, adult body lengths vary from 1 mm to more than 60 cm (Bush et al., 2001).
The life cycle of acanthocephalans includes two hosts, an arthropod intermediate host (either an insect or a crustacean) and a vertebrate definitive host a paratenic or transport host in which no development occurs may also be used in some species (Crompton and Nickol, 1985). There is some growth inside the intermediate host and it is thus the size of the last juvenile stage, the cystacanth, which corresponds to the starting size of the parasite when it arrives in the vertebrate host. The final size of the adult worm will depend not only on cystacanth size, but also on the increment in size achieved within the definitive host. Acanthocephalans have thus gained attention from ecologists and environmental toxicologists within the last decade (Taraschewski, 2000). Parasitic infections in fishes are common, especially in wild populations where ecological requirements for intermediate hosts and parasite transmission are met (Feist and Longshaw, 2008). Management of parasitic problems is the major limiting factor in fin fish aquaculture in terms of profitability and environmental health (Costello, 2009; Burridge et al., 2010). Acanthocephalans are a group of endoparasitic helminths commonly found in both marine and freshwater fishes worldwide (Jithendran and Kannappan, 2010). They have a complex life cycle involving arthropods as intermediate hosts and vertebrates as definitive or paratenic hosts and are known to cause pathological conditions in many fin fishes. In severe infections they can cause occlusion of the gut and invasion/migration of the parasites into uncommon locations have also been reported (Nickol, 2006). Besides the drain of valuable nutrients, involvement of toxins and localized toxaemia has also been suggested by some authors (Holloway, 1966). But, diverse views exist regarding the intensity of damage caused by the parasites to the well being of the host and in many cases, apparent changes are not reflected in the general health and condition of the host. Fish parasites are nowadays considered as one of the most inviting fields of research especially after the importance of fishes as a valuable source of protein, in which heavy infection may cause functional disturbances, retard growth, increase the susceptibility of fish for other infection and give the fish an anaesthetic appearance (Paperna, 1980; Mahmoud, 1983). The grey mullet (M. Cephalus) is a commercial marine fish in fish market. This species is omnivorous, feeds on plankton, thus it is more exposed to infection by trematodes than other marine fish, and is therefore selected for the present investigation. In the course of our routine investigation of parasitic disease of finfish, a case of heavy infection of ‘thorny headed worm’ was observed in a wild catch of mullet fish. The present study describes the morphology, taxonomy and clinicopathology of infection.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Study area:
The study area was demarcated into 5 different collection points based on the criteria as follow. The temperature and salinity of this Corentyne coast under study ranged between 25- 30 ºC and 25-29 ppt respectively. (Station 1) Whim located in estuarine and coastal areas, spawning and nursery grounds of many marine species, including the commercially valuable shrimps and fish. (Station 2) Bush Lot situated on the western side of the Canje fresh water canal. (Station 3) 43 Village situated near cattle and animal farms, northern tip being closest to influx of contaminants that are directly mixed fresh water from the canal through Corentyne coast. (Station 4) 63 Beach situated towards south west near fresh water canal, an area of maximum inflow of effluents mainly due to anthropogenic sources and outlet located along the length of the Corentyne coast. (Station 5) 79 Village situated in Skeldon, the northern side with the outlet for waste water from the Guyana Sugar Corporation INC (Guysuco), which is also the boundary between Corentyne and Suriname coast (Fig.1).
inhabitant of the Corentyne coast, was chosen as the experimental animal for the study according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) species identification sheet (Fischer and Bianchi, 1984). Grey mullets with an average length of 30-32 cm were collected from Whim, Bush Lot, 43 Village 63 Beach and 79 Village of Corentyne coast, Berbice. Fishes were brought to the laboratory on the same day and then frozen at -20 ºC until dissected (Fig.2).
Identification of Parasite: Frozen fish samples
were thawed at room temperature and dissected, intestines removed and placed in physiological saline in Petri dishes. The entire intestine was dissected, opens longitudinally and examined for the presence of acanthocephalan parasites under a Leica S6D sterozoom microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany). Parasites attached firmly to the wall/tissue of the intestine were dissected out with aid of fine needle and forceps. The specimens were then fixed in cold 75% ethanol.
Whole mounts: For preparing whole mounts, specimen were pressed slightly between glass slides, fixed in AFA (alcohol-formal-acetic acid) overnight, stained with Semichons acetocarmine stain and counter stained with fast green (Lasee,2006), (Table 1). Table 1: Measurements of both male and female specimens of Neoechinorhynchus agilis and M. cephalus respectively. Comparison of data from the literature (Petrochenko, 1956 and Govsn, 1969) and specimens from the present research (M. cephalus).
RESULTS
Prevalence and intensity:
The examination of the different tissues of M. cephalus revealed the presence of heavy infection with the parasite (Fig.3a). All the fishes collected from Corentyne coast, infections were recorded from Neoechinorhynchus agilis, the worms that were reddish yellow to orange in colour and were seen attached to the posterior region of the intestine, liver and muscle (Fig.3a-c). The intensity of infection varied from (5-30) in Neoechinorhynchus agili. Besides, only Bush Lot and Whim fish specimens of M. chephalus were examined from Corentyne coast and intensity of infection was very low with only (5- 8) parasites recorded (Table 2).
Morphology: The taxonomy of the worms were attempted by clearing the specimens and identified as acanthocephalan parasite using photomicrographs taken using Leica S6D stero zoom microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany). On microscope examination, the metasoma of the parasite was cylindrical, relatively short proboscis was as long as wide, armed with a set of hooks arranged in three circles of six hooks, first rows of hooks largest. The neck was not clearly demarcated. The elongate oval testes lay one behind the other in the middle third of the body. Female worms revealed large number of ovarian balls inside in the ligament sac (Fig. 4ad).
DISCUSSION
The morphological characteristics of the specimen, shape and size of proboscis, the low number and position of the spines on the proboscis clearly place this species within the genus Neoechinorhynchus and conform to the descriptions for Neoechinorhynchus agilis (Rudolphi, 1819, belonging to Acanthocephala: Neoechinorhynchidae (Yamaguti, 1935). The acanthocephalan Neoechinorhynchus sp is a relatively largest with approximately 70-75 species and typically found in freshwater fishes (Ching, 1984). The biodiversity of acanthocephalan species in fish is largely unknown in India (Jithendran and Kannappan, 2010). Acanthocephalan infections depend on various factors such as species of parasite and host nature of the infected tissues and host-parasite interactions the nature and thickness of the various tissue layers, length of the neck and proboscis, presence or absence of a proboscis bulb and the nature of spination also affect the pathological outcome. The mechanical destruction to the host's intestinal tissue is usually followed by host immune responses like proliferation of fibroblasts and granular cell infiltration around the invader, resulting in the formation of a collagenic capsule around it (Schelhaas, 1980), which is very much evident in the present study. The pathology of acanthocephalan parasites in fishes especially with reference to been well documented (Wanstall et al., 1986; Dezfuli, 1991). Usually in acanthocephalan infections, pathology appears to be negligible when parasites are attached to the epithelial mucosa only but deeply embedded forms like Pomphorhynchus spp. can cause serious pathological conditions resulting in extensive granuloma and subsequent fibrosis (McDonough and Gleason, 1981). Extensive inflammation, peritonitis due to perforation of the gut and systemic clinical changes will occur only in massive infections, most often in farmed fish (Bullock, 1963). There are some reports of the Neoechinorhynchus sp from Indian marine fishes (Tripathi, 1959; Chandra et al., 1985) besides other acanthocephalan species, Serrasentis nadakali from Rachycentron canadum and Tenuiproboscis sp (George and Nadakal, 1981) In many marine fish species with aquaculture potential (Sanil et al., 2011) the fishes were apparently healthy except choking of intestinal tract with several live acanthocephalan worms infections, the different organs appeared to be packed with parasites, almost blocking the intestinal lumen, which will adversely affect the movement of digested materials within the intestine and the absorption of nutrients. de Buron and Nickol (1994), reported occlusion and significant distension of M. cephalus infected with the acanthocephalan Neoechinorhynchus sp. Taraschewski (2000) has observed that the pathogenicity of acanthocephalans is mainly caused by two factors, density of worms and depth of parasite penetration into the host tissues. Though the pathological effects are localized around individual worms, in the present case with unusually high parasite load, total destruction of the tissue architecture due to the collective pathological changes had occurred. However, the fish appeared healthy without any clinical manifestations and this observation is in agreement with the views of Hine and Kennedy (1974). In heavy infections the amount of nutrients drained by these worms may be of considerable physiological consequence to the host animals. Severe irreversible damage to the intestinal villi will drastically reduce the absorptive area available for the normal digestive and absorptive functions of the animal while the damages associated with the tissue reactions in the wall of the intestine will alter the nature of the tissues, affecting its functional efficiency and the overall health status of the fish. This study contributes to the knowledge of the acanthocephalans in wild brackish /marine water fish in general as well as to the Neoechinorhynchus sp. in particular. Neoechinorhynchus agilis has been recorded in a study on grey mullets from landing centre near Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India (Jithendran and Kannappan, 2010). Generally, co-infection with nematode parasites has been observed, but the present case showed mono-infection with acanthocephalans alone in the intestinal tract. Usually in acanthocephalan infections, pathology appears to be negligible when parasites are attached to the epithelial mucosa only. Kabata (1985) opined that the number of worms present is important in determining the severity of damage. In severe infected fish acanthocephalans may perforate the gut wall with their proboscis and cause considerable damage with severe local inflammatory reaction. Further, the number of acanthocephalans per fish seemed to increase with the size of the host fish. A similar finding has been reported by various workers in case of other species of acanthocephalans as well (Jithendran and Kannappan, 2010). This is the first study on the detailed pathological manifestations of Neoechinorhynchus sp. and is also the first report of the parasite from M. chephalus. A prevalence of 100% in M. chephalus combined with high intensity of infections in 43 village, 63 Beach and 79 village from Corentyne coast, Whim and Bush Lot indicates that Neoechinorhynchus sp. is less host specific and the ecological requirements for intermediate hosts and parasite transmission are met, favoring the establishment of the parasite. Heavy infections with Neoechinorhynchus sp. capable of causing irreversible damage to the intestinal tissues can seriously affect the health and quality of the M. chephalus brood stock and thereby making the fish unfit for hatchery production. As currently the hatchery production of fin fishes in the region depends solely on brood stock sourced from the wild, further studies are required to understand the intermediate host and life cycle pattern of the parasite and to elucidate possible management measures.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN-0001November30General SciencesCLIMATE CHANGE AND SOIL DEGRADATION IMPACT: FARMERS' VIEWPOINTS IN KEBBI STATE NIGERIA.
English6370S. UsmanEnglish J. MortonEnglish I. S. KokoEnglish A. AminuEnglish A. Abdullahi MakaiEnglish A. AdamuEnglishUnderstanding climate change and soil degradation impact on global environment is an enormous scientific challenge of the 21st century. Kebbi State is due to consider this challenge because of its low economic development, lack of infrastructure, services and needs for special attention on soil and environment in developing proper agricultural activities. For this, the ultimate aim of this study was to address the impact and causes of climate change and soil degradation in Kebbi State Nigeria. In an effort to collect necessary information, a Verbal Interview (VI) was carried out in rural areas of Bagudo, Birnin Yawuri, Bui, Dirin daji, Gotomo, Kangiwa, Ngaski, and Tondi gada. The results of this study indicated that farmers’ viewpoints on the impact of climate change and soil degradation have contemplation in the global climate change and soil degradation perspectives. The opinion of farmers is that the major factors behind climate change and soil degradation impact in the affected areas include deforestation, drought, overgrazing, poor government policy, poor research development, increase population and poverty.
EnglishClimate change, Soil degradation, Farmers, InterviewINTRODUCTION
Call has been made for more research into the global drivers of African climate and into the detailed consequences at local level (Conway, 2009). Sub-Saharan Africa is due to answer this call because of its low economic development, lack of infrastructure, services and needs for special attention on soil and environment in developing climate change adaptation strategies (Eswaran et al., 1998). Understanding climate change and its likely impacts on global environment is one of the great scientific priorities of the 21st century and responding successfully to them will be a major test for global environmental civilization (David et al., 2008; Trevor, 2009). Climate change impact has led to increase in soil and land problems such as changes in the seasonality of precipitation and a potential increase in the frequency of extreme events to have also potential implications on soil properties and process rates (Parry et al., 2007). Climate change has been linked to degradation of natural resource such as soil inform of erosion, that has received a very high consideration for both in research and environmental policy issues because of its potential impacts on global environmental and soil developments (Dougill et al., 2002; Thomas and Dougill, 2003; Pathak et al., 2005; Engstrom et al., 2008). So far, the result of many studies on climate changes worldwide suggested that climate change is the major driving force of soil degradation (Devidson et al., 2003; Trevor, 2009; Ameztegui et al., 2010). The IPCC report on working group II (Perry et al., 2007) reported that increased rainfall amounts and intensities will lead to greater soil erosion rates, which are expected to change in response to changes in climate for a variety of reasons including the change in the erosive power of rainfall, changes in plant canopy, change in the litter cover, and changes in land use practices. Indeed, as a result of losses and damages caused by climate changes and soil degradation on global environment (Max et al., 1997; Bationo et al., 2007; Pak Sum Low, 2010), the rapid increasing world population is currently suffering from food crisis that led to the increase in hunger, malnutrition and poverty. Kebbi State will be a good example. The work of Usman (2007) reported that there is need of more information on impact of climate change and soil degradation in northern States of Nigeria including Kebbi State. Meanwhile, environmental crisis due to climate change or soil degradation problems are increasingly alarming and affects almost everyone on the planet (IFAD, 2007). The development and poverty reduction in Kebbi State depends on its ability to conserve, sustain and manage soil resources for agricultural production. Therefore, in this study, the farmer’s outlook on the impacts of climate change as liked to soil degradation in dry areas are taken into account in addition to identify the major causes of environmental changes in some local areas of Kebbi State Nigeria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Area of study:
Kebbi State is located in subSaharan West African desert region, bordering the nations of Niger republic to the west and Benin republic to the southwest, and also borders the Nigerian States of Sokoto to the north, Zamfara to the east and Niger to the south. Kebbi State is one of the SudanoSahelian zone regions of Nigeria dominated by Hausa-Fulani. The total land area of the State is 36,229 km2 of which 12,600 km2 is under agriculture. The State has a total population of 3, 630, 9313 people of which 85% (over 2 000000) are farmers. The major binding factors among the people living in the Sate include the significance of Islamic religious culture, Hausa as a major language of communication and agriculture as a key economic sustainable livelihood. Verbal Interview (VI): In an effort to collect necessary information on climate and environmental changes in Kebbi State, a Verbal Interview (VI) was carried out in rural areas (Richard, 2007; Martin, 2007). Farmers were selected according to Random Method (RM) introduced by FAO (1997). The respondents include rural farmers, village heads and house heads living in Bagudo, Birnin Yawuri, Bui, Dirin daji, Gotomo, Kangiwa, Ngaski, and Tondi gada local areas of Kebbi State. The types of questions used were mainly on climate change and soil degradation. These questions are: ‘Is climate changes?’, ‘What major environmental degradation it caused’ ‘Is climate change affect physical environmental condition? And what they believe would happen to their physical environmental condition in the future; Are there any soil changes on your farms? What are these major changes? Have you observed yield reduction? What are the major causes?. Priority was given to forest, vegetation and cultivated lands, which have been affected physically. The total size of the participants in each village was 100 (100 x 8 = 800). The participants were predominantly farmers aged 20 to 70 years old. Individuals were organized in front of district head house to answer the questions early in the morning. Overall, each interview was recorded using pen and exercise book, lasted between 55 and 95 minutes for a period of 2 days in each study area from Saturday to Sunday. This interview was also repeated for 5 weeks, and the reason behind this is to collect as much information for data accuracy. However, at the end of each interview, the recorded information was then reorganised in another new exercise book and finally documented into the laptop comp
The total numbers of persons who reply positively and negatively to the questions were presented in Table 1. The number of negative answer was shown in bracket. Farmers’ responds in Bagudo (90%), Bui (94%), Gotomo (90%) and Kangiwa (92%) have complained that soil erosion, desertification and desert encroachment are physically affecting agricultural lands in their vicinities. Farmers’ respond to the same question in Birnin-Yawuri (68%), Dirin-daji (71%) and Ngaski (79%) complained much on deforestation as one the major environmental problem in their areas. Farmers in Tondi-Gada (89%) complained much about gully erosion. The two major environmental problems, which have been complained most, by farmers throughout the interview, are soil erosion and desertification; these are two major problems in Bagudo, Bui, Gotomo, Kangiwa and Tondi Gada. The high percentages of farmer’s responds by rank were reported in Bui (94%), Kangiwa (92%), Bagudo (90%), and Gotomo (90%) (Table 1).
Table 2 shows the farmer’s rejoinders on physical environmental condition in Kebbi State. According to the farmers’ viewpoints, the physical environmental condition commences to change in early 90s. Historical events of farmers’ outlook on this problem show that, in years 70s, 80s and early 90s, the environment was physically good. However, unacceptable changes have been noticed by farmers in the late 90s to date. Majority of the farmers who participated in the interview (40–88%), have accounted that during the years 1980 to 1990 most of the agricultural lands in Kebbi State are in excellent and goods conditions; most of the lands are fertile and high crop yields were produced. The vegetation cover, forest areas and cultivated lands were all affected.
Table 3 highlighted the reactions of rural farmers on environmental conditions in Baudo, Birnin Yawuri, Bui and Kangiwa. It is reported that 60% to 70% of farmers were agreed that the environment has changed. Similarly, they opined that erosion and desertification are the major environmental problems, which have dynamically altered some of the agricultural lands in their localities. According to 80% of the farmers, the environmental components, which were affected, include soil, vegetation and cropping areas. Other factors noted by farmers are leaching, mass movement, surface land channels, poor crop performance, yield reduction, plant disappearance, and poor vegetation cover. The major causes of these problems are deforestation, poverty, drought, overgrazing, increased population, poor government policy, and poor research (Table 3).
DISCUSSION
The ultimate aim of this study was to address the impact and causes of climate change and soil degradation on agricultural soil environment in Kebbi State. The results indicated that soil and soil properties have been changed, and this change was assessed by farmers as formation and development of soil erosion, desertification, dessert encroachment, leaching, mass movement of soil particles, development of gullies or land channels, which have subsequently resulted to poor soil quality, poor crop performance and yield reduction (Tables 1). This finding has comforted very well with previous studies on impact of climate change and soil degradation on agricultural lands (Eswaran et al., 1998; Parry et al., 2007; Bai et al., 2008). Although the present study has differs with these studies in the sense that it only focuses on farmers view rather than projection using the previous climate data record or a practical field assessment. Physically, aridity is one the major climates characteristics in the affected areas and most of land are uncovered characterised by poor vegetation cover and poor soil conditions in recent years (Table 2). The results of these poor vegetation and soil conditions have been related to factors such as deforestation, poverty, drought, overgrazing, population, government and poor-research (Table 3). As matter of fact, formation of soil erosion, desert encroachment, mass movement of soil particles, leaching and land channels are problems, which have been associated with climate change impact in many cases. Possibly, it is likely that the amount of rainfall, seasonal variation, length of time and unreliability (drought period) are four key factors, which may have put agricultural soil environment of the study areas into poor condition, as farmers perceived the problems in the different direction (Tables 3). These might have been the result of the formation of soil erosion, soil deterioration and environmental changes as perceived by farmers in the study areas. Because the rainfall regimes of this region, have been characterized by high concentrations in a few months, intermittence and violent storms (Put et al., 2004; Bunyamin et al., 2006). Similarly, Mortimore et al. (2000) have also attributed environmental changes as perceived by farmers to high rainfall intensity in their project report on relevance of Nigerian farmers’ responses to dryland farming systems in India and Southern Africa. And, a typical example of this was also reported by World Meteorological Organization (WMO, 1967) in countries of Algeria, Chad, Pakistan, South Yemen and Sudan. Geographically, these countries shared similar climate and soil environment with Kebbi State. A long dry season (drought) in the study areas is another area of consideration. For example, the phenomenon might affect the low input farmer who in many ways is relying on available natural resources more heavily (Lee and Schaaf, 2006).
CONCLUSION
The outcomes of this study, observed that farmers’ viewpoints on the impact of climate change and soil degradation have some contemplations in the global climate change and soil degradation perspectives (Usman, 2013). The results designated that soil and soil properties were changed in form of soil erosion, desertification, dessert encroachment, leaching, mass movement of soil particles, development of gullies or land channels, and subsequently poor soil quality, poor crop performance and annual yield reduction (Tables 1, 2, 3). Correspondingly, the summary report of IPCC (2001) on climate change for policy makers concluded that “the changes which have been observed in regional climate data have affected many physical and biological systems, and there are preliminary indications that social and economic systems have been affected”. The physical and biological systems may include soil, forest, vegetation cover and plant/crop biomass, which farmers complained much in this study. Regardless of whatever changes may expect to occur in the future due to climate change and soil degradation impacts, the Kebbi region is likely to face some challenges if the land would continuous to be in poor condition, unprotected and unembellished. The results of this study indicated that farmer’s viewpoints on the impact of climate change and soil degradation have contemplation in the global climate change and soil degradation perspectives. The opinion of farmers is that the major factors behind climate change and soil degradation impact in the affected areas include deforestation, drought, overgrazing, poor government policy, poor research development, increase population and poverty.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study was developed within the activities of Usman Ph D programme at Natural Resources Institute, the University of Greenwich London, 2010-2013 (Book published by Usman, S. 2013); we acknowledge his contribution. We thank the Kebbi State Government Nigeria for funding his programme under the leadership of Alhaji Saidu Usman Nasamu Dakin-Gari administration.As part of this acknowledgement, we thank the pronounced assistance received from the scholars whose articles cited and included in references of our paper. We also express the thanks to publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Personally, we are grateful to IJCRR editorial board members and IJCRR team of reviewers who have facilitated to bring quality to this paper.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1492http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1492REFERENCES
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22General SciencesCALCULATING ESR PARAMETERS (H^& ?E h f) OF 4d AND 5d TRANSITION METAL ION COMPLEXES: A DFT STUDY.
English7188Harminder Singh A.K. BhardwajEnglish M.L.SehgalEnglish Susheel K. MittalEnglishDensity functional theory implemented in ADF 2009.01 was used to calculate the values of two ESR parameters namely effective spin Hamiltonian [H^] and hyperfine coupling energy (?E hf) along with the values of four factors (g, a, Q, and I) which contribute to the total value of the Hamiltonian for 45 complexes of six congeners of 2nd and 3rd transition series metal ions such as Zr (III) , Hf (III) ; Nb (IV), Ta(IV) ; Mo(III), W(III) ; Tc (II), Re(II) ; Ru (III), Os(III) ; Rh (IV), Ir (IV). Four relations which hold good both in regular (Oh) as well as distorted stereochemistries (D6h, D3d, D12, C2v, C1, C2) of these complexes were applied. The basis sets used were DZ or TPZ. The complexes were optimized to obtain ESR (g11, g22, g33, giso ; a11, a22, a33, A ten) and NQR parameters [?; q11, q22, q33 and NQCC] which were then used to calculate [H^] and [?Eh f].
EnglishINTRODUCTION
Effective spin Hamiltonian (H^) is a mathematical expression that determines energy of an ESR transition in a paramagnetic complex. The Hamiltonian depends upon a number of ESR parameters [anisotropic and isotropic splitting factors (g11, g22, g33, g iso ), hyperfine coupling constants (a11, a22, a33, Aten)], NQR parameters [electric field gradient or efg (q11,q22,q33), Nuclear Quadrupole Constant (Q)]1 , total electronic spin (S), Bohr Magneton of both the electron (?e) and of the nucleus (?n), nuclear spin quantum number (I), gn (nuclear magnetic ratio) along with nature of the surrounding nuclei if they possess quadrupole moments (I?1). 1 Q or e Q is the nuclear quadrupole moment. q Or e q is the electric field gradient. The product of the quantities (e Q × e q= e2Qq) is nuclear quadrupole coupling constant (Q). When certain commands were given to the ADF 2009.01, we obtained two ESR parameters (isotropic and anisotropic g, a) and three NQR [asymmetric coefficient (?), anisotropic electric field gradient or efg (q), nuclear quadrupole coupling constant or NQCC (Q)] parameters and optimization parameters of complexes. The three (g, a, Q) of these five parameters were used to calculate another two ESR parameters [effective spin Hamiltonian (H^) and hyperfine coupling energy (?E h f)] of complexes. The need for taking up this study arose because not much work was reported (1-29) on ESR studies of 4d and 5d metal ion complexes. In fact, theoretical calculation of Effective Spin Hamiltonian (H^) on such a vast number of complexes was never reported before because: (i) High values of spin orbit coupling constants (λ metal ion) of these metal ions would not allow exact determination of the ESR parameters experimentally. (ii) Cryoscopy conditions generally needed in low energy microwave region (X band: 9000- 10000 MHz) were difficult to obtain and cumbersome to maintain. The relevance and the objective of present work lied in the fact that simply by applying DFT (30-31) to ADF 2009.01; we were able to do away with all these limitations. Four relations were selectively used to calculate H^ and ?E h f parameters of 45 complexes such as [ZrX6] 3- (X=Cl , Br), [HfX6] 3- (X=F ,Cl, Br ), [Hf (NH3)6] 3+ , [Nb (NH3)6] 4+ , [NbX6] 2- (X=F ,Cl, NCS ), [TaX6] 2- (X= Cl, Br), [MoX6] 3- ( X=F, Cl ,Br, NCS), [Mo(OH2)6] 3+,[Mo(NH3)6] 3+ [WX6] 3- (X=F,Cl ,Br), [ W(OH2)6] 3+ , [W(NH3)6] 3+ , [TcX6] 4- (X= Cl ,Br, NCS) , [Tc (NH3)6] 2+, [ReX6] 4- (X= Cl ,Br), [Re(NH3)6] 2+ , [RuX6] 3- (X=F, Cl ,Br), [OsX6] 3- (X=F, Cl ,Br), [Os(NH3)6] 3+, [RhX6] 2- (X=F, Cl ,Br), [Rh(NH3)6] 4+ , [IrX6] 2- ( X=F, Cl ,Br), [Ir (NH3)6] 4+ .\
METHODOLOGY
After optimization of the complexes by ADF 2009.01, the software was run by applying Single Point, LDA? , Default, Spin Orbit, Unrestricted, None and Collinear commands by using DZ* or TPZ* Basis sets in all the 45 ? Acronyms are: LDA (Local Density Approximation); DZ (Double Zeta) TPZ (Triple Zeta) GGA BP (Generalized Gradient Approximation Becke Perdew); Nysom (Normalized) complexes except for [Os (NH3)6] 3+ and [Rh(NH3)6] 4+ where LDA was replaced by GGABP*. Each complex with NYSOM* symmetry generated an OUTPUT file of its own. It contained values of ESR (g11, g22, g33 and giso; a11, a22, a33 and A t e n), NQR (?, q11, q22, q33, NQCC) and optimization [geometry, dipole moment, bonding energy, total energy (X c) parameters having contributions from LDA and GGA*components; each being further made up of Exchange and Correlation parts].The bonding energy was computed as an energy difference between the molecule and fragments. As the fragments were single atoms, they were usually computed as Spherically Symmetric and SpinRestricted. So this usually did not represent the true atomic ground state (53-54) .
RESULTS
Tables: 1.1-1.12 and1.1-1 A-1.12A gave values of optimization parameters of 12 metals of the 2 nd and 3rd transition series and their 45 complexes respectively. Tables: 1.1B - 1.12B contained ESR and NQR parameters like g?, g ? ? , g iso; a? , a11, A ten and Q along with contributions from their respective factors. It also contained contribution from the fourth factor called interaction of nuclear magnetic moment with external magnetic field factor (I) in H^. These tables also gave ? E h f values of the complexes as calculated by [4]. [I] Calculation of H^ for Zr (III) and Hf (III) Complexes (a) [ZrX6] 3- (X = F, Cl) in Table: 1.1B were of axial symmetry with (a) two of the three g called g? being the same and the third of higher value was called g?? . (b) Two of the three a called a? were of same value and the third of higher value was called a11. (c) Two values of q out of the three were the same (d) ?=0. Relation [2] was applied to calculate their H^. (Put S_x=S_y=S_z=1/2; I_x=I_y=I_z=2.5 and g n= -0.5214480). (b) The Hf (III) complexes were categorized as follows (Table: 1.2 B): (i) [Hf X6] 3- (X=F, Br) had an axial symmetry with (a) two of the three g called g? being the same and the third with higher value was called g?? . (b) Two of the three a called a? being the same and the third with higher value was called a11. (c) Two of the three q values were the same. (d) ?=0. Relation [2] was applied to calculate their H^. (ii) In [Hf Cl6] 3- , all g and a parameters possessed same values respectively. Relation [3] was applied to calculate its H^. (iii) As g and a values respectively differ in [Hf (NH3)6] 3+, the relation [1] was used to calculate its H^. (Put S_x=S_y=S_z=1/2; I_x=I_y=I_z=3.5 and g n= 0.2267143). Individual contributions from the four factors in the total value of H^ for these six complexes were given in small brackets of horizontal row shown at the bottom (?) of Tables: 1.1B, 1.2B). (c) ? Eh f values of these Zr (III) and Hf (III) complexes were calculated by [4] (Tables: 1.1 B, 1.2 B).
[1I]Calculation of H^ for Nb (IV) andTa (IV) complexes: (a) The complexes of Nb (IV) were categorized as follows (Table: 1.3 B): (i) [NbX6] 2- (X = F, Cl) and [Nb(NH3)6] 4+ were of axial symmetry with (a) two of the three g being the same called g? and the third with higher value was called g??. (b)Two of three a called a? being the same and the third of higher value was called a11. (c) Two of the three q values were of the same magnitude. (d) ?= 0. Relation [2] was applied to calculate their H^. (ii) [Nb (NCS) 6] 2- had different values of both g and a respectively. Relation [1] was applied to calculate its H^. (Put S_x=S_y=S_z=1/2; I_x=I_y=I_z= 4.5 and gn= 1.3712222). (b) The Ta (IV) complexes were categorized as follows (Table: 1.4 B): (i) [Ta Cl6] 2- had an axial symmetry with (a) two of the three g called g? being of same value and the third of higher value was called g?? . (b) Two of the three a called a? being of the same value and the third of higher value was called a11. (c) Two of the three q were of same value. (d) ?=0. Relation [2] was used to calculate H^. (ii) [Ta Br6] 2- possessed almost same values of g and a. Relation [3] was applied to calculate its H^. (Put S_x=S_y=S_z=1/2; I_x=I_y=I_z=3.5 and gn= 0.6772857). Individual contributions from four factors in the total value of H^ for these six complexes were given in small brackets of horizontal row shown at the bottom (?) of Tables: 1.3 B, 1. 4B). (c) ?Eh f for these Nb (IV) and Ta(IV) complexes was calculated by [4] (Tables: 1.3 B, 1.4 B).
[1II] Calculation of H^ for Mo (III) andW (III) complexes: (a) All the six Mo (III) complexes (Table: 1.5 B) such as [MoX6] 3- (X=F, Cl, Br, CNS) as well as [Mo (OH2)6] 3+and [Mo (NH3)6] 3+ had nearly the same values of a and g parameters. Relation [3] was applied to calculate their H^. (Put S_x=S_y=S_z=3/2; I_x=I_y=I_z=2.5 and g n= -0.3656800). (b) All the five W (III) complexes (Table: 1.6 B) like [W X6] 3- (X=F, Cl, Br) as well as [W (OH2)6] 3+ and [W (NH3)6] 3+ possessed nearly the same values of g and a parameters. Relation [3] was applied to calculate H^ for all these complexes. (Put S_x=S_y=S_z=3/2; I_x=I_y=I_z=0.5 and g n= 0.2355696). Values of individual contributions from the four factors in the total value of (H^) for these eleven complexes were given in small brackets of a horizontal row shown at the bottom of each complex (?) of Tables: 1. 5 B and 1.6B. With I=0.5, there is no NQCC for W (III) complexes. Therefore, only three factors would contribute in the total value of H^ in its complexes. (c) ?E hf for these Mo (III) and W (III) complexes was calculated by [4] (Tables: 1.5 B, 1.6 B).
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1493http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=1493Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22General SciencesSEEDLING GERMINATION CHANGES BY SODIUM CHLORIDE ON CERIOPS ROXBURGHIANA, ARNOTT. HALOPHYTE
English8994Elumalai D.English Manikandan T.EnglishThe term "mangrove" is being applied to the specific ecosystem of the intertidal world in the tropics and subtropics and the plant community of this ecosystem is termed as "mangrove vegetation". Halophytes as a group have one or more of several physiological adaptations that allow for the survival in the saline environment. A halophyte is a plant which is capable of surviving in a highly salty environment. In the present research an attempt has been made to study the effect of Sodium Chloride on seedling germination constituents of Ceriops roxburghiana. Seedlings were collected from mangrove forest in pichavaram, Tamilnadu, India. Polytene bags sizes with 12×18 cm were filled with sand, humus and red sand in 1:2:1 ratio. Various concentration of Sodium Chloride solution (0,100,200,300,400,500,600 and 700mM) were prepared by using distilled water. Plantation were separated into 8 groups, each group containing 50 number of plants. Each group of plants treated uniformly by different concentration of Sodium Chloride solution. In addition to this, plants were irrigated with distilled water and maintained as control (0). The effects of Sodium Chloride on seedling germination of the halophyte Ceriops roxburghiana were studied. Germination activity was maintained up to 300 mM NaCl. The NaCl inhibited germination only at concentrations higher than 300 mM.The results indicated that the NaCl salinity stimulated the seedling germination upto the optimal level of salinity (i.e., 100mM and 300mM) and decreased significantly with increased salinity (400 to 700mM). The inhibition of seed germination was proportional to the concentrations of NaCl increased.
EnglishCeriops, Concentrations, Germination, Increase, Treatment.INTRODUCTION
Mangrove plants live in hostile environmental conditions such as high salinity, hypoxic (oxygen deficient) waterlogged soil strata, tidal pressures, strong winds and sea waves. The plants that can be naturally established in saline soils called halophytes (Tabaee Oghdaee, R, 1999). Mangroves are found extensively in the estuarine regions where mud flats are wide and gently sloping. Besides estuaries, they also inhabit the intertidal regions of shallow bays and creeks where the environment is conducive for the growth of mangroves. Growing in the intertidal areas and estuary mouths between land and sea, mangroves provide critical habitat for a diverse marine and terrestrial flora and fauna. Healthy mangrove forests are key to healthy marine ecology. Salt stress in soil or water is one of the major stresses especially in arid and semi arid regions and can severely limit plant growth and productivity. The floral diversity of mangroves in India is great. The Indian mangroves are represented by approximately 59 species (inclusive of some mangrove associates) from 29 families. Of the 59 species, 34 species belonging to 21 families are present along the west coast. Soil salinity limits the plant growth and crop yield in many parts of the world, particularly in the arid and semi arid areas. Halophytes will not only offer great potential as novel crops but also important models for understanding salt tolerance in plants. A wide range of environmental stresses (such as high and low temperature, drought, alkalinity, salinity, are potentially harmful to the plants. Halophytes actually have increased germination at low salt concentrations (compared to no salt), with decreased germination at much higher concentrations. Plant germination, growth and productivity is severely affected by high salinity. Internal osmotic and water potential generally become increasingly negative with increases in salinity (Khan et al., 1998).Salinity stress affects plant growth, as well as development processes such as seed germination and seedling growth (Sairam and Tyagi 2004).Halophytes are plants of salty environments, capable of thriving and growing under high concentrations of NaCl (Hellebust 1976; Flowers et al. 1986). Salinity tolerance of halophytes at germination varies among species (Yokoishi and Tanimoto, 1994; Liu et al. 2006). Salinity stress is a major limiting factor for plants germination and growth in coastal habitats as it is one of the most critical periods in life cycle of halophytes (Gilles et al., 2001; Rubio Casal et al., 2003). Ceriops oxburghiana, Arn. These species are typical woody mangrove shrubs with opposite leaves belonging to the family Rhizophoraceae. Ceriops roxburghiana the adaxial side, extensive formation of ribbons and occasional (Fujiwara., 2002). In the present investigation an attempt has been made to study the effect of Sodium Chloride on germination constituents of Ceriops roxburghiana belongs under Rhizophoraceae family.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Material For the present investigation Ceriops roxburghiana has been collected from the mangrove forest in Pichavaram in Tamilnadu. Pichavaram mangrove forest is located in the southeast coast of India, at about 225 km south of Chennai and 5 km north east of Chidambaram, Cuddalore district, Tamilnadu. Mangrove is present in the higher land of Vellar Coleroon estuarine complex, extends to an area of 1,100 hectares, representing a heterogeneous mixture of mangrove elements. The area between the two rivers has brackishwater with mangrove vegetation. During 90s, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), Chennai, India established a mangrove Genetic Resource Conservation Centre here by adopting 50 ha forest area. Ceriops roxburghiana leaf blade is elliptic, oblong without prominent veins. The apex is rounded. The adaxial side is dark green and glabrous while the abaxial side is yellow and non glabrous, margin is smooth. Seedlings were collected from mangrove forest in pichavaram. The polythene bags size with 12×18 cm filled with homogenous mixture of garden soil containing red earth, sand and farmyard manure (1:2:1). Seedlings with uniform size were selected during September month and each seedling planted in 400 polythene bags separately. Plantation were separated into 8 groups and each group containing 50 number of plants. Various concentration of Sodium Chloride solution (0,100,200,300,400,500,600,700mM) were prepared by using distilled water and it used for the present study. Each group of plants treated uniformly by different concentration of Sodium Chloride solution. In addition to this, plants were irrigated with distilled water and maintained as control (0).All the experiments were conducted in the PG and Research, Department of Plant Biology and Biotehnology, Arignar Anna Government Arts College, Villupuram, Tamilnadu Study of Germination Germination was studied by the initial appearance of the radicle by visual observation in regular interval in every day. The effects of Sodium Chloride on germination percentage of the halophyte Ceriops roxburghiana were recorded regularly. The germination percentage of seedlings was calculated by using the following formula,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results on the various concentrations of NaCl solution treatment on seedling germination of Ceriops roxburghiana presented in Table 1.From these observations both positive and negative effects are obtained on these Ceriops roxburghiana halophytic plant. The positive effects shows in low concentrations and negative effects on higher concentrations of NaCl solution. Some of the earlier reports describe largely it imposes a water deficit because of osmotic effects on a wide variety of metabolic activities (Green way and Munns, 1980; Cheesman et al.,1997). Salt induces osmotic stress by limiting absorption of water from soil, and ionic stress resulting from high concentrations of potentially toxic salt ions within plant cells. The germination of seedlings of Ceriops roxburghiana slowly increasing from 100mM upto 300mM concentrations of NaCl solution. From the results seedling germination of C. roxburghiana was maintained up to 300 mM NaCl. The 300mM concentration treatment germination was increased in 30 days (±2.26 ) ,but slightly low in control (± 1.59). According to Manimegalai et.al.,(2012) seedling Growth activity of Bruguiera gyhmnorrhiza was maintained up to 400 mM NaCl. NaCl had increased the number of seedling growth with increasing concentrations up to 300mM. NaCl inhibited seedling growth such as root, shoot and leaf area of seedlings only at concentrations higher than 400 mM. The decreasing germination (± 1.03) was observed in700mM of NaCl solution. Some of the researches strongly support these observations. Most of the plants cannot tolerate high salt concentrations of the soil and cannot be grown on a salt affected land (Glenn and Brown, 1999). Kelly et al.(1982), Daoud et al.(2001) and Harrouni et al. (2001) who reported that low NaCl concentrations stimulate growth of some halophytic species, but an excess of salt decreases growth and biomass production. Similarly gradually increasing the germination perentage in 60 th and 90 th day NaCl treatment. Under 300mM increased (± 3.69) and low value (± 3.05) in 100mM than control (± 2.68) in 120 th day treatment. The rate of germination values recorded in 700mM(± 1.97) . The growth of Sesuvium portulacastrum showed positive effect to NaCl concentrations upto 600 mM and the upper limit for survival of this species was 900 mM (Ashraf, M., 1999.). Maas.,et al (1987) reported that in most halophytic species growth decreases gradually with the increase of salt rate in the culture medium above a critical threshold specific to each species. At higher concentrations, a gradual reduction in germination was noticed. NaCl inhibited germination only at concentrations higher than 300 mM. Gulzar and Khan reported that seeds of A. lagopoides showed 30% germination at 500mM NaCl under optimal temperature conditions. This indicates that this species is highly salt tolerant during germination. Halophytes actually have increased growth at low salt concentrations , with decreased growth at much higher concentrations The germination percentage was maximum in sixtieth day when the seedlings of C. roxburghiana was treated with 300mM NaCl solution and the percentage of germination gradually decreased as the concentration of the NaCl solution increased. A very low percentage of germination of seedling was observed in 700mM concentration of NaCl treatment. Some Atriplex species such as A. nummularia, A. griffithii, and A. hortensis are reported to grown at higher salinities, ranging to 100 to 200 mM NaCl (Ramos et al. 2004, Khan et al. 2000, Wilson et al. 2000). Among the different concentrations of NaCl treatment, the 300mM NaCl alone showed a promontory effect while the other concentrations exhibited inhibitory effect on the germination of C. roxburghiana seedlings. The intensity of inhibition was proportional to the concentration of the NaCl concentration increased.
CONCLUSION
There are more than 1500 known halophytic plant species throughout the world. They constitute the basis for the selection of plant material that combines economic utility with the ability to grow, produce and reproduce under high salinity (Aronson, 1989). A halophyte is a plant that grows in waters of high salinity, coming into contact with saline water through its roots or by salt spray, such as in saline, mangrove swamps, marshes and seashores. Present investigation shows the inhibition of seedling germination in Ceriops roxburghiana was casued by the NaCl solution .When increasing the concentration from 100 upto 300mM the seedling germination was influenced. When increasing the other concentrations 400,500,600,700mM inhibited and delayed seedling germination of Ceriops roxburghiana over control intensity of inhibition. Saline soil is characterized by the presence of toxic levels of sodium and its chlorides and sulphates. Increasing the concentration of NaCl with increasing the rate of germination of seedlings, while decreasing the concentrations of NaCl with decreasing the rate of seedling germination of Ceriops roxburghiana Maximum germination rate shows in 300mM and very low germination obtained in 700mM of NaCl. The intensity of inhibition of germination was proportional to increasing the concentrations of NaCl solution employed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1494http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=14941. Aronson, J. A. 1989. HALOPH: A Data Base of Salt Tolerant Plants of the World. Arid Land Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ.
2. Ashraf, M., 1999. Breeding for salinity tolerance in plants. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 13: 17 42.
3. Cheeseman, J. M., Herendeen, L. B., Cheeseman, A. T., Clough, B. F. 1997. Photoprotection in mangroves under field conditions. Plant Cell Environ 20:579 588.
4. Daoud S., Koyro H W. and Harrouni, M.C. 2001. Salinity tolerance of beta vulgaris ssp. Maritima. I. Biomass production and osmotic adjustment. (to appear in H. Lieth, Ed. Cash Crop halophytes : Potentials, pilot Projects, Basic and Applied Research on Halophytes and saline irrigation. Ten years after the Al Ain meeting" T:VS Series, Kluwer academic publishers group, the Netherlands).
5. Flowers TJ, Hajibagheri MA, Clipson NJW .1986. Halophytes. Q. Rev. Biol., 6: 313 337.
6. Fujiwara, T., M. Nakayama, S. Kikuchi, H. Yoshioka and F. Sato 2002 . Applying NaCl to suppress succulent growth and acclimatize cabbage plug seedlings. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 71 : 796– 804.
7. Greenway, H., Munns, R. 1980. Mechanisms of salt tolerance in non halophytes. Ann.Rev.Plant Physiology 31:149 190.
8. Glenn EP, Brown JJ .1999. Salt tolerance and crop potential of halophytes. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 18: 227 255.
9. Gilles, H., L. Morel and C.E. Reynolds.2001. The effect of salinity on different developmental stages of an endemic annuaal plant, Aster laurentianus (Asteraceae). Amer. J. Bot., 88, 62 67.
10. Hellebust J. A. 1976 Osmoregulation. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 27, 485–505.
11. Harrouni M.C., Daoud S. and Koyro H W. 2001. Effect of seawater irrigation on biomass production and ion composition of 7 halophytic species in Morocco. (to appear in: H. Lieth, Ed. "Cash Crop halophytes : Potentials, pilot Projects, Basic and Applied Research on Halophytes and saline irrigation. Ten years after the Al Ain meeting" T:VS Series, Kluwer academic publishers group, the Netherlands).
12. Kelly,D.B., J.R. Goodin, andD.R. Miller, 1982. Biology of Atriplex, Chap. (5) Tasks for vegetation. Sc., 2. D.N. Sen and K.S. Rajpurohit (eds.).
13. Khan, M.A., Ungar, I.A. and Showalter, A.M. 1998. The effect of salinity on the growth, water, and osmoregulation of Halopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 22: 191–204.
14. Khan MA, Ungar IA and Showalter AM. 2000. Effects of salinity on growth, water relations and ion accumulation of the subtropical perennial halophyte, Atriplex griffi thii var. stocksii. Annals of Botany 85: 225 232.
15. Liu, X., H. Qiao, W. Li, T. Tadano and M.A. Khan. 2006. Comparative effect of NaCl and Seawater on seed germination of Suaeda salsa and Atriplex centralasiatica. In: Biosaline agriculture and salinity tolerance in plants. M. Ozturk, Y. Waisel, M.A. Khan and G. Gork (eds.). Birkhauser Verlag, Switzerland, pp: 45 53.
16. Manimegalai.A,Manikandan.T and Elumalai.D.2012.Effect of sodium chloride on seedling growth of the halophyte Bruguiera gymnorrhiza.National Conference on Medicinal plants present scenario and future prospects,Dec.p.109.
17. Maas, E.V. 1987. Salt tolerance of plants. In: 'CRC Handbook of Plant Sciences in Agriculture'. Ed. B.R. Christie, Vol. II. pp. 57 75 CRC Press, Boca Raton.
18. Ramos J, Lopez MJ and Benlloch M. 2004. Effect of NaCl and KCl salts on the growth and solute accumulation of the halophyte Atriplex nummularia. Plant and Soil 259: 163 168.
19. Rubi Casal, A.E., J.M. Castillo, C.J. Luque and M.E. Fig.ueroa.2003.Influence of salinity on germination and seeds viability of two primary colonizers of Mediterranean salt pans. J. Arid Environ., 53, 145 154 .
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22General SciencesPHYTO TOXIC EFFECT OF COPPER AND CHROMIUM ON SEED GERMINATION PERCENTAGE OF Vigna radiate L.
English95100Hema C.English A. SubramaniEnglishThe present investigation deals with the effect of the copper on the germination of seedling on four groundnut cultivars (Co-6, VRM, Co-7, KM-2 ) of Vigna radiata were procured from Agricultural Office, Walajapet and Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore for this study. The seeds of these four cultivars were treated with various concentrations of Copper and chromium solutions (0, 5,10,25,50 and 100).Three replicates were maintained for each concentration. The seeds were treated with distilled water as control separately. Both the treated and controlled seeds were grown in water soaked filter papers kept in petridishes under the room temperature. Seeds were treated regularly with various concentrations of copper sulphate and chromium solution respectively. The germination of seedlings were calculated on 7th day after sowing. The results obtained from this treatment shows that the copper and chromium decrease the germination of seedlings with increase in concentration. The germination of seedlings increase in 5% than control. While the concentrations increases other than 5% the germination gradually becomes decreases. In the 100% conentration very low germination or absent.The inhibition germination of these four cultivars of Vigna radiata were proportional to the higher concentrations of copper and chromium.
EnglishGerminationINTRODUCTION
Heavy metal toxicity is one of the major abiotic stresses leading to hazardous effects in plants. Most environmental problems caused by industrialization are the increment in the concentration of heavy metals in the air, land and water. Although heavy metals form an essential part of human and plant nutrition, but their higher levels of plants uptake cause carcinogenic and mutagenic effects (Goyer., et al.1977).Excessive level of heavy metals in the soil environment adversely affect the germination of seeds, plant growth, alter the level of biomolecules in the cells and interfere with the activities of many key enzymes related to normal metabolic and developmental processes (Zhang et al., 2009; Rahoui et al., 2010). It is involved in numerous physiological functions as a component of several enzymes, mainly those which participate in electron flow, catalyze redox reactions in mitochondria and chloroplasts (Hansch and Mendel, 2009).The presence of heavy metals in the environment causes deleterious effects to human beings, particularly at certain levels of exposure and absorption. Metals like copper are essential for life processes. Excessive quantities of copper becomes toxic as it interferes with photosynthetic and respiratory processes, protein synthesis and development of plant organelles (Agarwala et al., 1995; Upadhyay and Panda,
2009).Chromium interferes with several metabolic processes, causing toxicity to plants as exhibited by reduced seed germination or early seedling development (Sharma et al., 1995).As the chromium concentration in plants increases, it adversely affects several biological parameters. Ultimately there is loss of vegetation, and land some times becomes barren (Dube et al., 2003).Vigna radiata and Vigna mungo are the most commonly used pulse crop plants with high economical value. In recent years much interest has been exhibited in the use of diluted effluents for irrigating crops. Ionic toxicity may be the cause of drastic effects of heavy metal salts on seed germination or it could be due to osmotic effect (Shaukat et al., 1999).Copper is also one of the essential micronutrients for plant growth (Lolkema., et al, 1986). The accumulation of chromium by germinating seedlings appears to be significantly affected by Cr concentration and occurred in a linear manner (Azmat et al., 2005).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation phyto toxin of copper and chromium on seed germination percentage of Vigna radiata, L. was carried out .For this research Co-6, Co-7,KM-2 and VRM cultivars of Vigna radiata have been selected. All the experiments were conducted in the Laboratory of the PG and Research, Department of Plant Biology and Plant Biotechnology, Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College, villupuram, Tamilnadu, India. Sample Collection: The present investigation deals with the effect of the copper on the germination of seedling on two cultivars (CO7 and KM2) were procured from Agricultural Office, Walajapet and the other two cultivars Co6 and VRM were procured from Tamilnadu Agricultural University,Coimbatore. The experimental plant, green gram belongs to the family Fabaceae is one of the important pulses of India. Seeds with uniform size, colour and weight were selected and it stored in metal tins as suggested by Roa (1976).The chemicals Cupper sulphate and chromium salts were procured from standedised chemical laboratory. Germination studies were conducted with the V.radiata varieties Co-6, c0-7, KM-2 and VRM by using the various concentrations of these both chemicals simultaneously. The method of germination studies were carried out as recommended by International Seed Testing Association, (1979).The seeds were sterilized for two minutes in 0.2% mercuric chloride (HgCl2 ) solution.the seeds were then thoroughly washed in distilled. The sterilized fifty seeds were arranged equi – especially in sterilized petridishes lined with filter paper. In each petridishes was irrigated uniformly by different concentration of copper and chromium solutions separately. In addition to this, petridishes containing seeds were irrigated with distilled water and maintained as control.The petridishes were kept under room temperature (28± 2° C).The emergence of radicle was taken as criteria for germination. Germination was confirmed by the initial appearance of the radicle by visual observations. The germination percentage was calculated by using the formula. The germinated seeds number was counted 7th day after sowing and germination percentage were calculated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The phytotoxin effect of copper and chromium research carried out to examine the seed germination percentage of four varieties of Vigna radiata. Results obtained from present study were given in Table-1.The results showed that similar phytotoxi effect of both copper and chromium on seed germination percentage of V.radiata. Both positive and negative effects were seen on seed germination of V.radiata. Copper is also one of the essential micronutrients for plant growth (Hansch., et al.,2009).In low concentration of copper and chromium solution treatment, receiver vegetable crop showed positive effects. From the results 5% concentration treatment shows alone to increased the germination percentage. Low concentration may be stimulatory to plant growth while higher concentrations are inhibitory and toxic to plant growth (Sharma et al., 2000). Germinaition in the 7th day of 5% concentration in the varieties of Co-6, Co-7,KM2 and VRM seeds was increased values ± 4.7, ±4.8, ± 4.45 and ±4.55 respectively than the treatment given control ±4.8, ±4.75, ±4.5 and ±4.5 separately. The concentration of 5% copper treatment exhibit the positive inhibitory seed germination in V.radiata. These studies strongly support the previous findings. High concentrations of copper, the root and shoot elongation was poor with a concominant decrease in root and shoot length (Bouazizi et al., 2008, 2010; Ahsan et al., 2007). While the concentration increases upto 5% treatment, the other concentrations 10, 25 and 50% seed germination exhibited gradually decreased values found similarly in four varieties of V.radiata seeds. In excessive quantities copper becomes toxic as it interferes with protein synthesis and development of plant organelles (Upadhyay and Panda, 2009). Very low negative germination was observed in 100% treated receiver seedlings. The values of Co-6,Co-7,KM2 and VRM shows decreased ±3.45, ±3.6, ±2.90 and± 3.20 in seedlings of V.radiata. The increased values of germination observed in all concentrations of treatment of VRM variety than other three Co-6, Co-7 and KM-2 variteties. Chromium is used on a large-scale in many different industries, including metallurgy, electroplating, production of paints and pigments, tanning, wood preservation, chemical production, and pulp and paper production (Zayed and Terry, 2003).Chromium toxicity produces chlorosis and necrosis in plants (Cervantes et al., 2001). The decreased whole germination percentage was recorded in the seeds germinate in chromium treatment when compared with seeds germinated in copper solution. The slightly decreased values ±4.5, ±4.6 and ±4.20 in 5% chromium treatment given to seeds of Co-6, Co-7 and KM-2 varieties of V.radiata conominantly. The similar germination percentage of seeds obtained in control. The other 10, 25 and 50 percent concentration shows gradual decreased seed germination percentage of these three varieties. Although there are some investigations (Wierzbicka and Obidzinska, 1998; Seregin and Kozhevnikova, 2005) about comparative mechanisms effect of heavy metals as chromium on seed germination .The very high negative germination decreased perentage was recorded in the 7th day treatment of 100% concentration of chromium in all varieties of V.radiata for this study. The lower germination values ±2.75, ±2.95 and± 2.20 observed in 100% treatment. The reduced germination of seeds under Cr stress could be a depressive effect of Cr on the activity of amylases and on the subsequent transport of sugars to the embryo axes (Zeid, 2001). The higher negative effect was found in chromium than copper treatment. The increased positive values in 5%(±4.55) , negative values in 10%(±4.20),25%(±3.90),50%(±3.50) and 100%(±3.20) chromium treatment of VRM variety. This investigation showed that germination of seeds was significantly negative affected, when the concentration increased. Excess of copper and chromium applications inhibited germination properties in four varieties of V.radiata. There are several reports on the promotary and inhibitory effect of copper and chromium treatment on various plant species. Symptoms of Cr phytotoxicity include inhibition of seed germination or of early seedling development, reduction of root growth, leaf chlorosis and depressed biomass (Sharma et al., 1995). Low concentrations shows growth promotary and higher concentrations shows germination inhibitory effect in four varieties of V.radiata. Some heavy metals are essential micronutrients for plants but their excess may result in metabolic disorders and growth inhibition in most of the plant species (Claire ., et al., 2000). Significant increase in the growth, possibly due to copper is required by plants in trace amount (Reichman, 2002).
CONCLUSION
Heavy metals are the intrinsic component of the environment with both essential and non essential types. It is usually accumulated due to unplanned municipal waste disposal, mining and use of extensive pesticides.The results from these study clearly revealed that the copper and chromium concentrations exhibited a promotary germination effect in 5% concentrations in Co-6,Co-7,KM-2 and VRM varieties of Vigna radiata seeds.The decreased germination percentage was observed in all other concentrations (10,25 and 50%) concentrations of both copper and chromium metal treatments over control .The intensity of higher inhibitory effects showed in the seed germination of all four varieties ,when seeds treated in 100% concentration of both copper and chromium treatment. The intensity of inhibition of seed germination increased as the concentration of copper and chromium solution increased. The intensity of decrease as concentration dependent. The intensity of inhibition was directly proportional of the concentration of solution employed. Among the different concentrations of copper and chromium salt solution and the 5% treatment alone showed a positive promontory effect while the other concentrations 10, 25 ,50 and 100% exhibited inhibitory negative effect on the germination of the varieties Co-6,Co-7,KM-2 and VRM of Vigna radiata crop seeds. The exposure of Vigna radiata variety to Copper and chromium results Shows decrease in germination at high concentrations and at lower concentration of heavy metals increase in germination was observed but very low germination was observed at higher concentrations.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1495http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=14951. Agarwala, S.C., Nautiyal, B.D., Chatterjee, C., and Nautiyal, N. (1995). Variations in copper and zinc supply influence growth and activities of some enzymes in maize. Soil Sci, Plant Nutr., 41: 329–335.
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23. Zhang, H., C. Lian and Z. Shen. (2009). Proteomic identification of small, copperresponsive proteins in germinating embryos of Oryza sativa. Ann. Bot., 103, 923-930.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareA STUDY OF MEASLES VACCINE STORAGE CONDITIONS AT BELLARY DISTRICT
English101104Aravind KarinagannanavarEnglish Bellara RaghavendraEnglish Wahid KhanEnglish Vandana HiregoudarEnglish T. Gangadhara GoudEnglishBackground: The vaccine must be stored at refrigerator temperature 2o–8oC. Reconstituted vaccine should be used immediately. There would be loss of potency and complications such as Toxic shock syndrome if used beyond 6 hours of reconstitution.The weakest chain is Primary health Centres and Subcenters. WHO recommends that nothing should be stored in refrigerator other than vaccines but it hardly happens. Objective: To assess the storage conditions of measles vaccine at all the PHC’s of Bellary District. Material and Methods: A Cross sectional study was conducted from May 2010 to April 2011 at areas covered by 53 PHC/PHU of Bellary district. The data was collected by using pretested semi structured questionnaire. Results: All the PHC’s/PHU’s had maintained temperature 2-80c and had temperature monitoring twice daily for measles vaccine. But only 26 PHC’s had maintained temperature book till date. 30 PHC’s/PHU’s had proper placement of measles vaccine. Conclusion: All the PHC’s/PHU’s had maintained the vaccine at proper temperature but proper location of the measles was not satisfactory.
EnglishMeasles vaccine, Storage conditionINTRODUCTION
In2002, the World Health Organization estimated that 1.4 million of deaths among children under the age of five were from vaccine-preventable diseases. With 100% immunization, and 100% efficacy of the vaccines, one out of seven deaths among young children could have been prevented.1 Vaccination can contribute substantially to achieving the Millennium Development Goal of reducing the mortality rate among children under five by two thirds between 1990 and 2015. Measles is a leading cause of childhood morbidity and mortality accounting for nearly half the global burden of vaccine preventable deaths. In 2007, there were 197000 measles deaths globally nearly 540 deaths every day or 22 deaths per hour. 2 Measles vaccine must be shipped with refrigerant to maintain a temperature of 10oC or less at all times. Vaccine must be refrigerated immediately on arrival and protected from light at all times. The vaccine must be stored at refrigerator temperature 2o –8 oC, but may be frozen. After reconstitution, measles vaccine must be stored at refrigerator temperature and protected from light. Reconstituted vaccine should be used immediately. If reconstituted vaccine is not used within 6 hours, it must be discarded. There would be loss of potency and complications such as Toxic shock syndrome if used beyond 6 hours of reconstitution.The weakest chain is Primary health Centres and Subcenters. It is because of lack of proper logistics and lack awareness. WHO recommends that nothing should be stored in refrigerator other than vaccines but it hardly happens. In many health facilities many items like drinking water, food, laboratory items etc will be stored. As no study has been done on storage conditions of measles vaccine in Bellary district an effort is made to study the same.
OBJECTIVES
To assess the storage conditions of measles vaccine at all the PHC’s of Bellary District.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Topography: Bellary district is spread from southwest to northeast and is situated on the eastern side of Karnataka state. In 2011, Bellary had population of 2,532,383 of which male and female were 1,280,402 and 1,251,981 respectively. Total area under Bellary district is of about 8,447 sq. km.3 A Cross sectional study was conducted from May 2010 to April 2011in Bellary district. Bellary district has 7 talukas, in that 47 primary health centers (PHC) and 6 primary health units (PHU), all of which were studied. Data was collected using a pretested semi structured questionnaire. It includes temperature at which vaccine is stored at PHC, Temperature monitor, maintaince of temperature book, storage of unused vaccines, Technical support when there is power cut and location for the vaccine with in the refrigerator. Data was analysed using epi-info software version 3.4.3. Before the start of study Institutional Ehical clearance was obtained.
RESULTS
Study included 53 PHC’s/PHU’s, out 53 PHC’s/PHU’s 5 PHC’s/PHU’s were recently upgraded and get vaccines from nearest PHC so only 48 PHC’s/PHU’s were studied. The study shows that all the PHC’s had maintained temperature 2-8 0 c and had temperature monitoring twice daily. But only 26 (54.2%) PHC’s had maintained temperature book till date. 42(87.5%) PHC’s had kept unused vaccines separately. All PHC’s had technical support when there is power cut more than 48 hours among them 4 had generator facility and remaining PHC’s used to shift the vaccine to the nearest PHC. 30 (62.5%) PHC’s had proper location of measles vaccine, in remaining PHC’s T series vaccines and Measles vaccine were kept along with other things like culture media, food and all.
DISCUSSION
Current study shows that all the PHC’s had maintained temperature at 2-8 0 c and had temperature monitoring twice daily. But only 54.2% PHC’s had maintained temperature book till date. 87.5% PHC’s had kept unused vaccines separately. All PHC’s had technical support when there is power cut more than 48 hours among them 4 had generator facility and remaining PHC’s used to shift the vaccine to the nearest PHC. 62.5% PHC’s had proper location of measles vaccine in remaining PHC’s vaccine was with T series along with other things like culture media etc. Similar reports were found by studies conducted across the world to quote few a study conducted by Berhane Y et al., showed that, complete temperature record was observed in more than half of the centres. Vaccine storage in the refrigerator was not proper in three fourth of the centres4 and Grasso M et al., showed that, out of 52 primary vaccination offices inspected, around three fourth centres had a refrigerator for vaccine storage and other faulty procedures, such as the storage of food and laboratory specimens in vaccine refrigerators and the storage of vaccines on refrigerator door shelves.5 This was also found in the present study, so the person incharge and the PHC doctors need to be orient about the importance of vaccine storage according to WHO standards and also not to keep any other items along the vaccines. Pai HH et al. showed that the majority stored articles other than vaccines in their vaccine refrigerators. 25 clinics (39.7%) equipped their refrigerators with UPS (uninterruptable power system). But in our study only 4 PHC;s had this facility and also they discovered inappropriately high temperatures (> 8 degrees C) in 22% of all refrigerators.6 The main problem is lack of orientation to the health personal which was shown by Thakker Y et al., they showed that out of the 40 respondents, only 16 were aware of the appropriate storage conditions for the vaccines; eight had minimum and maximum thermometers but only one of these was monitored daily.7 So there is a need reorient the health personal regarding importance of vaccine potency and the proper storage of the vaccine.
CONCLUSION
All the PHC’s/PHU’s had maintained the vaccine at proper temperature and also monitored the temperature twice daily, but the temperature book was not updated in many PHC’s. And also many PHC’s didn’t have proper location of the measles vaccine and it was kept other things like culture media, food etc. So there is a need for reorientation of the staff regarding proper storage conditions of Measles vaccine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank all the staff members of community medicine of VIMS Bellary for there guidance and support. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/ publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1496http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=14961. Vaccine-preventable diseases. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia available from www.who.int/immunisation_monitoring/ diseases/en.
2. WHO (2008), Fact sheet no 286, WHO website
3. Bellary District From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellary_distr ict. Cited on 25.02.2013
4. Berhane Y, Demissie M. “Cold chain status at immunisation centres in Ethiopia”. East Afr Med J. 2000 Sep;77(9):476-9.
5. Grasso M, Ripabelli G, Sammarco ML, Manfredi Selvaggi TM, Quaranta A. “Vaccine storage in the community: a study in central Italy”. Bull World Health Organ. 1999; 77(4):352-5.
6. Pai HH, Ko YC. “Vaccine storage practices in primary care physicians' offices in Taiwan” Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 1999 May;15(5):274-9.
7. Thakker Y, Woods S. “Storage of vaccines in the community: weak link in the cold chain?” BMJ. 1992 Mar 21;304(6829):756-8.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareINTERNAL QUALITY CONTROL FOR ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE USING PATIENT BLOOD SAMPLE
English105110Asha PatilEnglish Deepak Nayak M.English Sushma V. BelurkarEnglishThe erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) test continues to be used as an important tool in many laboratories; either manually or as automated method. When automation is applied in clinical laboratories, it is imperative that reliable methods for calibration and appropriate control materials are available for monitoring the accuracy and precision of the results generated. But when the commercial control degenerates or is unavailable, alternative sources such as patient blood can be an alternative. Aims: a.To assess the usefulness of ESR values of patients’ sample in maintaining internal quality control. b. To use the patient blood sample in order to ascertain the precision of the ESR test results on two machines: Diesse Ves- MATIC 80™ (machine A and B).Materials and Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional study involving 219 blood samples over a period of 8 months was conducted at Kasturba Hospital, Manipal. The patient samples with normal (60 mm/hr) ESR (Group 2) were run on the 2 Diesse Ves- MATIC 80™ machines (A andB) against two level commercial controls on a daily basis. Statistics: Bland and Altman statistical analysis was applied for evaluating comparability of the methodologies. Results: Both groups showed a good concordance for all the ESR values and they were within 2SD. The results of higher ESR values were much better than the lower ESR values. Conclusions: The fresh patient blood samples as an internal quality control material showed good precision.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
Estimation of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) has a long-standing history and tradition in clinical laboratories.1 ESR, the most widely used laboratory measure of disease activity in clinical medicine, is still considered useful for monitoring inflammatory diseases, rheumatoid arthritis in particular.2 Recent literature reviews and studies indicate that this test is widely used both for the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with many clinical conditions.3-6 In recent decades, several new techniques for measuring ESR have been developed and introduced in clinical laboratories in order to guarantee safety to technicians and other operators by using automated and closed systems; to automate the measurement itself and optimize the workflow and the utilization of human resources and to create a unique workstation for measuring ESR and performing other hematologic tests (eg: erythrocyte, leukocyte, and reticulocyte concentrations) in a single specimen. This should be done, as suggested by the International Council for Standardization in Haematology (ICSH) and the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS), by using the recommended specimen, undiluted blood with tri-potassium (K3) EDTA, which is more reliable than the traditional sodium citrate.7,8 In an era where quality assurance and accreditation of medical laboratories is fast gaining precedence, attention to details should be given to the issue of quality control and quality assurance for ESR measurement. Because the human erythrocyte sedimentation reaction is confined to fresh blood and is transient, reference or control materials of the usual type are not available.9 Stabilized specimens of human or nonhuman origin cannot be considered acceptable in place of fresh human blood or suitable for use in methods which measure the kinetics of RBC sedimentation, not simply the final fall of RBCs after a fixed time.9 In order to maintain reliable, accurate and satisfactory results, internal control is imperative. The quality measures can be used to monitor various aspects of test like systemic error or technical error. With regard to ESR, commercial controls are made available by the manufacturers. In case of non-availability or deterioration of commercial controls, patients’ whole blood has been used for the daily quality control of ESR in clinical laboratories.9
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The study was conducted with the following primary objectives: a. To assess the usefulness of ESR values of patients sample in maintaining internal quality control. b. Using patient blood sample to ascertain the precision of the ESR test results on two machines -Diesse Ves-MATIC 80™ (machine A and B).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study design was a retrospective crosssectional type, involving 219 blood samples over a period of 8 months conducted at Clinical Laboratory and Haematology division, Kasturba Hospital, Manipal. An approval from the Institutional Ethics Committee, Kasturba Hospital, Manipal was obtained before the study. Inclusion Criteria Patients of both sexes and all age groups were included in the study. Exclusion Criteria Blood samples which were not in proper proportions to the anticoagulant, strongly lipemic, hyperbilirubinemic and hemolyzed samples were excluded. The 219 patient samples were assessed for the study on two ESR machines -Diesse Ves-MATIC 80™ (machine A and B) A total of 219 patient samples were assessed for the study on two ESR machines -Diesse Ves MATIC 80™ (machine A and B) on daily basis along with commercial controls supplied by the machine providers. The study was divided into 2 groups: Group 1: Patient samples with normal (60 mm/hr) ESR Commercial controls were of two levels, normal (range 3-10 mm/hr) and abnormal (range 55-85 mm/hr).
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The statistical analysis of data was carried out using MS Excel ’98 software (Microsoft, Seattle, WA). Additional statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 16.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The method comparison and the differences between ESR values from day to day were performed by using Bland-Altman method in order to measure the comparability of the methods. Average ESR results of 219 patients samples with both the ranges on both the machines were plotted against the difference between them. The 95% limits of agreement were calculated as d ± 1.96 SD where d = mean difference between the two measurements; and SD = standard deviation of differences.
RESULTS
Group 1: Patient samples with Normal ESR on two Diesse VesMATIC 80™ machines. Mean of the ESR results of 219 patients samples with the range [0-10 mm/hr] on both the machines were plotted against the difference between them (Fig.1).
The mean difference between the two machines for lower values was found to be -0.315± 1.64 (95% limits of agreement, -3.56 to 2.97). The ESR readings for 95 % of the samples (IQC) on two machines [Diesse Ves-MATIC 80™ (A and B)] were within 2 standard deviation i.e., -3.56 mm/hr below or +2.97 mm/hr above it.
Group 2: Patient samples with Abnormal ESR on two Diesse Ves-MATIC 80™ machines. Mean of the ESR results of 219 patients samples with the range [>60 mm/hr] on both the machines were plotted against the difference between them (Fig.2).
The mean difference between the two machines for higher values was found to be -0.977±5.01 (95% limits of agreement, -10.997 to 9.43). The ESR readings for 95 % of the samples (IQC) on two machines [Diesse Ves-MATIC 80™ (A and B)] were within 2 standard deviation i.e.,-10.997 mm/hr below or +9.43 mm/hr above it.
DISCUSSION
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate continues to be used as an indicator of inflammation and infection in all levels of laboratory services; despite being a non-specific test. The gold standard technique for measuring ESR is the Westergren method. However, this method has distinct disadvantages which limit its applications.10 Over the years, several attempts to introduce automated systems for measuring ESR have evolved. The modifications introduced include the use of unopened blood collection tubes, vacuum-controlled aspiration of the sample (which intends to provide a correct dilution with the anticoagulant) and automated mixing.11-14 Due to the rise in the prevalence of diseases such as hepatitis B and HIV, transmitted by blood, safety precautions against contamination of laboratory personnel are imperative. Several automated systems have been introduced since the last two decades and have been evaluated for performance with each other as well as with the standard Westergren method. These automated techniques offer more benefits in terms of reduced biohazard risks, speedy processing time, and quicker results. Using an automatic analyzer is one such evolutionary step in this regard. Recently, we evaluated and validated a new automated measurement procedure, the Diesse Ves-MATIC 80TM , that allows automated, safe, precise, and accurate measurement of the ESR in clinical practice. The advantages of using this technique include the aforementioned. However, the major advantage conferred by this machine is its use of undiluted K3 EDTA-anticoagulated samples to measure ESR. It is well known that ESR is affected mainly by RBC aggregation or rouleaux formation. The collection of specimens with K3EDTA is known to maintain blood cell stability, thus favoring rouleaux formation, preserving the morphologic features and this is of crucial importance in the ESR reaction.15 However, in an era dominated by quality assurance and accreditation of medical laboratories, greater attention should be given to the issue of quality control for ESR measurement. The commercial controls provided by the manufacturers do address this issue. In case of non-availability or deterioration of commercial control however, the alternatives are scarce. Moreover, the nature of the human erythrocyte sedimentation reaction is such that a suitable reference or control material of the usual type is not available in the market. Although several stabilized specimens of human origin have been introduced in clinical laboratories, their kinetic properties, which are different from those of fresh blood erythrocytes, preclude their use for ESR determination. In the year 2000, NCCLS suggested that the only feasible way of providing a control material is to specify a method for the production of such material in the laboratory where it is to be used.8 Recently, Plebani and Piva successfully evaluated a quality control procedure that uses fresh whole blood specimens on the machine (TEST1EC). 9 Thus, we decided to use the patient EDTA sample for internal quality control (IQC) of ESR. In the present study, we found that both the groups (i.e. patients with low and high ESR) showed a good concordance for all the ESR values when they were run alongside two level commercial controls. Also, they were within 2 standard deviation (SD). It was also noticed that the results of higher ESR values concurred better than the lower ESR values.
CONCLUSIONS
In our study, the use of fresh patient blood sample as an internal quality control material showed good precision. While quality control has been neglected and considered irrelevant unimportant for tests such as ESR, efforts are necessary to assure that adequate control materials and procedures are provided. Our results, obtained in patient blood samples, demonstrate that the quality control for the measurement of ESR is feasible, inexpensive and reliable. In case of non-availability or deterioration of commercial control, patient’s sample is a useful substitute. This procedure is easily to perform and can be monitored. Many more studies would be necessary to ensure reliability of this method.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1497http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=14971. Piva E, Sanzari MC, Servidio G, et al. Length of sedimentation reaction in undiluted blood (erythrocyte sedimentation rate): variations with sex and age and reference limits. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2001; 39:451-454.
2. Wolfe F, Pincus T. The level of inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis is determined early and remains stable over the long-term course of the illness. J Rheumatol. 2001; 28:1817 - 1824.
3. Cantini F, Salvarani C, Olivieri I, et al. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and Creactive protein in the evaluation of disease activity and severity in polymyalgia rheumatica: a prospective follow-up study. Semin Arthritis Rheum.2000; 30:17-24.
4. Brigden ML. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate: still a helpful test when used judiciously. Postgrad Med.1998; 103:257-274.
5. Saadeh C. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate: old and new clinical application. South Med J. 1998; 91:220-225.
6. Wolfe F, Michaud K. The clinical and research significance of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. J Rheumatol.1994; 21:1177-1178.
7. International Council for Standardization in Haematology. ICSH recommendation for measurement of erythrocyte sedimentation rate. J Clin Pathol.1993; 46: 198-203.
8. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Reference and Selected Procedure for Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) Test; Approved Standard, 4th ed. H2-A4. Villanova, PA: NCCLS; 2000.
9. Plebani M, Piva E. Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate: Use of Fresh Blood for Quality Control. Am J Clin Pathol 2002; 117:621-626.
10. Atas A, Cakmak A, Soran M, Karazeybek H. Comparative study between the Ves-Matic and Micro erythrocyte sedimentation rate method. J Clin Lab Anal 2008; 22:70-72.
11. Patton WN, Meyer PJ, Stuart J. Evaluation of sealed vacuum extraction method (Seditainer) for measurement of erythrocyte sedimentation rate. J Clin Pathol 1989; 42:313-317.
12. Besson I, Kinder M, Jou JM, Vives Corron JL. The evaluation of three automatic systems for determining the velocity of globular sedimentation. Blood 1995; 40:103- 107.
13. Plebani M, De Toni S, Sanzari MC, Bernardi D, Stockreiter E, et al. The TEST1 automated system: A new method for measuring the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Am J Clin Pathol 1998; 110:334-340.
14. Fernandez de Castro M, Fernandez Calle P, Viloria A, Larrocha C, Jimenez MC. Evaluation of a fully automated system for determination of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Blood 1989; 34:1-9.
15. Horsti J, Kovanen M. Using EDTA as an anticoagulant for ESR to replace citrate. Kliin Lab. 2000;4:97-100.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareEPIDEMIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF URINARY SCHISTOSOMIASIS AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN MICHIKA, ADAMAWA STATE, NORTH-EASTERN NIGERIA
English111116Bigwan E.I.English Kunihya R.Z.English John T.J.EnglishBackground: Schistosomiasis is one of the world’s most prevalent diseases of public health significant. Despite more than a century of control efforts and the discovery of praziquantel a highly effective antischistosomal drug, the eradication of the disease is still far from realization. Method: Four hundred (400) urine samples were collected randomly from the pupils who consented after obtaining some vital demographic data from them. The urine samples were processed using ordinary centrifugal sedimentation technique. The result obtained was tested using Chi-square. Results: Of 400 samples, 109 urine samples were positive for S.haematobium giving 27.23% urinary schistosomiasis. The result indicates that the age group 14-16 years had the highest prevalence. The infection rate was significantly high (p < 0.05) among males (37.6%) than females (14.5%). It was also higher (39.9%) among pupils whose source of drinking water is stream/pond, followed by those whose source is Well (15.5%) and the least was among pupils using borehole water (13.3%). The prevalence of schistosomiasis in relation to schools indicates a significant relationship (p < 0.05). Hausari Primary School had the highest prevalence (32.0%), followed by Kankila Primary School with 25.0% and Murva Primary School recorded the least with 20.0%. Conclusion: Lack of prompt diagnosis, inadequate knowledge on the causes of schistosomiasis, unsuitable water supply and exposure to water bodies may be the likely predisposing factors responsible for the high prevalence recorded in the study area.
EnglishUrinary schistosomiasis, Pupils, Michika, North-Eastern Nigeria.INTRODUCTION
Schistosomiasis is a chronic, parasitic disease caused by blood flukes (trematode worms) of the genus Schistosoma. At least, 230million people require treatment every year. Schistosomiasis transmission has been documented in 77 countries. However, those at most risk of infection are in 52 countries 1 . Schistosomiasis is one of the most widespread of all human parasitic diseases, ranking second only to malaria in terms of its socioeconomic and public health importance in tropical and subtropical areas 2 . Schistosomiasis is a disease that affects people residing in the rural and predominantly agricultural areas where many are exposed to the infection because of poverty, ignorance, poor housing, substandard hygienic practices, lack of safe drinking, domestic and recreational water and the availability of few, if any, sanitary facilities3, 4, 5 . There are two major forms of schistosomiasis – intestinal and urogenital – caused by five main species of blood fluke. Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma haematobium. The classic sign of urogenital schistosomiasis is haematuria (blood in urine). Fibrosis of the bladder and ureter, and kidney damage are common findings in advanced cases. Bladder cancer is also a possible late-stage complication. In women, urogenital schistosomiasis may be present with genital lesions, vaginal bleeding, pains during sexual intercourse and nodules in the vulva. In men, urogenital schistosomiasis can induce pathology of the seminal vesicles, prostate and other organs. This disease may also have other long-term irreversible consequences, including infertility 2 . The economic and health effects of schistosomiasis are considerable. In children, schistosomiasis can cause anemia, stunting and a reduced ability to learn, although the effects are usually reversible with treatment. Chronic schistosomiasis may affect people’s ability to work and in some cases can result in death. In sub-Saharan Africa, more than 200 000 deaths per year are due to schistosomiasis. It is estimated that at least 90% of those requiring treatment for schistosomiasis live in Africa 2 .Migration of people from one area to the other seems to enhance the spread of the disease, and schistosomiasis is now occurring increasingly in periurban areas 6 . Prevention and control of schistosomiasis is based on preventive treatment, snail control, improved sanitation and health education. The WHO strategy for schistosomiasis control focuses on reducing disease through periodic, targeted treatment with praziquantel. This involves regular treatment of all people in at-risk groups. Treatment should be complemented with health education, as well as access to safe water and good sanitation 2 .This study aimed at determining the prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis as well as the likely predisposing factors for the transmission of the infection in the study area.
METHODS
Study area The study was carried out in Michika town, Michika Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria. The region lies between latitude 10o 30’ and 10o 55’ North of the equator and longitude 13o 15’ and 13o 30’ East of the Greenwich meridian. Michika is bounded in the North by Madagali Local Government, in the west by Borno State, Asikira Uba in the south, Mubi north in the East and Cameroon republic. It has a land area of 1421 – 99 km2 7 . River Moda in Michika Local Government area is one of the tributaries of Yedzaram which takes its source from Gella hills, south of Mubi which flows toward South-north direction and it eventually drains into the Lake Chad.
Study Population
A total of 400 pupils were enrolled in the study and the schools surveyed in this study are: Kankila Primary School, Murva Primary School and Hausari Primary School. Pupils in primary 2 to 6 were included in this study while those in the lower classes were excluded because they were under aged and difficult to manage.
Ethical Considerations
Permissions were obtained from the Education Secretary, Michika Local Government as well as the Headmasters/Headmistress of the selected schools before the commencement of the work.
Sample Collection/ Proccessing
Semi-structured questionnaires were administered randomly to the pupils with the assistance of their teachers to obtain some vital demographic data which include: sex, age, source of water supply and name of their school. Four hundred (400) terminal urine samples were collected from the pupils in a clean, wide mouth, screw capped, transparent, dry and disinfectant- free containers between November and December, 2010.The students were trained to collect the urine between the hours of 10.00am and 2.00pm after an exercise and ensuring the first and the last few drops were included 8,9,10. The samples were transported and processed immediately at the Microbiology Laboratory, General Hospital, Michika.
SAMPLE PROCESSING
Macroscopic and microscopic examinations were carried out on all the urine samples. Samples were centrifuged and examined for the characteristic eggs of Schistosoma haematobium in accordance to standard parasitological procedures 8, 10. Conclusive diagnosis was made with the identification of the characteristic eggs in the samples.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Data obtained were analyzed statistically using Chi-square. A value of p0.05 was not significant.
RESULTS
Of 400 urine samples, 109(27.25%) urine samples were positive for S.haematobium in the study area. The prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis as related to age group shows that the highest prevalence was recorded within the age group 14-16 years with 18(30.5%) followed by age group 8-10 years with 41(27.0%) and the lowest was within the age group 11-13 years with 50(26.5%) as shown in Table 1. The result showed that there is a significant relationship between the prevalence and the age groups (P< 0.05). Table 2 shows the prevalence of schistosomiasis according to gender of the pupils in the three schools. The infection rate was significantly higher (p < 0.05) among males 83 (37.6%) than among females 26(14.5%). Infection was higher 79(39.9%) among students whose normal source of drinking water is stream/pond, followed by those whose source of drinking water is well 22(15.5%) and the least among those with borehole water as their source of drinking water 8(13.3%) as shown in Table 3. Table 4 shows the prevalence of schistosomiasis in relation to schools (Location).The result indicates a significant relationship (p < 0.05). Hausari Primary School had the highest prevalence 64(32.0%), followed by Kankila Primary School with 25(25.0%) and Murva Primary School recorded the least with 20(20.0%).
DISCUSSION
The study reveals that the area is endemic to urinary schistosomiasis. Of the 400 urine samples screened, 109(27.3%) harbored the ova of the parasite. This prevalence is much higher than the result obtained by Damen et al. 11 who reported a prevalence of 19.0% in a similar study in Jama’a Local Government Area, Kaduna State, NorthWestern Nigeria while Okpala et al. 12 recorded a lower prevalence of 0.33% among pupils in Apata and Laranto areas in Jos, Plateau State, North-Central Nigeria. The prevalence in relation to age group shows that pupils within 14-16 years were mostly affected in this study with the prevalence of 18(30.5%), followed by the age group 8-10 with 41(27.0) and the least was recorded among the age group 11-13 with 50(26.5%).This study was in consonance with the findings of Duwa et al. 13 who reported a highest prevalence among age group 14-16 years, while Abdullahi et al. 14, Bello and Edungbola15 reported the highest prevalence among lower age groups. The highest prevalence among the age group 11-14 in this study may be attributed to the active participation or involvement of the pupils in water contact activities such as swimming, irrigation farming, fishing, washing, bathing and some other recreational activities than in the lower age groups. The infection rate in this study was significantly higher (p < 0.05) among males 83 (37.6%) than among females 26(14.5%).This agreed with earlier findings reported by Damen et al. 11 , Abdulahi et al. 14 . This may be due to socio- cultural practices such as bathing, washing, swimming, irrigation farming and fishing in the available ponds and rivers which exposes the males more often to contact with contaminated water bodies than their female counterparts who were being restraint from active engagement from such activities. Infection was higher 79(39.9%) among pupils whose normal source of drinking water is stream/pond, followed by those whose source is Well 22(15.5%) and the least among those with borehole water as their source of supply8(13.3%).There was a significant association between the prevalence of the infection with sources of water supply(p < 0.05). The result obtained in this survey was in consonance with the findings of Damen et al. 11 and Bigwan et al. 16 . This may be attributed to the fact that the snail intermediate hosts survive in ponds or streams and this serve as a foci for transmission of the infection to people who use this source often either for vocational, domestic or recreational activities. The prevalence of schistosomiasis in relation to schools (Location) in this study indicates a significant relationship (p < 0.05). Hausari Primary School had the highest prevalence 64(32.0%), followed by Kankila Primary School with 25(25.0%) and Murva Primary School recorded the least with 20(20.0%).This study agreed with the findings of Bigwan et al. 16 in a similar work among Secondary School Students in Potiskum, North-Eastern Nigeria who reported that the differences in the distribution of the infection in relation to locations(schools) may be due to some peculiarities associated with those schools ( locations) such as the availability and proximity of ponds, rivers or streams to the schools or where they recite which attracts them there for recreational or agricultural purposes.
CONCLUSION
The study reveals that urinary schistosomiasis is endemic in the study area. The prevalence was higher in males than females. Lack of portable drinking water within the communities in the study area and the availability of water bodies such as River Moda, ponds and streams in the area provide avenue for water contact activities such as swimming, washing, irrigation farming, and fishing which contributes to the increased prevalence of the infection. Prompt prevention and control strategies by the government and non governmental agencies through health education, awareness campaigns, provision of portable water, mass chemotherapy and provision of adequate sanitary facilities can help in reducing or eradicating the infection in the area.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Schistosomiasis control programmes should involve integrating prevention and control strategies such as health education about the life cycle of the parasites, proper disposal of urine and faeces, mass chemotherapy using Praziquantel and provision of portable water. The government and other non governmental agencies should provide pipe borne water and sponsor public enlightenments/campaigns programmes aim at the prevention and control of the infection in the study area. Screening of pupils for schistosomiasis should be included as part of medical report for the newly admitted.
ACKNOWLEDEMENTS
We thank the Head of Laboratory Department and the staffs of the General Hospital Michika for granting the usage of their facilities and assistance for the analysis. Our appreciation also goes to the Education Secretary, Michika Local Government Area and the authorities of the three schools for granting the permission to carry out the study in the study area.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1498http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=14981. WHO (2012). http://www.who.int/ mediacentre/factsheets/fs115/en/index.html. Accessed15th July, 2012.
2. Chitsulo, L., Engels, D., Montresor, A. and Savioli L. (2000). The global status of schistosomiasis and its control. Acta Trop; 77: 41-51.
3. Emejulu, A. C., Alabaronye, F. F., Ezenwaje, H. M. G. and Okafor, F. C. (1994). Investigation into the Prevalence of Urinary Schistosomiasis in the Agulu Lake Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. Journal of Helminthology; 68:119-23.
4. Ichhpujani R.L.and Bhatia R. (2005).Medical Parasitology.Schistosomiasis.3rd ed. Reprint. Jaypee. New Delhi, India. pp234-240.
5. Ekpo, U.F., Akintude, L., Oluwole, A.S., Sam-Wobo, S.O., and Mafiana,C.F (2010). Urinary schistosomiasis among pre-school children in a rural community near Abeokua, Nigeria. Parasite and Vector; 3(58): 1-6.
6. Oliveira, G., Rodrigues, N. B., Romanha, A. J. and Bahia, D. (2004).Genome and genomics of Schistosomes. Canadian Journal of Zoology; 82 (2): 375–90.
7. Adebayo AA and Tukur HA(1999).Adamawa in maps.Paraclete publisher.ISBN 978-35157-0.5.
8. Cheesbrough, M. (1998). District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries part 1. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press. India pp 191- 237
9. WHO (1980). Examination of Urine for Eggs of Schistosoma haematobium.Manual of Basic Techniques for a Health Laboratory.pp 179-180, Geneva
10. Ochei, J. and Kolhatkar A. (2007).Medical Laboratory Science Theory and Practice.6th reprint. Tata McGraw-Hill New Delhi pp918-923
11. Damen, J.G.,Banwat, E.B.,Egah, D.Z.,Shabi, M.E.(2006). Schistosomiasis among Students in a Local Government Area of Kaduna State in Northern Nigeria. Highland Medical Journal, 4(1):33-37
12. Okpala H.O., Agwu E., Agba M.I., Chimezie O.R., Nwobu G.O., Ohihoin A.A. (2004). A Survey of the Prevalence of Schistosomiasis among Pupils in Apata and Laranto areas in Jos, Plateau State. Online J Health Allied Scs. 1:1.http:cogprints.org/3717/1/2004-1- 1.pdf. Accessed on 19th August, 2007
13. Duwa, M.R., Oyeyi, T.I and Bassey, S.E (2009).Prevalence And Intensity Of Urinary Schistosomiasis Among Primary School Pupils In Minjibir Local Government Area Of Kano State . Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 2(1):75 – 78
14. Abdullahi,N., Garba,B., Kutama, A.S. Urinary schistosomiasis among children, in Wasai Special Primary School Minjibir Local Government, Kano State, Nigeria.
15. Bello, A. B. and Edungbola, L.D. (1992): Schistosoma haematobium, a neglected Common parasitic Disease in childhood in Nigeria : Incidence and intensity of infection. Acta Paediatr 1(8): 601-604.
16. Bigwan,E.I.,Tinja,B. and Damen,J.G. (2012). Prevalence of Schistosomiasis Among Secondary School Boarding Students in Potiskum Metropolis,Yobe State,North-Eastern Nigeria.Bayaro Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences,5(1):155-158
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareEFFECT OF CINNAMON BARK ON BLOOD GLUCOSE, SERUM INSULIN AND INSULIN SENSITIVITY IN ALLOXAN INDUCED DIABETIC RABBITS
English117124Khalse M. S.English Daswani B.R.English Ghongane B.B.EnglishAims: Cinnamon seems to be highly bioactive compound, appearing to mimic the effect of insulin through increased glucose uptake in peripheral tissues. The present study was planned to explore the potential antidiabetic, serum insulin and insulin sensitivity properties of cinnamon bark and compare its effects with antidiabetic agents in diabetic rabbit model. Methods and Material: Diabetes was induced in rabbits using alloxan (90mg/kg IV). Four groups (n=6 each) received suspensions of cinnamon (150mg / kg OD orally), glyburide (0.35 mg /kg orally), metformin (35mg/kg BD orally) or vehicle (6 ml of 5% gum tragacanth). Blood samples were collected weekly thereafter for five weeks to measure fasting blood glucose level, s. insulin level, HOMA-IR index. Results: Administration of cinnamon powder reduced blood glucose level and elevated serum insulin in diabetic rabbits over a period of 5 weeks. Results for HOMA –IR are inconsistent in this study. Conclusions: Our results suggest that cinnamon extract significantly improved hyperglycemia and potentiate insulin level in diabetic rabbit model but its role on insulin sensitizing property still remains unclear.
EnglishCinnamon, diabetes, hyperglycemia, insulin, alloxanINTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus can be described as a group of metabolic disease characterized by chronic hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action or both.1 Currently insulin and oral antidiabetic agents are the mainstay of treatment but associated with major limitations like hypoglycemic episodes, primary/ secondary failure and inability to prevent premature atherosclerosis due to hyperinsulinemia in case of insulin resistance. Aqueous extracts from cinnamon have been shown to increase in vitro glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis as well as to increase phosphorylation of the insulin receptor. 2 In addition, these cinnamon extracts are likely to aid in triggering the insulin cascade system. 3 These data suggest that CE prevents the development of insulin resistance, at least in part by enhancing insulin signaling and possibly via the NO pathway in skeletal muscle. An aqueous extract of cinnamon has also been shown to improve insulin sensitivity in humans.4 The present study was planned to explore the potential antidiabetic, serum insulin and insulin sensitivity properties of cinnamon bark and compare its effects with antidiabetic agents like glyburide and metformin.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animal care and maintenance: Thirty adult healthy male albino rabbits (1.2- 2 kg) were obtained from the central animal house facility of B J Medical College and Sassoon General Hospital, Pune, Maharashtra and kept under observation for one week before experimentation. All the rabbits were kept in cages and maintained in a well ventilated animal house with 12 h light and dark cycle. The animals were fed with water and standard institutional feed ad libitum, supplied by this institution. All the experiments were performed after obtaining prior approval from IAEC. (BJMC/EC/Pharmac/DA-0907087- 44 dated 20-09-2007). Research was conducted in accordance with the internationally accepted principles for laboratory animal use and care as found in the European Community guidelines (EEC Directive of 1986; 86/609/EEC). Materials Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) powder was obtained from Ghadiwal Vaidya Pharmaceutical, Pune. The taxonomical identification of the plant was done by Indian drug research association & Laboratory, Pune (Report no. 315 dated 21-3-2009). Alloxan monohydrate was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA. Blood glucose was estimated by glucometer (GOD-POD method) One touch Glucometer (Johnson and Johnson, USA). Tablet formulation of glyburide and metformin and other chemicals like gum tragacanth were obtained from local drug store of B. J. Medical college, Pune. Insulin concentration was determined by radioimmunoassay with a commercial kit (DiaSorin, Saluggia, Italy). The assay had a sensitivity of 0.3µIU/ml. Intra-assay and inter-assay coefficients of variation for the method were less than 4% and less than 8.5%, respectively. Dosage Cinnamon powder suspension: 250mg/ml Glyburide (Glibenclamide) powder suspension: 0.12mg/ml Metformin powder suspension: 12 mg/ml A Pilot study was carried out to find out dose of alloxan monohydrate that would induce adequate hyperglycemia without producing death of any rabbit. Twenty four adult male albino rabbits weighing around 1.5-2 kg of were selected. After fasting for 24-48 hrs., solution of alloxan monohydrate (5%) (90 mg /ml) was administered by intravenous route in marginal vein of ear. Blood samples were collected at interval of 15 min, 240min, 3 day and 10 day. Animals having blood glucose level of 170 mg% were selected as diabetic animals. Animals were divided into four groups [n=6]. Group 1: Received 150mg/kg/day Cinnamon OD orally in 6 ml of 5% gum tragacanth Group 2: Received 0.35 mg/kg/day Glyburide OD orally in 6 ml of 5% gum tragacanth Group 3: Received 35 mg/kg/day Metformin BD orally in 6 ml of 5% gum tragacanth Group 4: Received suspending agent OD orally 6 ml of 5% gum tragacanth (vehicle) The dose of cinnamon was extrapolated from the dose used in most clinical studies (3gm/day). 5,6,7,8 Glyburide and metformin doses were extrapolated from standard adult human dosage. All groups received drugs for 5 weeks. All parameters in present study were measured at baseline level [after confirming the induction of diabetic state] and weekly for 5 weeks thereafter. Estimation of parameters Fasting Blood glucose, Serum insulin detectionRadioimmunoassay, HOMA-IR at weekly interval for 5 weeks. HOMA –IR score The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) is designed to predict the homeostatic concentrations of fasting insulin and glucose, which arise from varying degrees of beta-cell deficiency and insulin resistance. The model is nonlinear, but can be simply approximated. This type of HOMA score is currently being evaluated in clinical practice for determining fasting glucose and insulin levels. HOMA-IR = insulin resistance = (fasting insulin in µIU/ml) × (fasting plasma glucose in mg/dl)/22.5 x18. We calculated HOMA-IR scores before and following alloxan administration for five weeks.9
STATISTICS
Each parameter was compared among different variables using ‘Unpaired-t’ test. The value for each parameter at every instance was compared with the value of the respective parameter at the time of induction of diabetic state within the group using ‘Paired-t test’. ‘Unpaired-t test’ was applied to analyse the change in different variables from diabetic state among the various.
RESULTS
Baseline blood glucose levels (BGL) were similar in all groups Cinnamon group, Glyburide group, Metformin group, Control group before administration of alloxan. Alloxan administration induced hyperglycemia in all rabbits which was statistical significant [pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1499http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=14991. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care, Volume 35, supplement 1, January 2012
2. Khan A, Bryden NA, Polansky MM, Anderson RA: Insulin potentiating factor and chromium content of selected foods and spices. Bio Trace Element Res 1990; 24:183– 188.
3. Imparl-Radosevich J, Deas S, Polansky MM, et al. Regulation of PTP-1 and insulin receptor kinase by fractions from cinnamon:Implications for cinnamon regulation of insulin signalling. J Horm Res 1998; 50:177-182.
4. Bolin Qin, Kiran S. Panickar and Richard A. Anderson.Cinnamon: Potential Role in the Prevention of Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Syndrome, and Type 2 Diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2010 May; 4(3): 685–693.
5. Altschuler JA, Casella SJ, MacKenzie TA, Curtis KM. The effect of cinnamon on A1c among adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007;30(4):813–6
6. Blevins SM, Leyva MJ, Brown J, Wright J,Scofield RH, Aston CE: Effect of cinnamonon glucose and lipid levels in non– insulin dependent type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 30:2236–2237, 2007
7. Khan A, Safdar M, Khan MMA, Khattak KN, Anderson RA. Cinnamon improves glucose and lipids of people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003;26:3215–18.
8. Mang B, Wolters M, Schmitt B, Kelb K, Lichtinghagen R, Stichtenoth DO, Hahn A: Effects of a cinnamon extract on plasma glucose, HbA1c, and serum lipids in diabetes mellitus type 2. Eur J Clin Invest 36: 340– 344, 2006
9. Meir Mizrahi, Gadi Lalazar, Tomer Adar, Itamar Raz, and Yaron Ilan. Assessment of insulin resistance by a 13C glucose breath test: a new tool for early diagnosis and follow-up of high-risk patients. Nutr J. 2010; 9: 25.
10. Mohammadreza Vafa, Farhad Mohammadi, Farzad Shidfar, Mohammadhossein Salehi Sormaghi, Iraj Heidari Effects of Cinnamon Consumption on Glycemic Status, Lipid Profile and Body Composition in Type 2 Diabetic Patients, Int J Prev Med. 2012 August; 3(8): 531–536.
11. Akilen R, Tsiami A, Devendra D, Robinson N. Glycatedhaemoglobin and blood pressurelowering effect of cinnamon in multi-ethnic type 2 diabetic patients in the UK: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial. Diabetic Medicine 2010;27(10):1159–67.
12. Rosado J. A Study to Determine the Effects of Cinnamon on Blood Glucose and Lipid Levels in Persons with type-2 Diabetes [dissertation]. Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, 2010.
13. Cheng DM Kuhn P, Poulev A, Rojo LE, Lila MA, Raskin I. In vivo and in vitro antidiabetic effects of aqueous cinnamon extract and cinnamon polyphenol-enhanced food matrix. Food Chem. 2012Dec 15;135(4):2994-3002.
14. Boqué N, Campión J, de la Iglesia R, de la Garza AL, Milagro FI, Román BS, Bañuelos O et al. Screening of polyphenolic plant extracts for anti-obesity properties in Wistar rats. J Sci Food Agric. 2012 Aug 21
15. Vanschoonbeek K, Thomassen JW, Senden JM, Wodzig WKWH, van Loon LJC. Cinnamon supplementation does not improve glycemic control in postmenopausal type 2 diabetes patients. The Journal of Nutrition 2006;136: 977–80.
16. Jeff Wang. The effect of cinnamon extract on insulin resistance parameters in polycystic ovary syndrome: a pilot study. Fertility and Sterility_ American Society for Reproductive Medicine 2007; 88:140-143
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareVALUE OF MODIFIED TRIPLE TEST IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF PALPABLE BREAST LUMPS
English125134Rajan VaithianathanEnglish Vinoth SundaresanEnglish Ramachandran SanthanamEnglishBackground and objectives: Breast lumps in women are a common clinical problem that requires rapid and accurate evaluation with an important aim of excluding any malignancy. The classical triple test includes physical examination, mammogram and fine needle aspiration cytology. We have modified this approach by substituting mammogram with ultrasound for the assessment of breast lesions. The objective of the study was to evaluate the accuracy of this modified triple test (MTT) in the management of palpable breast lumps. Patients and methods: A prospective cross sectional study was conducted at Mahatma Gandhi Medical College and Research Institute. Eighty patients with palpable breast lumps were assessed by all the components of MTT. The results of individual components as well as the overall MTT were compared with the final histopathological examination. Results: Physical examination showed 96.67% sensitivity, 84% specificity and 78.4% positive predictive value for diagnosing malignant breast lumps. Ultrasonography showed 93.10% sensitivity, 95.9% specificity and 93.1% positive predictive value. Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) showed 96.6% sensitivity, 100% specificity and 100% positive predictive value and the modified triple test showed 100% sensitivity, 82% specificity and an accuracy rate of 88.7%. Conclusions: The triple test is 100% accurate in the diagnosis of palpable breast lesions when all three elements were concordant (benign or malignant). Among the three components, FNAC had the highest specificity. MTT is reliable in guiding the clinician in the efficient management of patients with breast lumps. MTT is beneficial in reducing the number of unnecessary open biopsies to confirm the diagnosis. The output of MTT is easily reproducible, making it a valid and reliable diagnostic test in the management of palpable breast lumps.
Englishmodified triple test, mammogram, breast lump, accuracyINTRODUCTION
Breast cancer is the most common site specific cancer in women and is one of the leading causes of death from cancer for women, accounting for about 20% of cancer related deaths in women1, 2 . The accurate diagnosis and appropriate management of breast lumps is associated with anxiety and stress, both for the patients and the caring physician. The steps in establishing a diagnosis include clinical examination, mammogram and needle biopsy. The individual components of this triple assessment are not reliable on their own in reaching a diagnosis but when combined, the diagnostic accuracy is nearly 100% and the triple test has been proposed as the gold standard for the diagnosis of breast lumps3- 10 . Breast ultrasound (US) is a very important adjunct to mammography (MMG) in patients with equivocal findings. It is now widely accepted as a diagnostic modality for breast lesions. Using modern high resolution probes, majority of carcinomas of size less than 1 cm can be identified. Potential advantages of breast US are non-invasiveness, easy availability, lower cost and good accuracy rate for diagnosing breast masses11,12. Bassett et al found that MMG was not useful in assessing breast lesions in women less than 35 years due to denser breast tissue. On the contrary, US was helpful in avoiding unnecessary breast biopsies and was recommended as the initial examination in younger women13 . We carried out this study with an aim to assess the diagnostic accuracy of MTT in palpable breast lumps. PATIENTS AND METHODS This was a prospective cross sectional study of 100 female patients diagnosed with breast lumps, presenting to the General Surgery Outpatient Department of Mahatma Gandhi Medical College and Hospital, Puducherry. This study was carried out from Nov 2009 to Jun 2011. The inclusion criteria: 1. All females patients of age > 20 years with palpable breast lump. 2. Patient willing for excision of breast lump The exclusion criteria: 1. Previous breast biopsy 2. Patient refusing surgery 3. Fungating growth Each patient was subjected to the modified triple test(Fig.1). A complete physical examination was performed followed by US of the breast lesions and fine needle aspiration of the lumps. US of the breast was performed by the radiologist using a ESOATE BIOMEDICA AU3 partner ultrasound machine with a 10 MHz probe. The lesions were classified as malignant or benign based on standardized sonologic criteria. Following imaging, FNAC was carried out and smears sent for cytological examination. The results of the modified triple test were then analyzed individually and as a combination. The triple test was considered positive if any one of its components showed a positive report (suspicious or malignant). All patients underwent either excision biopsy or definitive surgery. Patients with concordant malignant reports were treated by definitive surgery. The final histopathological reports were compared to the results of the modified triple test.
Based on the complete clinical examination findings, 37 patients were diagnosed to have malignant breast lump, 43 patients had benign lesion. Out of the 37 patients with clinically diagnosed malignant breast lump, 29 were confirmed malignant by histopathology report, and remaining 8 revealed benign lesion. Out of the 43 patients with clinical diagnosis of benign breast lump, 42 were confirmed to have benign histopathological lesion and the remaining one had malignancy (table 2). Breast US was carried out on all 80 patients as the second component of the modified triple test protocol. US revealed hyperechoic breast lumps in 37 patients, out of which 36 were benign and 1 turned out to be a malignant lesion. 27 patients had hypoechoic breast lumps, 20 were finally confirmed to have malignant lesion and the remaining 7 had benign lesion. The remaining 16 patients had lumps with mixed echogenicity, out of which 9 were of malignant nature and 7 had benign lesion (table 3). US imaging of the breast lump revealed findings that were highly suggestive of malignancy in 29 patients. Out of these 29, 27 (93%) were finally confirmed to have malignant lesion and remaining 2(7%) had benign lesion. Sonologic benign breast disease were found in 49 patients, out of which 47 (96%) were confirmed to have benign histopathology, and the remaining 2(4%) patients turned out to have carcinoma (table 4). FNAC was performed as the final step of the assessment in all the 80 patients. Benign lesions were diagnosed in 49(61%) patients. Malignant cytology was seen in 29 (36%) patients and the remaining 2(3%) patients had inconclusive smears. Out of 49 patients with benign cytology reports, 48 (98%) were found to have benign histopathology report and 1(2%) patient had carcinoma. All the 29 patients who had malignant features on FNAC were found to have carcinoma on histopathological examination. Two patients who had inconclusive cytology report were found to have benign lesion on final histopathology report (table 5). Putting together all the information gathered from the Modified Triple Test assessment, the patients in the study group were categorized into these groups – 41 were concordant benign (all three components with benign result), 18 were concordant malignant, 21 patients had at least one component positive for malignancy. All the 41 patients with concordant benign result had benign histology and the 18 patients with concordant malignant report had carcinoma confirmed by histology. Out of the 21 patients, 12 were proven to have malignant histology and the remaining 9 patients had benign histology (tables 6 & 7). The diagnostic accuracy rate of MTT in concordant cases (benign and malignant) was 100%. The sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of MTT was found to be 100%, 82%, 76.9% and 100% respectively (table 8). Overall, the diagnostic accuracy rate of MTT was 88.7%.
histopathologic examination or clinical followup4,8,17-19 . The triple test result may significantly modify the pre-test probability for a patient. A negative TT(all components negative) suggests that the probability of breast cancer is less than 1%. A positive finding on one of the components of the triple test will steadily increase the probability of cancer. For instance, a patient with a pre-test probability of 5% will, on receipt of a positive triple test, have a post-test probability of 12%. There is strong evidence for the value of using the triple assessment to diagnose cancer in women with breast cancer. A review of 15 follow up studies showed that triple assessment is consistently more sensitive than any single test alone, capable of picking up 95% to 100% of cancers when at least one component is positive. When all three components of triple test are concordant, the diagnostic accuracy is 100%20 . This obviates the need for open biopsy and patients could directly undergo definitive treatment. Although clinical examination has good sensitivity for identifying patients with malignancy, it is the least reliable in the context of a diagnostic clinic providing rapid and accurate results. This has made mandatory the addition of an imaging method (US or MMG) and cytological examination of the breast lesions. Recently, many studies have used US in lieu of MMG in the assessment of breast lumps at the time of one stop clinic visit21-23. US is the first line investigation in young women with mammographically dense breasts. Some malignant breast lesions are not visible on MMG but are detected by US. The false negative rate of MMG in the detection of breast cancer has been consistently reported to be approximately 10%24 . These mammographically occult lesions often occur in women with dense breasts. An US examination is extremely useful in these situations. US used liberally as an adjunct to MMG, increases the cancer detection rate by almost 15%.US is therefore recommended in all cases where there is a clinical suspicion of malignancy even if the mammogram is normal23 . Breast US does not expose the patient to ionizing radiation, is easily available, cheaper and has already proven to be an important adjunct to the other radiological and pathological investigations for breast lesions. In our study, we have replaced MMG with breast US as it is more sensitive in detecting abnormalities in denser breast tissue of younger women, who forms the majority of our patient population (60% in our study). We found that US examination of the breast lesions showed good sensitivity (93.1%), high specificity (95.52%) and high positive predictive value (93.1%). Recent technical advances in ultrasonography have expanded the potential utility of this modality in the evaluation of breast lesions, producing high specificity in diagnosing solid abnormalities and other cystic lesions25-27. Our observations showed high sensitivity and specificity which may be due to the clinical profile of our patients, late presentation with large and locally advanced breast lesions. Fine needle aspiration cytology has a high diagnostic accuracy rate (97%) in the hands of experienced clinical and cytopathologists14. Our study has shown high sensitivity for FNAC (96.67%), high specificity (100%) and high positive predictive value (100%).There were no false positive diagnoses in our study. One patient had a false negative report due to a very hard breast lump that produced acellular aspirate. Final histopathology showed scirrhous type of carcinoma. Overall, there was excellent agreement between the FNAC and the final histopathological report in the majority of cases. Multiple studies have shown that a mass with a concordant benign triple test result can be safely followed up without open biopsy. This is especially helpful in evaluating low-risk masses or multiple masses in a young patient. Similarly, patients with a concordant malignant triple test result can safely proceed to definitive therapy, without undergoing an open biopsy21,22,28-31. In our study, this pattern was found in 18 patients who directly proceeded to definitive procedure, avoiding any open biopsy. We also found that the modified triple test had a diagnostic accuracy rate of 100% among patients with concordant malignant or benign results. Thus, a concordant triple test result can guide treatment with 100% accuracy. In non-concordant cases, we found that FNAC was the single most important investigation to confirm the diagnosis, with high sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive values. Morris KT et al evaluated breast masses in 113 women of younger age, using a scoring system for the modified triple test. This method was found to be a rapid and accurate assessment of breast masses in this population where most cases of breast cancer are missed. The diagnostic accuracy was 100% when score was other than 5 points. Based on the scores, patients could proceed to definitive surgery (≥6 points) or go on to surveillance program (≤4). Open biopsy was required only in 3% of the study group. This approach thus avoided open biopsy in the majority of cases, while identifying all malignancies28 . Two studies had compared the cost effectiveness of TT to traditional method of diagnosis by open biopsy for breast lumps. The authors concluded that TT provided equivalent diagnostic accuracy to that of open biopsy but with a substantially reduced costs32,33 . Another similar study by Vetto et.al31 which included 55 younger women with palpable breast lumps assessed by MTT yielded high diagnostic accuracy. This also led to avoidance of routine open biopsy resulting in an overall cost reduction. In our study, most (60%) of the patients were younger(Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1500http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15001. Baum M. Carcinoma of breast. In Recent Advances in surgery, London. Churchchill Livingston; 1984. p.241-58. 2.
2.Kirby IB, Samuel WB. The Breast. In Schwartz’s Principles of Surgery, McGraw Hill; 2005. p.475-77.
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5. Hansell DM, Cooke JC, Parsons CA. The accuracy of mammography alone and in combination with clinical examination and cytology in the detection of breast cancer. Clin Radiol.1988;39:150–3.
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9. Irwig L, Macaskill P, Houssami N. Evidence relevant to the investigation of breast symptoms: the triple test. Breast. 2002;11:215–20.
10. Ariga R, Bloom K, Reddy VB, et al. Fineneedle aspiration of clinically suspicious palpable breast masses with histopathologic correlation. Am J Surg.2002;184:410–3.14.
11. Hardy JR, et al. how many tests are required in the diagnosis of palpable breast abnormalities? Department of Radiology, Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton, Surrey, UK. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 1990 May; 2(3): 148-52. 12.
12.Tresserra F, Feu J, Grases PJ, Navarro B, Alegret X, Frenadez Cid A. Assessment of breast cancer size. Sonographic and pathologic correlation. J Clin Ultrasound 1999; 27: 485-91.
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22. Bin-Soo Kim, Jin-Kwon Kim,Sung-Il Cho,Donghee Ryu, et al. Diagnosis of Palpable Breast Masses by the Modified Triple Test Score. J Korean Br Can Soc 2002;5:46-51
23. Pande AR, Lohani B, Sayami P, Pradhan S. Predictive value of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of palpable breast lump. Kathmandu University Medical Journal. 2003;1:78-84
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27. Tresserra F, Feu J, Grases PJ, Navarro B, Alegret X, Frenadez Cid A. Assessment of breast cancer size. Sonographic and pathologic correlation. J Clin Ultrasound 1999; 27: 485-91.
28. Morris KT, Vetto JT, Petty JK, Lum SS, Schmidt WA, Toth-Fejel S, Pommier RF. A new score for the evaluation of palpable breast masses in women under age 40. Am J Surg. 2002 Oct;184(4):346-7.
29. Wai CJ, Al-Mubarak G, Homer MJ, Goldkamp A, et al. A Modified Triple Test for Palpable Breast Masses: The Value of Ultrasound and Core Needle Biopsy. Ann Surg Oncol. 2012 Oct 27. [Epub ahead of print]
30. Morris KT, Pommier RF, Morris A, Schmidt WA, Beagle G, Alexander PW, Toth-Fejel S, Schmidt J, Vetto JT. Usefulness of the triple test score for palpable breast masses. Arch Surg. 2001;136:1008-12.
31. Vetto JT, Pommier RF, Schmidt WA, Eppich H, Alexander PW. Diagnosis of palpable breast lesion in younger women by the modified triple test is accurate and costeffective. Arch Surg 1996;131: 967-72.
32. Morris AM, Flowers CR, Morris KT, Schmidt WA, Pommier RF, Vetto JT. Comparing the cost-effectiveness of the triple test score to traditional methods for evaluating palpable breast masses. Med Care. 2003;41:962-71.
33. Veto J, Use of the Triple Test for palpable breast lesions yields high diagnostic accuracy and cost savings. Am J Surg 1995;169:519-22.
34. Zonderland HM, Hermans J, et al. Triple diagnostic approach versus ultrasoundguided 18 gauge core biopsy in suspicious breast masses. Breast. 1998;7:168-72.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcarePREVALENCE OF DENTAL CARIES AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF FLUORIDE ION CONCENTRATIONS AMONG THE SCHOOL CHILDREN IN NALGONDA DISTRICT
English135139Vikas C. DesaiEnglish Manjula M.English Rajendra Reddy E.English Hussain Saheb ShaikEnglishDental caries is the most common oral disease seen in children and adolescents. This study was conducted to assess prevalence of dental caries at different water fluoride levels in Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh. A total of 1800 school children aged 12-15 years were selected by stratified cluster sampling from three areas with different levels of natural fluoride concentrations in drinking water. Water samples were collected and analyzed for fluoride concentration. Dental caries was recorded using Dentition Status and Treatment Need index. The overall prevalence of dental caries in the study population was 35.2% and the remaining 64.8% of the children were caries free. The prevalence of caries in below optimal was the highest (57%) followed by above optimal fluoride areas (33.3%). The lowest prevalence of caries was found in the optimal fluoride areas (17.2%). The difference in the prevalence of dental caries between different fluoride areas was statistically significant. The prevalence of dental caries was more in below optimal fluoride area followed by areas where fluoride concentration was 5ppm and above. The lowest caries prevalence was found in optimal fluoride areas. There was a positive correlation between severity of dental fluorosis and prevalence of dental caries. There was a negative correlation between fluoride concentration and dental caries. The prevalence of dental caries decreased with increasing concentration of fluoride in the drinking water up to 5 ppm.
EnglishDental caries, Fluoride ion, Drinking Water.INTRODUCTION
The prevalence of dental caries has decreased in the past two decades in developed countries. Contributing factors for this decline are water fluoridation, dentifrices, improved oral hygiene, changes in diet and awareness. However dental caries still exists as a smouldering disease in developing and under developed countries where there are inadequate resources of dental treatment, lack of public awareness and motivation1. The prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis varies from place to place depending mainly upon the fluoride concentration of the local drinking water. Dental fluorosis is a disorder effecting the mineralization of teeth as a result of exposure to excess amount of fluoride during tooth development. Although fluorosis is much more prevalent in high fluoride areas there is no evidence of an overall detrimental effect on caries susceptibility. According to the survey conducted by Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission, fluorosis was prevalent in almost all districts of Andhra Pradesh, where Nalgonda district tops the list of fluorosis affected districts2 . Nalgonda district is one such endemic fluorosis area of Andhra Pradesh, where 1122 out of the 3321 habitations have fluoride levels of above 1 ppm in the drinking water. There are reports of not only dental fluorosis, but also crippling skeletal fluorosis from this region. Similar geographic and climatic conditions have been existing in this place but people are exposed to drinking water with different concentrations of fluoride, ranging from as low as 0.2 ppm to as high as 12 ppm3 . The correlation between dental caries and fluorosis has not been documented in this place so far. This makes Nalgonda an ideal place for the present study, to assess the prevalence of dental caries and dental fluorosis and their correlation at different concentrations of fluoride in drinking water. The aim of the study is to assess the relationship between drinking water fluoride levels and dental caries among 12 to 15 year old school children of Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Source of Data: Total study population was 1800 school going children. Data was collected from 12-15year old school going children of Nalgonda district, who lived in the same place since their birth and who consumed drinking water from a single source, at least in the initial 12 years of their life. Study Design: This was a cross sectional Analytical study. Data was collected by means of structured questionnaires, intra oral examinations; and collection and analysis of drinking water samples (ground water) for fluoride concentrations. The questionnaire was used to collect information about their residential status, demographic details, eating, oral hygiene practices and exposure to fluoride. Clinical and visual examination was conducted to detect dental caries. A stratified random sampling technique was used. The entire geographical area of Nalgonda district was divided into 3 strata based on the concentrations of naturally occurring fluoride in drinking water. Sample size was equally divided among the three strata. Schools were selected randomly from each stratum. From each selected school, all the children who satisfied the inclusion criteria were considered, till the required numbers of children were selected. Information on drinking water fluoride levels was obtained from the documented records of the office of the Chief Engineer, Department of Rural Water Supply (RWS), Nalgonda. Criteria followed for diagnosis of dental caries and dental fluorosis: The criteria suggested by World Health Organization (WHO) in 1997 were followed to diagnose the carious lesions. Dental caries was recorded using “Dentition status and treatment need index”4 . The information collected from questionnaires, clinical examinations and Fluoride analysis was computerized and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 16.0).
RESULTS
This cross sectional study was conducted on a total of 1800 school children in the age group of 12 – 15 years. The number of children in 12 years, 13 years, 14years and 15 years was 444, 446, 425 and 485 respectively. The study had 1102 male and 698 female children. There was no statistically significant difference in the age distribution of the study population across the gender groups. Among 1800 school children, 560 were from below optimal fluoride areas. The corresponding number of children from optimal and above optimal fluoride areas was 612 and 628 respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in the distribution of children in different fluoride areas. Prevalence of Dental caries: The overall prevalence of dental caries in the study population was 35.2% and the remaining 64.8% of the children were caries free. The prevalence of caries in below optimal was the highest (57%) followed by above optimal fluoride areas (33.3%). The lowest prevalence of caries was found in the optimal fluoride areas (17.2%). The difference in the prevalence of dental caries between different fluoride areas was statistically significant (p=0.000). Prevalence of dental caries between males and females: The prevalence of dental caries among males in the study was 34.85% and among females it was 35.67%. There was no statistically significant difference in the distribution of dental caries between male and female children in the present study (p=0.720). Prevalence of dental caries in different age groups: The prevalence of dental caries among 12 years group was 35.36%. The corresponding values among 13, 14, and 15 years groups were 35.65%, 35.06%, and 34.64% respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in the distribution of dental caries in different age groups (p=0.990). Distribution of DMF component among the study population in different fluoride areas: The mean DMFT in the study population was 0.59 with a standard deviation of 1.01. The mean DMFT score was highest in the below optimal fluoride area (1.17±1.42) followed by above optimal fluoride area (0.43±0.67) and optimal fluoride area (0.21±0.50) in the descending order. The difference in the mean DMFT score among the study population in different fluoride areas was statistically significant (p=0.000). The finding was true even when the comparison was made among different age groups in different fluoride areas.
DISCUSSION
The effect of drinking water fluoride concentration on human health, particularly dental health has been a matter of debate since the works of McKay and Dean. Dean’s landmark epidemiologic studies had conceptualized that 1 ppm of fluoride in drinking is ‘optimum’ for dental health, which offers maximum protection against dental caries, with minimal or no dental fluorosis5 . Galagon designed a formula (E= - 0.038+0.0062 X temperature in F0 . where E is estimated water intake) for optimal concentration of fluoride in drinking water, based on mean annual temperature of the area6,7 . Nalgonda district is a known endemic area for fluorosis, with a wide spectrum of severity, ranging from mild dental fluorosis to crippling skeletal fluorosis8 . The study was intended to find the prevalence of dental caries and dental fluorosis in relation to fluoride ion concentration in drinking water. Commonly, all the deciduous teeth are exfoliated and all the permanent teeth, except third molars are erupted by 12 years of age9,10. The study population contained about 61.2% of boys and 38.8% of girls. Socio-economic status of the individuals is known to influence dental caries11 . Sample size was 1800 and the samples were almost equally selected from the three areas with different water fluoride levels. To record dental caries, Dentition status and Treatment Need Index5 was used. Caries diagnosis was based on the guidelines given by WHO in 1997 for assessment of dental caries. The average prevalence of dental caries in the present study was 35.2%, lower than average Andhra Pradesh caries prevalence of 41.5% for 15 year age group, as reported by National Oral Health Survey and Fluoride Mapping- 2002- 200312. In the present study 67.06% of the children had dental fluorosis. National oral health survey and fluoride mapping by Dental council of India (2002 -03) found the prevalence of dental fluorosis in the state of Andhra Pradesh to be around 5% which was significantly less12 . The least prevalence of dental caries was found in level 2 (0.71 –1.2 ppm). Many studies concluded that dental caries and fluorosis are minimum at about 1ppm water fluoride concentration13,14. . Menon A, Indushekar. K. R (1999)15 in their study among 6-16 year old school children in Gadag and Dharwad district of Karnataka, India and reported the prevalence of dental caries to be 33% and the DMFT to be 0.65 in low fluoride area (below optimal fluoride area with a fluoride concentration of 0.5 ppm) and the prevalence of caries in high fluoride area (optimal fluoride area with a fluoride concentration of 1.2 ppm) was 16% and the mean DMFT was 0.39. The caries experience was more in below optimal fluoride area than in optimal fluoride area. The results of the present study were consistent with the findings of this study. V.V.Subba Reddy & A.Tiwari (1992)16 in their study among 1750 school children in the age group 12 – 17 years, on the prevalence of dental caries in relation to fluoride levels of drinking water, in Punjab, India found the prevalence to be lowest in areas where the fluoride concentration was 1.1 ppm (dental caries prevalence was 61.24%) and 2 ppm (dental caries prevalence was 54.72%). The dental caries prevalence was relatively high in areas where the fluoride concentration was 0.3 ppm (89.03%), 3.4 ppm (72.77%), 5.4 ppm (73.61%) and 10.4 ppm (85.47%). The caries experience was more in below optimal and above optimal fluoride areas than compared to optimal fluoride areas. The results of the present study were in harmony with the conclusions of this study. A 1995 investigation by The National Committee on Oral Health of China (NCOH)17 showed the relationship between average number of decayed, missing and filled teeth (DMFT) of urban residents and fluoride concentration in drinking water to be negatively correlated but not forming a good linear relationship. A study conducted in China (2005)18 reported that there was a statistically significant reduction in dental caries as the fluoride content of the drinking water increased from 0.4 to 5.6 ppm. The present study is in accordance with the above study in concluding that there was significant reduction in caries prevalence from 0.7 – 5.3ppm. In the present study the prevalence of dental caries (57%) and mean DMFT (1.17± 1.42) was found to be the highest in below optimal fluoride area and least in optimal fluoride area (17.2% and 0.21± 0.50). The caries experience in the above optimal fluoride area was intermediate (33.3% and 0.43±0.67). The present study found an overall weak negative correlation between concentration of fluoride in drinking water and caries experience.
CONCLUSION
There was a strong positive relationship between fluoride concentration in drinking water and the prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis. The prevalence of dental caries was more in below optimal fluoride area followed by areas where fluoride concentration was 5ppm and above. The lowest caries prevalence was found in optimal fluoride areas. There was a negative correlation between fluoride concentration and dental caries. The prevalence of dental caries decreased with increasing concentration of fluoride in the drinking water up to 5 ppm.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1501http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15011. Kulkarni S.S, Deshpande S.D. Caries prevalence and treatment needs in 11-15 year old children of Belgaum city. J Indian Soc Pedo Prev Dent 2002; 20(1):12-5.
2. Prevention and control of fluorosis. Health aspects volume I. Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking water Mission. New Delhi, 1993.
3. http://nalgonda.ap.nic.in/climate_rainfall.htm .01/12/2012.
4. World Health Organization. Oral health surveys, Basic methods, 4th edition. Geneva: WHO, 1997.
5. Dean HT. Endemic fluorosis and its relation to dental caries. Public Health Rep 1938;53:1443 52.
6. E. S. Budipramana, A. Hapsoro, E. S. Irmavati, S. Kuntari. Dental fluorosis and caries prevalence in the fluorosis endemic area of Assemblages, Indonesia. International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2002; 12:415- 22.
7. A.K. Susheela. Epidemiology and control of fluorosis in India, J of Nutrition foundation of India, April 1984.
8. KM Sudhir, GM Prashant, VV Subba Reddy, U Mohandas, GN Chandu Prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis among 13- to 15- year-old school children of an area known for endemic fluorosis: Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh. J Indian Soc Pedo Prev Dent 2009:27(4):190-196.
9. Ralph E. McDonald. Dentistry for child and adolescent, 8th edition, Mosby publications, 2004.
10. Sathananthan K, Vos T, Bango G. Dental caries, fluoride levels and oral hygiene practices of school children in Matebeleland South, Zimbabwe. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1996; 24:21-4.
11. Akpata ES, Akinremisi EO. Anti bacterial activity of extracts from some African chewing sticks. Oral Surg 1977; 44:717-22.
12. National oral health survey and fluoride mapping 2002-2003, India. Dental Council of India, New Delhi, 2004.
13. Manji F. Gingivitis, dental fluorosis and dental caries in primary school children in Nairobi, Kanya; E.Afr Med. J 1984;61:524- 32.
14. Grobler SR, Louw AJ, van Kotze TJ. Dental fluorosis and caries experience in relation to three different drinking water fluoride levels in South Africa. Int J Paediatric Dent 2001; 11:372 9.
15. Menon A, Indushekar K.R. Prevalence of dental caries and co-relation with fluorosis in low and high fluoride areas. J Indian Soc Pedo Prev Dent Mar 1999.
16. V V Subba Reddy and A. Tewari. Prevalence of dental caries to different levels of fluoride in drinking water. JIDA 1992;63(11):455-9.
17. Wang B, Zheng B, Zhai C, Yu G, Liu X. Relationship between fluorine in drinking water and dental health of residents in some large cities in China. Environ Int. 2004; 30(8):1067-73.
18. Jian-Ping Ruan, Zhuang-Qun Yang, Zhi-Lun Wang, Anne Nordrehaug Astrom, Asgeir Bardsen and Kjell Bjorvatn. Dental fluorosis and dental caries in permanent teeth: rural school children in high fluoride areas in the shaanxi province, China. Acta Odontologica Scandanavica 2005;63(5):258-65.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareOSSIFICATION OF VERTEBRAL LIGAMENTS AND ITS JOINTS - A CASE REPORT
English140143Sujana M.English Sharmada K.L.English Sowmya S.English Pushpaltha M.EnglishHuman Axial skeleton has drawn much interest for Medical Researchers because of the upright posture. The human vertebral column plays an important role in stability and weight transmission [1]. It is adapted to protect the spinal cord. Congenital or acquired anomalies are common in the vertebral column [1]. At the same time the vertebral column is the site for many orthopedic disorders which may be pathological or developmental, leading to instability, kyphosis, low back pain[1], scoliosis, Forestier’s disease[4], Bechterew’s disease[6], Ankylosing spondylitis[1] and myelopathy[3].
EnglishINTRODUCTION
The vertebral canal houses the spinal cord. Abnormalities in any of features may be associated with neurological signs and symptoms which lead to compression of nerve roots and spinal cord [1]. The ligaments which hold the vertebrae are ALL, PLL, SSL and interspinous ligament (ISL). The adjacent vertebrae are held together by intervertebral disc [7]. The ALL is strong, broad fibrous band, covers and connects anterior aspects of bodies of vertebral and intervertebral disc, extends from anterior arch of atlas to pelvic surface of sacrum. The ALL helps to maintain stability and prevent hyperextension of vertebral column [7]. The PLL interconnects the vertebral bodies and intervertebral disc posteriorly with in the vertebral canal, which limits the flexion of vertebral column and resists the gravitational pull. The SSL is a strong fibrous cord, which connects apices of spinous processes from C7 to sacrum. The ISL is thin and membranous, interconnects the spinous processes from root to the apex of adjacent processes. These ligaments stabiles and limits flexion of spine. At the points of attachment to the tips fibrocartilage is developed in the ligaments leading to ossification or calcification of the ligaments. It may be due to trauma or genetic or any other factors [1]. Calcification and Ossification of vertebral ligaments are common phenomenon. The ligaments may calcify or ossify when they sustain increased tension, torn or involved in lesions of vertebral bone or joints [8]. Osteophytes, commonly referred as bone spurs or parrot beak are bony projections that formed along joint margins. It forms naturally on the back of the spine as a person ages and are a sign of degeneration, mechanical instability and disease (DISH).
OBSERVATION AND RESULT
During routine osteology classes in BMCRI, Bangalore processed vertebrae were collected to explain to the students of I MBBS, we realized an abnormal column. It had ossification of vertebral ligaments (ALL, PLL, ISL, SSL), calcification of Zygapophyseal joints and osteophytes (Refer table and figures given below). Osteophytes present on the right side between T8-T9, T9-T10, L2-L3, L4-L5 And on the left side between T12-L1, L1-L2 and L3-L5.
DISCUSSION
The ossification of vertebral ligaments and zygopophyseal joints may lead to clinical signs and symptoms. These findings may result to conditions of Forestier’s disease, Bechterew’s disease[6]. OALL is diagnosed by plain lateral radiography and classified into 3 types: a. segmental, defined as partial or total ossification over a vertebral body without involving the disc space; b. continuous type showed ossification over many disc spaces as wellas the vertebral body; c. mixed type, combination of the segmental and continuous types[4]. OALL may be associated with spinal stenosis, precise neurological examination is critical. The most common symptoms of OALL are compression of esophagus and trachea. The DISH or Forestier’s disease as showing calcification or ossification along the anterior to anterolateral aspect of four contiguous vertebral bodies with relative preservation of the height of the intervertebral disc [4]. OPLL is an uncommon entity having a higher incidence in Japanese population. It is characterized by hyperplasia of cartilage cells with eventual endochondral ossification of PLL[5]. An abnormality in the N-propeptide of the COL 11A2 gene that related to type II collagen has been reported in patient with OPLL [2]. OPLL is more frequent in man than in women occuring in a ratio of 2:1[5]. The diagnosis of the disorder is usually established in the fifth to seventh decades of life [2.5]. The principle neurologic symptoms of OPLL divided into 3 groups: cord signs, manifested by dominant motor and sensory disturbances in the lower limb (56%); segmental signs, manifested by dominant motor and sensory disturbances in the upper limb (16%) and cervicobrachialgia, causing no obvious neurologic defects but associated with pain in the neck, shoulder and arm (28%) [5]. ISL, SSL ossification of a lumbar vertebrae can lead to compression of the cauda equina, which leading to abnormal bowel and bladder control, sensation of numbness in perineum and weakness in the thighs[1]. A strong association has been found that there is a genetic predisposition with AS. These patients have HLA –B27 positive in their laboratory findings. In certain races AS is related to Human Leucocyte Antingen(HLA) system which leads to ossification of all ligaments of vertebrae HLA complex gene located on short arm of chromose6[1]. In spondylosis the osteophtes are usually most common along the anterolateral aspect of the vertebral column; posterior excrescences are absent or of small size. In addition, osteophytes usually are triangular in shape, arising adjacent to the vertebral edge and extending in a horizontal direction [5]. The ossification of vertebral ligaments its intervertebral joints and discs leads to Bechterew’s disease in recent studies [6]. This disease begins at the age of 20-30. The main symptom is increasing of stiffness of the backbone and the restriction of thorax mobility at respiratory movements. Complications are the most dangerous for the affection of heart and aorta and patients have amyloidosis- the regeneration of kidneys leading to chronic renal insufficiency. The increasing of thorax mobility favors the development of pulmonary diseases [6].
CONCLUSION
Simple radiograph and MR Images may help in assessing normal or demonstrates the ossification of vertebral ligaments. It is said that both genetic and environmental (trauma) factors play a role in the pathogenesis of Forestier’s disease, Bechterew’s disease and Ankylosing Spondylitis [1,4,6]. The specimen obtained is rarely reported in the literature. The treatment for above is stem cells should be started at the onset of its first symptoms, before the ossification of all backbone and inflamed joints.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1502http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15021. S.Saritha, M.Preevan kumar, G.Supriya. Ossification of Interspinous and Suprespinous Ligaments of the Adult 5th Lumbar Vertebra and Its Clinical Significance- A Case Report. IOSR Journals,2012;1(5):27-28. www.iosrjournals.org
2. Haydar USUL, Ertugrul CAKIR, Erhan ARSLAN, Safak ERSOZ, Suleyman BAYKAL. Ossifying Fibroma of the Lumbar Spine- Case Report. Turkish Neurosurgey,2011;21(1):104-106.
3. Kazutoshi Hida, Shunsuke Yano, Yoshinobu Iwasaki. Considerations in the Treatment of Cervical Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament. Clinical Neurosurgey,2008;55
4. J.Mizuno, H.Nakagawa, J.Song. Symptomatic Ossification of the Anterior Longitudinal Ligament with stenosis of the Cervical spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br,2005;87(10):1375-79
5. Brig Hariqbal Singh, Lt Col Vikram Khanna, Surg Lt Cdr Rajeev Sivasankar, Maj Ramesh Mothukuri. Ossification of Posterior Longitudinal Ligament.MJAFI 2004;60:284- 286.
6. Stammzellen, Hintergrundinfos, Und Aussichten. Bechterew’s disease. Stem cells,Neo Milenium.2007. Stammzellenmedizinede/en/bindegewebeerkrankungen/be chterew-krankheit.
7. Standaring S.Gray’s Anatomy, 38th editition, Newyork Churchill Livingstone.200O; 532- 536.
8. Albert Oppenheimer. Calcification and Ossification of Vertebral Ligaments. 1942; 38:160-173.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareCOMPARISON OF SUPERVISED EXERCISE WITH AND WITHOUT MANUAL PHYSICAL THERAPY FOR PATIENTS WITH SHOULDER IMPINGEMENT SYNDROME
English144149Sunita R. YemulEnglishStudy Design: A prospective randomized clinical trial. Background: Manual physical therapy combined with exercise is a commonly applied but currently unproven clinical treatment for impingement syndrome of the shoulder. Objective: To compare the effectiveness of manual physical therapy with and without supervised exercise program in shoulder impingement syndrome. Methods: Random assignment of sixty patients (29 male, 31 female) diagnosed with shoulder impingement syndrome was done to 1 of 2 treatment groups. The exercise group performed supervised flexibility and strengthening exercises. The manual therapy group performed the same program and received manual physical therapy treatment. Both groups received the selected intervention 12 times over 1- month. Outcome measures were pain, pain-free abduction range, strength of shoulder abductors, internal and external rotators and functional activities. Pre and posttreatment measures were taken. Results: The study result shows statistically significant pain reduction, increase in pain-free shoulder abduction and improvement in strength of shoulder abductors, external and internal rotators within the groups. The shoulder function score showed statistically significant improvement in manual therapy group while supervised exercise group although showed improvement but could not be proved statistically. Results of all the outcome measures in manual therapy group were statistically significant when compared to supervised exercise group. Conclusion: Manual therapy with supervised exercise program is more effective than supervised exercise program alone for reducing pain, enhancing pain-free abduction ROM, improving function and strength in patients with shoulder impingement syndrome.
EnglishShoulder impingement, manual therapy, supervised exercisesINTRODUCTION
Shoulder disorders are among the most common of all peripheral joint complaints. The cumulative incidence of shoulder problems in general medical practice was estimated to be 11.2/1000 patients per year.1 Kamkar et al. cited two common etiologies of shoulder pain as shoulder instability and impingement syndrome.2 The concept of subacromial impingement syndrome (SAIS) was introduced by Neer I.3 SAIS is one of the most common shoulder disorders in adults, with a high socioeconomic impact on working ability.4 SAIS represents mechanical compression of the rotator cuff, subacromial bursa, and biceps tendon against the anterior undersurface of the acromion and coracoacromial ligament, especially during elevation of the arm.3 Therapeutic exercise regimes are advocated torestore shoulder mobility and stability, by improving ROM and enhancing glenohumeral as well as scapulothoracic muscle function.5 Manual therapy techniques are commonly used by Physical Therapist to relieve pain and increase the mobility of joints.6 Faber E and colleagues in his systematic review reported that exercise combined with manual therapy is more effective than exercise alone and found many studies using range of motion and pain as outcome measures but functional limitations were less often used as an outcome measure in SAIS.7 However, there are less evidences comparing the effectiveness of manual physical therapy with supervised exercises and supervised exercises alone in patients of shoulder impingement syndrome. So, present study intended to compare the effectiveness of manual physical therapy with and without supervised exercise program in shoulder impingement syndrome.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present study is a Randomized Controlled Trial conducted in subacromial impingement syndrome patients between the age group of 18- 65 years in a physiotherapy set up. The SAIS patients coming to physiotherapy department referred from orthopedic OPD constituted the population of the study. A total number of 80 patients were screened using the following proforma out of which 60 (29 male and 31 female) met the inclusion criteria and accepted to participate were included in the study. To be included in the study patients were required to fulfill the following criteria: (1) pain during one of the two tests in category I (2) pain during one test from either category II or category III Category I: Impingement signs- Patient in standing position. 1. Passive overpressure at full shoulder flexion with the scapula stabilized. 2. Passive internal rotation at 90-degree shoulder flexion in the scapular plane and in progressive degrees of horizontal adduction. Category II: Active shoulder abduction-Patient standing against a wall. Category III: Resisted break tests for the following movements1. Abduction 2. Internal rotation 3. External rotation Subjects were excluded if they had any history of rotator cuff tear or adhesive capsulitis, shoulder dislocation, subluxation, or fracture, cervical radiculopathy and subject received Physical therapy or chiropractic treatment for the shoulder, neck or upper back in the last 6 month.
PROCEDURE
The approval of the institute’s ethics committee was taken prior to the commencement of the study. The purpose and methodology of the study was explained to the patients in a language they understood. A written consent in a language they understood was taken and patient had right to withdraw anytime from the study. The patients were randomly assigned into 2 treatment groups by the alternate method. Each group consisted of equal number of patients (30) Group A - Supervised exercise program. Group B - Supervised exercise program with manual therapy as an intervention. The treatment for supervised exercise group consisted of a standardized flexibility and strengthening program that was performed in the physiotherapy set up under the direct one-to-one supervision of a physical therapist. The flexibility program consisted of 2 stretching exercises, one for the anterior shoulder musculature and the other for the posterior shoulder capsule and surrounding musculature. Each stretch was held for 30 seconds and performed 3 times with a 10- second rest period between each stretch. There are 6 strengthening exercises, all of which are the essential ‘core exercises’ of shoulder rehabilitation program. Four of the strengthening exercises required the use of Theraband. They are made from latex, of Thera-Band Company. Each band was 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) wide and 5 feet (156 cm) long. These exercises included shoulder flexion, scaption, rowing, and horizontal extension-external rotation. For each of the Theraband exercises, a 10-repetition maximum was determined. The selection of colour of theraband was based on the therapist observation of shoulder movement quality and the patients’ responses for fatigue and pain. Deterioration in movement quality or pain exceeding a mild discomfort was avoided during all strengthening exercises by either reducing the level of resistance or modifying the ROM until the subject could progress. The level of theraband resistance was adjusted so for all subjects throughout the treatment process. Each band exercise was performed as 3 sets of 10 repetitions with a 60-second rest period between each set. The remaining 2 exercises, the seated press-up and the elbow push-up plus required a stable chair and a firm surface to lie on. Both exercises are performed to fatigue or for a maximum of 25 repetitions. The quality of all repetitions of each exercise was continuously monitored. Besides the supervised exercise program, the manual therapy group received manual therapy techniques applied to the specifically assessed pain and movement limitations at the glenohumeral joint. Patients received 12 manual therapy sessions, 3 sessions per week. Manual therapy program includes Maitland’s mobilization techniques comprising of passive physiological and accessory movements, muscle stretching, and soft tissue mobilization.8,9 Passive accessory or passive physiological Maitland mobilization grades I-IV were given accordingly. The oscillatory pressure of two to three oscillations per second was given. Each indicated technique was administered two to four times (30 seconds each). For situations where pain or muscle spasm preceded a sensation of resistance, grade I or II is applied and when pain receded, the end-feel became more resistant and less painful, grade III and IV pressure was applied. Postero-anterior, locking position and caudal glide for shoulder were given. Modification or progression of treatment on subsequent visits was contingent on findings in the reassessment process. Techniques also included soft tissue massage and muscle stretching particularly to the pectoralis minor, infraspinatus, teres minor, upper trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and scalenes musculature. Cervical and thoracic postural exercises such as chin tucks were taught to patients in both the group. The treatment for both the groups was continued for 1 month. The patient’s were assessed for the following outcome measures at 1 st day pretreatment and 15th and 30th day posttreatment.
OUTCOME MEASURES
Overall pain intensity was measured by using Visual analogue scale. VAS is a reliable tool for measuring pain.10The functional assessment questionnaire (FAQ) was used to measure the functional activities of any shoulder disorders. Pain free abduction range (PFAR) of the patients was measured by the universal goniometer. MMT was used to measure the muscle strength of shoulder abductors, external and internal rotators. Kendall’s prescribed the 0-5 grading with plus and minus which is used in our study and other key symbols are given for statistical convenience.11
DATA ANALYSIS
The data collected is tabulated and analyzed using SPSS version 16 software. Demographics were done by using unpaired t test and chi square test. Between the two groups unpaired t test was used. A level of significance was set at pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1503http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15031. Vander Windt, D.A., Koes, B.W., Boeke, A.J., Devillé, W., De Jong, B.A. and Bouter, L.M. Shoulder disorders in general practice: Prognostic indicators of outcome. British Journal of General Practice.1996;46:519-523.
2. Kamkar A, Irrgang J, Whitney S. Nonoperative Management of Secondary Shoulder Impingement Syndrome. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1993;17(5):212-24.
3. Neer CS II. Anterior acromioplasty for the chronic impingement syndrome in the shoulder. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1972; 54:41–50.
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5. Bang MD, Deyle GD. Comparison of Supervised Exercise With and Without Physical Therapy for Patients With Shoulder Impingement Syndrome. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2000;30(3):35-9.
6. Threlkeld AJ. The effects of manual therapy on connective tissue. Phys Ther. 1992;72:893-902
7. Faber E, Kuiper JI, Burdorf A, Miedema HS, Verhaar JA. Treatment of impingement syndrome: a systematic review of the effects on functional limitations and return to work. J Occup Rehabil. 2006;16(1):7-25
8. Maitland GD. Peripheral Manipulation. 3rd Boston, Mass: Butterworth Heinemann; 1991. pp. 1-128,221-89.
9. Maitland G, Hengeveld E, Banks K, English K. Maitland's Vertebral Manipulation. 6th ed. Boston, Mass: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2001.pp. 325–383.
10. Boonstra, Anne M, Preuper S, Henrica R, Reneman, Michiel F, et al. Reliability and validity of the visual analogue scale for disability in patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. 2008;31 (2) :165-9.
11. Kendall FP, McCreary EK, Provance PG. Muscles testing and function. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins;1997.
12. Hal Townsend. Electromyography analysis of the glenohumeral muscles during a baseball rehabilitation program. Am J Sports Med.1991;19(3):264-72.
13. J. Bruce Moseley. EMG analysis of the scapular muscles during a shoulder rehabilitation program. J Sports Med. 1992; 20 (2):128-34.
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16. Wyke BD: Neurological aspects of pain therapy: a review of some current concepts. In: Swerdlow M (ed), The Therapy of Pain, p 1. Lancaster, England: MTP Press Ltd, 1981
17. Henricus M Vermeulen, Piet M Rozing, Wim R Obermann, Saskia le Cessie and Thea PM Vliet Vlieland. Comparison of High-Grade and Low-Grade Mobilization Techniques in the Management of Adhesive Capsulitis of the Shoulder: Randomized Controlled Trial. Physical therapy. 2006;86(3):355-68.
18. Senbursa G, Baltac G, Ahmet. Comparison of conservative treatment with and without manual physical therapy for patients with shoulder impingement syndrome: a prospective, randomized clinical trial. Knee surgery sports traumatology Arthroscopic surgery. 2007;5(7):915- 21.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareSEROPREVALENCE OF HBs ANTIGEN AMONG CONTRACTUAL WORKMEN IN A SMALL-SCALE FACOR ALLOY FACTORY
English150153Supriya PandaEnglish R. Sarath BabuEnglish T.V. RamaniEnglish K. Bhaskar RaoEnglishAim: To know the seroprevalence of HBs antigen among the contractual workers engaged in small-scale Facor Alloy Factory located in rural area. Materials and methods: Blood samples collected from 1139 contractual workmen were screened for HBs antigen by using two rapid tests in tandem. They were asked about the risk factors associated with hepatitis B virus infection. Results: Forty workmen (3.5%) were positive for HBs antigen. The prevalence rate was highest in 51-58 years of age (6.7%). Fifty percent of HBs antigen positive individuals gave past history of tattooing compared to 19.1 % of those negative for HBs antigen. Fifteen percent of HBs antigen positive individuals had close household contact with a patient suffering from jaundice compared to 1 % in HBs antigen negative individuals. Conclusion: Overall seroprevalence rate of HBs antigen in the study group was less compared to other studies from rural areas. Tattooing and close household contact were the most common risk factors for acquiring hepatitis B virus infection in the present study.
EnglishSeroprevalence, HBs antigen, Rural area.INTRODUCTION
Hepatitis B Virus infection is a global issue with more than 2 billion infected individuals throughout the world which includes more than 3 million chronically infected carriers (1). The prevalence of carrier rate varies in different countries in relation to their loving standard and life style. India belongs to intermediate endemic zone with carrier rate between 2-7%, with higher carrier rate in the southern part and lower rate in the northern part of the country (2). The prevalence of HBs Antigen in India varies from 1-13%, with an average of 4.7% (3-8). There are studies from India regarding its prevalence among blood donors (9), children (8) and in different tribal population (10-14). There are only few studies available based on its prevalence in rural population (15-16) and poor urban slums (17). Hence, the present study was undertaken to know the seroprevalence of HBs antigen among the contractual workers engaged in small-scale Facor Alloy Factory located in rural area.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Study group: A total of 1,139 contract workmen of Facor Alloy Factory, located in Sriramnagar village of Garividi Mandal, 20 km away from MIMS, between 30 to 58 years old and not suffering from any acute illness were included in the study. They belong to low income group with low literacy rate. They were asked about previous episodes of jaundice and potential risk factors for acquiring hepatitis B virus infection, such as close house hold contact with a patient suffering from jaundice, tattooing, parenteral interventions like intravenous fluid, blood transfusion and intramuscular injection; and alcoholism. None of them had received hepatitis B virus vaccine. Duration of study: From October 2009 to December 2009.
Setting: The tests were carried out in the Dept. of Microbiology and Biochemistry, MIMS, after an approval taken from the head of the institution and owner of the factory. Written consent was taken from each individual included in the study to undergo the required tests. 5 ml venous blood was collected from each subject at the factory site and subjected to the tests on the same day in MIMS taking precaution to avoid cross contamination. Serology: Screening for HBs antigen was done by the test based on immunochromatography method (Hepacard, J.Mitra and Co Pvt. Ltd). Samples tested positive in first test were subjected to second test based on two-site sandwich immunoassay (Acon HBs Ag, Acon Biotech Co Ltd, China) (18). All the tests were performed in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions with adequate controls. The specimens reactive for HBs antigen were subjected to liver function tests (LFTs) in the Dept. of Biochemistry. Workmen reactive for HBs antigen were counseled to consult an expert once in six months and health education was given to prevent its transmission.
RESULTS
Overall seroprevalence of HBs antigen among the study population was 3.5 %. The seroprevalence rate increased from third to sixth decades of life. Fifty percent of HBs antigen positive individuals gave past history of tattooing compared to 19.1 % of those negative for HBs antigen. Fifteen percent of HBs antigen positive individuals had close household contact with a patient suffering from jaundice compared to 1 % in HBs antigen negative individuals.
DISCUSSION
This is a cross-sectional study reporting seroprevalence of HBs antigen among contractual factory workmen of rural area with low literacy rate. Different studies from India and abroad reported a higher hepatitis B virus carrier rate among rural population with low income which varied from 12 % among rural Kenyans (19) to 5.3 % among rural West Bengal population (15). The overall seroprevalence of HBs antigen among South Indian population was reported to be 5.7 % (20). But in the present study, overall seroprevalence of HBs antigen was found to be 3.5 % which is low in comparison to other studies from India. In our study group, there is four folds increase in its prevalence from third to sixth decades of life. This suggests that although most of India’s hepatitis B virus carrier pool is established during early childhood as major spread of this infection in the community occurs at this age through vertical transmission and close contact with a patient or a carrier, other routes of transmission may also be important in its spread. Practices like use of shared razors, tattooing and ear piercing using unsterile instruments are more common in rural area and have been reported to transmit hepatitis B virus infection (21, 22, 23). In the present study tattooing and close household contact with hepatitis B virus were the most common risk factors for acquiring this infection. A study from South India also reported family contact with hepatitis B virus as the most significant risk factor (20).
CONCLUSION
The overall seroprevalence of HBs antigen among the study population was low with a four folds increase in its prevalence from third to sixth decade of life. Tattooing and close household contact were the most common risk factors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors /editors /publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1504http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15041. WHO global health situation projection and estimates.1992; WHO Geneva.
2. R Ananthanrayana and CKJ Paniker. Text Book of Microbiology by R Ananthanrayana and CKJ Paniker.8th Edition, 2009.
3. Thyagarajan SP, Jayaram S, Mohanavalli B. Prevalence of HBV in general population of India. In: Sarin SK, Singhal AK, editors. Hepatitis B in India: Problems and prevention. New Delhi: CBS; 1996 p.5-16.
4. Jain RC, Bhatt SD, Sangle S. Prevalence of hepatitis surface antigen among rural population of Loni area in Ahmednagar district of Western Maharashtra. J Assoc. Physicians India 1992; 40:390-1.
5. Pal SR, Chitkara NL, Choudhury S, Dutta DV, Deodhar SD,Chhuttani PN. Hepatitis B virus infection in northern India. Prevalence, subtype and seasonal variation. Bull World Health Organ 1974; 51: 13-7.
6. Mital VN, Gupta OP, Nigam DK, Saxena PC,Kumar S. Pattern of hepatitis B antigencontact and carrier state in Northern India. J Indian Med Assoc 1980; 74:105-7.
7. Sobeslavsky O. Prevalence of markers of hepatitis B virus infection in various countries: aWHO collaborative study. Bull World Health Organ 1980; 58: 621-8.
8. Tandon BN, Irshad M, Raju M, Mathur GP, Rao MN. Prevalence of HBs Ag and antiHBs Ag in children and strategy suggested for immunisation in India. Indian J Med Res 1991; 93: 337-9.
9. S P Gulia, S Panda, E Sitaramam, K P Reddy. Seroprevalence of hepatitis B virus infection among blood donors in lacal population. The Internet J of Pathology. 2011; volume 12 Number 1.
10. Prasad SR, Rodrigues FM, Dhorje SP, Ramamoorthy CL. Prevalence and subtype of hepatitis B surface antigen in the tribal population of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Indian J Med Res 1983; 78: 300-6.
11. Dutta RN, Sen S. A study of Australia antigen, cold antibodies and ABO blood group frequencies in Ladakhies. Indian J Med Res 1975; 63: 1635-40.
12. Joshi SH, Gorakshakar AC, Mukherjee M, Rao VR, Sathe MS, Anabbaane SM. et al. Prevalence of HBs Ag carriers among some tribes of Madhya Pradesh.Indian J Med Res 1990; 91: 340-3.
13. Jain RC. Prevalence of HBs Ag among tribal population of Udaipur district in southern Rajasthan. Indian J Med Microbiol 1992; 10: 257-9.
14. Murhekar MV, Murhekar KM, Das D, Arankalle VA, Sehgal SC. Prevalence of hepatitis B infection among the primitive tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian J Med Res 2000; 111: 199-203.
15. Chowdhury A, Santra A, Chaudhuri S, Ghosh A,Banerjee P,Mazumder DN.Prevalence of hepatitis B infection in the general population: a rural community based study. Trop Gastroenterol 1999; 20: 75-7.
16. Singh H, Aggarwal R, Singh RL, Naik SR, Naik S. Frequency of infection by hepatitis B virus and its surface mutants in a northern Indian population. Indian J Gastroenterol 2003; 22: 132-7.
17. BN Tandon, Sk Acharya, A Tandon. Epidemiology of hepatitis B virus infection in India. Gut 1996; 38 (sppl 2): S56-S59.
18. Hepatitis B surface antigen assay: Operational characteristics (Phase 1). Report 2. Dept of Essential health technologies, WHO. Available at www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory investgations.
19. Kew MC. Progress towards the comprehensive control of hepatitis B in Africa: a view from South Africa. Gut 1996; 38 (Suppl 2):S31-S36.
20. T Kurien, SP Thyagarajan, L Jeyaseelan, A Peedicayil, P Rajendran et al. Community prevalence of hepatitis B infection and modes of transmission in Tamil Nadu, India. Indian J Med Res 121, May 2005:670-675.
21. Limentani AE, Elliott LM, Noah ND, Lamborn JK. An outbreak of hepatitis B from tattooing. Lancet 1979; 2:86-8.
22. Johnson CJ, Anderson H, Spearman J, Madson J. Ear piercing and hepatitis. Non sterile instrument for ear piercing and subsequent onset of viral hepatitis. JAMA 1974; 227:1165.
23. Abdool Karim SS, Coovadia HM, Windsor IM, Thejpal R, van den Ende J, Fouche A. The prevalence and transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in urban, rural and institutionalized black children of Natal/KwaZulu, South Africa. Int J Epidemiol 1988; 17:168-73.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareRENAL ARTERY VARIATIONS: A CADAVERIC STUDY WITH CLINICAL RELEVANCE
English154161Vrinda AnkolekarEnglish Ratnabali SenguptaEnglishObjectives: To observe and report the variations of renal artery in human cadavers. To compare the previous studies with the present study to report the incidence of the important type of variation. Methods: The study was performed on 60 cadaveric kidneys. The posterior abdominal wall was dissected in 30 embalmed cadavers to study the paired kidneys based on the method given in Cunningham’s manual of practical anatomy Vol II. Results: The following parameters were observed. The number of renal arteries supplying each kidney, single in 73.33%, double in 23.33%, triple in 3.33%. The level of origin of renal arteries (RA), Right RA higher origin in 63.33%, Left RA higher origin in 10%, both right and left RA origin at same level in 26.7%. Branching of RA, Hilar in 88.33%, Prehilar in 11.67%. The prevalence of accessory renal arteries (ARA) in the present study is 25%. The percentage of unilateral ARA in the present study is 11.67% and of bilateral ARA is 6.67%. The percentage of arteries entering superior pole of the kidney, superior polar arteries (SPA) was 6.67%, inferior polar arteries(IPA) 10%, and hilar arteries(HA) 11.67%.. Percentage of origin of ARA from aorta is 20%, from main renal artery is 8.33%. Percentage of origin of SPA, IPA and HA from aorta is 3.33%, 8.33%, 8.33% and from main renal arteries is 2.33%, 1.67%, 2.33% respectively. Conclusion: Anatomical knowledge of the vascular variations is essential for the clinician to perform procedures such as renal transplantation, renal vascular operations more safely and efficiently.
Englishrenal artery, accessory renal artery, cadaver, variations, parametersINTRODUCTION
Renal arteries are a pair of lateral branches from the abdominal aorta below the level of superior mesenteric artery at the upper lumbar level (L1- L3). The paired renal arteries take about 20% of the cardiac output to supply the organs that represent less than one hundredth of total body weight. A single renal artery to each kidney is present in approximately 70% of individuals. Near the renal hilum, each artery divides into an anterior and a posterior division and these divide into segmental arteries supplying the renal vascular segments. Accessory renal arteries are common (30% of individuals), and usually arise from the aorta above and below the main renal artery and follow it to the renal hilum. They are regarded as persistent embryonic lateral splanchnic arteries1 . The frequency of accessory renal arteries show variability from 9%-76%. It is generally between 28%-30% in anatomic and cadaver studies. Variations or anomalies of veins are far more frequent than those of arteries, but this is not true of the vascular pedicle of the kidney-anomalous renal arteries are more common than are anomalous renal veins2 . Renal angiography, balloon angioplasty and stent implantation are now common diagnostic and therapeutic endovascular techniques in the treatment of renal artery pathology. For the successful implantation of the renal stent, precise knowledge of orientation of the origin of renal arteries from aorta is necessary. Multiple renal arteries have been associated with a higher rate of vascular complications, including arterial thrombosis and renal artery stenosis3 . Variations in the renal artery have been the subject of repeated study, and a voluminous literature exists. The subject however is well worth of further study, not only from the morphological but also from surgical point of view. But most of the studies have been based on ultrasonography and angiography, and it has been that accessory renal arteries are detected with less frequently in angiographic studies4 . Thus many workers, mainly surgeons have studied about the variations of renal arteries. This study was undertaken to observe and report the variations of renal arteries in humans, to compare the previous studies with the present study to report the incidence of important type of variation by cadaver dissection method.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted on 30 cadavers(60 kidneys) of both sexes during routine abdominal dissection for medical undergraduates, over a period of 3 years. Dissection was carried out to explore the vascular supply of kidney, along the length of abdominal aorta below the origin of superior mesenteric artery till its terminal bifurcation as common iliac arteries. Accessory renal arteries(ARA) were located and studied in detail and the specimens were photographed.
RESULTS
The following parameters were observed: A) Regarding the number of renal arteries entering the kidney: 2 arteries in 14 specimens (23.33%), 3 arteries in 2 specimens (3.33%). Fig 1 B) Regarding the level of origin of renal arteries (RA): The origin of right RA higher than the left RA in 19 specimens (63.33%), left RA origin higher than the right in 3 specimens (10%), both right and left renal artery origin at the same level in 8 specimens(26.67%). Fig 1&3 C) Regarding the branching of renal arteries: Hilar branching in 53 specimens (88.33%) Fig 1, Prehilar branching in 7 specimens (11.67%). Fig 3 right side D) Regarding the presence of accessory renal artery(ARA): ARA was found in 15 specimens (25%), 8 specimens on the right side. Fig 1, 4 & 5, 7 specimens on the left side. Fig 3 E) Regarding the prevalence of unilaterality or bilaterality of accessory renal arteries (ARA): Unilateral in 7 specimens (11.67%) Fig 2, 4 & 5, Bilateral in 4 specimens (6.67%). Fig 1 F) Regarding the type of accessory renal arteries (ARA): Superior polar arteries (SPA) are 5(6.67%) Fig 1 left side, Inferior polar arteries(IPA) are 6(10%) Fig 2 & 3 left side, Hilar arteries are 7(11.67%). Fig 4 G) Prevalence of type of accessory renal artery (ARA) on right side: superior polar arteries1(3.33%), inferior polar A-2(6.67%), hilar arteries-4(13.33%). Prevalence of type of accessory renal artery (ARA) on left side: superior polar A-3(10%), inferior polar A4(13.33%), hilar A-3(10%). H) Source of origin of ARA: Aorta-12 out of 17(20%) Fig 1, 2 & 3, Main RA-5 out of 17(8.33%) Fig 4 & 5, none from the common iliac artery or the bifurcation of aorta. I) Source of origin of different types of ARA: From Aorta-12, out of which 2 superior polar A, 5 inferior polar A, 5 hilar A. From Main Renal artery -5, out of which 2 Superior polar A, 1 Inferior polar A, 2 hilar artery.
DISSCUSSION
Knowledge of the variations of renal vascular anatomy has importance in exploration and treatment of renal trauma, renal transplantation, renovascular hypertension, renal artery embolisation, angioplasty or vascular reconstruction for congenital and acquired lesions3 . Abnormalities of renal arteries are perhaps more frequently noted than any other of the larger arterial trunks4 . The anomalies of accessory renal artery may be important from the clinical point of view in that they may cause a) hydronephrosis due to occlusion or compression of the ureter by an inferior polar artery, b) nephrotosis and malrotation of kidneys associated with an inferior polar artery, c) arterial hypertension because of constriction of renal artery and subsequent renal ischemia, d) the risk of infarction in a kidney during urologic or oncologic surgical interventions and renal transplantations. As the polar artery is a segmental artery, the erroneous ligation or division of it, is clearly hazardous resulting in necrosis of renal tissue5 . Knowledge of the wide variation in the arterial supply of the kidney is of utmost surgical importance, for it causes one to appreciate the hazard of too forcible traction on the vascular pedicle which may occasion rupture of an anomalous vessel and fatal hemorrhage6 . This statement pertains today especially since the definition of renal arterial anatomy impacts on renal transplant surgery, vascular operation for renal artery stenosis, reno-vascular hypertension, Takayasu’s disease, renal trauma and uroradiological procedures7 . .Renal arteries are usually single, one renal artery supplying each kidney. The frequency of extrarenal arteries shows variability from 9% to 76% and is generally between 28-30% in anatomic and cadaver studies8 . In our study, in 73.33% a single artery was found supplying the kidney, in 23.33% double renal artery, in 3.33% triple renal arteries. The results are similar to other studies (Table 1). The transplantation of kidney with the single artery is technically easier compared to the kidney with multiple arteries. On comparing the number of renal arteries on right and left side the present study is more comparable with that of the study conducted by Kozielec (Table 2). The extra renal arteries are detected much less frequently than angiography, and the arteries entering the renal parenchyma are frequently confused with adrenal or capsular arteries. So it is important to consider the results obtained by cadaver dissection method when compared to those obtained by angiographic method. Origin of right renal artery is usually higher than that of left. In our study, in 63.33% of specimens the right renal artery origin was at higher level, in 26.67% the origin of both right and left at the same level, in 10% the origin of left was at higher level (Table 3). Branching of renal arteries into anterior and posterior divisions more proximal than the renal hilar level is called early division9 . In present study, the division of renal artery was normal in 88.33% and early in 11.67%. This is comparable with the studies done by Kadir.S8 and Ugur Ozkan9 . Accessory renal arteries are common, and usually arise from aorta above or below the main renal artery and follow it to the renal hilum. They are regarded as persistent embryonic lateral splanchnic arteries1 (Table 4), compares the prevalence of accessory renal arteries in our study with other studies. The accessory renal arteries may be unilateral or bilateral. In our study the bilateral occurrence of accessory renal artery is 6.67%, and unilateral occurrence is 11.67% which is similar with the study by Dhar and Lal.(Unilateral-15%, Bilateral5%). The normal renal arteries enter the kidney through the hilum whereas the ARA may enter the kidney through the hilum other than its center or through the surfaces of the kidney. In our study the accessory renal artery were classified as superior polar artery, inferior polar artery, and hilar artery and the prevalence of these types was compared with those of other studies. The inferior polar arteries are of extremely important in several clinical and surgical conditions, such as hydronephrosis. The inferior polar artery may obstruct upper part of ureter or the ureteropelvic junction causing hydronephrosis1 . Accessory vessels to the inferior pole cross anterior to the ureter, and by obstructing the ureter may cause hydronephrosis1 . As the polar artery is segmental artery, the erroneous ligation or division of it, is clearly hazardous resulting in necrosis of renal tissue9 . Table 5 compares the studies noting the type of accessory renal arteries. The present study was compared with other studies regarding the prevalence of origin of types of accessory arteries. In our present study, out of 17 accessory renal arteries 12(20%) originated from aorta, whereas 5(8.33%) from the main renal artery. With the advent of laparoscopic renal surgeries and donor nephrectomies, it becomes mandatory for the surgeon to understand the abnormality or variations in the renal vasculature. Otherwise renal transplant may be jeopardized by the presence of accessory renal vessels. Therefore, considering the increase in incidence of the accessory and multiple renal arteries, the anatomical knowledge of such may be important for the academic, surgical as well as radiological procedures and the present study is a humble effort to highlight the same.
CONCLUSION
The results of the present study were discussed and it clearly indicates that the renal artery shows frequent variations. Most of the variations were in the origin, branching and presence of accessory renal artery. The accessory renal artery also shows wide variations in numbers, origin, course and branching. The knowledge of variations in renal arterial supply has wide clinical, surgical and academic implications. Familiarities about the possible variations are important to a surgeon dealing with kidney retrieval and transplantation, various endourological procedures and innumerable interventional techniques
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely express my gratitude to Dr. Ratnabali Sengupta for her valuable time, help, guidance, and valuable suggestions. I express my heartfelt gratitude to my colleagues Dr Suhani, Mrs Lydia, Dr Mamatha for their help and support. Authors acknowledge the great help received from the scholars whose articles cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed. Authors are grateful to IJCRR editorial board members and IJCRR team of reviewers who have helped to bring quality to this manuscript.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1505http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15051. Bannister LH, Berus MM, Collins P, Dyson M, Dusek JE, Ferguson MWJ. Grays Anatomy, 40th ed. Churchill Living Stone, Edinburgh; 2008. p. 1225-1233.
2. Hollinshead WH. Anatomy for Surgeons.Volume 2, New York: Harper and Row; 1971. p 533-546.
3. Cicekcibasi AE, Salbacak A, Seker M, Ziylan T, Buyukmumcu M, Tuncer I. An investigation of the origin, location, and variation of the renal arteries in human fetuses and their clinical relevance. Ann Anat; 2005. 187(4); p 421-427.
4. Rupert RR. Further study of irregular kidney vessels as found in 118 cadavers. SurgGynecObstet; 1915. 21: p 471 -480.
5. Necdet Kocabiyik, Bulent Yalgin, Cenk Kilig, Yalgin Kiric, Hasan Ozan. Accessory renal arteries and an anomalous testicular artery of high origin. Gulhane Tip Dergisi; 2005. 47: p 141-143.
6. Weinstein BB, Countiss EH, Derbes VJ. The renal vessels in 203 cadavers. UrolCutan Rev XLIV; 1940: p 137-139.
7. KS Satyapal, Haffejee AA, Singh B, Ramsaroop L, Roobs JV, Kalideen JM. Additional renal arteries: incidence and morphometry. J SurgRadiolAnat; 2001:23: p 33–38.
8. Kadir S. Kidneys. Atlas of normal and variant angiographic anatomy. Philadelphia: W.B.Saunders Company; 1991: p 387-429.
9. Ugur Ozkan, Oguzkurt Levent, Tercan Fahri, Kizilkiliç Osman, Koç Zafer, Koca Nihal. Renal artery origins and variations: angiographic evaluation of 855 consecutive patients. Diagnostic and interventional radiology (Ankara, Turkey); 2006:12(4): p 183-186.
10. Per Odman, Klaus Ranniger. The location of the renal arteries, an angiographic and post mortem study; Oct 1968:104: p 283-288.
11. K Khamanarong, P Prachaney, A Utararavivhien, T Tong Un, K Sripaoraya. Anatomy of renal arterial supply. Clinical anatomy; 2004:17(4): p 334-336.
12. Kozielec T. Variability in occurrence, course and division into branches of renal arteries in human fetuses. Ann Acad Med; 1994:40: p 109-116.
13. Ronald O Bude, Forauer AR, Caoili EM, Nghiem HV. Is it necessary to study accessory renal arteries when screening the renal arteries for renovascular hypertension?. J Radiology; 2003; 226: p 411–416.
14. Avneesh Gupta, Richard Tello. Accessory renal arteries are not related to hypertension risk; A review of MR angiography data. American Roentgen Ray Society; 2004:182: p 1521-1524.
15. Srijit Das. Anomalous renal arteries and clinical implications. BratislLekListy; 2008:109(4): p 182-184.
16. Bordei P, Sapte E, Iliescu D. Double renal arteries originating from the aorta. SurgRadiolAnat; 2004: 26(6): p 474-479.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22HealthcareACUTE MYELOID LEUKEMIA PRESENTING AS PLEURAL EFFUSION: A UNIQUE EVENT
English162165Deepak Nayak M.English Sushma V. BelurkarEnglish Rachana GargEnglish Gauri A. SalgaonkarEnglishPleural involvement as one of first manifestations of a hematolymphoid malignancy is conventionally associated with solid tumors such as carcinomas of the breast, lung, gastrointestinal tract and lymphomas. A leukemic involvement of pleural effusion has seldom been described. We report a case of a 68 year old male who presented with a pleural leukemic infiltration. The patient complained of progressive exertional dyspnea for two weeks with cough and hemoptysis. The chest radiograph showed a bilateral pleural effusion. Diagnostic thoracocentesis suggested an exudate; with cytology remarkable for leukemic blasts comprising a total of 56%. The subsequent peripheral smear and bone marrow examination confirmed an acute myeloid leukemia (AML-M4). Chemotherapy was initiated but the patient succumbed shortly. This case is unique as it highlights the unusual presentation of the disease and also demonstrates the importance of analysis of material obtained in the body fluid.
Englishpleural effusion, acute myeloid leukemia, blasts.INTRODUCTION
Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) is a group of hematogenous neoplasms characterized by a clonal proliferation of myeloid precursors with a reduced capacity to differentiate into more mature cellular elements.1 As a result, there is an accumulation of leukemic blasts or immature forms in the bone marrow with a spillover into the peripheral blood, and occasionally to other tissues. This is invariably associated with a variable reduction in the production of normal red blood cells, platelets and mature granulocytes. The increased production of malignant cells, along with a reduction in these mature elements, result in a variety of systemic consequences including anemia, bleeding, and an increased risk of infection.1,2 While the peripheral blood and bone marrow findings well elaborated in the literature, less than 1 percent of patients present with prominent extramedullary disease.1 These extramedullary manifestations can manifest simultaneously with, or precede the bone marrow involvement. Sites of isolated expression include bone, soft tissues, and lymph nodes, and less commonly the orbit, intestine, mediastinum, epidural region, uterus, and ovary.3 To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the few reported cases of pleural effusion as the initial manifestation of AML.
CASE REPORT
A 68 year old man was admitted to emergency unit of the hospital with a two-week history of progressive exertional dyspnea which had an acute exacerbation. He also had low grade fever, productive cough with hemoptysis and easy fatiguability. There was history of loss of appetite without any significant weight loss. Review of other systems was normal. On physical examination, the patient was alert but tachypneic even at rest. The cardiac examination was normal; pulmonary examination revealed diffusely decreased breathing sounds, inspiratory crackles and dullness to percussion with decreased vocal fremitus. There was no use of accessory muscles. The oxygen saturation was 84%. The systemic examination did not reveal lymphadenopathy. The ultrasound scan showed mild hepatomegaly. The chest radiograph showed a bilateral pleural effusion (figure 1). There was blunting of the costo- phrenic angle (CP).The lung parenchyma showed partial collapse.
A diagnostic and therapeutic thoracocentesis was performed which yielded approximately 1 litre of fluid. The respiratory symptoms resolved to a marginal extent and the fluid was sent to the laboratory for hematological and biochemical analysis. The thoracocentesis showed the following features (table 1).
The pleural fluid analysis established that it was an exudative effusion. Ratio of the pleural fluid lactate dehydrogenase and protein to serum lactate dehydrogenase and protein (Light’s criteria) met the requisites for an exudative etiology.4 The total leucocyte count of the pleural fluid was 3200/ cu.mm. The differential count revealed 45% blast-like cells and 16% monocytoid cells (figure 2). The morphology of these cells revealed large sized monomorphic cells with round to slightly indented nuclei, fine chromatin, single conspicuous to multiple nucleoli and moderate amount of lightly basophilic cytoplasm The rest of the differential count was made up by lymphocytes and neutrophils. The background showed reactive mesothelial cells and hemorrhage. A provisional diagnosis of a lymphoma was considered. However, a correlation with the peripheral blood findings was awaited.
The hemogram showed an anemic profile (Hb: 7.2gm %) with mild leucocytosis (21,500 /mm3 ) and thrombocytopenia (platelets: 84,000 /mm3 ). The peripheral smear showed myeloblasts and monoblasts comprising a total of 57% of the differential leucocyte count. A diagnosis of acute leukemia was made and a bone marrow study was requested for subtyping of the neoplasia. The bone marrow established a diagnosis of acute myeloid leukaemia (AML M4- FAB classification). The cause of the pleural effusion was thus established. Induction chemotherapy was started, but the patient expired on the seventh day of treatment.
DISCUSSION
The diagnostic utility of pleural effusions are seldom reported or entertained. Rarely, can an effusion lead to the discovery of an underlying hematologic malignancy.1 Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) generally presents with symptoms related to complications of leucocytosis or even pancytopenia. Most patients have more subtle evidence of bone marrow involvement for weeks, or perhaps months, before the diagnosis can be made.2 It is unusual for leukemias, either acute or chronic, manifest with malignant pleural effusions as the initial presentation.5-7 A malignant involvement of the body cavity leading to a fluid collection is a complication more commonly associated with solid tumors and lymphomas.7 Our patient presented with AML and pulmonary involvement with signs and symptoms secondary to the manifestations of pleural effusion itself. The classical appearance of the acute myeloid leukemia such as an association with organomegaly, or the complications such as bleeding and recurrent infections was overshadowed by the initial respiratory symptoms and signs. This mode of presentation also serves to demonstrate the importance of the hematological and biochemical analysis of the specimens obtained in pleural fluid since an early detection of any particular hematologic disease or malignancies specifically in this context, could guide effective therapy. Pleural effusions may be only initial presentation of a haematological malignancy or they may develop during the course of the disease. Besides the direct infiltration of leukaemic cells into the pleura, the pleural effusions can be secondarily caused by drug toxicity, underlying infections or by metastatic or rarely autoimmune causes in haematological malignancies.8 In most of the cases, the pleural fluid responds to the treatment of the primary disease, whereas the resistant or the relapsing cases may necessitate a pleurodesis.9 The other important aspect of diagnosing a malignant pleural effusion is that an extramedullary relapse is considered as recurrence of the leukaemia in sites other than the bone marrow.8 It is also known to recur ‘isolated’ without any recurrence in the bone marrow.7
CONCLUSION
Acute myeloid leukemia presenting as a pleural effusions are a rare occurrence. It indicates an advanced disease and a poor prognosis for the patient. The presence of abnormal cells in the effusion can simulate other common neoplasms such as a lymphoma or carcinoma. Cytologic examination continues to be an effective method to diagnose these. Ancillary techniques, when available, also help in this regard.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1506http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15061. ES, Harris NL, Stein H, Vardiman JW. World Health Organization of Tumors: Pathology and Genetics of Tumors of Hematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues, Lyon 2001, France: IARC Press.
2. José Nieves-Nieves, et al. Pleural effusion as the initial extramedullary manifestation of acute myeloid leukemia. F1000 Research 2012; 1:39:1-6.
3. Dores GM, et al. Acute leukemia incidence and patient survival among children and adults in the United States. Blood 2012; 119(1): 34.
4. Light RW, et al. Pleural effusions: the diagnostic separation of transudates and exudates. Annals of Internal Medicine 1972: vol.77(4):507–513.
5. Byrd JC, et al. Extramedullary myeloid cell tumors in acute non-lymphocytic leukemia: a clinical review. J Clin Oncol.1995;13(7): 1800.
6. Ohe K, Okamura T, Arima F, et al. CD7+ Acute Myelogenous Leukemia exhibiting pleural involvement as an initial manifestation. Rinsho Ketsueki 1994; 35: 552–556.
7. Alexandrakis MG, Passam FH, Kyriakou DS, Bouros D. Pleural effusions in hematologic malignancies. Chest 2004; 125:1546-55.
8. Agrawal R. Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) presenting as a bilateral pleural effusion. (Letter to the editor). JCDR 2013; Vol7(1):187.
9. Raina S, Kaul R, Mahesh DM, Kaushal SS, Gupta D, Sharma J. Pleural effusions in acute myeloid leukaemia. JAPI 2008; 56: 194.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524155EnglishN2013March22TechnologyA CASE STUDY OF GEOTECHNICAL SOLUTION FOR FOUNDATION OF A MULTISTORIED RESIDENCIAL BUILDING
English166172Ritika DubeyEnglish A.K. SinghaiEnglish A.K. DubeyEnglishIn order to construct a good multi-storey building, the basic need is to have the strong base or fundamentals, or in the other words, the foundation needs to be strong which can withstand the load coming on it. Normally the engineer has to place his structure on soil and to some extent in the soil. Safety and durability of structure largely depend upon the design of the foundation preferred for the structure considering all the engineering characteristics of soil and other parameters. There are several options are available before the designer for decision making of foundation type, depending upon the ground conditions. Definately each type of foundation has its own merits and demerits. Looking to this variation, in my proposed work I am trying to find out which type of foundation is best suitable for different soil condition of the area Jabalpur for the construction of multistoried building with technical as well as economical parameters.
EnglishINTRODUCTION
Expansive Soils are those soils which have the tendency to increase in volume when in contact with water and decrease in volume when they are dewatered this phenomenon is called swelling. This cycle change of volume in swelling or expansive soils causes problems whenever civil engineering structures are planed and constructed on them. The type of area where a G+5 storied structure is being proposed to be built up near Jabalpur (M.P.) has a thick soil cover consisting of black cotton soil. The terrain is nearly plane and the position of water table is at a depth of 6.0 m below the ground level now the problem is to be decide about –
The type of foundation to be provided for the proposed structure.
Depth of foundation to be determined to make the structure stress free and safe.
Black cotton soil as is understood to be is considered as a treacherous soil as for as founding big and sensitive structure is concern because it has following characteristics –
Cohesive in nature.
It has moderately plastic characteristics.
It has high specific gravity.
It swells and reduces in volume, whenever change in moisture content observed.
It contains a few expandable clay minerals like montmorillonite and halloysite and these clay minerals actually control the entire engineering behavior soil at different soil water conditions.
Thus Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil is studied by using Lime. Lime stabilization is not difficult to carry out. After proper mix design and testing is performed, in-place mixing is usually used to add the appropriate amount of lime to soil, mixed to an appropriate depth. Pulverization and mixing is used to thoroughly combine the lime and soil.
The moisture change in BC soils, compressibility and plasticity nature can be greatly improved with the addition of Lime. This paper includes the evaluation of soil properties like Optimum moisture content, dry density, and strength parameter with different quantities of Lime added to the BC soil and the experiments conducted on these soil mixes. Foundation problem in expansive soil The traditional solution of providing stable foundation to structure built on black cotton soils was in the form of the introduction of Raft foundation. The undreamed friction piles are also suggested by taking advantage of the property of cohesion of soils. Expansive (BC) soils are highly plastic in nature and the concept of undreamed pile foundation or raft foundation has been evolved and developed to counter the bad effect of expansive soil on the foundation in the cycle of watering and dewatering in course of time. Volumetric changes of underlying and surrounding soils for a building foundation resting on moderate to highly expansive clay soil results potential detrimental effects to structure or its elements of the foundation. In simple terms, expansive clay soils swell and can cause heave with increase soil moisture, or can dry out and cause subsidence with decreasing soil moisture. This volumetric change effect the stability of structure rest over it. Movement of expansive soil is caused by fluctuation in the moisture content of soil particles. Because homogeneous expansive clayey soils have very low permeability, fluctuation in the moisture content of the soils might normally be expected to occur over a very long period. However permeability is increased with other geotechnical phenomena such as ground faults, surface fractures due to desiccation of clays and decomposition of tree routes which causes fissures and cracks that become widely disseminated over time. Due to repeated wetting, swelling, drying and shrinkage of the clay as it weathers, fissures often filled with silt and sand and create pathways for water that can be exacerbate the infiltration process .Water can also easily move through naturally occurring sand strata, seems and micro cracks in clay soil caused by previous shrinkage high negative pressure, also known as suction, in clay soils with low water content Also increase the tendency for water to be absorbed in to the clay. Environmental Factor other than climatic conditions can also effect expansive soils water extraction by trees and other vegetation, a process known as transpiration can cause soil shrinkage, swelling can be result of water infiltration into the soil from lawn irrigation system. Based on above narrated fact in this study we have tried to find out the technical solution of selection of foundation for multistoried building have situated 10 km away from each other. Based on technical solution we also conduct the study of economy parameters also.
METHODOLOGY
Now in the wake of high rise structures being planned and built on BC soil and developing a concept of zero risk factor lot Of researches are being conducted on improving the property of BC soil and reducing the negative property in the connection of present work has been undertaken. A study has been conducted on BC soil samples taken from two different localities.
First phase determining the all the index properties from laboratory test according to IS codes.
These index properties again tested by adding 4% and 6% lime and standard proportion were studied.
Properties of soil samples The selected site is uniform for all the two soil samples collected from different locations of that area. Samples were collected by trial pit method at a depth of 2m. The samples on which test performed are undisturbed soil samples of that area. The results obtained for all the fore samples are having very less variation therefore results of these two samples mentioned in this paper. The table below shows index properties of samples.
Based on the index properties of sample soil are modified by taking different proportion of lime and further study of properties is confined to only two samples which results are tabloid above. As per the index properties it is decided that to go for deeper soil investigation (up to 8 m) for achieving the better degree of understanding. For this purpose manual auger boring is done at only one location. The bore log at this location is given below in fig. –DISCUSSIONS By going through the literature it is found that lime can be used to treat soil in order to improve its workability and load bearing characteristics in number of situations lime can substantially increased the stability impermeability and load caring capacity of soil. Lime is an excellent choice for modification of soil properties and some following change has been noticed after testing the samples. 1) There is a progressive decrease in liquid limit but almost no change in plastic limit; however the plasticity index shows considerable variation decreasing with the increase in lime content. 2) Mixing of lime also has an effect on the D.F.S. values moves southward due to increase of lime content of sample in decreasing direction. 3) A progressive decrease in swelling pressure is also recorded. 4) There is almost nil or a very little variation in specific gravity and M.D.D. values. 5) There is a marginal increase in shrinkage factor. 6) The value of cohesion (c) varies and drops down with the increase of percentage of “lime” but the variation is within range. 7) The shear parameters show improvement with the increase in the values of ? with increase in lime content. As far as the question of options of foundation is concern for heavy structure, the multistoried building proposed on this type of soil the following foundation can be recommend – ? Double undreamed pile foundation with embedded length of the stem and dia suitable for the load shearing of structure with proper nos of piles in a group provided with caps. ? The Raft Foundation. Plan and structural details Out of these two locations this paper covers only a single location. The proposed structure is residential type having Ground + 5 floors of super built up area of 322.00 sq m. of each floor and according to Jabalpur Municipal Corporation by laws the permitted built up area is 1610 sq m. According to architectural planning the ground floor is exclusively reserved for parking and other floors are proposed for residential purpose. According to the planning each floor comprises four units of 2BHK flats of super built up area 72.12 sq m. of each flat. Looking to this and other architectural constrains the building has total 45 columns. The maximum distance between two columns is observed 3.49 m. the size of column is also varies from 300X450 mm to 300X600 mm. Out of these, 4 columns are found to be worst loaded column also shown in plan and details are in table below. It is required to design the foundation by taking these worst loaded columns.
Now a days various tools in the form of software is available in the market firm for structural design of buildings namely, Stadd pro, Struds, E-Tab etc. and in my opinion out of these software “Struds” is very common software so for the purpose of designing I have preferred this. In following table the detailed design of loadings and columns have shown as per analysis.
For foundation of this structure normally double bulbed undreamed piles in groups should provide with caps depends upon the distribution of load of the structure. But in this particular case the geotechnical investigation and as per soil test report it was found that the position of water table is at a depth of 4.5m below the existing ground level in several previous works it is suggested to place the foundation above the water table to overcome the bad effect of presence of water i.e. in proposed study we decided the foundation level at 2.75 m below the existing water table in the month of November-2013. In this study I assume that in rainy seasons rising of water table may be observed and it may rise up to certain level but it never be over topped the foundation level. Other important parameters of soil according to test report are as shown in table A and table B. CONCLUSION For safe construction of structure in expansive soil proper ground investigation must be carried out and then accordingly foundation be designed. Other field data and ground water table and its seasonal variations are some important parameters for foundation design. In this case safety of structure is of prime importance and economy is not much more concern so I suggested to go for raft foundation for this type of soil condition. Other points for not going to pile foundation are elaborated separately in following text. The other available option for such a very heavy and tall structures is ground improvement but economy is to be checked among available options of going deep foundation or ground improvement or raft foundation. The lime contains improves the Bearing capacity of ground as per the results although water table matters for deciding the type of foundation and as per the geotechnical, field and structural (load on columns) data the Raft foundation will be better suited for the structure defined. Why Raft is better suited for foundation under such conditions: 1) The engineering Geotechnical characteristics of soil are such that friction piles with zero value of cohesion and moderate value of ? would require greater nos of piles in a group and large stemmed dia to meet the load requirement of structure. 2) Because of proximity of water table closed to the ground surface the piles will always remain submerged in water and soil at different levels in fully saturated condition will provide lower value of S.B.C. These two conditions indicates the raft foundation will be better suited for the structure for making the structure distressed, free from failure conditions arising out of settlement failure, shear failure and possible soil liquefaction during seismic activity.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=1507http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=15071. Bowles, J.E. “Foundation analysis and design” Mcgraw hill. Newyork 1968
2. Unified design of piled foundations with emphasis on settlement analysis by { Bengt H. Fellenius, Dr. Tech., P.Eng. 1905 Alexander Street SE, Calgary, Alberta, T2G 4J3}
3. Numerical prediction of long-term displacements of pile foundation in clayed ground considering construction process {Koichiro Danno1, Koichi Isobe2, Makoto Kimura3, Feng Zhang4} etc.
4. Chen F.H. (1988), “Foundation On Expansive Soil”, Amsterdam.
5. Phany Kumar B.R. (1997), “Study of Swelling Characteristics on Pile-Anchor System in Expansive Soil”,Ph.D thesis,Hyderabad.
6. Rao A.S. etal (2004),”Compression Test on Granular Pile Anchors Embeded in Expansive Soil”, IGC,Varangal.