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IJCRR - 6(10), May, 2014

Pages: 01-07

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DEVELOPING CARBON SEQUESTRATION MODEL FOR INDONESIAN PEAT SWAMP FORESTS USING SOIL AND BIOMASS CARBON STOCK AS PROXY: OPTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR PEATLAND MAPPING AND CARBON TRADING IN INDONESIA

Author: Syed Aziz Ur Rehman, Wahid Ullah, Muhammad Khurshid

Category: General Sciences

Abstract:Peat C loss in Indonesia has never been estimated using the C stock change method in a synchronic experiment because of difficulty in Identifying an after-Land Use Change (LUC) location with an initial peat depth similar to that of the before-LUC location due to substantial spatial variability of peat depth, lack of maps locating the position of peat domes and sporadic presence of pristine peatlands at close distance to converted lands. Nevertheless, indirect methods so-called proxy variables or \"proxies\" can be used for assessing the emission reduction and establishing carbon sequestration scenarios. The vegetation proxy approach provides the basis for peatland GHG accounting which covers all main factors that determines ecosystem level carbon dynamics. Therefore we recommend carbon stocks in soil and biomass as a proxy tool for developing carbon sequestration model which is a more conservative approach, easily adaptable and having other associated benefits like resource inventory and national level peat swamp forest (PSF) mapping. This can be done for both PSF already converted and also for developing carbon markets and climate change mitigation scenarios in future. This involves a synchronic experiment of carbon stock determination and comparison by taking PSF-vegetation and soil in intact-state versus any land uses in post-converted statuses. This methodology disregards the debate of separating heterotrophic and autotrophic respiration and instrumental shortcomings for flux measurement; instead the net CO2 emission overtime time can be estimated as the difference of carbon stocks in land units with similar permanent soil characteristics but different management interventions today.

Keywords: Carbon Sequestration, Carbon trading, GHG Fluxes, Land use change, Modelling, Proxy, Tropical Peat Swamp Forests

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INTRODUCTION

Globally, peatlands cover an area of 400 million hectare, equivalent to 3% of the Earth?s land area and storing terrestrial carbon, as much as 528 Pg or one-third of global soil carbon (Murdiyarso., et al. 2010). The tropical peatland area is 439,238 km2 (~11% of global peatland area) of which 247,778 km2 (57%) is in Southeast Asia. A single country, Indonesia, holds the largest share (57.4 Gt, 65%) (Page. et al. 2011), approximately21Mha, distributed mainly in Sumatra (7.2Mha), Kalimantan (5.8Mha) and Papua (8.0Mha) (Murdiyarso., et al 2008). Peatlands provide many important ecosystem services, including water regulation, biodiversity conservation, (Murdiyarso., et al 2005) and carbon sequestration and storage (Page., et al 2004).Any change to the natural balance between water, soil and vegetation will result in GHG emissions (Joosten., et al 2012). The most rapid degradation of tropical peatland is currently taking place in Southeast Asia where there are strong economic and social pressures for timber, land for agriculture and plantations of oil palm and pulp trees (Koh et al., 2009, Hooijer., et al 2010,). Thus currently prominent land uses on organic wetland soils include agriculture (oil palm, rice, sago palm and vegetable crops), silviculture (timber estates, rubber plantations) and aquaculture (shrimp and fish ponds; largely confined to converted mangroves) (Murdiyarso, et al 2012). Since 1990, 5.1 Mha of the total 15.5 Mha of peatland in Peninsular Malaysia and the islands of Borneo and Sumatra has been deforested, drained (Hooijer., et al 2010) and burned while most of the remainder has been logged intensively (Jauhiainen., et al. 2012). Thus these ecosystems no longer are functioning as Caccumulating systems. Anthropogenic activity is the principal cause of this shift (Jaenicke., et al 2008), although longer-term climate induced changes are also important in some locations (Miettinen., et al 2010), resulting in net carbon flux to the atmosphere and loss of carbon sequestration function (Page ., et al 2010). The mean rate of peat C loss associated with oilpalm cultivation (5.2 Mg of C per hectare per year) is more than 7 times that of peat C accumulation rate in the forest which demonstrates how fast and intensively LUCC in tropical peatlands may affect the C cycle (Murdiyarso., et al 2010). Losses from the biomass amounted to be 158 Mg C ha-1 whereas those from the peat reached 270 Mg C ha-1 over 25 years (see Fig. 1), which is the rotation period of an oil palm plantation .(Verchot., et al 2012). Belowground carbon pools of tropical wetlands are quite high (Warren., et al 2012) and therefore peat C loss associated with LUCC (249.9 Mg of C per hectare over 25 y) is greater than C loss from the change in aboveground biomass C stocks. However, peat losses will not cease after this period and will persist as long as management promotes organic matter oxidation. Additionally, the mineral contact beneath the peat is not always regular. Thus, calculating both the volume and the carbon density of tropical peat is often not possible without very intensive measurements at each site (Murdiyarso., et al 2010).While the links between peatland utilization and CO2 emission are relatively well established for temperate and boreal peatlands there is relatively little information on CO2 emission from drained peatlands in the tropics (Hooijer., et al 2010).

Proxy analysis for carbon sequestration in Peat Swamp Forests

To be able to determine the carbon-effects of conversion of the peat swamp forests, it is crucial to quantify the carbon content and carbon dynamics of these forests and to combine that with data on the status of the peat swamp forests that remain today (Verwer., et al 2010).An accurate assessment of soil carbon stock changes following land use change requires carbon stock measurements over the full depth of the peat profile, because changes occur at greater depths in drained soils; losses are not limited to the top 30 cm as they are in mineral soils (Verchot., et al 2012). There is a pressing need for accurate C assessments in tropical wetland ecosystems to establish baseline C stocks, and real and potential C losses from disturbance (Warren. et al 2012). Thus scientists believe that an improved understanding of the magnitude of the tropical peatland carbon store is now essential given the current interest in: (1) Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from drained and degrading tropical peatlands.(2) The role that tropical peatlands could play in carbon offset and carbon trading agreements (Page., et al 2007., Page., et al 2011). Standardized methods and protocols are needed for effective monitoring, reporting and verification of emissions from land use and land cover change in tropical wetlands (Murdiyarso. et al 2011). Carbon emissions from LUC can be estimated by quantifying either the changes in C stocks or the changes in C fluxes (IPCC 2006). Both approaches can be applied diachronically (measurement at two points in time, at least, at one site being converted during the monitoring period) or synchronically (measurement at the same time in at least two sites, which have the same initial state). Diachronic experiments are generally opportunistic and rare because they require a long period of field observation. Synchronic experiments are far more common and are classically applied for estimating biomass C stock changes. A synchronic assessment of peat C loss uses the stock change method i.e. by calculating the difference of stocks before and after LUC, requires C stocks measurements over the full depth of the peat profile. Peat C loss in SEA has never been estimated using the C stock change method in a synchronic experiment. Identifying an after-LUC location with an initial peat depth similar to that of the beforeLUC location is nearly impossible due to the substantial spatial variability of peat depth, the lack of maps locating the position of peat domes, and the sporadic presence of pristine peatlands at close distance to converted lands (Hergoualc?h et al 2013). Indeed, adequate techniques exist to measure these fluxes in detail, but these are generally too complex and too expensive for widespread monitoring. Therefore, indirect methods via so-called proxy variables or “proxies” are used for assessing the emission reduction (Joosten and Couwenberg, 2009). Also in climate politics the most important variables GHG fluxes are often addressed via proxies i.e. carbon stock change. We can use carbon stock changes to estimate CO2 fluxes from vegetated land, where simultaneous uptake of CO2 by photosynthesis and emission of CO2 by respiration of plants, animals, and microbes make assessing net CO2 fluxes complicated. Instead of measuring all fluxes to and fro, it is simpler to determine the change in carbon stock, which integrates all fluxes over longer time. Whereas carbon stock change can thus be seen as a proxy for CO2 fluxes, the stocks themselves are also not directly assessed e.g. using allometry and regression equations. Further in forests we estimate the average increase in wood volume (m3 /ha/yr), multiply by the average C- content of wood and use the C-to-CO2 conversion factor of 44/12 to estimate the volume of sequestered CO2 (ton/ha/year) (Joosten., et al 2009). Thus vegetation proxy approach may provide the basis for peatland GHG accounting (Worrall, et al 2010); and according to Couwenberg., et al 2011, vegetation seems to be well qualified for indicating GHG fluxes because: ? It is a good indicator of water level, which in turn strongly correlates with GHG fluxesIt is controlled by various other site factors that determine GHG emissions from peatlands such as nutrient availability, soil reaction (pH) and land use (history) ? It is itself directly and indirectly responsible for the predominant part of the GHG emissions by regulating CO2 exchange, by supplying organic matter (including root exudates) for CO2 and CH4 formation, by reducing peat moisture and by providing possible bypasses for methane fluxes via aerenchyma „shunt species? ? It reflects long-time water level conditions and thus provides indication of average GHG fluxes on an annual time scale ? It allows for fine-scaled mapping, e.g. on scales 1:2,500–1:10,000

Options and Opportunities for Carbon trad

in Tropical Peat Swamp forests of Indonesia Indonesia is one of the greatest emitters of GHGs in the world, with about 80% of national emissions coming from land use and land use change. Recent estimates suggest that carbon loss associated with the conversion of peat swamp forest to oil palm plantation contributes more than 63% to total losses.(Verchot., et al 2012). In 1981, “planned deforestation” in Indonesia was legislated; involving 30 Mha of conversion forests. In addition to plantation forests, most of the conversions were allocated for agricultural land development, such as oil palm. Furthermore, in early 2009, the government of Indonesia issued a regulation that allows the development of oil-palm plantations in peatlands with peat depth less than 3 m, which could potentially trigger further deforestation and peatlands degradation (Murdiyarso, et al 2010). In September 2011, Indonesia issued a presidential decree on land-based NAMAs (Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions) combining REDD+, peatland emission reductions, restocking of above- and below-ground carbon pools regardless of forest/non-forest status of the land, and reduction of CH4 and N20 emissions from agriculture (Presidential Decree No. 61 of 2011). This likely makes Indonesia the first Non- Annex-I country in the world to have such a holistic perspective on emissions from the land based sectors. The presidential decree gives substance to the country?s NAMA commitments to reduce its 2020 emissions by 26 percent. Within 12 months of issuance, all districts and cities (more than 400 in total) are meant to provide their own action plans within the sectoral priorities that were established at the national scale (Joosten., et al 2012). From 2013 onwards, coinciding with the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, Annex I Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are given the opportunity to account for GHG emissions by sources and removals by sinks resulting from “Wetland Drainage and Rewetting” (WDR) under Article 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol. This means that Annex I countries can use peatland rewetting to meet their emissions reduction targets (Joosten., et al 2012). Peat-land restoration usually involves techniques to stabilize eroding surfaces, re-establish a suitable vegetation cover and raise and stabilize the water table, and hence encourage waterlogged conditions and wetland vegetation that will enable peat to form again (Worrall, et al 2011). In Indonesia Forested wetlands, such as floodplain forests, peatland forests and mangrove forests are thus eligible sites for emission reduction projects because they meet the forest definition requirements given in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC guidelines (VCS., 2013). Alternative income sources from peatlands can involve a variety of options, including carbon trading, water, biodiversity and tourism. Oil palm, pulp or rubber plantations could, under certain conditions, help to promote sustainable development of deforested and degraded peatland areas but, in view of the related CO2 emissions, such development should preferably be contemplated for non-peat areas. There are millions of hectares of alang-alang (deforested, abandoned grassland) landscape in Indonesia that could beused for development (Diemont et al., 2001). For large scale developers these areas pose significant constraints as they are already under tenure of local people, and purchasing this land in sufficiently large blocks will bring a variety of administrative nightmares and headaches (Silvius., et al 2007). The country also have some 40 Mha of forestland classified as non-forested or degraded by the Ministry of Forestry. A large portion of degraded lands which are characterized by mineral soils may be allocated for sustainable pulpwood and oil-palm development. Therefore, carbon-rich peatlands can be preserved and targeted for rehabilitation as part of enhancement of sinks activities under variety of carbon trading schemes (Murdiyarso., et al 2010). The economic worth of the baseline and the mitigation activity can be compared by considering the minimum price of carbon at which land owners/decision makers would be indifferent between pursuing the Conversion forever or stop conversion activity, for the lifespan of the mitigation project1 . To do so, we will determine the Net Present Value (NPV) that will fulfill the condition:

Thus at local scales with willingness to stop conversion and when emission reduction potential is being calculated carbon trade off schemes can be implemented which will preserve ecosystem resistance and resilience to climate change and can be recommended as cost-effective and ecologically sound adaptation strategies.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS It is thus concluded that Converting pristine peat swamp forests ecosystem to agroecosytems and industrial plantation leads to decline in organic carbon stocks both in soil and biomass; and that the net carbon emission during course of time is analogous to the net drop of carbon stocks since the time of logging. Similarly the land units with closest distance to intact peat swamps and permuted land uses have similar ecological conditions in general while topography and hydrology in particular, therefore the fall in the carbon stocks of the transformed loci is a function of human induced activities and time elapsed. Thus we conclude that the proxy based methodology is more reliable and less biased in calculating the site-specific GHG emissions based on the existing carbon stocks and has more conservative approach. Since the land conversion and agriculture expansion in Indonesia is going on with an alarming rate therefore finding virgin peat swamp forests adjacent to plantation and agriculture lands with matching characteristics is challenging. But we recommend proxy analysis to be easily follow-able protocol for determining the GHG emissions that can be adopted by current policy makers and resource managers working on resource mapping, sorting and landuse planning requiring less expertise, low technology and finance. However it is recommended that countries which are less technologically advance shall install permanent sampling plots where diachronic experiments can be performed to have more accurate carbon inventories because in peatlands the large proportion of carbon is stored in soil, which have huge spatial variation even in closeproximities therefore in cases where permanent sampling plot and historic data exist proxy analysis is not recommended. Similarly it is further suggested that the field surveys in carbon inventories are inevitable because satellite imageries and remote sensing data can be used only to estimate biomass, but soil properties and peat-land parameters like hydrology and depth are decisive factors and will help in selecting comparable plots for any carbon sequestration project.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors / editors / publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.

References:

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A Study by Rosa PS et al. entitled "Emotional State Due to the Covid – 19 Pandemic in People Residing in a Vulnerable Area in North Lima" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 14
A Study by Suvarna Sunder J et al. entitled "Endodontic Revascularization of Necrotic Permanent Anterior Tooth with Platelet Rich Fibrin, Platelet Rich Plasma, and Blood Clot - A Comparative Study" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 13
A Study by Mona Isam Eldin Osman et al. entitled "Psychological Impact and Risk Factors of Sexual Abuse on Sudanese Children in Khartoum State" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 12
A Study by Khaw Ming Sheng & Sathiapriya Ramiah entitled "Web Based Suicide Prevention Application for Patients Suffering from Depression" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 11
A Study by Purushottam S. G. et al. entitled "Development of Fenofibrate Solid Dispersions for the Plausible Aqueous Solubility Augmentation of this BCS Class-II Drug" is awarded Best article for Vol 13 issue 10
A Study by Kumar S. et al. entitled "A Study on Clinical Spectrum, Laboratory Profile, Complications and Outcome of Pediatric Scrub Typhus Patients Admitted to an Intensive Care Unit from a Tertiary Care Hospital from Eastern India" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 09
A Study by Mardhiah Kamaruddin et al. entitled "The Pattern of Creatinine Clearance in Gestational and Chronic Hypertension Women from the Third Trimester to 12 Weeks Postpartum" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 08
A Study by Sarmila G. B. et al. entitled "Study to Compare the Efficacy of Orally Administered Melatonin and Clonidine for Attenuation of Hemodynamic Response During Laryngoscopy and Endotracheal Intubation in Gastrointestinal Surgeries" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 07
A Study by M. Muthu Uma Maheswari et al. entitled "A Study on C-reactive Protein and Liver Function Tests in Laboratory RT-PCR Positive Covid-19 Patients in a Tertiary Care Centre – A Retrospective Study" is awarded Best Article of Vol 13 issue 06 Special issue Modern approaches for diagnosis of COVID-19 and current status of awareness
A Study by Gainneos PD et al. entitled "A Comparative Evaluation of the Levels of Salivary IgA in HIV Affected Children and the Children of the General Population within the Age Group of 9 – 12 Years – A Cross-Sectional Study" is awarded Best Article of Vol 13 issue 05 Special issue on Recent Advances in Dentistry for better Oral Health
A Study by Alkhansa Mahmoud et al. entitled "mRNA Expression of Somatostatin Receptors (1-5) in MCF7 and MDA-MB231 Breast Cancer Cells" is awarded Best Article of Vol 13 issue 06
A Study by Chen YY and Ghazali SRB entitled "Lifetime Trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder Symptoms and Early Adolescence Risk Factors for Poor Physical Health Outcome Among Malaysian Adolescents" is awarded Best Article of Vol 13 issue 04 Special issue on Current Updates in Plant Biology to Medicine to Healthcare Awareness in Malaysia
A Study by Kumari PM et al. entitled "Study to Evaluate the Adverse Drug Reactions in a Tertiary Care Teaching Hospital in Tamilnadu - A Cross-Sectional Study" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 05
A Study by Anu et al. entitled "Effectiveness of Cytological Scoring Systems for Evaluation of Breast Lesion Cytology with its Histopathological Correlation" is awarded Best Article of Vol 13 issue 04
A Study by Sharipov R. Kh. et al. entitled "Interaction of Correction of Lipid Peroxidation Disorders with Oxibral" is awarded Best Article of Vol 13 issue 03
A Study by Tarek Elwakil et al. entitled "Led Light Photobiomodulation Effect on Wound Healing Combined with Phenytoin in Mice Model" is awarded Best Article of Vol 13 issue 02
A Study by Mohita Ray et al. entitled "Accuracy of Intra-Operative Frozen Section Consultation of Gastrointestinal Biopsy Samples in Correlation with the Final Histopathological Diagnosis" is awarded Best Article for Vol 13 issue 01
A Study by Badritdinova MN et al. entitled "Peculiarities of a Pain in Patients with Ischemic Heart Disease in the Presence of Individual Combines of the Metabolic Syndrome" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 24
A Study by Sindhu Priya E S et al. entitled "Neuroprotective activity of Pyrazolone Derivatives Against Paraquat-induced Oxidative Stress and Locomotor Impairment in Drosophila melanogaster" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 23
A Study by Habiba Suhail et al. entitled "Effect of Majoon Murmakki in Dysmenorrhoea (Usre Tams): A Standard Controlled Clinical Study" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 22
A Study by Ghaffar UB et al. entitled "Correlation between Height and Foot Length in Saudi Population in Majmaah, Saudi Arabia" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 21
A Study by Siti Sarah Binti Maidin entitled "Sleep Well: Mobile Application to Address Sleeping Problems" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 20
A Study by Avijit Singh"Comparison of Post Operative Clinical Outcomes Between “Made in India” TTK Chitra Mechanical Heart Valve Versus St Jude Mechanical Heart Valve in Valve Replacement Surgery" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 19
A Study by Sonali Banerjee and Mary Mathews N. entitled "Exploring Quality of Life and Perceived Experiences Among Couples Undergoing Fertility Treatment in Western India: A Mixed Methodology" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 18
A Study by Jabbar Desai et al. entitled "Prevalence of Obstructive Airway Disease in Patients with Ischemic Heart Disease and Hypertension" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 17
A Study by Juna Byun et al. entitled "Study on Difference in Coronavirus-19 Related Anxiety between Face-to-face and Non-face-to-face Classes among University Students in South Korea" is awarded Best Article for Vol 12 issue 16
A Study by Sudha Ramachandra & Vinay Chavan entitled "Enhanced-Hybrid-Age Layered Population Structure (E-Hybrid-ALPS): A Genetic Algorithm with Adaptive Crossover for Molecular Docking Studies of Drug Discovery Process" is awarded Best article for Vol 12 issue 15
A Study by Varsha M. Shindhe et al. entitled "A Study on Effect of Smokeless Tobacco on Pulmonary Function Tests in Class IV Workers of USM-KLE (Universiti Sains Malaysia-Karnataka Lingayat Education Society) International Medical Programme, Belagavi" is awarded Best article of Vol 12 issue 14, July 2020
A study by Amruta Choudhary et al. entitled "Family Planning Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Among Women of Reproductive Age from Rural Area of Central India" is awarded Best Article for special issue "Modern Therapeutics Applications"
A study by Raunak Das entitled "Study of Cardiovascular Dysfunctions in Interstitial Lung Diseas epatients by Correlating the Levels of Serum NT PRO BNP and Microalbuminuria (Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Dysfunction) with Echocardiographic, Bronchoscopic and HighResolution Computed Tomography Findings of These ILD Patients" is awarded Best Article of Vol 12 issue 13 
A Study by Kannamani Ramasamy et al. entitled "COVID-19 Situation at Chennai City – Forecasting for the Better Pandemic Management" is awarded best article for  Vol 12 issue 12
A Study by Muhammet Lutfi SELCUK and Fatma entitled "Distinction of Gray and White Matter for Some Histological Staining Methods in New Zealand Rabbit's Brain" is awarded best article for  Vol 12 issue 11
A Study by Anamul Haq et al. entitled "Etiology of Abnormal Uterine Bleeding in Adolescents – Emphasis Upon Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome" is awarded best article for  Vol 12 issue 10
A Study by entitled "Estimation of Reference Interval of Serum Progesterone During Three Trimesters of Normal Pregnancy in a Tertiary Care Hospital of Kolkata" is awarded best article for  Vol 12 issue 09
A Study by Ilona Gracie De Souza & Pavan Kumar G. entitled "Effect of Releasing Myofascial Chain in Patients with Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome - A Randomized Clinical Trial" is awarded best article for  Vol 12 issue 08
A Study by Virendra Atam et. al. entitled "Clinical Profile and Short - Term Mortality Predictors in Acute Stroke with Emphasis on Stress Hyperglycemia and THRIVE Score : An Observational Study" is awarded best article for  Vol 12 issue 07
A Study by K. Krupashree et. al. entitled "Protective Effects of Picrorhizakurroa Against Fumonisin B1 Induced Hepatotoxicity in Mice" is awarded best article for issue Vol 10 issue 20
A study by Mithun K.P. et al "Larvicidal Activity of Crude Solanum Nigrum Leaf and Berries Extract Against Dengue Vector-Aedesaegypti" is awarded Best Article for Vol 10 issue 14 of IJCRR
A study by Asha Menon "Women in Child Care and Early Education: Truly Nontraditional Work" is awarded Best Article for Vol 10 issue 13
A study by Deep J. M. "Prevalence of Molar-Incisor Hypomineralization in 7-13 Years Old Children of Biratnagar, Nepal: A Cross Sectional Study" is awarded Best Article for Vol 10 issue 11 of IJCRR
A review by Chitra et al to analyse relation between Obesity and Type 2 diabetes is awarded 'Best Article' for Vol 10 issue 10 by IJCRR. 
A study by Karanpreet et al "Pregnancy Induced Hypertension: A Study on Its Multisystem Involvement" is given Best Paper Award for Vol 10 issue 09

List of Awardees

A Study by Ese Anibor et al. "Evaluation of Temporomandibular Joint Disorders Among Delta State University Students in Abraka, Nigeria" from Vol 13 issue 16 received Emerging Researcher Award


A Study by Alkhansa Mahmoud et al. entitled "mRNA Expression of Somatostatin Receptors (1-5) in MCF7 and MDA-MB231 Breast Cancer Cells" from Vol 13 issue 06 received Emerging Researcher Award


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