IJCRR

IJCRR - 13(7), April, 2021

Pages: 86-96

Date of Publication: 12-Apr-2021

Micro-Algal Diet for Copepod Culture with Reference to Their Nutritive Value \? A Review

Author: Altaff K, Vijayaraj R

Category: Healthcare

Abstract:Cultured copepods have been successfully used in the larviculture of various finfish larvae. Over the past few years, there have been several research articles published on copepod culture to cater to the needs of aqua hatcheries and discussed the important role of copepods as suitable feeds for marine finfish larviculture. However, the upscaling of copepod cultures to the commercial level is still a challenge. In this regard, the present review is focused on the culture of copepod utilizing various micro-algal diets with single or in combination with multiple species, and evaluation of nutritional importance of copepods for finfish larviculture. Therefore, the review article paves the way to improve the nutrition in copepod culture through ideal micro-algae andutilization in aqua hatcheries for better results in terms of larval performance in finfish larval rearing.

Keywords: Copepods, Micro-algae, Larviculture, Aquaculture, Nutrients, Finfish

Full Text:

Introduction

Hatchery rearing of commercially important finfish and shellfish larvae is important for successful farming of these species and live feed plays a vital role in this regard.^1-3Live feeds are phytoplankton and zooplankton. They constitute the main component of the diet for finfish and shellfish larvae especially marine finfish. They are referred to as living capsules of nutrition because they contain essential nutrients such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, amino acids and fatty acids.⁴In marine aquaculture, the use of live feed can’t replace by formulated diets in some cases. Artemia nauplii and rotifers (Brachionus plications) are still the most commonly used live feed. A good alternative is the use of copepods for rearing finfish larvae with small Gabe which could lead to the cultivation of new finfish species.^5,6 Based on the above rationale, the present review article discusses the utilization of a micro-algae diet for copepods larviculture. Most research on copepods have focused on their nutrition, reproduction or physiological aspects, and culture techniques using micro-algae culture have primarily been developed at the laboratory scale.

Need for alternative live feeds

Past few decades, the marine hatcheries are largely dependent on the production of rotifers and brine shrimp as they could be cultured successfully and offered as traditional live feeds for fish and crustacean larvae.^7-10 Rotifers are relatively easy to culture and can rapidly achieve high culture densities.¹¹ Artemia can be obtained commercially in the form of dry cysts and their nauplii exhibit a good tolerance to culture conditions and handling.¹² Research focusing on the identification of alternative feed sources that overcome the inadequacies of traditional rotifer and Artemia live feeds is critical to increase the variety and survival of species that can be successfully cultivated, and ultimately enhance the growth, sustainability and economic performance of the aquaculture industry.^13-16 Copepods appear to be the most valuable candidate for this role as they are the most important natural prey for a vast majority of marine finfish larvae^16-19 and their inclusion as live prey in larviculture may increase the number of fish species that can be successfully reared. Table 1 summarize the size range and main nutritional characteristics of copepods compared to the rotifers and Artemialive feed. Copepod nauplii are generally smaller than the smallest strain of rotifers and Artemia nauplii, and higher levels of the major nutrient also indicated when compared to enriched rotifers and Artemia nauplii.^20-23

For the past three decades, there has been continuing interest in the development of mass culture techniques for copepods to be used as live food in aquaculture.^3,7 Copepods are the most common metazoans in the marine environment, with approximately 11,500 described species. Unlike traditional live feed, copepod nutritional profiles are rich in essential fatty acids, free amino acids and other essential micronutrients.¹³ Moreover, the small size of copepod nauplii is vital for the first larval feeding of various fish species (Table 2).

The copepod cultivation methods establishment with cost-effective protocols for mass production is still a challenge. Copepods have mostly been used at a pilot-scale or in locations where the abundant collection of natural zooplankton is possible. Still, the use of copepods as live feeds for marine fish larvae has generally led to considerably better results in terms of larval performance and quality, when compared with rotifers and Artemia nauplii.⁹The copepod nauplii may be produced in the rearing tanks or separate tanks and ponds. It has also been proposed that mass production of copepod resting eggs could facilitate the availability of copepod nauplii for aquaculture. However, research is needed on storage conditions of resting eggs concerning the survival and nutritional value of nauplii.^18,36-38

Utilization of micro-algal diet for copepods larviculture

In aquaculture, micro-algae are used as a direct food source for various filter-feeding larval stages of organisms. They are also used as an indirect food source, in the production of copepod culture which in turn is used as food for the carnivorous larvae of many of the marine finfish species presently farmed.^39-41 The intensive rearing of bivalves has so far relied on the production of live micro-algae, which comprises on average 30% of the operating costs in a bivalve hatchery. For culture of marine finfish larvae according to the green water technique the micro-algae are used directly in the larval tanks.⁴²This technique is nowadays a normal procedure in marine larviculture. It has been widely reported to improve fish larval growth, survival and feed ingestion which showed that micro-algae seemed to provide nutrients directly to the larvae that contribute to nutritional quality as it plays an important role in the microflora diversification of both the tank and the larval gut.²² Whenever micro-algae are used as a direct food source or indirect food source in the production of copepods, the growth of the animals is usually superior when a mixture of several microalgal species is used. The micro-algae diets of copepods culture are listed in Table 2.

Nutritional importance of micro-algae

Increasing the needs for protein and the high cost of fish meal in recent years has led to the search for new alternatives, as animal and plant sources of protein for sustainable aquaculture.⁴² One such accessible and relatively inexpensive food component that could respond successfully to the challenging question raised by aquaculture is algae. Cultivation of microalgae is mandatory in hatchery as it is a basic and nutritious diet for live feed organisms, specifically the zooplankton.⁹¹ However, factors such as manpower requirement, infrastructure facilities and other related costs involved in the high-density culture escalate the price of the production. For the cost-effective production of micro-algae, new approaches have to be adopted with an improvised culture environment. Micro-algal species can vary significantly in their nutritional value, and this may also change under different cultural conditions.^92,93

 In the laboratory-scale production of micro-algae, light plays a fundamental role in the development of microalgae through photosynthesis.^94,95 It is one of the major environmental factors which control the performance of micro-algae through phototrophic growth and productivity. However, the extreme light intensity may result in photoinhibition which reduces the photosynthetic rates and growth. In the indoor culture based on the light-dark cycle periodicity duration of L D 12: 12 illumination, it could be modified to 14:10 L D or a maximum of 16:8 LD for optimizing photosynthesis of micro-algae For some microalgae and diatoms it has been reported that changes in the frequency of light-dark cycle enhance exponentially rate of photosynthesis. Some aquaculture hatcheries adopt a longer dark period compared to the light period for enhancing photosynthetic competence.^96-99

 Many algae have been found to contain good nutritional properties. Several factors can contribute to the nutritional value of a micro-alga, which include their size and shape, digestibility, biochemical composition, nutrients profile and enzymes. These factors satisfy the nutritional requirements of the larvae feeding on the algae. Many studies have attempted to correlate the nutritional value of micro-algae with their biochemical and nutritional profile.^100-101 In the primary growth phase of the micro-algae, they contain 30 to 40% protein, 10 to 20% lipid and 5 to 15% carbohydrate⁵¹ and the high dietary protein provided the best growth for Oithona davisae.¹⁰² The major nutritional composition (Carbohydrates, Protein and Lipid) of some commercially important micro-algal species is comparable with the available feed ingredients which are used in the aquafeed.

For the supply of sufficient nutrient for primary and secondary consumers, micro-algae should have the nutrient profile of protein (6–52%), carbohydrate (5–23%) and lipid (7–23%). Most microalgal species have a similar amino acid composition with enriched essential amino acids and high concentrations of ascorbic acid (1–16 mg g⁻¹ dry weight) and riboflavin (20–40 μg g⁻¹).¹⁰³ Further high percentage of nutrient contents, carbohydrates, proteins and lipids were recorded in common micro-algae.^104-109 Microalgal protein could be a plausible alternative to fishmeal protein because of its desired quality and amino acid profiles comparable with that of other reference protein sources.¹⁰⁹ There are several studies on the utilization of biomass of Arthrospira sp.¹¹⁰, Chlorella sp.¹¹¹ Scenedesmus sp.¹¹² Nanofrustulum sp.¹¹³ and Tetraselmissuecica ¹¹⁴as valuable supplementary protein sources.

Lipids have a role as high energy storage molecules. Oil content in micro-algae can exceed 60% by weight of dry biomass, while levels of 20 to 50% are common. PUFAs derived from micro-algae such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and arachidonic acid (AA) are known to be essential bioactive molecules for various larval cultures.¹¹⁵  Dunstan et al.,¹¹⁶ reported the most micro-algal species to have moderate to high percentages of EPA (7 to 34%) as in the case of major micro-algae species such as Pavlova spp. and Isochrysis sp. A high amount of DHA (0.2 to 11%) is present inNannochloropsis spp. and diatoms consisting of the highest percentages of AA (4%).

Vitamins are essential micronutrients and their content can vary in different micro-algae. Brown and Miller¹¹⁷ reported that ascorbic acid shows the greatest variation (1 to 16 mg g^-1) in different micro-algae. The β-carotene content ranged from 0.5 to 1.1 mg g^-1. The vitamin B complex is rich in micro-algae and amount of different compounds of this vitamin showed variation in their levels (thiamin 29 to 109 μg g^-1; riboflavin 25 to 50 μg g^-1; niacin (0.11 to 0.47 mg g^-1; pantothenic acid 14 to 38 μg g^-1; pyridoxine 3.6 to 17 μg g^-1; biotin 1.1 to 1.9 μg g^-1; folates 17 to 24 μg g^-1; cobalamin 1.8 to 7.4 μg g^-1).  The α-tocopherol content of micro-algae ranged between 0.07 and 0.29 mg g^-1.

Nutritional importance of copepods

Copepods can consume different unicellular micro-algae and also capable of feeding on filamentous algae which might provide all necessary nutrients. Several studies have demonstrated correlations between zooplankton productions and some amino acids and fatty acids content in dietary algae.¹¹⁸ The free-living copepod nauplii more particularly those of harpacticoid are highly suitable starter feed for marine finfish larvae due to their small size and nutritive value. The larvae of dolphinfish(Coryphaenahippurus) fed with harpacticoid copepod (Euterpinaacutifrons) nauplii showed desirable growth, survival and biochemical profile in the hatchery rearing. The mass culture system using micro-algae for the production of benthic marine harpacticoid copepod described by Sun and Fleeger could be an ideal starter feed for rearing larvae of many marine finfish with small mouth size.¹¹⁹

The high content of lipid is reported from many marine copepods and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and the saturated fatty acid (16:0) constituted predominant fatty acids. In Temoralongicornis andEurytemora sp. total lipid content reported between 7% and 14% of the dry weight of which DHA accounted 26- 42%, EPA 15-24% and Palmitic acid (16:0) 8-12%. Comparable lipid content of DHA, EPA and Palmiticacid ranging between 21% and 32.5%,15- 21% and 9-15% of total fatty acids, respectively is also reported from another calanoid copepod, Calanus finmarchicus.⁷

The calanoid copepods especially Acartiatonsa are a rich source of essential highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) such as docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid.³² The fatty acid composition of Acartiatonsacontain high amount of monounsaturated fatty acid (411 mg g⁻¹), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (360 mg g⁻¹). A large amount of DHA and EPA (170 and 96 mg g⁻¹, respectively) reported in this species.¹²⁰ Several marine copepods have a high content of both docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (60% of total fatty acids).⁷ Also, the copepods are natural sources of the antioxidant, astaxanthin and vitamins C and E.³² The powerful antioxidants found in copepods can protect the HUFA’s against peroxidation and are also considered beneficial to the health of fish larvae.⁶⁹ An exogenous supply of free amino acids (FAA) is necessary to support growth and survival in first feeding finfish larvae.¹²¹ Copepods contain higher levels of free amino acids when compared to rotifers and Artemia nauplii.³² Copepods generally contain more vitamins and trace minerals than traditional live feeds.¹²² Copepods are rich in vitamin E and ascorbic acid, suggesting a high antioxidative capacity and making them particularly suitable for larvae with potential for high growth rates.³² Furthermore, copepods are rich in pigment content, particularly astaxanthin, which may be an important source of retinoids for larval fish.³² A copepod diet has been reported to promote correct pigmentation in Atlantic halibut larvae, with 55% of the copepod fed larvae exhibiting correct pigmentation of the ocular and blindsides as compared to only 13% in those fed Artemia nauplii.¹²³ Thus it is generally accepted that many copepods are the valuable nutrient source of live feed for marine larval finfish rearing. With varying food and feeding habits and reproductive strategies among even in closely related copepod species it necessary to venture in to establish their mass production protocols.  Further such research is needed to identify the copepod species which matches nutritionally and in size spectrum with the requirement of specific marine finfish larval rearing.

Conclusion

This review reveals the importance of micro-algal for the culture of copepods, nevertheless, such studies are mostly of small scale level and to reach cost-effective commercial-scale production, attempts should have made to enumerating new species for mass production. They have to be mass cultured with the knowledge of their reproductive potentials and reproductive strategies. Considering copepod suitability for successful rearing of many finfish larvae further research is urgently needed to assess the culture potential of more candidate copepods as prey for the rearing of early stages of marine finfish larvae which in turn might greatly benefit the mariculture industry.

Acknowledgement

            The authors express their gratitude to the Management of AMET University for providing research facilities to carry out this work. The authors are thankful to the Department of Biotechnology, Govt. of India for funding a project (BT/PR30019/AAQ/3/929/2018) for Copepod culture studies. The authors acknowledge the immense help received from the scholars whose articles are cited and included in references to this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles, journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.

Author Contributions

            All the authors contributed equally for this reviewwork.

Conflict of interest

            The authors have no conflict of interest.

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