Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524127EnglishN-0001November30HealthcarePHARMACOLOGICAL POTENTIAL OF TRICHOSANTHES DIOICA - AN EDIBLE PLANT
English0310Biren N. ShahEnglish A. K. SethEnglishAbstract
Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. (family: Cucurbitaceae), commonly known as “Sespadula” in English and “Parwal” in Hindi, is widely grown throughout India. Fruits of this plant are used as vegetable in Indian traditional food system from time immemorial. Besides fruits, other parts of the plant, such as the leaves and tender shoots, have also been used in the traditional system of medicine since ancient times. Pointed gourd has been used for overcoming problems like constipation, fever, skin infection, wounds and also improves appetite and digestion. The immature fruits are used as vegetable and as ingredients of soup, stew, curry, sweet, or eaten fried and as dorma with roe stuffing. The present review describes the morphological and pharmacological aspects of Trichosanthes dioica and summarizes the most interesting findings obtained in the preclinical and clinical research related to the plant.
EnglishTrichosanthes dioica, Pharmacology, Cucurbitaceae.Introduction
The Indian subcontinent represents one of the richest diverse genetic resources. Of the estimated 250,000 species of flowering plants at global level, about 3000 are regarded as food source; out of which only 200 species have been domesticated. Global diversity in vegetable crops is estimated to be about 400 species of which about 80 species of major and minor vegetables are reported to have originated in India. However, with the advent of cut and burn agriculture, green revolution/commercialized agriculture, the area development projects and the related activities of these diverse resources are declining at a fast pace. Overgrazing, deforestation and over exploitation of native resources under range situations have eroded the biodiversity from this unique ecosystem. Moreover, our traditional knowledge about these important indigenous plant species has also decreased in the younger generation influenced by urbanization. Indigenous plant species provide a variety of products like food, medicines, raw materials and are also an important source of renewable energy. The Indian subcontinent had been one of the rich emporia of 2500 plant species used in indigenous treatment and food sources1 . Pointed gourd (cucurbitaceae) is a dioecious perennial herbaceous vegetable. The crop is of Indo-Malayan origin and distribution and is extensively grown in eastern India2 and to a lesser extent in other parts of South Asia3 . Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. (family: Cucurbitaceae), commonly known as “Sespadula” in English and “Parwal” in Hindi, is widely grown throughout India2 . Fruits of this plant are used as vegetable in Indian traditional food system from time immemorial. Besides fruits, other parts of the plant, such as the leaves and tender shoots, have also been used in the traditional system of medicine since ancient times4-6 . Some specific medicinal properties have been identified, viz., hypocholesterolemic, hypoglyceridimic, and hypophospholipemic when shade-dried fruits were mixed in the food of nondiabetic animals4, 7. Most recently, its seeds and leaves have also been found as antidiabetic agents by our research group8, 9. It also serves as a rich source of vitamin C4 .
Botany
The plant is a perennial, dioecious, and grows as a vine (Fig. 1). Roots are tuberous with long taproot system. Vines are pencil thick in size with dark green cordate simple leaves. Flowers are tubular white with 16–19 days initiation to anthesis time for pistillate flowers and 10–14 days for staminate flowers. Stigma remains viable for approximately 14 hours and 40–70% of flowers set fruit. Based on shape, size and striation, fruits can be grouped into 4 categories: (1) long, dark green with white stripes, 10–13 cm long, (2) thick, dark green with very pale green stripes, 10–16 cm long, (3) roundish, dark green with white stripe, 5–8 cm long, and (4) tapering, green and striped, 5–8 cm long6 .
Pharmacological Property Anthelmintic The in vitro
methanol (MeOH) extract of the leaves from Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae), and its ethyl acetate (EtOAc) and n-butanol (n-BuOH) fractions was evaluated against Pheretima posthuma (Annelida) and Ascaridia galli (Nematoda). All the extracts demonstrated concentration dependent paralytic and lethal effects on P. posthuma and lethal effects on A. galli. The EtOAc fraction was found to be the most potent followed by the defatted MeOH extract and its n-BuOH fraction. A. galli was found to be more sensitive than P. posthuma against all tests extracts indicating T. dioica as an effective nematocide10 .
Antihyperglycemic
The study deals with the effect of a single oral dose of the aqueous extract of Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae) seeds in different diabetic animal models. Evaluation of the antihyperglycemic effect in normal, subdiabetic, and mild diabetic animal models is based on fasting blood glucose (FBG) and glucose tolerance test (GTT) studies. The graded doses of the extract, viz., 500, 750, 1000, and 1250 mg/kg body weight (b.w.), were administered orally. It was found that the blood glucose concentration decreased in a dose-dependent manner. The dose of 1000 mg/kg b.w. was found to be most effective with a maximum fall of 30.4% at 6 h during FBG studies in normal rats. However, the GTT studies showed the maximum reduction of 26.6% at 5 h in normal rats. Moreover, in case of sub diabetic and mild diabetic rats, the observed reduction in blood glucose levels was 32.8% and 35.9%, respectively, at 3 h during GTT. The data clearly reveal the significant antihyperglycemic profile of Trichosanthes dioica seeds8 .
Antioxidant
Antioxidants protect the body against oxidative stress by neutralizing free radicals. Plants contain rich amount of polyphenols which are very potent natural antioxidants. The study was designed to evaluate the relative contribution of different polyphenols such as total phenolics, flavonoids and flavonol contents and their antioxidants activities. For this purpose the total phenolics, flavonoids and flavonol contents of some medicinal plants were determined in the aqueous extracts of leaves of Trichosenthes dioica, fruits of Moringa olifera and Ficus bengalensis as well as seeds of Emblica officinalis. Total antioxidant activity of these extracts was monitored by Free Radical Absorbing Power (FRAP) assay. In this paper, those parts of the plants are used for the analysis of aforesaid parameters which are normally overlooked. The total phenolic content of T. dioica leaves was about two times more than that obtained from the fruits and seeds of M. olifera and E. officinalis, respectively. However, the aerial roots of F. bengalensis registered presence of least phenolic content. The aqueous preparation from E. officinalis exhibited total flavonoid content twice as high as that of the other three plants. The extract from seeds of E. officinalis was found to contain highest antioxidant activity as compared to the preparations from other plants. The high antioxidant activity and flavonoids contents in E. officinalis seeds indicated that it could be exploited as an ingredient in developing a potential antioxidant supplement11 . In another study, antioxidant activity of fruits of Trichosanthes dioica (Cucurbitaceae) was evaluated and compared with ascorbic acid (Standard). Anti-oxidant activity of aqueous extract of Trichosanthes dioica (TSD) fruits was studied for its free radical scavenging property in different in vitro methods as 1, 1 diphenyl-2- picryl hydrazyl, nitric oxide, reducing power assay and hydrogen peroxide radical method. Different concentrations of aqueous extract of TSD were prepared and evaluated by standard methods. The IC50 values of aqueous extract of TSD were compared with ascorbic acid (Standard) and it was noted that, the extract showed significant concentration dependent free radical scavenging property in all the methods. Results from the study showed that aqueous extract of TSD possess in vitro free radical scavenging activity. The findings could justify the inclusion of this plant in the management of antioxidant activity12 .
Blood Sugar, Serum Lipids, Lipoproteins and Faecal Sterols:
Effect of oral administration of 2 ml per day of suspension (in water) of alcoholic extract of whole fruit of Trichosanthes dioica (2%) (= 100 g fresh wt. = 7 g dry wt. = 1/15 g of alcoholic extract) with the help of catheter along with basal diet for four weeks have been studied in the normal albino rabbits. It was observed that this extract lowered the blood sugar, total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and increased the high density lipoprotein cholesterol, phospholipid and faecal sterol levels. Such effects are manifested from the very first week of feeding and are statistically significant13 .
Cholesterol-Lowering Activity
This study was to examine the effects of single and repeated oral administration of the aqueous fruit extract of Trichosanthes dioica (TD) at a dose of 50 ml/kg b.w in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. The aqueous fruit extracts of TD (50 ml/kg) were administered orally for 15 days, to normal and diabetic rats. The effect of the fruit extracts on cholesterol and triglycerides, were studied. The body weights of the rats were observed. The effect of the fruit extract was compared with vanadate, a reference drug. In normal rats, the aqueous fruit extract of TD induced significant decrease of plasma cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations 6hrs after a single oral administration (P< 0.05), and also in 2 weeks after repeated oral administrations (p< 0.05). TD treatment caused significant decrease of plasma cholesterol levels after a single administration (pEnglishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2232http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2232References
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3. J.B. Mythili, Pious Thomas. Micropropagation of pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.) Scientia Horticulturae 1999; 79: 87- 90.
4. Sharma, G., and M.C. Pant. Effects of feeding Trichosanthes dioica (parval) on blood glucose, serum triglyceride, phospholipid, cholesterol, and high density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels in the normal albino rabbit. Current Sci. 1988; 57:1085–1087.
5. Sharma G, Sarkar A, Pachori SB, Pant MC. Biochemical evaluation of raw Trichosanthes dioica whole fruit and pulp in normal and milddiabetic human volunteers in relation to lipid profile. Ind Drug 1989; 27: 24–28.
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9. Prashant Kumar Rai, Dolly Jaiswal, Rakesh Kumar Singh, Rajesh Kumar Gupta, and Geeta Watal. Glycemic Properties of Trichosanthes dioica Leaves. Pharmaceutical Biology 2008; 46(12): 894–899.
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11. Ratnesh K Sharma, Sanjukta Chatterji, Devendra K Rai, Shikha Mehta, Prashant K Rai, Rakesh K Singh, Geeta Watal and Bechan Sharma. Antioxidant activities and phenolic contents of the aqueous extracts of some Indian medicinal plants. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2009; Vol. 3(11): 944-948.
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13. Govind Sherma and M.C. Pant. Influence of alcoholic extract of whole fruit of Trichosanthes dioica on blood sugar, serum lipids, lipoproteins and faecal sterols in normal albino rabbits. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry 1992; 7: 53-56.
14. Sharmila Banu G, Kumar G, Rajasekara Pandian M. CholesterolLowering Activity of the Aqueous Fruit Extract of Trichosanthes dioica Roxb (L.) in Normal and Streptozotocin Diabetic Rats. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2007; 1(6): 561-569.
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16. Prashant Kumar Rai and Sanjukta Chatterji and Nilesh K. Rai and Awadhesh K. Rai and Dane Bicanic and Geeta Watal. The Glycemic Elemental Profile of Trichosanthes dioica: A LIBS-Based Study. Food Biophysics 2010; 5:
17–23. 17. Sushil Bhargava, Paridhi Bhargava, Surendra Saraf, Ravindra Pandey, Shiv Shankar Sukla and Rajesh Garg. Evaluation of antipyretic activity of sudarshan churna: an ayurvedic formulation J. Res. Educ. Indian Med. 2008; 11-14.
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19. Ghaisas MM, Tanwar MB, Ninave PB, Navghare VV, Takawale AR, Zope VS, Deshpande AD. Hepatoprotective activity of aqueous and ethanolic extract of Trichosanthes dioica roxb. in ferrous sulphate-induced liver injury. Pharmacologyonline 2008; 3: 127- 135.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524127EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareGENETICS OF ALCOHOL ADDICTION
English1121Manoj ChardeEnglish Ashujit TagdeEnglish Rita ChardeEnglishA tremendous amount of attention and research has recently been concentrated on the inheritance of
alcoholism and on the possibility of accounting genetically for drunken behavior. Genetic studies utilizing
twins and families have demonstrated a considerable role for genetics alcohol addiction. Risk for alcoholism is likely to be the result of a large number of genes, each contributing a small fraction of the overall risk. While this review will focus on studies of role genetics in alcohol addiction. The review will briefly summarize
neurobiology and genetic epidemiology that provide estimations of heritability. For each topic the data
will be presented alcohol dependence, In addition, each section will review briefly some of the confounding issues in the specific type of approach utilized.
EnglishAbstract
A tremendous amount of attention and research has recently been concentrated on the inheritance of alcoholism and on the possibility of accounting genetically for drunken behavior. Genetic studies utilizing twins and families have demonstrated a considerable role for genetics alcohol addiction. Risk for alcoholism is likely to be the result of a large number of genes, each contributing a small fraction of the overall risk. While this review will focus on studies of role genetics in alcohol addiction. The review will briefly summarize neurobiology and genetic epidemiology that provide estimations of heritability. For each topic the data will be presented alcohol dependence, In addition, each section will review briefly some of the confounding issues in the specific type of approach utilized.
Introduction
Alcoholism and alcohol-related disorders have a marked familial inclination. There has been substantial debate over many years as to whether this represents transmission of genetic traits or the influence of family atmosphere on drinking behavior. Studies of adopted children and of monozygotic compared with dizygotic twins show a modest but definite genetic influence on drinking habits and, at least in men, on the occurrence of psychosocial problems related to alcohol abuse. Research has shown conclusively that familial spread of alcoholism risk is at least in part genetic and not just the result of family environment. The task of current science is to identify what a person inherits that increases vulnerability to alcoholism and how inherited factors interact with the environment to cause disease. This information will provide the basis for identifying people at risk and for developing behavioral and pharmacologic approaches to pre-vent and treat alcohol problems. The advances being made now are built on the discovery 50 years ago of the role in inheritance of DNA, the genetic material in cells that serves as a blueprint for the proteins that direct life processes[2].
Alcoholism: A Complex Genetic Disease
Alcoholism is a heterogeneous disease in which the expression of genetic vulnerability is modified by environmental factors. Some of the environmental influences are uniquely experienced by the individual (noshared) and some are shared among different individuals within the family. Numerous studies have shown that alcoholism is familial [3]. Studies in recent years have confirmed that identical twins, who share the same genes, are about twice as likely as fraternal twins, who share on average 50 percent of their genes, to resemble each other in terms of the presence of alcoholism. Recent research also reports that 50 to 60 percent of the risk for alcoholism is genetically determined, for both men and women [4] [5] [6] [7]. Research suggests that many genes play a role in shaping alcoholism risk. Like diabetes and heart disease, alcoholism is considered genetically complex, distinguishing it from genetic diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, that result primarily from the action of one or two copies of a single gene and in which the environment plays a much smaller role, if any. The methods used to search for genes in complex diseases have to account for the fact that the effects of any one gene may be subtle and a different array of genes underlies risk in different people. Scientists have bred lines of mice and rats that manifest specific and separate alcohol-related traits or phenotypes, such as sensitivity to alcohol?s intoxicating and sedative effects, the development of tolerance, the susceptibility to withdrawal symptoms, and alcohol-related organ damage [8] [9]. To have an alcoholic parent is a significant risk factor for the development of the disease; children of alcoholics are five times more likely to develop alcohol-related problems than children of non-alcoholics [10]. It has been shown that the transmission of the vulnerability to alcoholism from parents to their daughters is due largely or entirely because of genetics factors [11]. Studies of heritability, a measure of the genetic component of variance in interindividual vulnerability, indicate that genetic influences are substantially responsible for the observed patterns of familiality. Adoption studies have shown that alcoholism in biological parents predicts alcoholism in children even when the child is reared by unrelated adoptive parents [12] [13]. Large, wellconstructed twin studies [14][15] have demonstrated that genetic factors are important in determining vulnerability to alcoholism, particularly in the more severe forms of the disease [16]
Neurobiology of Alcohol Addiction
The vital features of dependence are failure to manage over consumption, compulsion to obtain the next stimulus, and continuation of abuse despite knowledge of negative health and social consequences. Tolerance and dependence are due to neuroadaptations. Processes of reward and reinforcement play their most crucial role at the start of the path to addiction, after which longlasting or permanent neuroadaptations occur. It is likely that genetic variation in this neurobiology predisposes some individuals to a pattern of increased craving and loss of control. Addictive substances affect a range of neurotransmitter systems in different regions of the brain. However, a pathway that appears to be crucial to the action of all addictive drugs is the mesolimbic dopamine system, which originates in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain and projects to the nucleus accumbens (NAC), with projections also to the limbic system and the orbitofrontal cortex [17]. The amygdala, hippocampus, and medial prefrontal cortex send excitatory projections to the NAC. The mesolimbic dopamine pathway is associated with the ability to feel pleasure. Serotoninergic neurons originating in the dorsal and median raphe nuclei project to mesolimbic structures, including the VTA and NAC, and may exert inhibitory control on mesolimbic dopamine neuron activity [18]. Alcohol exerts its primary reinforcing or reward effects by releasing dopamine (DA) in the NAC. The acute reinforcing actions of psychostimulant drugs is mediated both by the blockade of DA binding to its transporter, preventing the reuptake of DA from the synaptic cleft [19] , and by interaction with multiple DA receptors including D1, D2, and D3 [20]. Cocaine blocks the reuptake of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine in a similar fashion. A functional downregulation of 5-HT3 receptors in the NAC may contribute to cocaine tolerance [21], whereas chronic alcohol intake increases the sensitivity of 5-HT3 receptors [22]. Chronic cocaine and alcohol administration also disrupts the endogenous opioid system [23]. Nicotine?s reinforcing effect is through activation of nicotinic receptors in the VTA, ultimately leading to release of dopamine in the NA [24], but the rewarding effects are also mediated by the cholinergic and serotoninergic neurotransmitter systems. The acute reward effects of opioids are enhanced by activation of (and possibly also) receptors in the VTA. GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain. The development of tolerance may be related to ethanol induced adaptive changes in the GABAA receptor system. Enhanced aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, dopaminergic, opioid peptide, and serotoninergic neurotransmission have been associated with acute ethanol administration, and potentially mediate some of alcohol?s reinforcing effects [25]. Ethanol appears to act on a variety of targets within the cell membrane in a less specific manner, inducing effects on neurotransmitter and neurohormone membrane receptors and receptor-gated and voltage-activated ion channels as well as modulating neurotransmitter release [26]. Alterations in calcium channels may be a major component of the changes that occurs in the physical dependence on ethanol [27]. Evidence suggests that ethanol?s inhibition of the glutamatergic neurotransmitter pathways, especially at the level of the postsynaptic N-methylD-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, may be an important cause of its neurotoxic effects [28]. Glutamate is the major excitatory brain neurotransmitter with up to 40% of all synapses being glutamatergic [29]. Inhibition of GABAergic interneurons mediated via ethanol?s effect on the NMDA receptor may result in disinhibition of forebrain glutamatergic neurons that augment dopamine release [29]. Changes in the NMDA receptor system may underlie intoxication and withdrawal symptoms [30] as well as „„blackouts?? [28]. Homotarrine (Acamprosate), a structural analogue of glutamate and an NMDA-receptor antagonist, has been shown to almost double the abstinence rate in recovering alcoholics [31]. Genetic
Epidemiology Family Studies
Since of a high degree of familial connection, for several years, alcoholism was regarded as a separate disease that may be transmitted from generation to generations [32]. A familial connection could effect from cultural factors tending to promote heavy drinking in family members. Children try to model their actions on that of their parents and doing so may also imitate their drinking habits. On the other hand, drinking may be discouraged in some families for religious, cultural or climatic grounds while in other families constraints on heavy drinking may be virtually nonexistent. So, “familial” does not necessarily mean “hereditary”. A critical review of studies of the familial incidence of alcoholism summarized 39 investigations published in English that comprised family data on 6,251 alcoholics and 4,083 non-alcoholics [33]. They clearly showed that regardless of the nature of the population of non-alcoholics studied, an alcoholic is more likely to have a mother, father or a distant relative who is an alcoholic. When lifetime prevalence of alcoholism in relatives of alcoholics were compared to that in the general population, a 4-fold increased risk in first-degree relatives and a 2-fold increased risk in seconddegree relatives was observed. Higher family incidence of alcohol use and abuse does not necessarily reflect a genetic determination of alcoholism. Heritable familial attributes as well as similarities in the social environment of family members also appear to play a role in familial transmission of alcoholism. Thus, family systems (family reactivity patterns, ethnic family styles, gender of the alcoholic spouse, and stages of alcoholism) are an important variable in the genesis.
Twin Studies
The twin study model is a unique method to study complex and heterogeneous trait disorders. Differences between identical twins would presumably reflect environmental influences while differences between non-identical twins may be due to heredity, environment, or both. Twin studies are based on the fact that monozygotic twins (MZ) share identical genetic material, while dizygotic twins (DZ) share the same degree of genetic similarity as non-twin siblings. If genetic effects are present then monozygotic twins should be more similar than dizygotic twins allowing an estimation of the genetic contribution. Differences between identical twins would presumably reflect environmental influences while differences between non-identical twins may be due to heredity, environment or both [34]. . Therefore, if alcoholism has a hereditary basis, MZ twin pairs should tend to be more similar in their drinking behavior and alcohol-related problems than DZ twin pairs. In the Swedish study an increasing difference in concordance rates between the monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) pairs with increasing degree of alcohol abuse was found [35]. In British study the concordance rates of MZ and DZ twins did not differ significantly, but more than one-third of the twins were below age 40 years when examined, suggesting that alcohol dependence may yet develop in a proportion of co-twins [36]. In a study it is found strong evidence for genetic influences on the development of alcoholism for both sexes, while the evidence for common environmental effects was negligible [37]. Twin studies shows contribution of genetic factor on alcohol addiction
Adoption Studies
A methodical way to split “nature” from “nurture” is to learn those separated from their biological relatives soon after birth and grown by non-related foster parents and to compare them with respect to characteristics of alcohol abuse with both their biological and adoptive parents. It is based upon the premise that the genetic trait present in the affected biological parent will still be expressed in adoptee, regardless of the enotypic status and environmental circumstances of the foster parents. In studies of intact families, the effects of genetic and common environment are not separable. Adoption studies separate these effects because adoptees receive their genetic heritage from one set of parents and their rearing environment from another set. The degree to which adoptees resemble their biological relatives is a direct measure of genetic influence, while the degree to which they resemble their adoptive relatives is a measure of the influence of family environment. Extensive adoption studies conducted in Denmark and Sweden have provided substantial evidence that alcoholism is genetically influenced, and that there are distinct patterns of alcoholism with different genetic and environmental causes[38][39][40]. When the adopted away sons of an alcoholic parent were compared to their siblings raised by the alcoholic biological parent, a remarkably similar rate of alcoholism was noted in both groups. Subsequent adoption studies from other countries have clearly shown that children born to alcoholic parents but adopted away during infancy were at greater risk for alcoholism than adoptedaway children born to nonalcoholic parents [41].
Gender Differences in the Transmission of Alcoholism
There is consistent evidence that relatives of women treated for alcoholism have higher risk for alcoholism than relatives of treated males [42]. This suggests that women in treatment tend to have higher liability than their male counterparts [43]. The results for untreated female alcoholics are less clear. The evidence regarding sex-specific transmission varies across studies, providing no consensus as to whether different sets of genetic factors influence the development of alcoholism in males and females [44]. Some evidence from molecular genetic studies supports the existence of sex-specific loci [45] and a definitive answer to this issue will probably come from molecular rather than epidemiological studies.
Mode of Inheritance
Although adoption and twin studies have proven useful in answering the question of nature versus nurture, the mode of inheritance of alcoholism is still an unresolved matter. None of the evidence hitherto put forward suggests that susceptibility to alcoholism is inherited via a simple Mendelian dominant, recessive or sex-linked transmission. Even if the inheritance of certain biological factors involved in alcoholism is assumed to be Mendelian, the effect of these factors on the development of complex disorders may still not fit a simple genetic model. A substantial degree of etiological heterogeneity in the alcoholism phenotype results in the ultimate manifestation of the disorder dependent on poorly understood geneenvironment interactions.
Characterization of High Risk and Low Risk Individuals
In the past years, a number of investigators have tried, in prospective studies, to identify possible trait markers by studying young men and women at high risk for the future development of alcoholism based on their family history of this disorder. Having an alcoholic biological father is the best single predictor of future alcoholism in male offspring. One method of determining whether there are neuro-psychological deficits prior to the onset of alcoholism is to study children who are at risk for becoming alcoholic. In a typical prospective study young men and women at high risk for the future development of alcoholism are divided into Family History Positive (FHP) group, (who report an alcoholic parent or siblings) and Family History Negative (FHN) group (men and women who report no close alcoholic relative). The subjects are matched for demography and alcohol drinking history.
Genetics of Alcohol Metabolism
At the present time, the genes for alcohol metabolism are the only genes that are known to have a major impact on the development of alcoholism. One gene variant (allele) is protective and the other is a vulnerability allele. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) metabolizes ethanol to acetaldehyde, a toxic intermediate, which is in turn converted to acetate by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). Approximately half the population of Southeast (SE) Asian has functional polymorphisms at four different genes: ADH2, ADH3, ALDH1, and ALDH2. Across populations, the ALDH2-2 variant appears on a similar genetic background (haplotype) and thus has probably had the same evolutionary origin [46]. The most important variants are ALDH2-2) and ADH2-2. ALDH2-2 dominantly inactivates ALDH2, the ALDH that is mitochondrially localized and responsible for most acetaldehyde metabolism in cells. ADH2-2 is a superactive variant. Allelic variation at ADH3 apparently exerts no independent effect on the risk for alcoholism; however, ADH3-1 is in linkage disequilibrium with ADH2- 2 [47][48] and is thus also predictive of vulnerability. ADH2- 2 and ALDH2-2 raise the levels of acetaldehyde by increasing the rate of synthesis, by decreasing the rate of metabolism, and by interacting additively, but not synergistically [49]. The result is that ingestion of even small amounts of ethanol produces an unpleasant reaction characterized by facial flushing, headache, hypotension, palpitations, tachycardia, nausea, and vomiting [50]. In an analogous fashion, disulfiram, used in the treatment of alcoholism, and some antiprotozoal drugs such as metronidazole, inhibit ALDH2 and thereby cause a flushing reaction after alcohol consumption. Therefore, the protective effect of ALDH2 genotypes can be regarded as analogous to protection with disulfiram, as this flushing reaction, severe in homozygotes but milder in heterozygotes, deters individuals with the protective alleles from becoming alcoholic.
Conclusion
There is copious evidence of considerable heritability of both broad and narrow definitions of alcoholism in men and women. Although the quantitative role of genetic risk factors is approximately equal in both sexes, the lower concordance of opposite-sex pairs suggests some gender- specific action of genes. Genetic vulnerability to alcoholism may originate in personality or psychiatric traits that predispose to alcohol-seeking behavior, differential response to the effects of alcohol, or differential predisposition to addiction. Studies of the co-inheritance of alcoholism and other psychiatric disorders are beginning to emerge. There is evidence of co-inheritance of ASPD and alcoholism in men. Although alcoholism is associated with anxiety and affective disorders in women, it has been shown that 75% of the genetic variance of alcoholism is disease specific. Alcohol, nicotine, and other substance abuse disorders have been noted to co-occur, yet recent studies have shown that the transmission of alcoholism is largely independent of that of other drugs of abuse with the exception of nicotine, with which there is a substantial genetic correlation. The mesolimbic dopamine system is fundamental to the neurobiology of addiction. We are only at the very beginning stages of understanding the complexities of ethanol?s interactions with this system. Enhanced GABA, glutamate, dopaminergic, opioid peptide, and serotoninergic neurotransmission.
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524127EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyAN IN VITRO EVALUATION OF ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF HEDYCHIUM SPICHATUM RHIZOMES AND CUCURBITA MAXIMA SEEDS ON PHERITIMA POSTHUMA MODEL : A COMPARATIVE STUDY
English2226Shambaditya GoswamiEnglishEthanolic extracts of Hedychium spichatum rhizomes and Cucurbita maxima seeds were taken for In vitro
comparative studies on Anthelmintic activity against Pheritima posthuma. Different concentrations (25, 50, 100 mg/ml) of both the extracts were used for the activity. Different Albendazole concentrations (25, 50, 100 mg/ml) were used as a reference standard and normal saline (0.9% NaCl) was used for control treatment. The result was expressed in terms of time in minutes to report paralysis time and death time of earthworms. The data obtained from the study indicates towards the anthelmintic activity, supporting folk use of both the plants when compared to standard. The results also established, a more potent candidature of Cucurbita maxima as compare to Hedychium spichatum.
EnglishHedychium spichatum, Cucurbita maxima, Anthelmintic activity, Albendazole.Abstract
Ethanolic extracts of Hedychium spichatum rhizomes and Cucurbita maxima seeds were taken for In vitro comparative studies on Anthelmintic activity against Pheritima posthuma. Different concentrations (25, 50, 100 mg/ml) of both the extracts were used for the activity. Different Albendazole concentrations (25, 50, 100 mg/ml) were used as a reference standard and normal saline (0.9% NaCl) was used for control treatment. The result was expressed in terms of time in minutes to report paralysis time and death time of earthworms. The data obtained from the study indicates towards the anthelmintic activity, supporting folk use of both the plants when compared to standard. The results also established, a more potent candidature of Cucurbita maxima as compare to Hedychium spichatum. Key words: Hedychium spichatum, Cucurbita maxima, Anthelmintic activity, Albendazole.
Introduction
From the ancient period of time, the indigenous drugs are used in In ailments and therapeutic benifits. Our traditional system of medicine was claiming from the time of immemorial that the different part of the plants are used in different types of diseases along with anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial activity etc. Kavirajes and Hakims for century past and still are using no. of medicinal plants to treat helminthiasis. During recent years medicinal chemistry have made a optimistic approach especially in synthetic chemistry , but for the sake of therapeutic effect up to the level and non toxic treatment for the helminthiasis the research of plant derived drug therapy is mostly needed.[1] Rhizomes of Hedychium spicatum, commonly known as Gandhapalashi or Kapur –kachari, belongs to the family Zingiberaceae, has been reported for its folkore use in ailment of inflammatory and hyperglycemic conditions.[1] The plant has also been evaluated for its cytotoxic activity by Reddy PP et al.[2]. The survey published by Akhtar M. et al reported the use of Hedychium spicatum as anthelmitintic in the Indo –Pak region. [3] [4]. Cucurbita maxima, commonly known as Pumpkin (Kaddu), belongs to the family Cucurbutaceae. Seeds of Cucurbita maxima have been reported for diuretic and taenicidal activity. Chopra R.N.et al. has been stated about the anthelmintic uses of Cucurbita maxima seeds.[1]. Other species of Cucurbitaceae family viz. C. maxicana (Srivastava and Singh ,1967), C.moshata (Xiao, 1986) and C. pepo ( Sharma 1971) have been proved for the anthelmintic activity in different In vitro models.[5] However, Zafar Iqbal et al.performed study on other plants of Zingiberaceae and Cucurbutaceae family (Zingiber officinale, Curcurbita mexicana) in different anthelmintic models [6], but Hedychium spicatum and Cucurbita maxima have not evaluated scientifically for the same. In the light of above facts the study has been designed to evaluate Hedychium spicatum and Cucurbita maxima for their anthemintic activity against Pheritima posthuma model.
Materials and Methods Collection of plants
The plant Hedychium spicatum was collected from the fields of Kusumha village (Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh). The plant was authenticated by National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow and the specimen no. is 97377. The seeds of Cucurbita maxima was collected from the area of Deoria Khas (Deoria, Uttarpradesh). The plant was authenticated by National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow and the specimen no. is 97374
Collection of Earthworms
Earthworms were collected from Tendua, Gorakhpur and was identified and deposited in Dept. of Pharmacy, ITM, GIDA, GKP, India
Preparation of Extracts
Shade dried small pieces of Hedychium spichatum and shade dried powder of the seeds of Cucurbita maxima were subjected for hot percolation by Soxhlet apparatus using ethanol as a solvent.
Procedure
The anthelmintic activity was performed according to the method of Ghosh et al.on adult Indian earthworm Pheritima posthuma. [7] [8]. Albendazole, the standard drug, was diluted with normal saline to obtain 25, 50, 100 mg/ml concentrations and poured into petridishes. Ethanolic extracts of both the plants were diluted with normal saline to obtain 25,50,100 mg/ml concentrations. Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) alone served as solvent control . All these dilutions were poured into the petridishes accordingly. 6 groups of earthworms (n=6) were taken for the study. Earth worms, nearly equal sizes (about 8cm), were placed in each petridish at room temperature. Time for paralysis was noted down when no movement of any sort could be observed except when the worms were shaken vigorously. Time for death of worms was recorded after ascertaining that worms neither moved when shaken vigorously nor when dipped in warm water (50o c). The paralysis time and lethal time in terms of minutes for each was recorded
Results and Discussion
In vitro anthelmintic activity was performed and the paralysis time and lethal time in terms of minutes for each was recorded. Statistical evaluation of the data was done by one way ANOVA. The results were expressed as mean + SD using Graph Pad Instat 3. (n=6). The result shows that for 25mg/ml concentration the Standard (Albendazole) has showed best activity for death time (124.83+6.99 min) and ethanolic extract of H.spicatum and C.maxima has showed death time of 146+2.828 min and 137.83+5.307 min. respectively. Also, for 50mg/ml concentration the Standard (Albendazole) has showed the highest activity against the worms (95.5+4.84 min) and ethanolic extract of H.spicatum and C.maxima has showed death time of 137.5+9.75 min and 124.33+4.32 min espectively. For 100mg/ml the Standard (albendazole) has showed least death time of 73.83+4.167 min and ethanolic extract of H.spicatum and C.maxima has showed death time of 96.66+3.266 min and 79+2.82 min respectively. The paralysis and death time of both the plants along with standard is given in the table no. 1. From the study is observed that both the plants ethanolic extracts has shown significant effect at higher concentration.(100mg/ml). C.maxima has shown better activity than Hedychium spicatum in higher concentaration(100mg/ml) comparing to standard Albendazole (100mg/ml).The comparison of death time of both the plants in different concentration with respect to standard has given in the graph no. 1
Conclusion
The present study enabled us to conclude the potential use of Ethanolic extracts of both the plants as a anthelmintics against Pheritima posthuma in vitro model .The extensive research is needed to determine the individual component responsible for anhelminthic activity and molecular mechanism responsible for the same.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2234http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2234References
1. Chopra R.N., “ The medical and economic aspect of Indian indigenous Drugs”,pp-6-7, 503, 510,675
2. Reddy PP, Rao RR, Shashidhar J, Sastry BS, Rao JM, Babu KS, “Phytochemical investigation of labdane diterpenes from the rhizomes of Hedychium spicatum and their cytotoxic activity” Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2009:19(21);6078-81.
3. M.Akhtar, “Anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants with particular reference to their use in animals in the Indo–Pakistan subcontinent”. Small Ruminant Research,2000:38(2);99-107.
4. Iqbal et al., “Possible role of Ethnoveterinary medicine in poverty reduction in Pakistan: Use of botanical Anthelmintics as an example., J. Agri. Soc. Sci.,2005;1(2):187-195.
5. Altaf Hussain , “Evaluation Of Anthelmintic Activity Of Some Ethnobotanicals”, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan,2008.
6. Zafar Iqbal, Qazi Khalid Nadeem et al , “In Vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale, Curcurbita mexicana and Ficus religiosa” International Journal of and Agriculture Biology, 2001;3(4): 454-457.
7. T.Ghosh, T.K.Maity, A.Bose and G.K.Dash, Anthelmintic activity of Bacopa monierri, Indian J.Nat Prodct, 2005;21:16-19.
8. Rastogi Trapti, Bhutda Vijay, Moon Komal, Aswar PB, and Khadabadi S.S., “Comparative Studies on Anthelmintic Activity of Moringa Oleifera and Vitex Negundo”, Asian J. Research Chem. 2009;2(2):181-182.
Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524127EnglishN-0001November30TechnologyWATER REQUIREMENT, DEFICIT IRRIGATION AND CROP COEFFICIENTS FOR PEPPER
English2738J.D. Owusu-SekyereEnglish S. TwumEnglishAn experiment was conducted to determine the seasonal water requirement of pepper, the crop coefficient under full water requirement as well the effect of deficit irrigation on pepper growth and development under a rain shelter. The treatments imposed were T1, application of 100% crop water requirement, T2, was 80%, T3 60% and T4 40 % of crop water requirement. It was determined that pepper requires about 526.7 mm of water over the growth season. The crop coefficient under full water supply was found to be: 0.43, 0.75, 1.37 and 0.94 for initial, development, mid-season and the late season stages respectively. It was also found out that a water deficit of 20% lead to growth and development that was not significantly different from pepper production under full water requirement.
EnglishDeficit irrigation, crop coefficient, water requirement, pepperAbstract
An experiment was conducted to determine the seasonal water requirement of pepper, the crop coefficient under full water requirement as well the effect of deficit irrigation on pepper growth and development under a rain shelter. The treatments imposed were T1, application of 100% crop water requirement, T2, was 80%, T3 60% and T4 40 % of crop water requirement. It was determined that pepper requires about 526.7 mm of water over the growth season. The crop coefficient under full water supply was found to be: 0.43, 0.75, 1.37 and 0.94 for initial, development, mid-season and the late season stages respectively. It was also found out that a water deficit of 20% lead to growth and development that was not significantly different from pepper production under full water requirement. Keywords: Deficit irrigation, crop coefficient, water requirement, pepper
Introduction
Scarce water resources and growing competition for water has reduced its availability for irrigation. At the same time, the need to meet the growing demand for food requires increased crop production from less water. Achieving greater efficiency of water use will be a primary challenge for the near future and will include the employment of techniques and practices that deliver a more accurate supply of water to crops. In this context, deficit irrigation can play an important role in increasing water use efficiency (FAO, 2003). Deficit irrigation is accomplished by allowing planned plant stress during one or more periods of the growing season. Adequate water is supplied during critical growth stages to maximise water use efficiency. It is economically justified when reducing water applications below full irrigation causes production costs to decrease faster than revenue declines therefore irrigation water management in an era of water scarcity will have to be carried out most efficiently, aiming at saving water and at maximizing its productivity. AVRDC (2006) has placed emphasis on water use efficiency in pepper production because in recent times, the demand for pepper has increased steadily due to its diversified uses. The pepper fruit is mainly used as spices in almost every home (Cobbley and Steele, 1979). It is a common ingredient in the herbal preparation for douching and also in local ointment for rheumatic pains, sprains and twisted joints. Pharmaceutical companies use it in analgesic creams that are applied to release pain of arthritis, shingles, cluster headache and ailments (Levetin and Mcmahon, 1999). Powdered forms of pepper are used in preparing hot sauce, pickles curry powder and condiment (Cobbley and Steele, 1976). Many countries are going into commercial cultivation of hot pepper to meet the growing demand (AVRDC, 2006). Present world production is about 21.3 million tons fresh fruits from 1.6 million hectares and Ghana ranks 15th in the world and 2rd in Africa for hot pepper production. Hot pepper is thus becoming an important export commodity for Ghana. The most recent data available from 2000-2001 showed that Ghana?s pepper export rose from 2.8 thousand tons to 5.2 thousand tons (FAOSTAT, 2001). Water is one of the critical inputs for obtaining maximum production of a particular crop. According to Evans et al. (1993), to avoid moisture stress in the root zone of plants, it is important to establish crop coefficients (Kc) and measurements or calculations of potential evapotranspiration to estimate water use by hot pepper to adopt efficient and strategic use of water while obtaining optimum crop yield. Grimes and Williams (1990) added that crop coefficients for pepper have been developed in several different locations elsewhere in the world with different values and their corresponding water requirements. However, the challenge is whether these values are compatible with our environmental conditions in Ghana. To answer this question, an experiment was conducted to determine the crop coefficient values and water requirement as well as deficit irrigation on the growth and development of pepper at the University of Cape Coast School of Agriculture Teaching and Research Farm.
Materials and Method Study Area
The experiment was conducted during the minor rainy season which normally starts in September to Mid November at the School of Agriculture research farm of the University of Cape Coast, located in Cape Coast which lies on latitude 05- 06 degrees north and longitude 01-15 degrees south at an altitude of 1.1m. The soil is described as sandy loan with characteristics as neutral to slightly acid in reaction and with a pH of 6.5. This site lies within the costal savannah vegetation zone of Ghana.
Experimental design and field layout
The randomized complete block design was used. There were four treatments (100%, 80%, 60%, and 40%) which were replicated three times (R1-R3). This gave a total of forty-eight (48) transplants. The experiment was carried out using 48 nursery bags each filled with sandy loam to about 6Kg. The experiment was conducted under a rain shelter in order to exclude the influence of rainfall, and it was conducted between September 2009 and February 2010.
Planting
Seeds of Legon 18 variety of hot pepper were nursed on September 15, 2009 and transplanted after 30 days on October 15, 2009. A week before transplanting, watering at the nursery was reduced in order to harden the seedlings so as to make them withstand transplanting shock. Prior to transplanting, the nursery was watered until near to soil saturation to enhance easy uprooting of seedlings and to prevent damage to the roots of the seedlings. Transplanting was done two days after watering the soil in the bags to saturation. A seedling was put per nursery bag. There were 12 plants per treatment. Weeds were removed as soon as they appeared. Treatment was imposed r after five days when the plants had established. The treatments imposed were 100% of crop water application (T 1), 80% of crop water application (T 2), 60% of crop water application (T 3), and 40% of crop water application (T 4). Growth stages Four growth stages were considered. They were the initial stage, developmental stage, mid-season stage, and late season stage. The initial stage excluding seedlings at the nursery lasted for 15 days (October 15 – October 30, 2009). The developmental growth stage lasted for 30 days (October 30, 2009– November 29, 2009). The mid-season growth stage (flowering and fruiting) stage lasted for 50 days (November 29, 2009 – January19, 2010) and the late season stage lasted for 26 days (January19, 2010 – February 14, 2010). This stage was later characterized by senescence and drying of leaves after the harvesting was over
Irrigation regime
A two-day interval irrigation regime was adopted and the amount of water to be applied each two-day interval was derived from the computed loss in weight of each set up over the two days. The equivalent in volume basis was found and applied to the plants as the various treatments demanded. Irrigation days amounted to 60.5 days out of the 121 days of the growing period
Determination of crop coefficient (Kc) and water requirement (ETc) and reference evapotranspiration (ETo)
ETc was determined by weighing, and ETo determined by measuring water loss from an evaporation pan. Kc was determined using the following formula: Kc = Etc/ETo (1) Soil Analysis Soil samples were taken nursery bag in a treatment were thoroughly mixed together. The samples were divided into four and two opposite quadrants were taken out. This was repeated and each time, another opposite quadrants was taken off until a substantial amount was obtained. The sample was then dried for four days after which it was grounded and then analysed for the amount of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Soils at three growth stages (initial, midseason and late season) were considered for analysis. Other Data collected a. Plant height: This was measured using a rule; three plants were selected from each treatment replication. b. Leaf area: Five leaves from different parts of the plants were selected on each replication. The longest part along the petiole line of the leaf and the widest breath across the leaf were noted and measured as the length and breath of the leaf by using a 30 cm metre rule. The product was multiplied by a factor of 0.75 to get the leaf area. c. Mean number of fruits per treatment: The number of fruits per treatment was determined by counting the number of harvested fruits. Mean fruit size: Mean fruit size per plant was determined by using a veneer calliper to transversely measure the breath. d. Mean fruit weight: The number of fruits produced by each of the selected plants under each treatment was weighed by the use of an electronic analytical balance. Reference crop
evapotranspiration rate and rainfall reading: Evaporation rate and amount of rainfall readings were obtained from the US Class A evaporation pan and a rain gauge respectively situated at the farm where the experiment was conducted. To obtain the reference crop evaporation. 0.8 was chosen as the pan factor because the experimental location had a moderate wind speed of 2-3 ms-1 and high humidity of 75- 79%. tical analysisStatis Data collected were subjected to analysis of variance and the means were separated by Duncan?s Multiple Range Test at a probability level of 0.0f According to Iwena (2002), hot pepper requires 1000 to 1500mm of water during the growing season. According to FAO (1999) however, when the crop is grown extensively under rain fed conditions, high yields are obtained with rainfall of 600mm to 900mm, well distributed over the growing season. Huguez and Philippe (1998) also indicate that the total water requirements are 750mm to 900mm and up to 1250mm for long growing periods and several pickings. Agodzo et al. (2003) indicate that the crop water requirements range between 300mm - 700mm depending on the climatic condition and the season of the crop and the location. Grimes and Williams (1990) also asserted that water requirement for hot pepper per growing season ranges between 400 mm and 500 mm depending on the season of planting and the climatic conditions prevailing in the area. The results obtained from this study show that when the crop is given its full water requirement, 526.7 mm of water is required, but a figure of 212.4 is required when deficit irrigation of up to 40% of the crop water requirement is applied. Comparing these values to those
NPK levels Soil NPK levels for the initial, mid-stage as well as the last stage are shown in Figure 1. obtained by other experimenters, it can be concluded that water requirement for pepper in the Cape Coast area compares well with results obtained Agodzo et al. (2003). This figure is however lower than those obtained with the other researchers. In terms of the crop coefficient, Freeira and Goncalves (2005) obtained 0.3, 1.22 and 0.65. According to FAO (1999) Kc is 0.4 following transplanting, 1.1 during full cover and 0.9 at time of harvest. The crop coefficient (Kc) is affected by a number of factors, which include: the type of crop, stage of growth of the crop and the cropping pattern (Allen and Smith, 1998). Doorenbos and Pruitt (2000) indicated that plant height and total growing season influence crop coefficient values. The higher the plant height and the longer the growing season the higher the crop coefficient values and vice versa. In this study, Kc was 0.43, 0.75, 1.37 and 0.94 for initial, development, midseason and the late season stages respectively. These values compare quite well with those obtained by FAO (1999) where the water requirement was 600 mm for the growing period of 120 days.
Adequate amount of water in the soil tend to enhance aeration and this according to Cline and Erickson (1956), would improve potassium and nitrogen uptake. Shapiro et al. (1956) indicated that translocation of phosphorus increases when there is improvement in aeration. The results obtained from the experiment indicate that T1 utilised the most N, but T2 the most P. With regards to K, utilisation was greatest under T1.
At the end of the growth period, mean plant height was in the order T2>T1>T3>T4 and mean plant height in the order T1>T2>T4>T3. Interestingly however, in both cases the results were not significantly different at the 5% probability level in spite of the large differences in amount of water applied. Pepper leaves photosynthesize more efficiently when water is abundant, resulting in a higher percentage of large, heavy, marketable fruits (Alvino et al., 1994). Under water stress, the products of photosynthesis are fewer; fruit growth and development are inhibited, and yield is decreased (Bray, 1997). Chlorophyll destruction is quickened by moisture stress (Alberte et al., 1997). More severe and prolonged water stress may result in poor flower-cluster development and reduced pistil and pollen viability and subsequent fruit set (Falcetti et al., 1995). Following fruit set, severe water stress may cause flower abortion and cluster abscission, possibly associated with hormone changes (During, 1986). Uncorrected water stress during this stage of development may result in reduced canopy development and, consequently, insufficient leaf area to adequately support fruit development and maturation. Interestingly however, there were no significant differences in leaf area in spite of the water stress imposed.
Yield components
Treatment means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level. The relationships between crop yield and water use are complicated. Yield may depend on e timing of water application or on the amount applied. Information on optimal scheduling of limited amounts of water to maximize yields of high quality crops are essential if irrigation water is to be used most efficiently (Anaç et al., 1997). Timing, duration and the degree of water stress all affect crop yield.
Mean number of fruits
It can be seen from Table 3 that T1 produced the highest mean number of fruits (15.3) followed by T2 11.0 fruits, then T3, 6.3 fruits, and lastly T4 with 3.3 fruits . There was no significant difference between T1 and T2, but T1 differed significantly from T3 and T4. T2 was however not significantly different from T3 and T4. According to Fisher et al. (1985) in an experiment conducted, highest yields were obtained from highest regulated irrigation regime and lowest yield was obtained from the lowest irrigation water applied. Reducing irrigation water application by 40% resulted in 30% decrease in marketable fruit yield. As long as soil moisture is maintained throughout the growing season the roots will be able to maintain an adequate flow of water to the leaves to maintain growth. At the midseason and the late season stages, T1 one utilized available nitrogen effectively (see Figure 1) which may have influenced influenced the highest number of fruits formed since nitrogen is a component of amino acids and proteins and so forms essential part of protoplasm, enzymes which is stored stored food for fruit development. Factors that could be responsible for the low fruit numbers include blossom drop, a situation whereby all cells and tissues at the distal and blossoms end of the plants stems fail to receive enough moisture to maintain their body, grow and develop, and so leads to cell breakdown , flower abortion and its subsequent drop (Berrie et al., 1990). These were observed on some treatment levels at varying degrees, and were highest especially under T4 four where the drought stress coupled with the higher night temperatures favoured flower failure and this could be responsible for lowest number of fruits obtained. The results of the study are in agreement with the results of the study by Pill and Lambeth (1980) who observed a reduction in the fruit number with decreasing soil water, explaining that lower soil moisture could result in pollen and stigma dehydration as well as unnecessary elongation of the flower?s style which could result in up to 50% reduction in fruit setting and final fruit yield. Fruit weight T1 produced the heaviest fruits weighing 0.052 Kg. This was followed by T2 weighing 0.034 Kg while T3 recorded a mean weight of 0.025 Kg and the lowest mean fruit weight was recorded by T4 which was 0.018 Kg. T 1 was not significantly different from T 2 but was significantly different form T 3 and T 4. However, T2, T3 and T4 were not significantly different from each other. Plants can make virtually everything they need from water and air with a few nutrients that the roots absorb from the soil. The plant uses sunlight to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. It discards the oxygen as a waste product. The plant uses the hydrogen to make sugar from carbon dioxide in the air. Plants use oxygen in the air to burn sugar and make energy to live. The sole purpose of the leaves is to harvest light and make sugar (Longstroth, 1996) When the rate of photosynthesis is reduced as a result of reduced amount of water, the sensitive phytochrome pigments (chlorophyll pigmentation) that intercepts light for the process is affected then plants subjected to drought stress should be expected to have small and light fruits weights (Pill and Lambeth, 1980)
Mean fruit size
The results in the third column of Table 3 indicate that no significant differences exist in the mean fruit sizes at the various treatments levels. Pill and Lambeth (1980) investigated the effect of water on plants and concluded that water stress is capable of restricting plants to achieve their full genetic potential. As noted by Longstroth (1996) the early period of fruit growth is very important in determining final fruit size. For about a month after bloom the fruit grows by cell division. Later, the fruit grows by cell enlargement. So, two factors influence fruit size, cell number and cell size. Bigger fruits have more cells, so the final fruit size is determined in the month after bloom. Lack of water reduces the growth of new shoots and leaves. This means that there is less sugar to be used for fruit growth hence smaller sizes. Their work support the findings made in this study. Plants that were given full water application yielded the largest fruits while the opposite was true for treatment four which received the least amount of water applied.
Conclusion
The most important finding in the experiment was the crop water requirement and crop coefficient values for the various growth stages of hot pepper which was determined using irrigation interval of two days. At 100% water application (full irrigation), crop coefficient for hot pepper was determined to be 0.43, 0.75, 1.37 and 0.94 for initial, development, mid-season and the late season stages respectively and the total amount of water applied for the 121 days was 526.7 mm. It is also important to note that reducing water application by 20% has no significant reduction on the yield of hot pepper but above this has adverse effect on the plant and yield as indicated by treatment four recording the lowest yield of 3.3. As a result, 20% reduction in water application could be recommended for deficit irrigation in hot pepper production.
Englishhttp://ijcrr.com/abstract.php?article_id=2235http://ijcrr.com/article_html.php?did=2235References
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Radiance Research AcademyInternational Journal of Current Research and Review2231-21960975-524127EnglishN-0001November30HealthcareDESIGN AND EVALUATION OF KETOROLAC TROMETHAMINE SUSTAINED RELEASE MATRIX TABLETS
English3955Ch.RajveerEnglish B.Stephen RathinarajEnglish Mohd. FareedullahEnglishGanesh Sheshrao BangaleEnglish Gajanan V.ShindeEnglishKetorolac is an NSAID. It is indicated for short term management of moderate to moderately severe acute pain, including post surgical pain , acute musculoskeletal trauma pain and post partum uterine cramping pain. The biological half life of ketorolac is 3-6 hrs, hence lower doses of ketorolac are required as loading dose and higher doses as maintenance dose. Therefore, it is considered as a suitable drug for the formulation of sustained release matrix tablets to prolong its therapeutic action. In the Present work, studies were carried
on the preparation and evaluation of matrix tablets of ketorolac using hydrophilic swellable polymers (HPMC
K4M & K15M, Guar gum) and Eudragit (RSPO) with a view to obtain sustain release characteristic to achieve
prolonged therapeutic effect by continuously releasing medication over a extended period of time after
administration of single dose. The dissolution result shows that an increased amount of polymer resulted in
retarded drug release. A concentration dependent drug release is evident in case of the polymer i.e., lower concentration of polymers, release is marginally retarded at higher concentration is considerable.
Our prepared matrix formulation containing Eudragit (RSPO) 10 % is probably showing better release based
on 80 –90 % drug release within 8 -9 hours, which is the average G.I. residence time.
EnglishKetorolac., Matrix tabletsIntroduction:
Sustained release depot and repository dosage forms are terms used to identify drug delivery systems that are designed to achieve a prolonged therapeutic effect by continuously releasing medication over an extended period of time after administration of single dose. In the case of orally administered dosage forms, the period is measured in hours and critically depends on the residence time of the dosage from in the gastrointestinal tract.1-5 The system attempts to control drug concentrations in the target tissues or cells. Ketorolac tromethamine (Pka – 3.46) is an off white to White crystalline Powder6 . Ketorolac tromethamine is a non steroidal anti inflammatory drug that exhibits analgesic activity mediated by peripheral effects. Ketorolac inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandins through inhibition of the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme system. In the present study, the objective was to prepare sustained release matrix tablets of Ketorolac Keeping this in view, the present investigation has been aimed at designing suitable sustained release matrix tablets using polymers like HPMC K4M 7 , K15M, Guar Gum8 , and Eudragit (RSPO)9 . The matrix tablets were evaluated by weight uniformity, thickness, hardness10 , and In Vitro drug release studies.
Materials and Methods:
Ketorolac Tromethamine was gift samples from Dr Reddy?s Lab Hyderabad, India. Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose K15M 11-13 and Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose K4M 14 (SDFineChemicals,Mumbai,India) Guar Gum15 (Warkem Industries, Mumbai,India) Eudragit RSPO16-20 (Degussa India Pvt Ltd,India) Starch(Loba Chemie Pvt Ltd. Mumbai,India) Dicalcium Phosphate (ACTO Lab, Warangal ,India) Talc & Magnesium Stearate (LR) (SD Fine Chemicals, Boisar, India) Sodium Hydroxide (LR) and Potassium Dihydrogen Orthophosphate (Ranbaxy Lab SAS Nagar,India) Methanol (LR)(SD Fine Chemicals, Boisar, India).All other reagents and chemicals used were of analytical reagent grade.
Formulation of Matrix Tablets of Ketorolac: Preparation of Sustained Release Matrix Tablets of Ketorolac with HPMC K4M as Retarding Material:
Accurately weighed quantity of Ketorolac, HPMC K4M and Dicalcium phosphate were placed in mortar and mixed. Starch paste 6 % was added to the dry blend gradually with constant kneading to ensure a homogenous mass. The dough mass was passed through a # 14 mesh sieve. Then granules were dried at 500C and dried granules were lubricated with talc (4 %) and magnesium stearate (2 %) and compressed into tablets on a 10-station punching machine using concave punches. Each tablet contains 30 mg of ketorolac. The drug matrix ratio was varied to obtain the matrix tablets of vary polymer concentration
Preparation of Sustained Release Matrix Tablets of Ketorolac with HPMC K15M as Retarding Material: Accurately weighed quantity of Ketorolac, HPMC K15M and Dicalcium phosphate were placed in mortar and mixed. Starch paste 6 % was added to the dry blend gradually with constant kneading to ensure a homogenous mass. The dough mass was passed through a # 14 mesh sieve. Then granules were dried at 500C and dried granules were lubricated with talc (4 %) and magnesium stearate (2 %) and compressed into tablets on a 10-station punching machine using concave punches. Each tablet contains 30 mg of ketorolac. The drug matrix ratio was varied to obtain the matrix tablets of vary polymer concentration.
Preparation of Sustained Release Matrix Tablets of Ketorolac with Guar Gum as Retarding Material: Accurately weighed quantity of Ketorolac, Guar Gum and Dicalcium phosphate were placed in mortar and mixed. Starch paste 6 % was added to the dry blend gradually with constant kneading to ensure a homogenous mass. The dough mass was passed through a # 14 mesh sieve. Then granules were dried at 500C and dried granules were lubricated with talc (4 %) and magnesium stearate (2 %) and compressed into tablets on a 10-station punching machine using concave punches. Each tablet contains 30 mg of ketorolac. The drug matrix ratio was varied to obtain the matrix tablets of vary polymer concentration.
Preparation of Sustained Release Matrix Tablets of Ketorolac with Eudragit (RSPO) as Retarding Material: Accurately weighed quantity of Ketorolac, Eudragit rspo and Dicalcium phosphate were placed in mortar and mixed. Starch paste 6 % was added to the dry blend gradually with constant kneading to ensure a homogenous mass. The dough mass was passed through a # 14 mesh sieve. Then granules were dried at 500C and dried granules were lubricated with talc (4 %) and magnesium stearate (2 %) and compressed into tablets on a 10-station punching machine using concave punches. Each tablet contains 30 mg of ketorolac. The drug matrix ratio was varied to obtain the matrix tablets of vary polymer concentration. Evaluation of Pre-Compression Parameter49: I.R. Studies: Method: The pure drug and its formulation were subjected to IR studies. In the present study, the potassium bromide disc (pellet) method was employed. Absorption peaks of Ketorolac tromethamine were obtained at wave numbers 1588.37/cm, and 3351.71/cm. The peaks obtained in the spectras of each formulation correlates with the peaks of drug spectrum. This indicates that the drug is compatible with the formulation components. The spectras are attached. Evaluation of the Prepared Formulation for Physico-Chemical Characteristics: In-Vitro Drug Release Studies using 0.1N HCL and Phosphate Buffer pH 7.4 Theoretically, anIn- Vitrotest for drug availability should measure in reality the physical phenomenon controlling availability in-vivo. However,InVitrotest can be carried out which will indicate the effects of these variables on the mechanism and kinetics of drug release from a dosage form. This will give an idea of how the dosage form will behave when subjected to in-vivo studies. For the present workInVitrodissolution studies were carried out in simulated G.I fluid (0.1N HCL & phosphate buffer of pH 7.4) using dissolution test apparatus USP XXIV rotating basket assembly,
Determination of Dissolution Pattern:
Freshly prepared test media of 900 ml was placed in dissolution vessels of dissolution test apparatus USP XXIV model. Samples of the matrix tablet of ketorolac (after weighing) was placed in basket by holding it above the solution layer immediately, basket was immersed in dissolution media and maintained at 37.5 ±10C and was rotated at the speed of 100 rpm. Five ml of samples were withdrawn at fixed time intervals, and this was immediately replaced with same volume of test media. The samples withdrawn were filtered and estimated spectrophotometrically at 322 nm. Stability Studies: The selected formulation (F11) was tested for 3 months at the storage conditions of room temperature and 400 C at 75 % RH, were analyzed for their drug content including physical parameters. The residual drug contents of formulations were found to be within the permissible limits as shown in the Table – 17. No appreciable changes were found in their physical parameters. The tablets showed satisfactory physical stability at room temperature and 400 C at 75 % RH. The physical appearance did not change considerably
Discussion
Sustained release matrix tablets of Ketorolac were prepared using hydrophilic and hydrophobic polymers. Polymers used were HPMC K4M, HPMC K15M, Guar Gum and Eudragit RSPO. Hardness, friability and content uniformity test were performed in triplicate and the results are shown in Table-3 & 4. The dissolution rate studies were performed by using USP XXIV tablet dissolution test apparatus employing rotating basket at 100 rpm (Apparatus –1). The dissolution media is simulated G.I. fluids and the study was continued upto 12 hours. HPMC K4M & HPMC K15M is semi-synthetic, nonionic cellulose ether which is widely used in sustained release dosage forms because of its non-toxic nature, its capacity to accommodate high levels of drug loading and its non pH – dependence. The drug release data for HPMC K4M formulation drug release profiles in Fig: 1-3. The drug release data for HPMC K15M formulation drug release profiles in Fig: 4-6.Guar Gum is a polymer used for the preparation of hydrophillic matrix tablets because of its high water swellability, non –toxicity and low cost. The drug release data for the Guar Gum used formulation drug release profiles in Fig: 7-9 respectively. The drug release data for the Eudragit RSPO used formulations drug release profiles in Fig: 10- 12 respectively. The formulation of HPMC K4M 5% showed release profile with Dt 50% in about 2 hrs and Dt. 90% in about 7hrs. The formulation with HPMC K4M 10% and 20% showed release profile with Dt 50% about 3 and 4 hrs and Dt: 90% in about 10 and 12 hrs respectively. Among all HPMC K4M formulations, HPMC 10% showed good release profile. Dosage form which can release 80 – 100% of drug in about 8 - 12 hours is considered to be a better formulation because the transit time in GIT is around 8-12 hours in the absence of any special gastro retentive methods. The matrix tablets cannot reside in small intestine beyond 12 hours. Both the formulation with HPMC K4M 5% and 10% showed quick release about 50% of the drug released in 2 hrs and 3 hrs respectively, and about 70% of drug released in 4 & 6 hrs respectively. The reason for quick release may be burst effect of matrix tablet. The formulation of HPMC K15M 5% showed release profile with Dt 50% in about 2.5 hrs and Dt 90% in about 8 hrs. The formulation with HPMC K15M 10% and 20% showed release profile with Dt 50% in about 4 & 6 hrs and Dt 90% in about 10 & 12 hrs. Among all HPMC K15M formulations, HPMC 10% showed good release profile. Both the formulations with HPMC K15M 5% and 10% showed quick release about 50% of drug released in 2.5 & 4 hrs and above 70% drug released in 5 & 7.5 hrs. The reason for quick release may be burst effect of matrix tablets. The formulation with Guar Gum 5%, 10% and 20% showed release profile with Dt 50% values about less than 1.5, 2, & 3 hrs and Dt 90% values were about 6, 9 & 12 hrs respectively. The formulations containing Eudragit RSPO with 5%, 10% and 20% showed Dt 50% values of about 2.5, 3 & 4.5 hrs and Dt 90% values were about 8, 9 & >12 hrs. Amongst Eudragit Rspo matrix tablets, 10% Formulations (F11) showed better release profile releasing 80 – 90% of drug in 8 hours.. In comparison, Eudragit RSPO 10% formulation is probably the better formulation because 30%, drug release in 1 hrs, 50% drug release in 3.0 hrs and 90% drug released in 9.0 hrs.
Conclusion:
Approximately all the matrix tablets prepared with different polymers exhibit concentration dependent release retardation effect. However, the required release was better with 10% HPMC K15M and 10% Eudragit RSPO, 10% Eudragit RSPO formulation showed zero order release from 1 – 8 hrs. Matrix tablets are easy to prepare and have sound technology. They are cost effective and exhibit predictable release behaviour. The matrix formulation containing Eudragit rspo 10% is probably showing better release based on the 80 – 90% drug release within 8 – 12 hrs, which is the average G.I residence time.
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